energies
Article
Robust Controller Considering Road Disturbances for a
Vehicular Flywheel Battery System
Weiyu Zhang *, Xiaowei Gu and Lindong Zhang
Citation: Zhang, W.; Gu, X.; Zhang, L.
Robust Controller Considering Road
Disturbances for a Vehicular
Flywheel Battery System. Energies
2022, 15, 5432. https://doi.org/
10.3390/en15155432
Academic Editor: Ryszard Palka
Received: 21 June 2022
Accepted: 25 July 2022
Published: 27 July 2022
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Energies 2022, 15, 5432. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15155432
School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Jiangsu University, Xuefu Road 301, Zhenjiang 212013, China;
2212107043@stmail.ujs.edu.cn (X.G.); 2221907049@stmail.ujs.edu.cn (L.Z.)
* Correspondence: zwy@ujs.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-130-9496-1658
Abstract: At present, the stability study of the flywheel battery system under the influence of road
conditions is only limited to the analysis of dynamic characteristics but also lacks effective controller
considering road disturbances. In order to solve this defect and further improve the robust perfor-
mance of vehicular flywheel battery systems under road disturbances, a robust controller considering
interference of road surface roughness is proposed. Firstly, on the basis of a brief introduction to
flywheel battery system structure, the influence degree of the flywheel by road condition is compared
to find the key areas most affected by road disturbance factors. Then the nonlinear dynamic model
of the axial suspension system is constructed, and the actual road surface roughness is regarded
as the unmodeled dynamics of the external disturbance emphatically. Following, the established
unknown system dynamics is approximated by radial basis function (RBF) neural network based on
the minimum parameter learning method, the control input is generated by sliding-mode control law,
and the weight adjustment of neural network is replaced by the designed adaptive law of parameter
estimation. The effects of different levels of road surface roughness on the system are simulated, and
the robustness of the proposed controller is verified based on the Lyapunov method. Finally, the
experimental platform to simulate road disturbances is designed ingeniously. Experimental results
show that the proposed controller can make the flywheel battery system have good robustness under
different road conditions.
Keywords: flywheel battery system; magnetic suspension system; robust controller; road surface
roughness
1. Introduction
A vehicular battery system is a power battery with great development potential in
the field of new energy vehicles [1,2]. As the key link of the flywheel battery system, the
stability control performance of the magnetic suspension support-flywheel rotor system
directly affects the operation quality of the whole flywheel battery system under external
disturbances [3,4]. The disturbance source mainly comes from two aspects: on the one
hand, it comes from the influence of the vehicle’s own driving conditions (starting, braking,
acceleration, deceleration, uphill, turning, etc.) on the stability of the flywheel, which can be
regarded as instantaneous disturbance; on the other hand, it comes from the road conditions
of vehicles (different road levels) on the stability of flywheel, which can be regarded as
the continuous disturbance. However, for the vehicle-mounted flywheel battery system,
the disturbance from the road surface is continuous and inevitable because the vehicle
runs on different road surface levels. Therefore, compared with the stability that can
be restored to the original state by instantaneous disturbance, for the vehicle-mounted
flywheel battery system, the robustness (the ability to maintain its original state under
continuous perturbation) is a more critical factor.
At present, the influence of road conditions on the stability of the flywheel battery
system has been studied. In [5], the impact of harmonic road disturbances on active
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
Energies 2022, 15, 5432 2 of 17

magnetic bearing supported flywheel energy storage system in electric vehicles is analyzed.
In [6], the influence of the magnetic force of the hub motor on vehicle dynamics under
longitudinal and transverse working conditions is analyzed. In [7], the vertical dynamic
effect of the axial AMB system subjected to seismic disturbance is analyzed. However, the
current research is only limited to the theoretical analysis of the influence of different road
surface roughness on the dynamic system of magnetic bearing supported flywheel rotor,
and it has not been elevated to the level of control strategy. However, it is very important
and challenging to translate the influence of road conditions on flywheel battery system
stability into controller.
As a matter of fact, from the perspective of system characteristics, with the increase
in road complexity, the nonlinear unbalanced response of the vehicle flywheel battery
suspension rotor system will be intensified. Therefore, the traditional PID controller cannot
cope with the requirements of robust control of flywheel batteries on complex road surfaces.
Especially for the vehicle-mounted flywheel battery system, which is obviously affected
by continuous disturbance (road excitation), if a traditional PID controller is adopted, the
model of its control system needs to have quite high precision requirements, and the model-
ing is very variable and complex [8–10]. However, different from the PID controller, which
relies on the accurate mathematical model, another classical variable structure controller,
namely the sliding-mode controller (SMC), is especially suitable for the robust control of
the magnetic suspension system of the vehicle-mounted flywheel battery system, which
is frequently affected by external disturbances. Because sliding mode can be designed
and is independent of object parameters and disturbances, SMC has the advantages of
fast response, insensitive to corresponding parameter changes and disturbances, no online
identification of the system, and simple physical implementation [11,12]. However, it is
worth noting that sliding mode control has a significant disadvantage in practical appli-
cation; that is, when the state trajectory reaches the sliding mode surface, it is difficult to
strictly slide along the sliding mode toward the equilibrium point, but on both sides of
the sliding mode back and forth to approach the equilibrium point, resulting in chattering.
Therefore, adaptive adjustment of perturbation parameters and reduction of chattering is
the key to achieving the high stability of SMC. In [13], an adaptive SMC using the fuzzy
neural network is proposed to cope with the problem of chattering phenomena caused by
the sign action in SMC design and to ensure the stability of the controlled system without
the requirement of auxiliary compensated controllers despite the existence of uncertainties.
In [14], an adaptive robust controller using adaptive integral SMC and time-delay estima-
tion (TDE) is proposed to eliminate the reaching phase together with the noise-sensitive
switching action used in the conventional sliding mode control and adaptation gain dynam-
ics to achieve improved tracking accuracy and reduced chattering. In [15], an SMC based
on radial basis function (RBF) neural network for nonlinear dynamic systems is proposed
to online update the estimates of system dynamics and strictly guarantee the asymptotical
stability of the closed-loop system convergence of the neural network weight-updating
process. In [16], a nonlinear adaptive SMC using multiple control structures is proposed to
change the dynamics of the nonlinear system, ensuring the trajectories always move to a
switching condition. However, the present methods are too complicated to construct an
adaptive law, which affects the real-time performance. Moreover, the interference signal is
not simulated according to the signal of the actual application background of the controlled
object, so the controller may be very stable under the ideal disturbance signal but lose its
original efficacy in the face of its practical application. Therefore, in order to solve the above
problems and based on the existing research experience, an adaptive compensation algo-
rithm of RBF neural network based on the minimum parameter learning method should
be a good choice in an SMC. The weight adjustment of the traditional neural network can
be replaced by the designed adaptive law of parameter estimation, which enhances the
real-time performance of the system and is beneficial to the engineering application.
In this study, based on the magnetic suspension system of vehicular flywheel battery,
an SMC considering the influence of road surface roughness is proposed, which makes the
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 17

which enhances the real-time performance of the system and is beneficial to the engi-
neering application.
Energies 2022, 15, 5432 3 of 17
In this study, based on the magnetic suspension system of vehicular flywheel bat-
tery, an SMC considering the influence of road surface roughness is proposed, which
makes the flywheel battery system have better robustness under different road condi-
flywheel battery
tions. Taking system have better
a vehicle-mounted robustness
magnetic under different
suspension flywheelroad conditions.
battery Takingin-
with a virtual a
vehicle-mounted magnetic suspension flywheel battery with a virtual
ertia spindle as an example, its magnetic suspension system controller is designed. inertia spindle as an
example,
Firstly, theitsconfiguration
magnetic suspension system analysis
and contrastive controllerofisthe
designed.
flywheelFirstly,
batterythe
areconfiguration
presented. It
and
is worth noting that the axial direction of the magnetic suspension systemnoting
contrastive analysis of the flywheel battery are presented. It is worth is morethat the
obvi-
axial direction of the magnetic suspension system is more obviously influenced
ously influenced by the road excitation through the comparative analysis of the radial by the road
excitation through the comparative analysis of the radial and axial directions. Therefore,
and axial directions. Therefore, this paper mainly takes the axial magnetic suspension
this paper mainly takes the axial magnetic suspension system as an example to design
system as an example to design its SMC. Then, the nonlinear analytical model of the axial
its SMC. Then, the nonlinear analytical model of the axial magnetic suspension system is
magnetic suspension system is constructed, focusing on the road surface roughness as
constructed, focusing on the road surface roughness as the unmodeled dynamics of the
the unmodeled dynamics of the external disturbance, rather than the imaginary random
external disturbance, rather than the imaginary random type signals. Additionally, the
type signals. Additionally, the RBF neural network adaptive compensation based on the
RBF neural network adaptive compensation based on the minimum parameter learning
minimum parameter learning method was used to realize the online adjustment of the
method was used to realize the online adjustment of the neural network weight and
neural network weight and the approximation of the unknown system dynamics.
the approximation of the unknown system dynamics. Therefore, it effectively solves the
Therefore, it effectively solves the problem that existing methods are too complex to
problem that existing methods are too complex to construct adaptive law and affect real-
construct adaptive law and affect real-time performance. In addition, the proposed con-
time performance. In addition, the proposed controller is compared with the classical PID
troller is compared
controller. with the classical
Finally, performance tests PID
basedcontroller. Finally,
on a cleverly performance
designed tests based
experimental on a
platform
cleverly designed experimental platform are conducted to verify whether
are conducted to verify whether the proposed control method makes the system has good the proposed
control method
robustness undermakes the system
different has good robustness under different road conditions.
road conditions.

2. Configuration
2. Configuration
2.1. Topology
Topology
The configuration and magnetic circuits of the flywheel battery system are shown in
Figure 1. As shown in Figure 1, the radial hybrid magnetic bearing (R-HMB) is used to
provide radial 2-DOF stability, and the flywheel
flywheel is balanced
balanced in the axial direction by the
axial hybrid magnetic bearing (A-HMB). There is no coupling and interference
interference between
them. A more detailed magnetic circuit can be found in [17].
found in [17].

(a) (b)

1. Configuration
Figure 1. Configurationand
andmagnetic
magneticcircuit
circuit analysis.
analysis. (a)(a) Section
Section view
view of the
of the prototype.
prototype. (b) Mag-
(b) Magnetic
netic bearing
bearing of prototype.
of prototype.

2.2. Vibration Influence

2.2. Vibration Influence Analysis
Analysis
Taking a group of
Taking a group of road condition
road conditioncontrast pictures,
contrast for example,
pictures, the influence
for example, degreede-
the influence of
radial and axial displacements is compared. As shown in Figure 2, by comparing
gree of radial and axial displacements is compared. As shown in Figure 2, by comparing the axial
and radialand
the axial displacement curves representing
radial displacement the influence
curves representing theofinfluence
road conditions,
of roadrespectively,
conditions,
it can be seen that the radial offset is much smaller than the axial
respectively, it can be seen that the radial offset is much smaller than theoffset in axial
the condition
offset in
of
thethe same road
condition and
of the automobile
same road andsuspension
automobilesystem conditions.
suspension system In addition,Insimilar
conditions. addi-
comparison situation results also appeared in other conditions with the same working
parameters. Therefore, compared with the radial direction of the magnetic suspension
system of the flywheel battery, the axial direction is more susceptible to the influence of
automobile suspension and road conditions.
 turning, up and down the hill, etc.), hence, its radial equilibrium is mainly maintained by
R-HMB [18,19]. The axial disturbance factors ignore the influence of the gyro effect,
which is mainly manifested in various road conditions under vehicle-mounted applica-
tions (different levels of road bumps or longitudinal vibration of the car body, etc.). The
axial disturbing force acting on the flywheel will cause its axial displacement vertically
Energies 2022, 15, 5432 upward or downward from the equilibrium point; thus, the control current is adjusted 4 of 17

online accordingly to keep the flywheel at equilibrium point.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 2.
2. Vibration analysisunder
Vibration analysis underroad
roadcondition.
condition.(a)(a)A A
3D3D model
model with
with ADAMS
ADAMS simulation
simulation soft-
software.
ware. (b) Contrast waveforms of radial and axial offsets affected by road conditions (B-level road
(b) Contrast waveforms of radial and axial offsets affected by road conditions (B-level road roughness).
roughness).
Based on the above results, the reason is analyzed as follows: the disturbance force
Toon
acting sum
theup, the modeling
flywheel of this paper
can be mainly divided is mainly
into its focused
own modal on the axial
force andmodel, while
the external
the radial model
unbalanced force,can be will
which modeled
causejust
the by conventional
unstable vibrationmethods under the
of each freedom of influence of
the flywheel.
automobile
Specifically,suspension system and of
in such configuration road
theconditions
combination so as to ensurebearing
magnetic the control
(CMB) accuracy
in this
of the whole
paper, system.
the radial disturbance factors are mainly manifested as its own gyro effect and
various working conditions in vehicle-mounted situations (acceleration and deceleration,
3. Analytical
turning, up andModeling of Axial
down the Suspension
hill, etc.), System
hence, its radial equilibrium is mainly maintained
by R-HMB
Based on [18,19]. The analysis,
the above axial disturbance
the modelingfactors ignore
of the A-HMB the influence of thebegyro
system should effect,
analyzed
whichemphasis,
with is mainly manifested
which is the in premise
various road
and conditions
basis for theunder vehicle-mounted
implementation of applications
subsequent
(different
control levels of road bumps or longitudinal vibration of the car body, etc.). The axial
strategies.
disturbing
For the force
A-HMB, acting
theon thesuspension
axial flywheel will cause
force its on
acting axial
thedisplacement
flywheel rotorvertically
consistsupward
mainly
or downward from the equilibrium point; thus, the control current
of Maxwell force, thus according to the Maxwell tensor method, the relationship between is adjusted online
accordingly to keep the flywheel at equilibrium point.
the magnetic force (Maxwell force) and magnetic flux can be written as follows [20]:
To sum up, the modeling of this paper is mainly focused on the axial model, while
the radial model can be modeled just by conventional φs2 methods under the influence of
automobile suspension system and road ( )φs =
Fm conditions so as to ensure the control accuracy(1) of
2 μ0 S a
the whole system.
where ϕs is the total magnetic flux, μ0 is the permeability of the free space having value
3. Analytical Modeling of Axial Suspension System
of 4π × 10−7 N/A2, and Sa is the cross-sectional area of air gap.
Based
For theon the above
A-HMB analysis,
system, the modeling
as shown in Figure of
3, the
the A-HMB system
Newtonian should
equation of be analyzed
motion can
with
be emphasis,
written as: which is the premise and basis for the implementation of subsequent
control strategies.
For the A-HMB, the axial suspension force acting on the flywheel rotor consists mainly
of Maxwell force, thus according to the Maxwell tensor method, the relationship between
the magnetic force (Maxwell force) and magnetic flux can be written as follows [20]:

φs2
Fm (φs ) = (1)
2µ0 Sa

where φs is the total magnetic flux, µ0 is the permeability of the free space having value of
4π × 10−7 N/A2 , and Sa is the cross-sectional area of air gap.
For the A-HMB system, as shown in Figure 3, the Newtonian equation of motion can
be written as:
..
m x = F1 + F2 − G + f (2)
where m is the mass of the flywheel, x is the displacement, F1 and F2 are the magnetic force
acting on the flywheel under different displacements, G is the gravity of the flywheel, and f
is the external disturbance force acting on the flywheel.
  x1 = x2

 x=2 F=1 +f mF(2x−
mx u )++ ξf
1, G (6)
(2)
y = x
 1
where m is the mass of the flywheel, x is the displacement, F1 and F2 are the magnetic
Energies 2022, 15, 5432 5 of 17
force acting on the flywheel under different displacements, G is the gravity of the fly-

K (external c)
2

( F + 2 Ni )  and
F − 2 Nidisturbance
2
f − G
wheel,
whereand  m
f f=is the + m forcec acting ξ =flywheel..
on the
m   m
m
( x0 − x1 ) ( x0 + x1 )
2 2

For the non-affine nonlinear system of (6), the model of the time-varying affine
nonlinear system using the Taylor series expanded by the nonlinear function fm(x1, u) with
respect to u(t) around the time-varying linearized point μ can be written as:

 x1 = x2

 x2 = f m ( x1 , μ ) + g d ( x1 , μ ) Δu + d ( t ) (7)
y = x
 1

Figure 3. The
Figure Theanalysis
analysisofofA-HMB
A-HMBsystem. ∂ f m(Note:
system. x1 , uthethe
(Note: direction (of the
direction of the )
arrow in the
arrow in figure only only
the figure rep-
wheretheΔ
resents
represents u= u − μof,of
direction
the direction (
d x1 , μ =and
gdisplacement,
displacement, andthe )
theactual
actualdirection
direction dthe
, and ofof the ≤ Dare
t forces
forces , which
are all represents
all vertical
vertical upward.) ()
the
∂u u =μ
At a certain
unmodeled time, when
dynamics the flywheel
and externalflywheel generates
generates μ
disturbances. aa positive xx displacement
positivebe
should as close to u at
displacement asthe
at the axial
axial
possible,
which is chosen as u ( t − 1) = μ .
balance position, then
then the
the axial
axial air
air gap
gap will
will decrease,
decrease, andand
thethe bias
bias fluxflux
willwill increase
increase ac-
accordingly; thus,the
cordingly; thus, thecontrol
controlfluxfluxneeds
needstotooffset
offsetaacertain
certainamount
amount of of bias
bias flux
flux in order to
make Therefore, (7) can be written in the following modifiedtheform to obtain the affine
make thetheflywheel
flywheelreturn
returntotothe balance
the balanceposition.
position.Conversely,
Conversely, negative
the x displacement
negative x displace-
isnonlinear
generated,system
and the model of
total the A-HMB system:
ment is generated, and the flux
totalinflux
theinairthe
gapairisgap
theisbias
theflux
biassuperposition
flux superpositioncontrol flux.
control
From (1), Equation (2) of (2)
motion =can
x becanfurther written as: as:
flux. From (1), Equation  xmotion
of
1
be further
2
written

..  x2(φ=(bφf−n −(φxφc 1),2)μ2 ) + (φxφ1c c), 2μ)2 ) u + d ( t )
(φgb bd++
c + (φ
(8)
b
m xmx y== 2µ
=
x120μSaS + 2µ
−−GG++ f f (3)
(3)
 0 a 2 μ0 SaS 0 a
where
whereφϕbb is the bias flux, φ is the control flux.
where is the bias flux, ϕcc is the control flux.
For the A-HMB system in Figure 4, the biased flux and control flux at different axial
For the A-HMB system in Figure 4, the biased flux and control flux at different axial
f n ( x1 , μ )as:
displacements can be expressed
displacements can be expressed as: m ( 1 )
= f x , μ − g d ( x1 , μ ) μ

and F μ S φb = FmFµm0 Sμa0 Sa

Fm µ0 Sa
φb =
φb = 2( xm0 ±0 xa) , ， φb =2( x0 ± x) (4)
(4)
2 ( x0 ±
4 NK Fmx− ) 2N μ 2F(mx0+±2N x )μ 
( x1, μ ) = − force
gd magnetomotive
where Fm is the total  of axial PMs,

 air gap at the balance
− x0 is the 2axial
axial
 ( 0 ic is1 the
) incoming
( 0 1 )axial
2
where F is the total magnetomotive m force
position, N is the number of axial coil turns,
m x −
of x
axial PMs, x +
x 0 x
is the control
air gap at the bal-
current.
ance position, N is the number of axial coil turns, ic is the incoming axial control current.
Further, (3) can be written in the form of magnetomotive force and control current
as:
2 2
 Fm μ0 Sa μ S Ni   F μ S μ S Ni 
 − 0 a c  m 0 a + 0 a c
2 ( x0 − x ) ( x0 − x )   2 ( x0 + x ) ( x0 + x ) 
mx =  + −G + f
2 μ0 S a 2 μ0 S a
μ0 Sa ( Fm − 2 Nic ) μ0 Sa ( Fm + 2 Nic )
2 2
(5)
= + −G + f
8 ( x0 − x ) 8 ( x0 + x )
2 2

 ( Fm − 2 Nic )2 ( Fm + 2 Nic )2 
=K  + −G + f
diagramofofthe
(the x ) control scheme ofA-HMB
( xscheme
0 + x ) of 
2 2
Figure4.4.Block
Figure Blockdiagram −overall
x0overall control A-HMBsystem.
system.

Equation(3)(5)can
Further, shows that the
be written A-HMB
in the system
form of has strongly
magnetomotive non-affine
force nonlinear
and control currentdy-
as:
namics. By choosing x1 = x , x2 = x , and 2 u =ci , (5) can be represented
2
as:
Fm µ0 S a µ0 S a Nic Fm µ0 S a µ0 S a Nic
.. − +
2( x0 − x ) ( x0 − x ) 2( x0 + x ) ( x0 + x )
mx = 2µ0 Sa + 2µ0 Sa −G+ f
2 2
= µ0 Sa ( Fm −2Ni 2
c)
+ µ0 Sa ( Fm +2Ni 2
c)
−G+ f (5)
8( x0 − x) 8( x0 + x ) 
2 2
= K ( Fm −2Ni2c ) + ( Fm +2Ni2c ) − G + f
( x0 − x ) ( x0 + x )
Energies 2022, 15, 5432 6 of 17

Equation (5) shows that the A-HMB system has strongly non-affine nonlinear dynam-
.
ics. By choosing x1 = x, x2 = x, and u = ic , (5) can be represented as:
 .
 x. 1 = x2
x = f m ( x1 , u ) + ξ (6)
 2
y = x1
 
K ( Fm −2Nic )2 ( Fm +2Nic )2 f −G
where f m = + and ξ = m .
m ( x0 − x1 )2 ( x0 + x1 )2
For the non-affine nonlinear system of (6), the model of the time-varying affine nonlin-
ear system using the Taylor series expanded by the nonlinear function fm (x1 , u) with respect
to u(t) around the time-varying linearized point µ can be written as:
 .
 x. 1 = x2
x = f m ( x1 , µ) + gd ( x1 , µ)∆u + d(t) (7)
 2
y = x1

∂ f m ( x1 ,u) 
where ∆u = u − µ, gd ( x1 , µ) = ∂u  , and |d(t)| ≤ D, which represents the
u=µ
unmodeled dynamics and external disturbances. µ should be as close to u as possible,
which is chosen as u(t − 1) = µ.
Therefore, (7) can be written in the following modified form to obtain the affine
nonlinear system model of the A-HMB system:
 .
 x. 1 = x2
x = f n ( x1 , µ ) + gd ( x1 , µ ) u + d ( t ) (8)
 2
y = x1

where
f n ( x1 , µ ) = f m ( x1 , µ ) − gd ( x1 , µ ) µ
and !
4NK Fm − 2Nµ Fm + 2Nµ
gd ( x1 , µ ) = − −
m ( x0 − x1 )2 ( x0 + x1 )2

4. Design of Adaptive SMC

Let the expected output displacement of the flywheel be represented by xd , and the
actual displacement is x, then the error is denoted as e = x − xd . The sliding-mode function
is designed as:
.
s = e + ce (9)
where c > 0. Taking the derivative of (9) and plugging it in the value of (8), which can
be obtained:
. .. .
s = f n + gd u + d ( t ) − x d + c e (10)
From (10), the control law can be designed as the following:

1 .. .

u= − f n + x d − ce − η1 sgn(s) (11)
gd

If fn in the system is precisely known (i.e., gd is known as well), the Lyapunov function
is chosen as:
1
L = s2 (12)
2
Energies 2022, 15, 5432 7 of 17

Therefore,
. . .. .

L = s s = s f n + gd u + d ( t ) − x d + c e

.. . .. .

= s f n + − f n + x d − ce − η1 sgn(s) + d(t) − x d + ce
= s(d(t)) − η1 |s|
. .
where η 1 shows a constant rate. Hence, by choosing η1 ≥ D,ss ≤ 0 is obtained ( L = 0
when s = 0). At this point, the closed-loop system is asymptotically stable and has
superior robustness.
However, fn in the actual system is often unknown and inaccurate. Moreover, excita-
tion of unmodeled dynamics by symbolic functions will cause chattering, so it is necessary
to use neural networks to approximate fn .

4.1. Adaptive Control of RBF Network Approximation Based on Minimum Parameter

Learning Method
In this study, an RBF neural network is used to approximate the uncertain term fn
adaptively. Its algorithm is given as:

k x − c j k2
!
h j = exp − , j = 1, · · · , m (13)
2b2j

From (13), fn can be written as:

f n = WT h(x) + ε f

where x is the input signal of the RBF network, j represents the number of nodes in the
hidden layer of the RBF network, h = [h1 , h2 , · · · , hm ]T is the output of the Gaussian
function, W is the ideal neural network weight, εf is the neural network approximation
 
error with ε f  ≤ ε N , and fn is the ideal output of the RBF network. Here, x is chosen as
 
 . T
x = e e . Therefore, the output of the RBF can be written as:

T
fˆn ( x ) = Ŵ h(x)

where h(x) represents the RBF Gaussian function.

The neural network minimum parameter learning method is adopted [21], defining
ϕ = kWk2 , ϕ is a normal number, ϕ̂ is an estimate of ϕ, ϕ e = ϕ̂ − ϕ. Equation (11) can be
designed as:  
1 1 T .. .
u= − s ϕ̂h h + x d − ce − η2 sgn(s) − λs (14)
gd 2
where fˆn is the estimated value of RBF network, η2 ≥ ε N + D, λ > 0. It should be noted
that the initial state needs to be given a preset control input; that is, the initial value of gd
is assumed to be given in order to realize the initial suspension of the system. However,
this is not inconsistent with the unknown dynamic model of the whole system because the
unknown factor in the axial direction is defined as the uncertain axial displacement and
corresponding control current changes.
From (14), we can write (10) as that
. .. . .. .
 
s = WT h + ε + − 12 s ϕ̂hT h + x d − ce − η2 sgn(s) − λs + d − x d + ce
= WT h + ε − 21 s ϕ̂hT h − η2 sgn(s) + d − λs
Energies 2022, 15, 5432 8 of 17

4.2. Stability Analysis

The Lyapunov candidate function is chosen as:

1 2 1 2
L= s + ϕ
e (15)
2 2γ

where γ is the adaptive learning rate parameter with γ > 0. In the training process of the
adaptive SMC controller, the value of γ should be chosen reasonably because its value will
affect the asymptotic stability and the optimal transient control performance of the system.
Therefore, the derivative of L can be derived that
. . .   .
e ϕ̂ = s WT h + ε − 12 s ϕ̂hT h − η2 sgn(s) + d − λs + γ1 ϕ
L = ss + γ1 ϕ e ϕ̂
.
≤ 12 s2 ϕhT h + 12 − 12 s2 ϕ̂hT h + (ε + d)s − η2 |s| + γ1 ϕe ϕ̂ − λs2
 .
= ϕe − 12 s2 hT h + γ1 ϕ̂ + 12 + (ε + d)s − η2 |s| − λs2
 .
≤ ϕe − 21 s2 hT h + γ1 ϕ̂ + 12 − λs2

The adaptive law for tuning the weight in order to approximate the function fˆn ( x ) is
designed as
. 1
ϕ̂ = γs2 hT h − kγ ϕ̂ (16)
2
where k > 0. Hence, it can be further obtained as
.
≤ −k ϕe ϕ̂ + 12 − λs2 ≤ − 2k ϕe2 2

1 2
L  − ϕ + 2 − λs
k e2 k 1
= − 2 ϕ − λs2 + 2 ϕ2 + 2

Taking k = 2λ/γ, then

.  
L ≤ − γλ ϕe2 − λs2 + 2k ϕ2 + 21
   
= −2λ 12 s2 + 2γ ϕ + 2k ϕ2 + 12 = −2λL + R
1 e2

where R = 2k ϕ2 + 12 . Solving the above inequality can get

 
R R
L≤ + L (0) − e−2λt
2λ 2λ

Hence,
k 2 1 2λ 2
R 2ϕ + 2 γ ϕ +1 ϕ2 1
lim L = = = = +
t→∞ 2λ 2λ 4λ 2γ 4λ
.
Therefore, by choosing 0 < R ≤ |−2λL|, the result L ≤ 0 is obtained. Among them,
. .
if s 6= 0, then L < 0, if s = 0, then L ≡ 0. Meanwhile, due to L ≥ 0 and the control input
u is bounded by the maximum value of um , i.e., u ≤ um , so the s and ϕ e are uniformly
bounded. According to the LaSalle invariance principle on the basis of the Lyapunov
stability discriminant generalization theorem, the closed loop system is asymptotically
.
stable, when t → ∞ , then s → 0 , and thus, e → 0 , e → 0 . Finally, the objective of function
approximation can be realized. The overall control scheme block diagram of the control
system is shown in Figure 4.

5. Simulation Results and Analysis

By using the designed SMC and the nonlinear analytical model of A-HMB, a simulation
is executed using similar design parameter values as of the prototype system to verify the
performance of the controller. Mass of the flywheel is 2.8 kg, the initial balance position
of the flywheel is set to 0.5 mm according to the axial air gap, magnetic force constant K
Energies 2022, 15, 5432 9 of 17

is 7.5 × 10− 11 , the magnetomotive force of axial PMs is about 150 AT, and the number of
axial coil turns is 250.
RBF network is chosen by a two input-five hidden-one output, and the initial weight
value of RBF is set to 2. The value of cj is 0.5, and bj is 5. The control law and adaptive
law are designed using (14) and (16), respectively; the value of the parameter is λ = 40,
and the adaptive learning rate parameter is γ = 150. In the sliding function, the values of
the parameters set as c = 200, η 2 = 30 according to the results of multiple debugging. The
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 17
output response begins to oscillate above the value of γ, and hence, these optimal values
are selected for the adaptive learning parameter to give the best transient response.

5.1.
5.1.Interference
InterferenceAnalysis
AnalysisofofRoad
RoadRoughness
Roughness
Different from the traditional
Different from the traditional study
studyof of
road condition
road representations,
condition the interference
representations, the interfer-
signals of different road conditions are considered as unmodeled dynamics
ence signals of different road conditions are considered as unmodeled dynamics in the control
in the
system is one of the important innovations of this paper. The schematic diagram
control system is one of the important innovations of this paper. The schematic diagram of the
vehicle driving on the road is shown in Figure 5. In general, the road surface
of the vehicle driving on the road is shown in Figure 5. In general, the road surface is is uneven,
and the description
uneven, of the road
and the description ofroughness (Considering
the road roughness the most common
(Considering the most cases,
common the cases,
time-
domain model of pavement in the form of filtered white noise is mainly
the time-domain model of pavement in the form of filtered white noise is mainly con-considered) can
be expressed [22,23]:
sidered) can be expressed [22,23]:
.
z gz(gt()t=
) =−−2πn ( ) Gq (qn(0n)0u)·uv⋅(ϖt) ( t )
q
2 πn1 uz
1uzg (
g
t )t + + 2
2πn π0n 0 G
(17)
(17)

wherezzgg is
where is the
the displacement
displacement of of the
the road
road roughness,
roughness, nn00 is the reference
reference spatial
spatial frequency,
frequency,
whichisisgenerally
which generallytaken taken
asas m−m
0.10.1 1 ;−1n is the cut-off space frequency under road roughness,
; 1n1 is the cut-off space frequency under road rough-
which is takenisas
ness, which taken as−0.01
0.01 m 1 , i.e., the
m−1, i.e.,corresponding maximum
the corresponding road surface
maximum road wavelength
surface wave- is
100 m; G (n
length isq 100 ) is the roughness coefficient of road surface, its geometric
0 m; Gq(n0) is the roughness coefficient of road surface, its geometric averageaverage value is
determined accordingaccording
value is determined to the grade to of
thedifferent
grade ofroad roughness;
different u is the speed
road roughness; u isofthe
thespeed
vehicle,
of
is the Gaussian
the vehicle,
v(t) white
ϖ(t) is the noise signal,
Gaussian whitewhich noise is related
signal, to theisamplitude
which related toof power
the spectral
amplitude of
density and sampling
power spectral densityfrequency.
and sampling frequency.

Figure 5. Schematic diagram of the vehicle affected by rough road surface.

Figure 5. Schematic diagram of the vehicle affected by rough road surface.

Thedisturbance
The disturbanceexcitation
excitationofofdifferent
different road
road levels
levels is only
is only aimed
aimed at the
at the A-HMBA-HMB sys-
system,
tem, and the vehicle suspension system is not taken into consideration.
and the vehicle suspension system is not taken into consideration. Road excitation produces Road excitation
produces in
vibration vibration in thedirection
the vertical vertical direction
(z-axis) of(z-axis) of the and
the vehicle vehicle and transferred
is then is then transferred
to the
to the flywheel
flywheel system system
to affecttoits
affect
axialitsstability.
axial stability.
In the In the simulation
simulation process,process, the initial
the initial state
state
of the of the flywheel
flywheel is in
is in the the balance
axial axial balance position;
position; that
that is, is, there
there is no is no output
output displace-
displacement
ment ideal
under undercircumstances,
ideal circumstances,
and then andthethen
idealthe idealdisplacement
output output displacement
is assumed is to
assumed
fluctuateto
fluctuate sinusoidally within the allowable range of 0.05 mm. It is assumed
sinusoidally within the allowable range of 0.05 mm. It is assumed that the vehicle travels at that the ve-
ahicle travels
constant speedat aofconstant
u = 30 m/sspeed
(the of
sameu = goes
30 m/sfor (the
speedsame goes for
changes). Thespeed changes).
amplitude The
of power
amplitude
spectral of power
density spectral density
and sampling frequency andofsampling frequency
all white noise signalsof under
all white noise signals
interference are
under interference
uniformly are 10
set at 0.5 and uniformly
Hz. When setthe
at SMC
0.5 and 10 Hz. When
is involved, the SMC
the tracking is involved,
of the axial output the
tracking of the
displacement andaxial output
response displacement
velocity and response
of the flywheel velocity of the flywheel is ob-
is observed.
served.
5.2. Results Analysis
5.2. Results
In orderAnalysis
to verify the effectiveness of the proposed control law, the analyses of the
resultsIn order to verifyFigure
are as follows. 6a shows theofplots
the effectiveness the proposed fˆn with law,
for fn and control non-interference
the analysessignal.
of the
results are as follows. Figure 6a shows the plots for fn and fˆn with non-interference
signal. Taking C-grade road surface as an example, Figure 6b shows its plots for fn and fˆn
. The more intense the external interference, the less accurate the system approximates fn.
The control current input of the system is shown in Figure 7. Figure 7a shows the
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 17
Energies 2022, 15, 5432 10 of 17

conditions, the control current changes greatly under the influence of the control law of
Taking
the C-grade
system, whichroad surface
aims as an
to make theexample, Figure
system have 6b shows
enough its plots
robustness forrapid
after fˆn . The
fn andadaptive
more intense the external interference, the less accurate the system approximates fn .
adjustment.

Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 17

(a)
conditions, (b) under the influence of the control law of
the control current changes greatly
the system, which aims to make the system have enough robustness after rapid adaptive
adjustment.

Figure 6.
Figure 6. ffnn and
and its
its estimate.
estimate. (a)
(a) Non-interference
Non-interference signal.
signal. (b)
(b) C-level
C-level road
road surface.
surface.

The control current input of the system is shown in Figure 7. Figure 7a shows the
axial
(a) control current input without interference, (b) which changes correspondingly with the
stable displacement of the system, and its average value remains around 1.5 A. As shown
in Figure 7b, a disturbance of the C-level road surface is added to the system model as
unmodeled dynamics by this time. It can be seen that under the influence of the control
law,
(a) the control current (control input signal)(b) is indeed adjusted in real time to maintain the
axial stability of the system. It can be seen that with the aggravation of bad road conditions,
the control current changes greatly under the influence of the control law of the system,
which aims
Figure 6. to make
fn and the system
its estimate. have enoughsignal.
(a) Non-interference robustness after road
(b) C-level rapid adaptive adjustment.
surface.

Figure 7. Control current for the A-HMB. (a) Non-interference signal. (b) C-level road surface.

Furthermore, it is very important to verify the robust performance of the controller

more widely and comprehensively. The indexes to evaluate robust performance include
(a)
dynamic performance such as signal tracking, (b) interference suppression, and real-time
responsiveness. Figure 8 shows the corresponding displacement and response speed of
the A-HMB system generated by the non-interference signal and the interference signals
with different road roughness levels as the unmodeled dynamics. It can be seen that,
when there is no interference, the system shows great tracking performance under the
action of adaptive SMC and can adjust accordingly with the expected output displace-
ment
Figure in real time.
7. Control
Control Even
current forunder the influence
the A-HMB.
A-HMB. of different
(a) Non-interference
Non-interference road
signal. (b)surface
C-level roadroughness,
road surface. the
Figure 7. current for the (a) signal. (b) C-level surface.
overall fluctuation error is within the acceptable permissible range, and the adaptive
Furthermore,
tracking advantageit
Furthermore, itisis very
isstill
very important to
significant.
important verify the
to verify the robust
robust performance
performance of the controller
of the controller
more widely
Figure and
9a,b comprehensively.
show the phase The
trajectory indexes
when to evaluate
A-level
more widely and comprehensively. The indexes to evaluate robust performance include robust
road performance
surface and C-level include
road
dynamic
dynamicis performance
surface included in the
performance such
such as
system signal tracking, interference
as unmodeled
as signal tracking, interference suppression, Itand
dynamics, respectively.
suppression, real-time
canreal-time
and be seen
responsiveness.
that
responsiveness. Figure
both trajectoriesFigure slide88 shows
along the
shows corresponding
the preset displacement
sliding surface
corresponding c, whichand
displacement hasresponse
and an absolute
response speed
speed of
slope
of
the
of A-HMB
200. system
Therefore, it generated
can be seenby the
that non-interference
even under the signal and
interference
the A-HMB system generated by the non-interference signal and the interference signals the
of interference
road conditions, signals
the
with different
designed
with different
SMCroadroad roughness
can roughness
still make the levelsas as
system
levels the
thestate unmodeled
slide along
unmodeled dynamics.
the
dynamics.sliding
It can It be
mode can be that,
seenwith
surface
seen that,
when a
when
fast there
response is no interference,
speed, and the the
chatteringsystem shows
phenomenon great
is tracking
well solved.
there is no interference, the system shows great tracking performance under the action of performance under the
action Tooffurther
adaptive adaptive
SMC and SMC
verify
canthe and
adjust can
advantagesadjust
accordingly ofaccordingly
awith
robust with theoutput
thecontroller,
expected expected
the physical output displace-
parameters
displacement of
in real
ment
the
time.AMB in real
Even time.
system
under theEven
(taking under
the
influence ofthe
flywheel influence
massroad
different as anof different
example)
surface road
are
roughness, surface
variedthefrom roughness,
overall10 to 20 times
fluctuation the
overall
the
error fluctuation
prototype
is within value. error
The is
the acceptable within
reason to the
expand
permissible acceptable
the mass
range, andpermissible
as adaptive
the range,
a verification and
trackingindex theis adaptive
that the
advantage is
tracking
flywheel advantage is still significant.
of the prototype
still significant. system in this paper is only experimental, while the actual
Figure 9a,b show the phase trajectory when A-level road surface and C-level road
surface is included in the system as unmodeled dynamics, respectively. It can be seen
that both trajectories slide along the preset sliding surface c, which has an absolute slope
of 200. Therefore, it can be seen that even under the interference of road conditions, the
designed SMC can still make the system state slide along the sliding mode surface with a
fast response speed, and the chattering phenomenon is well solved.
 flywheel mass is much greater than this. The simulated output response of the A-HMB
system should remain bounded for the variation in parameters.
Figure 10 shows the output response with flywheel mass 10 times and 20 times the
prototype value. As shown in Figure 10, it can be shown that the simulated output re-
Energies 2022, 15, 5432 11 of 17
sponse of the A-HMB is indeed bounded, so its tracking performance is very good; that
is, its robustness is still very good.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure8.8.Axial
Figure Axialdisplacement
displacementand
and response
response speed
speed of the
of the A-HMB
A-HMB system
system under
under disturbance
disturbance of dif-
of different
ferent road roughness grades. (a) Non-interference signal. (b) A-level road surface. (c) B-level
road roughness grades. (a) Non-interference signal. (b) A-level road surface. (c) B-level road surface.road
surface. (d) C-level road
(d) C-level road surface. surface.

Figure 9a,b show the phase trajectory when A-level road surface and C-level road
surface is included in the system as unmodeled dynamics, respectively. It can be seen
that both trajectories slide along the preset sliding surface c, which has an absolute slope
of 200. Therefore, it can be seen that even under the interference of road conditions, the
designed SMC can still make the system state slide along the sliding mode surface with a
(a) response speed, and the chattering phenomenon
fast (b) is well solved.
To further verify the advantages of a robust controller, the physical parameters of the
AMB system (taking the flywheel mass as an example) are varied from 10 to 20 times the
prototype value. The reason to expand the mass as a verification index is that the flywheel
of the prototype system in this paper is only experimental, while the actual flywheel mass
is much greater than this. The simulated output response of the A-HMB system should
remain bounded for the variation in parameters.
Energies 2022, 15, 5432
Figure 8. Axial displacement and response speed of the A-HMB system under disturbance 12 ofofdif-
17
ferent road roughness grades. (a) Non-interference signal. (b) A-level road surface. (c) B-level road
surface. (d) C-level road surface.

(a) (b)

Figure 9. Phase trajectory. (a) Phase trajectory of the system with A-level road surface as the unmodeled
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 17
dynamics. (b) Phase trajectory of the system with C-level road surface as the unmodeled dynamics.

Figure 10 shows the output response with flywheel mass 10 times and 20 times the
prototype value.trajectory.
Figure 9. Phase As shown (a)inPhase
Figure 10, it can
trajectory ofbe
theshown
systemthat
withthe simulated
A-level road output
surface response
as the un-
of
modeled dynamics. (b) Phase trajectory of the system with C-level road surface as the that
the A-HMB is indeed bounded, so its tracking performance is very good; is, its
unmodeled
robustness
dynamics. is still very good.

Figure10.
Figure 10.Displacement
Displacementand
andspeed
speed response
response of the
of the A-HMB
A-HMB system
system withwith the mass
the mass parameter
parameter vari-
variation.
ation.
Further, the performance of the proposed robust controller is compared with that
of theFurther,
classicalthePIDperformance
controller. of the proposed
According to (2),robust
ignoringcontroller is compared
the external with that
disturbance force,of
the classical PID controller. According to (2), ignoring the external
the open-loop transfer function of the system can be approximated as a second-order disturbance force, the
open-loop link
oscillation transfer
G(s) function
= kizc /(msof2 -k
the system can be approximated as a second-order oscil-
x ) (where kizc is the axial current stiffness and kx is the
lationdisplacement
axial link G(s) = kizc /(ms -kx)through
2
stiffness) (where kthe izc is the axial
Laplace current[24].
transform stiffness and kx is theofaxial
The parameters dis-
the PID
placementfor
controller stiffness)
the A-HMB through
are Kthe
p = Laplace
2, K i = transform
0.1 and K d =[24].
30. The parameters of the PID con-
troller for the
Figure 11A-HMB
shows the are comparison
Kp = 2, Ki = 0.1results
and Kbetween
d = 30. the PID controller and the SMC
Figure 11 shows the comparison results
for the position tracking of the A-HMB system under discrete between the PID controller
sinusoidal and the SMC
signals. From for
the position tracking of the A-HMB system under discrete sinusoidal
Figure 11, it can be seen that SMC can achieve better global tracking performance from signals. From Fig-
urebeginning
the 11, it can be seenend
to the thatcompared
SMC canwith achieve better local
the intact globaltracking
trackingperformance
performanceunderfrom the
the
beginning
control to traditional
of the the end compared with the
PID controller. intact local
Therefore, tracking
on the whole,performance under the
SMC has significantly
control
better of the traditional
robustness than the PID controller.
traditional PID Therefore,
controller. on the whole, SMC has significantly
better robustness than the traditional PID controller.
 troller for the A-HMB are Kp = 2, Ki = 0.1 and Kd = 30.
Figure 11 shows the comparison results between the PID controller and the SMC for
the position tracking of the A-HMB system under discrete sinusoidal signals. From Fig-
ure 11, it can be seen that SMC can achieve better global tracking performance from the
beginning to the end compared with the intact local tracking performance under the
Energies 2022, 15, 5432 13 of 17
control of the traditional PID controller. Therefore, on the whole, SMC has significantly
better robustness than the traditional PID controller.

Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 17

Figure11.
Figure 11.Displacement
Displacementand
andspeed
speed response
response of the
of the A-HMB
A-HMB system
system withwith the mass
the mass parameter
parameter vari-
variation.
ation.
6.6.Experimental
ExperimentalResults
Resultsand andAnalysis
Analysis
To
Toverify
verifythe
thecontrol
controlperformance
performanceof ofthe
theproposed
proposedSMC SMCunder
underthe theinfluence
influenceofofroad
road
conditions,
conditions, anan experimental platform is
experimental platform is set
setupupforforevaluation.
evaluation.It It should
should be be noted
noted thatthat
the
the radial suspension control of the prototype still uses the classical linear
radial suspension control of the prototype still uses the classical linear PID controller PID controller
because
becausethetheradial
radialair
airgap
gapofof
R-HMB
R-HMB is is
always
always in in
thethelinear range.
linear In short,
range. when
In short, the the
when radial
ra-
perturbation occurs, the R-HMB system is regarded as a linear system.
dial perturbation occurs, the R-HMB system is regarded as a linear system. On the con- On the contrary,
when
trary,axially disturbed,
when axially the A-HMB
disturbed, system is
the A-HMB regarded
system as a time-varying
is regarded nonlinear
as a time-varying system
nonlinear
(the axial air gap is 0.5 mm, which exceeds the linear air gap of 0.25
system (the axial air gap is 0.5 mm, which exceeds the linear air gap of 0.25 mm). The mm). The specific
radial and
specific axialand
radial disturbance factors are
axial disturbance analyzed
factors in Sectionin2.Section 2.
are analyzed
The overall experimental platform is shown in Figure 12. It mainly includes a proto-
The overall experimental platform is shown in Figure 12. It mainly includes a pro-
type body of the vehicular flywheel battery, an operating platform used for simulation of
totype body of the vehicular flywheel battery, an operating platform used for simulation
different working states and a set of the controller.
of different working states and a set of the controller.

Figure12.
Figure 12. Experimental
Experimentalsetup
setupofofthe prototype
the considering
prototype road
considering surface
road roughness
surface (simulate
roughness with
(simulate
vibrator).
with vibrator).

Theprinciple
The principleofofthe
the experimental
experimental device
device to simulate
to simulate roadroad conditions
conditions is as is as follows:
follows: The
The signal
signal generator
generator sendssends a signal
a signal simulating
simulating the road thecondition
road condition excitation,
excitation, and then andthethen the
signal
issignal is amplified
amplified and output
and output by the power
by the power amplifieramplifier
to drive tothe
drive the shaker.
shaker. Therefore,
Therefore, the pushthe
push
rod of rod of the shaker
the shaker will impact
will impact the base the
ofbase of the flywheel
the flywheel batterybattery
accordingaccording to the fre-
to the frequency
quency of the road condition signal so as to realize the performance
of the road condition signal so as to realize the performance test experiment simulating test experiment
simulating
the influencethe influence
of the vehicleofflywheel
the vehicle flywheel
battery by thebattery by the road
road condition conditionIt disturb-
disturbance. should
beance.
notedIt should be noted
that since the roadthat since
noise the road
signal noise signal
is converted into is converted
a force signalinto
andatransmitted
force signal
toand
thetransmitted
system, theto the system,
feedback the feedback
mechanism of the mechanism
actual control of the actual
system control
is still system is
the feedback
ofstill the feedbackand
displacement, of displacement, and the
the error derivative error
of the derivative
system input of the system
signal input
is operable signal
under theis
operable under
measurement the measurement noise.
noise.
During the experiment, the working speed of the flywheel is maintained at 1500
r/min, and its purpose is to weaken or even strip out the gyroscopic effect caused by
high-speed flywheel battery and purely analyze the robustness of the flywheel battery
system due to road disturbance. The path spectrum frequency applied to the signal gen-
erator is set at 4 Hz, and its amplitude varied according to different levels of road condi-
Energies 2022, 15, 5432 14 of 17

During the experiment, the working speed of the flywheel is maintained at 1500 r/min,
and its purpose is to weaken or even strip out the gyroscopic effect caused by high-speed
flywheel battery and purely analyze the robustness of the flywheel battery system due to
road disturbance. The path spectrum frequency applied to the signal generator is set at
4 Hz, and its amplitude varied according to different levels of road conditions. Here, one
thing to be clear is that the road spectrum amplitude set has taken the speed of the vehicle
into account (Equation (17)) so as to avoid the defect that the experiment cannot simulate
the actual constant speed.
Figure 13a shows the change of axial displacement of the flywheel from static sus-
pension (no external excitation) to the application of B-level road excitation. Similarly, the
change of that with C-level road excitation is shown in Figure 13b. As can be seen from
Figure 13, when the flywheel is suspended in an axial static state, the fluctuation range of its
displacement is maintained at ± 0.02 mm. At this time, under the interference of B-level and
C-level road surface, the fluctuation of its axial displacement increases by ±0.01 mm and
±0.02 mm, respectively, but the overall displacement trend still follows the state of normal
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 17
suspension within the preset ideal displacement controllable range (±0.05 mm). Therefore,
the proposed SMC has great performance, and it is proven to have good robustness.

(a)

(b)

Figure13.
Figure 13.Changes
Changesin in axial
axial displacement
displacement whenwhen different
different levelslevels ofsurface
of road road surface are applied.
are applied. (a)
(a) B-level
B-level road surface. (b) C-level road
road surface. (b) C-level road surface. surface.

Figure 14
Figure 14 shows
shows the
the axial
axial displacement
displacement ofof the
the flywheel
flywheel under
under the
the interference
interference ofof
sustained B-level and C-level road conditions. It can be seen that, under sustained
sustained B-level and C-level road conditions. It can be seen that, under sustained road road
excitation,the
excitation, theaxial
axialdisplacement
displacementalways
alwaysfollows
followsthe
thepreset
presetideal
idealdisplacement
displacementtrajectory
trajectory
andmaintains
and maintainsa agood
good continuity,
continuity, which
which indicates
indicates that that the proposed
the proposed SMC SMC has response
has a fast a fast re-
speed.
sponseTherefore, the goodthe
speed. Therefore, robustness is further is
good robustness proved
furtherbyproved
the experimental results. re-
by the experimental
sults.

(a)
 Figure 14 shows the axial displacement of the flywheel under the interference of
sustained B-level and C-level road conditions. It can be seen that, under sustained road
excitation, the axial displacement always follows the preset ideal displacement trajectory
and maintains a good continuity, which indicates that the proposed SMC has a fast re-
Energies 2022, 15, 5432 sponse speed. Therefore, the good robustness is further proved by the experimental 15 ofre-
17

sults.

(a)

(b)

Figure 14.
Figure 14.Axial
Axialdisplacement
displacement when
when different
different levels
levels of sustained
of sustained road surfaces
road surfaces are applied.
are applied. (a)
(a) B-level
B-level
road road surface.
surface. (b) road
(b) C-level C-level road surface.
surface.

7.
7. Conclusions
Conclusions
In
In this
this paper,
paper, taking
taking the
the magnetic
magnetic suspension
suspension control
control system
system of
of aa vehicle-mounted
vehicle-mounted
flywheel
flywheel battery as an example, a robust controller (SMC) considering the
battery as an example, a robust controller (SMC) considering the interference
interference of
of
road
road surface roughness is proposed. Moreover, the controller is established according
surface roughness is proposed. Moreover, the controller is established according to
to
the
the simulation
simulation signals
signals of
of road
road conditions
conditions rather
rather than
than the
the imaginary
imaginary random
random typetype signals.
signals.
Therefore, the algorithm in this paper has strong reliability and practical significance.
Various simulations of the control law and considering the robustness performance are
skillfully performed and analyzed, which demonstrate the superiority of the proposed
controller. In addition, because the existing methods are too complicated to construct an
adaptive law, which affects the real-time performance, in our study, the weight adjustment
of the traditional neural network is replaced by the designed adaptive law of parameter
estimation, which enhances the real-time performance of the system and is beneficial to
the engineering application. Moreover, the experimental platform simulating the road
condition is cleverly designed, which is the first ingenious use of signal generators, shakers,
power amplifiers, etc., to simulate the excitation of the road condition (based on the road
condition spectrum), so it can be used to verify the correctness of the control strategy
proposed in this paper. Good experimental results show that the controller has good
robustness under different road conditions.
In addition, it is worth noting that the robust controller is only designed for the dis-
turbance considering the influence of road conditions, but not the driving conditions. In
order to further improve the robustness and stability of the flywheel battery system, a
composite controller accounting for vehicle driving and road conditions should be further
considered. Moreover, a vehicular flywheel battery experiment platform based on mobile
vehicles should be designed in the future to verify the feasibility of the proposed controller.
With the help of the experimental platform of mobile vehicles, more comprehensive experi-
ments can be done combining various vehicle and road conditions that are closer to the
actual situations. The experimental tests such as crossing the isolation zone, acceleration,
deceleration, uphill, downhill, and turning on different roads can be conducted, which can
verify or further improve the proposed controller.
Energies 2022, 15, 5432 16 of 17

Author Contributions: Project administration, W.Z.; Writing—original draft, X.G. and L.Z.; Con-
ceptualization, W.Z.; methodology, X.G.; software, L.Z.; validation, X.G.; All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported in part by the National Natural Science Foundation of China
under Grant 52077099 and Grant 51607080, and in part by the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation
under Grant 2019M651737.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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