CHAPTER ONE

1.1 Background of Study

An oscillator is a mechanical or electronic construction which produces

oscillation depending on few variables. We all have devices which
need oscillators, traditional clock that we all have in our home as a wall
clock or wristwatch, various type of metal detectors, computers where
microcontroller and microprocessors are involved all use oscillators,
especially electronics oscillator which produces periodic signals. There are
many types of Oscillators based on their configuration like Hartley
Oscillator, Colpitts Oscillator, Wein Bridge Oscillator, Quartz Crystal
Oscillator, Phase Shift Oscillator Circuit etc.

A phase-shift oscillator is a linear electronic oscillator circuit that produces

a sine wave output. It consists of an inverting amplifier element such as
a transistor or op amp with its output fed back to its input through a phase-
shift network consisting of resistors and capacitors in a ladder network. The
feedback network 'shifts' the phase of the amplifier output by 180 degrees at
the oscillation frequency to give positive feedback.

Phase-shift oscillators are often used at audio frequency as audio oscillators.

The filter produces a phase shift that increases with frequency, it must have a
maximum phase shift of more than 180 degrees at high frequencies so the
phase shift at the desired oscillation frequency can be 180 degrees. The most
common phase-shift network cascades three identical resistor-capacitor
stages that produce a phase shift of zero at low frequencies and 270° at high
frequencies.

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The first integrated circuit was a phase shift oscillator invented by Jack Kilby
in 1958. An RC oscillator is one of the sinusoidal oscillators and produces a
sine wave output by using linear electronic components. The tuned LC
oscillators operate well at higher frequencies, but at low frequencies, the
capacitors and inductors in tank circuit or time circuit would be very large
size.

Hence, RC oscillators are more suitable for low frequency applications. An

RC oscillator consists of an amplifier and feedback network. This feedback
network is a phase shift network made with number of capacitors and
resistors which are arranged in a ladder fashion. That’s how this oscillator is
also called as ladder type RC phase shift network.

The basic principle of the RC phase shift oscillator is that before feeding
back a portion of the output of the amplifier to the input, the amplifier output
passes through a phase shift network. The necessary condition for producing
the oscillation is the total phase shift around the loop must be 360 degrees.

The Transistor Phase Shift Oscillator

(Fig 1.1 Block Diagram of RC Oscillator)

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Hence, in addition to the 180 degrees phase shift introduced by the amplifier,
this RC phase shift network gives 180 degrees phase shift and hence the total
phase shift is 360 degrees which is also equal to zero degrees.

1.2 Statement of Problem

During the construction of this project, some problems came across. The
problem such as; variations in temperature, variations in the load, as well as
changes to its DC power supply voltage to name a few.

1.3 Aim and Objective of the Project

The aim of this project is to construct PHASE-SHIFT OSCILLATOR

 To acquire both theoretical and practical knowledge about RC

circuit and oscillator
 To determine the frequency and amplitude of a sinusoidal signal
generated by a phase-shift oscillator.
 To investigate the conditions necessary for oscillation in phase
shift oscillator.

Most oscillators consist of three basic parts:

i. An amplifier: this will usually be a voltage amplifier and may be

biased in class A, B, or C.
ii. A wave shaping network: this consist of passive components
such as filter circuits that are responsible for the shape and
frequency of the wave produced.
iii. A positive feedback path: part of the output signal is fed back to
the amplifier in such a way that the feedback signal is
regenerated, re-amplified and feedback again to maintain a
constant output signal.
1.4 Methodology

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The construction of phase-shift oscillator was achieved through the following
stages as shown below in fig 1.1

Fig 1.1:
Block Diagram of Phase-Shift RC Oscillator

Using NPN transistor

As we discuss about RC oscillator, and as it is also referred as phase shift

oscillator, we need a fair understanding about what is phase. See this

diagram.
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 Fig 1.2: A Block Diagram of Sinusoidal Wave

If we see the above sinusoidal wave like this one we will clearly see that the
signal’s starting point is 0 degree in phase, and after that every peak point of
the signal from positive to 0 then again negative point then again 0 is
respectively denotes as 90 degree, 180 degree, 270 degree and 360 degree in
phase position.

Phase is a full cycle period of a sinusoidal wave in a 360-

degree reference.

Now without further delay let’s see what phase shift is?

If we shift the sinusoidal wave starting point other than the 0 degree the
phase is shifted.

Fig 1.3 Graph of Phase Shift

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In this diagram, there are two AC sinusoidal signal wave presented, the first
Green Sinusoidal wave is 360 degree in phase but the red one that is the
replica of the first, read signal is 90 degree out of the green signal’s phase.

Using RC oscillator, we can shift the phase of a Sinusoidal signal.

Phase Shift using RC Oscillator Circuit:

RC stands for Resistor and Capacitor. We can simply form a Phase shift

Resistor-capacitor network using just only one resistor and one capacitor
formation.

A typical RC phase shift oscillator can be produced by a capacitor in series

along with a resistor in parallel.

Fig 1.4: RC Oscillator Circuit

This is a single pole phase shift network; the circuit is same as Passive High
Pass Filter. Theoretically if we apply an in-phase signal across this RC
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network the output phase will be shifted by exactly 90 degree. But if we try it
in reality and check the phase shift, then we achieve 60 degree to less
than 90-degree phase shift. It’s depends on the frequency, and the
components tolerances which create adverse effect in reality. As we all know
nothing is perfect, there should be some difference than actual so called or
expected values than the reality.

Temperature and other outer dependencies create difficulties to achieve

exact 90-degree phase shift, 45 degree is in general, 60 degree is common
depending on the frequencies and achieving 90 degree is a very difficult job
in many cases.

As discussed in High pass tutorial we will construct the same circuit and will
investigate about the phase shift of the same circuit.

The circuit of that High Pass filter along with the component values is in the
below diagram

Fig 1.5 Circuit of High Pass Filter

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This is the example that is used in previous passive high pass filter tutorials.
It will produce 4.9 KHz of Bandwidth. If we check the corner frequency, we
will identify the phase angle at the output of the Oscillator.

It’s clear to see phase shift is started from 90 degree which is the maximum
phase shift by RC oscillator network but at the point of corner frequency the
phase shift is 45degree.

Now considering the fact that the phase shift is 90 degree or if we select the
oscillator circuitry construction like a special way that will produce 90-
degree phase shift then the circuit will lose its immunity in border range due
to poor frequency stabilization factor. As we can imagine at the point of
90 degree where the curve just started like from the 10Hz or Lower to
the 100Hz is almost flat. That means if the oscillator’s frequency changed
slightly due to components tolerance, Temperature, other unavoidable
circumstances, the phase shift will not change. That is not a good choice. So,
let’s consider 60degree or 45 degree is the acceptable phase shift for
single pole RC network oscillator. The Frequency stability will improve.

1.5 Scope of Study

The construction of this project is based on the ability of the system to

operate automatically, that is when an electrical device offers electric
power to phase shift RC oscillator to the correct voltage, current, and
frequency to power the signal. Electronic System is a physical
interconnection of components.

1.6 Project Motivation

Phase-shift oscillators are often used at audio frequency as audio oscillators.

The filter produces a phase shift that increases with frequency. It must have a
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maximum phase shift of more than 180 degrees at high frequencies so the
phase shift at the desired oscillation frequency can be 180 degrees.

1.7 Summary

Chapter 1 is all about the basic nature of the of the RC oscillator, in the next
chapter we shall be seeing the other type of oscillator and their deference as it
relates to the RC oscillator.

Chapter two (2) is the literature review where we will see the origin and r and
order related literature.

Chapter three (3) is where we have the construction and packaging showing
the difference stage and the skeletal process.

Chapter four (4) we have the testing and result of the oscillator in full scale
ready for use.

Chapter five (5) is all about conclusion and reference.

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 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction to Literature Review

In this chapter researches done on related project work or carried out by

others will be reviewed to determine the extend of work done, method used
and what is left to be developed upon and equally see the area of interest.

2.2 Review of Related Work

In the summer of 1912, Edwin Armstrong observed oscillations in audio

radio receiver circuits and went on to use positive feedback in his invention
of the regenerative receiver. Austrian Alexander Meissner independently
discovered positive feedback and invented oscillators in March 1913.

2.3 Origin and Different Types of Oscillator

The oscillators are electrical circuits make a respective electronic signal

usually the sine wave and the square wave. It is very significant in other
forms of electronic equipment such as quartz which used as a quartz
oscillator. The amplitude modulation radio transmitters use the oscillation to
produce the carrier waveform. The AM radio receiver uses a special
oscillator it is known as a resonator to tune a station. The oscillators are
found in machines, metal detectors, and even in weapons. The various forms
of oscillators are explained below.

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The oscillator transforms the direct current from the power supply to an
alternating current and they are found in many electronic gadgets. The signals
used in the oscillators are a sine wave and the square wave. The few of the
examples are the signals are broadcasted by the radio and television relay,
clocks which are used in the computers and in the video games.

There are two types of electronic oscillator, they are linear and nonlinear
oscillators. The linear oscillators give the sinusoidal input. The linear
oscillators consist of a mass m and its force in the linear equilibrium. By
adding the hook's low the spring produces the force that i9s in linear for small
displacements. 
The different types of oscillators are listed below and some of them are
explained:

1. Armstrong Oscillator
2. Crystal Oscillator
3. Hartley oscillator
4. RC Phase Shift Oscillator
5. Colpitts Oscillators
6. Cross-Coupled Oscillator
7. Dynatron Oscillator
8. Meissner Oscillator
9. Optoelectronic Oscillator
10. Phase Shift Oscillator
11. Wine Bridge Oscillator
12. Robinson Oscillator
13. Tri-Tet Oscillator

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1. Armstrong Oscillator
The Armstrong oscillator is an LC electronic oscillator and to produce this
oscillator we are using the inductor and the capacitor. In 912 the US inventor
Edwin Armstrong has invented the Armstrong oscillator and it was the first
oscillator circuit and also in 1913, this oscillator was used in the first vacuum
tube by Alexander Meissner who was an Austrian engineer.

The Armstrong oscillator is known as the tickler oscillator because of the

individual characteristics of the feedback signal that should generate the
oscillations that are magnetically coupled to the tank indicator. Let us
consider the coupling is weak, but the sustained oscillation is adequate. The
following equation indicates the oscillation frequency f. The Armstrong
oscillator is also called the Meissner oscillator or tickler oscillator.

Fig 2.1 Diagram of Armstrong Oscillation

To accomplish the 180-degree phase shift oscillation, the Armstrong

oscillation uses the transistor, which is seen in the above figure. From the
figure, we will observe that the output is from the main transformer which
has a resistor and the input is taken from the secondary coil of the

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transformer. By seeing the polarity dots in the transformer secondary coil is
reversed using the main coil. The operating frequency is achieved by
the capacitor C1 and the main of the transformer.

2. Hartley Oscillator

The Hartley oscillator is an electronic oscillator. The frequency of this

oscillation is determined by the tuned circuit. The tuned circuit consists of the
capacitor and inductor; thus, it is an LC oscillator. In 1915 by American
inventor Ralph Hartley has invented this oscillator. The characteristics of the
Hartley circuit are the tuned circuit consisting of a single capacitor in parallel
with the two inductors which are in series. From the middle link of the two
inductors for oscillation purposes, the feedback signal is taken.

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 Fig 2.2: Colpitts Diagram
The Hartley oscillator is parallel to the Colpitts aside from that it uses a pair
of tapping coils as an alternative to two tapped capacitors. From the below
circuit the output voltage is produced across the inductor L1 and the input
voltages are across the inductor L2.
The feedback network is given in the mathematical expression which is given
below:
Feedback network = XL2 / XL1 = L 2 / L 1
Applications:
 This oscillation will generate a desired spectrum of frequencies 
 The Hartley oscillators are used in the radio frequency in a range of the
30Mhz 
 In a radio receiver, this oscillator is used and it has a wide range of
frequencies
3. Colpitts Oscillator
The Colpitts Oscillator was by American engineering by Edwin H. Colpitts in
the year 1918. This oscillator is a mix of both inductors and capacitors. The
characteristics of the Colpitts Oscillator are the input for the working devices
and they are taken from the voltage divider and made up of
two capacitors which are in series around the inductor.
The Colpitts circuits consist of gain instruments such as the bipolar junction,
field-effect capacitor, operational amplifier, and vacuum tubes. The output
is attached to an input in a feedback loop it has a parallel tuned circuit and it
functioned as a band-pass filter is used as a frequency of the oscillator. This
oscillator is an electrically dual of the Hartley oscillator thus the input signal
is taken from the inductive voltage divider it has two coils in the sequence.

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The following circuit diagram illustrates the typical base Colpitts circuit. The
inductor L and both the capacitors C1 & C2 are in series with the parallel
resonant tank circuit and it provides the frequency of the oscillator. The
voltage around the C2 terminal is applied to the base-emitter junction of
the transistor to generate the feedback oscillations.

Fig 2.3 Circuit Diagram

Applications:
 it is used to produce the sinusoidal output signals with a very high
frequency 
 A very wide range of frequencies is involved 
 It is used in radio and telephone communications 
 For commercial purpose, multiple applications are used
4. Multi-Wave Oscillator
The multi-wave oscillator was invented by the French engineer Georges
Lakhovsky in year of 1920 to 1940. He showed that the nucleus of the cell
with the filaments stands, it is very close to the electronic oscillator and it has
the capability of receiving & transmitting the vibratory details. The multi-

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wave oscillators are theoretical, testing for the historical instrument, and there
is no medical argument is made. The multi-wave oscillator unit introduces
the printed circuit board Golden ratio antenna.

Applications:
 The therapeutic action of this oscillation is really poor because of the
holistically work 
 The healing process is performed by all areas of the body 
 The MWO is used in many countries worldwide by person
 This oscillator is applied for the treatment of the cancer
2.4 Comparative Analysis

One of the main disadvantages of the phase shift Oscillator circuit is that they
have no means of controlling the amplitude of the oscillations and also, it is
difficult to tune the oscillator to the required frequency. If the cumulative
electromagnetic coupling between L1 and L2 is too small there would be
insufficient feedback and the oscillations would eventually die away to zero.

Likewise, if the feedback was too strong the oscillations would continue to
increase in amplitude until they were limited by the circuit conditions
producing signal distortion. So, it becomes very difficult to “tune” the
oscillator.

However, it is possible to feedback exactly the right amount of voltage for

constant amplitude oscillations. If we feed back more than is necessary the
amplitude of the oscillations can be controlled by biasing the amplifier in
such a way that if the oscillations increase in amplitude, the bias is increased
and the gain of the amplifier is reduced.

If the amplitude of the oscillations decreases the bias decreases and the gain
of the amplifier increases, thus increasing the feedback. In this way the

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amplitude of the oscillations is kept constant using a process known
as Automatic Base Bias.

2.4.1 Advantages

 It is useful for frequencies in the audio range.

 Simplicity of the circuit.
 They have a wide range of frequency.
 The RC phase shift oscillator gives good Frequency stability.
 The output of this circuit is sinusoidal that is quite distortion free

2.5 Area of Application

This phase shift oscillator is used to generate the signals over an extensive
range of frequency. They used in musical instruments, GPS units, & voice
synthesis. The applications of this phase shift oscillator include voice
synthesis, musical instruments, and GPS units.
2.6 Review of Component
Oscillator’s essential components are: 
I. tank circuit
II. amplifier and
III. feedback circuit
Which are shown in the given figure below.

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 Fig 2.4 Diagram of Oscillator Essential Components

CHAPTER THREE
Construction and Packaging
3.0 Introduction

This chapter consist of the construction and packaging process as it also

contains the principle of operation and design layout.

3.1 Building a Phase Shift Oscillator

Try this circuit out full constructional details to build the phase shift
oscillator shown in fig using either breadboard (proto board) or strip board,
then test the oscillator’s operation using a multi-meter and oscilloscope. This
phase shift oscillator produces a sine wave output in excess of 3Vpp at an
approximate frequency set by the values chosen for the filter components.
Other values may be used to vary the frequency obtained.

III.2 Component List

Fig 3.2: Construction on Breadboard

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 I. C1, C2 & C3 – 10NF
II. C4 = 10µF
III. C5 = 100µF
IV. R1 = 100K
V. R2, R3 & R4 = 10K

Fig 3.3 Construction on Vero Board

VI. R5 = 4K7
VII. R6 = 390R
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VIII. TRI = 2N3904

Fig 3.4: Casting and Assembly Power Supply

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 Fig 3.5 Circuit Diagram of Phase Shift Oscillator

3.3 Principle of Operation

There are many types of electronic oscillators, but they all operate according
to the same basic principle: an oscillator always employs a sensitive
amplifier whose output is fed back to the input in phase. Thus, the signal
regenerates and sustains itself. This is known as positive feedback.

We know that the output voltage of an RC circuit for a sine wave input leads
the input voltage. The phase angle by which it leads is determined by the
value of RC components

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Used in the circuit. The following circuit diagram shows a single section of
an RC network.

Fig 3.6: RC
Circuit

The output voltage V1’ across the resistor R leads the input voltage applied
input V1 by some phase angle 0o. If R were reduced to zero, V1’ will lead the
V1 by 90o i.e., 0o = 90o.

However, adjusting R to zero would be impracticable, because it would lead

to no voltage across R. Therefore, in practice, R is varied to such a value that
makes V1’ to lead V1 by 60o. The following circuit diagram shows the three
sections of the RC network.

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 Fig 3.6 Phase Shift Passive Circuit

Each section produces a phase shift of 60o. Consequently, a total phase shift
of 180o is produced, i.e., voltage V2 leads the voltage V1 by 180o.

3.4 Phase Shift Oscillator

Main article: phase shift oscillator

In the phase-shift oscillator, the feedback network is three identical cascaded

RC sections. In the simplest design the capacitors and resistors inn each
section has the same value R = R1 = R2 = R3 and C
= C1 =C2 = C3, then at the oscillation
frequency each RC section contributes 60o
phase shift for a total of 180o.

The oscillator frequency is

3.4.1 Twin-t Oscillator

Twin-T Oscillators are another type of RC oscillator which produces a sine

wave output for use in fixed-frequency applications similar to the Wein-
bridge oscillator. The twin-T oscillator uses two “Tee” shaped RC networks
in its feedback loop (hence the name) between the output and input of an
inverting amplifier.

As we have seen, an oscillator is basically an amplifier with positive

feedback which has a fixed amount of voltage gain required to maintain
oscillations, and the twin-T oscillator is no different.

Feedback is provided by the twin-T configured RC network allowing some of

the output signal to be fed back to the amplifier’s input terminal.
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Thus, the twin-T RC network provides the 180 o phase-shift and the amplifier
providing another 180o of phase-shift. These two conditions create 360o in
total of phase-shift allowing for sustained oscillations.

3.4.2 Quadrature Oscillator

The quadrature oscillator is another kind of phase shift. Oscillator. The

difference is that the quadrature oscillator uses an op amp integrator to obtain
a full 90° phase shift from a single RC segment, and still produce a usable
output voltage.

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 CHAPTER FOUR
Testing and result
4.0 Introduction

In reality, no external signal is needed to start the oscillation. For oscillation

to occur, two conditions must be met which are, loop gain and phase angle
condition.

4.1 Procedure

i. Connect the circuit shown in figure 3.1 and set the supply voltage to
V = +12V
ii. Connect point X and Y with cable and gently turn the potentiometer
R1, until you obtain a maximum undistorted sinusoidal wave form
signal.
iii. Sketch the wave from obtained in step two measure and record its
amplitude Vo (P - P) and determine the frequency.
iv. Measure the peak to peak amplitude of Vo across YY and peak to peak
amplitude of V1 across ZZ then determine the amplifier gain.
A = Vout
Vin

v. For the feedback factor (β) of a frequency determining network,

measure also Vo across XX prime and V1 across ZZ and determine.

4.2 Power Supply

The power oscillator is a self-oscillating class-E power amplifier (PA) that
utilizes a positive feedback system. A class-E PA is selected due to its high
efficiency. The power oscillator has an optimized power consumption and
output power, where a 2.4 mw power consumption is achieved under a 0.4 V
power supply.

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In a direct modulation scheme and particularly in portable and wireless
sensor network applications, the oscillator limits the transmitter efficiency
therefore, the oscillator efficiency is critical and high-efficiency and high-
power oscillators are increasingly required.

The power oscillator is a self-oscillating class-E power amplifier (PA) that

utilizes a positive feedback system. A class-E PA is selected due to its high
efficiency. The power oscillator has an optimized power consumption and
output power, where a 2.4 mw power consumption is achieved under a 0.4 V
power supply. The proposed oscillator demonstrates a maximum output
power of −0.45−0.45 dBm and a peak efficiency of 37.5%. The oscillator is
tenable between 1.66 and 2.78 GHz. The oscillator is robust to a ±15%
±15% frequency deviation from a 2.44 GHz nominal frequency due to
process, voltage, temperature variation.

4.3 Phase Shift Oscillator Measurement

You can calculate the phase shift by measuring the circuit's input signal with
your oscilloscope's first channel and the circuit's output with your scope's
second channel. First off connect a BNC T-connector to the sine wave
oscillator's output, which will essentially give your oscillator two outputs.
You can calculate the phase shift by measuring the circuit’s input signal with
your oscilloscope’s first channel and the circuit’s output with your scope’s
second channel.

First off connect a BNC T-connector to the sine wave oscillator’s output,
which will essentially give your oscillator two outputs.

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4.4 Testing of the RC Oscillator

Pictorial view of waves from the RC can see below

Fig
4.1
Testing Of the RC Oscillator

Fig 4.2 Testing of the RC Oscillator Module

CHAPTER FIVE
Conclusion and Recommendation
5.0 Conclusion

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A phase shift oscillator is a form of oscillator that can be used for long and
short rang radio signal transmission and it absolutely stable providing a
continues feedback.

The frequency and power supply generated is also good for a contentious
propagation of wave form because of the feedback process.

This oscillation can function as more continently as the cost of production is

relatively low in comparison with most oscillators.

5.1 Recommendation

I recommended this module for use in the telecommunication sector, the

electronic sector for use, also for laboratories for learning purpose to be used
for measuring of frequency,

Determining wave form having a desired magnitude and direction of the

wave form.in laboratory for teaching student the nature of the wave form to
be produce by this oscillator.

APPENDIX
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 BILL OF QUANTITY
This phase contain the cost of material used and the cost of transportation

Qty Description Rate N Amount K

3 10 Nf capacitors 30 90 00

1 10µF capacitor 30 30 00

1 100µF capacitor 80 80 00

1 100K Resistor 5walt 40 40 00

3 10k resistor 5walt 30 90 00

1 50K potentiometer 200 300 00

1 12’’ X12’’X4 wooden box 1200 1500 00

1 12’’X12’’ plastic cover 600 600 00

Printing of circuit diagram on 1500 1500 00

board
12 Red and Black terminal 50 600 00
connectors
3 yard of lead 30 90 00

3 Yard of connecting wire 50 200 00

1 12V -0-12V transformer 300 1000 00

500Ma
4 Diode IN400N 20 200 00

2 LED 200 400 00

2 Switch 300 600

1 Voltage regulator 100 100 00

Total 6,660 00

Reference

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1.  hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu
2. ^ "Book: Electronic devices and circuit theory by robert
boylestad_page 2" (PDF).
3. ^ K.W.(Widelski?) (1984). Kalejdoskop Techniki. Warsaw, Poland:
NOT Sigma.
4. ^ Mancini, Ron (2002). Op Amps For Everyone (PDF). Dallas,
Texas: Texas Instruments. pp. 15–15, 15–16. SLOD006B

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