LIQUID PENETRANT TEST (PT)

LIQUID PENETRANT TEST (PT)

 PT Mechanism
• Liquid penetrant testing is a nondestructive means of locating
surface discontinuities based on capillarity or capillary action.
• In the liquid penetrant method. The liquid is applied to the
surface of the specimen and sufficient time is allowed for
penetration of surface discontinuities.
• AFTER SUFFICIENT TIME HAS PASSED FOR THE PENETRANT To
ENTER THE DISCONTINUITY THE SURFACE OF THE PART IS CLEANED
• CAPILLARY ACTION IS AGAIN DRAW PENETRANT FROM THE
DISCONTINUITY.
• TO INSURE VISIBILITYTHE LIQUID PENETRANT CONTAINS EITHER A
COLORED DYE EASELY SEEN IN WHITE LIGHT OR A FLUORESCENT DYE
VISIBLE UNDER BLACK
(ULTRAVIOLET) LIGHT

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PT Steps

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 PT Materials
• Penetrant testing is successfully used on metals. (Aluminum, Magnesium,
Brass,Copper, Cast Iron, Stainless Steel, Titanium and most other common
alloys.
•Test other materials. (Ceramics, Plastics, Molded Rubber, Powdered metal
products or Glass.

PT Limitations

• Penetrant testing is limited by its inability to test materials with

discontinuities that are not open to the surface or having an extremely porous
surface.
•Anything that could block the penetrant from entering the discontinuity must
be removed.
• A list of contaminants that must be removed:
– Dirt.
– Grease.
– Rust.
– Scale.
– Acids.
– And even water.

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• Surface preparation by shot or sandblasting is not recommended because
discontinuities that were open to the surface may be blocked by the shot or
sandblasting.
• Historically Penetrant inspection was called the "oil and whiting method
It used kerosene and a white powder for the inspection.

•The liquid penetrants used in nondestructive testing can be

Categorized by the type of dye they contain.

1­ visible dye penetrants contain a colored (Usually red) dye.

2­ Fluorescent penetrants contain a fluorescent dye.
3­ Dual sensitivity penetrants contain a combination of visible and
fluorescent dyes.

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 Categorized by the processes used to remove the
excess penetrant from the specimen:

1- Water-washable: penetrants are either self­emulsifying or

emovable with plain water.
Contain an emulsifying agent which makes them easily removable by a
water rinse or wash this penetrant material can be obtained with either a
visible or fluorescent dye.

2-Post-emulsified penetrants: require a separate emulsifier to make the

penetrant water washable.
Are highly penetrating oily visible or fluorescent penetrants which are not
soluble in water.
These penetrants must be treated with an emulsifier before they can be
removed by a water rinse or wash.
Emulsifiers:
When applied to a penetrant­coated specimen make the resultant
mixture removable by water rinse or wash. Emulsifiers have low
penetrant characteristics and do not remove indications from the
specimen surface.

3-Solvent removable penetrants: must be removed with a solvent

which is typical when using visible dye in pressurized spray cans.
Are oily penetrants that do not contain an emulsifying agent and
are removable only by solvents specifically designed for that
purpose.

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 Removers (solvent):
Are designed to be used in conjunction with specific penetrants.
Typical removers are available in bulk or pressurized spray
containers

PT Equipments
• Pre-cleaning Equipments:

– Immersion tanks and detergent.

– Vapor degreasing.
– Steam.
– Solvent cleaning.
– Acid or alkaline rust remover.
– Paint removal.
– Etching.
– Wiping with clothes.
– Blasting – (Prohibited).
– Wire brush (Automatic ­ Manual) – (Prohibited).

Penetrant Test Equipment (Portable)

• Both visible and fluorescent dye penetrants are available in kits which can
be used at a remote location or when testing a small portion of a large
article.
A visible dye penetrant kit usually contains:
1. Pressurized spray cans of cleaning or removal fluid.
2. Pressurized spray cans of visible dye penetrant.
3. Pressurized spray cans of non­aqueous (solvent) developer.
4. Wipingclothsandbrushes.
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 A fluorescent dye penetrant kit usually contains:
1. A portable black light lamp and transformer.
2. Pressurized spray cans of cleaning or removal fluid.
3. Pressurized spray cans of fluorescent dye penetrant.
4. Pressurized spray cans of non­aqueous developer.
5. Wiping cloths and brushes.

Black light equipment:

• Required in fluorescent penetrant testing.
• The black light emits a special light with wavelengths that
fall between visible and ultraviolet.
• Provided that the filter is not broken or cracked.
• There is no danger of injury to the human eye.
• It is suggested that the filter be checked prior to each use.

Safety precautions

• Skin irritations:
– Contact with flammable PT liquids.

• Fire:
– Flammable PT liquid + temp
• Sunburn:
– Exposure to UV light. (Broken filter).
• Air pollution.

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 Penetrant Properties
1. The ability to hold a dye material in suspension.
2. The ability to spread the dye evenly over the surface.
3. The ability to carry the dye into any discontinuity
open to the surface
4. the ability to bring up the dye “back to the surface”.
5. The ability to be easily removed.
• A fluorescent dye for a more sensitive than visible.
• Penetrants (fluorescent or visible) can be applied by any one of the
following means:
– Spraying.
– Brushing.
– Immersion.
– Pouring.

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 Water Washable Penetrants
• Have a built-in emulsifier and the penetrant is easily removed by a water
rinse.
• Care must be taken to insure that the spray volume and force does
not wash penetrant out of the discontinuity.
• Water temperatures above 110° f are not recommended because this
may speed up the vaporization of the penetrant.
• Water washable penetrants are usually preferred for use on articles with a
rough
surface or if they contain threads or keyways.
Solvent Removable Penetrants
• Have the advantage of portability.
• After dwell time the excess penetrant is first removed by wiping with
absorbent towels.
• Then cleaned with towels dampened with solvent.

Post Emulsification PT
• This type of penetrant emulsification is
accomplished by dipping the part in a
chemical emulsifier prior to washing.
• The emulsifier will break down the penetrant and make it water
soluble.
• The emulsifier can be applied by dipping or spraying, but not by
brushing. The bristles of the brush may enter the discontinuity.

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 Developers
Wet developers:
Function similarly to dry developers except that they are a mixture of
a developing powder and water
Dry developers:
Are a fluffy, absorbent white powder that is used in both fluorescent
and visible dye penetrant tests. It functions to draw the penetrant
indications to the surface thus making them visible.

1. Wet developers:
• A. Non aqueous developer is held in suspension in a solvent base
and is usually supplied in pressurized cans.
• B. Another type of wet developer holds the white powder in
suspension in a water base.
• This type of wet developer is generally used
with water washable or P.E Penetrants.
• Applied by dipping or spraying.
• A short time is allowed for the water to evaporate leaving a
thin layer of white powder
2. Dry developers
• Are applied directly to the article as a powder
• Done with slight air pressure or by dipping articles.

• It is very necessary to have a dry surface prior to application of a dry

powder
.
• A wet surface will result in uneven layers of powder

• Dry developer is usually used on fluorescent penetrants.

.

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 .

False Indications
Reasons:

1. Penetrant on operator's hands.

2. Contamination of developer.

3. Penetrant transferred to clean specimen from other indications.

4. Penetrant on inspection table.

True Indications
• Continuous line:
– this type of indication is often caused by cracks. Cold shuts. Forging
laps. Scratches. Or die marks.
• Intermittent line:
– these indications could be caused by any of the discontinuities
mentioned above provided they were very tight or where the part
had been peened, Machined or ground.
• Round:
– usually caused by porosity open to the surface
• Small dots:
– tiny round indications caused by the porous nature of the
specimen, coarse grain structure or micro shrinkage.
turn out to be false indications caused by an improper penetrant
procedure.
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Depth determination Of discontinuities
– The greater the depth of a discontinuity. The more penetrant it will
hold and the larger and brighter the indication.

Fixing and Recording Indications

1. Photographs.
2. Special wax and plastic film developer.

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 MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION (MT)

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TEST (MT)

 Theory of Magnetization

• An object is magnetized when part or all of its magnetic domains

have their north and south poles oriented as in the sketch below.

• The ability of a magnet to attract or repel is concentrated at the

local areas called poles.

• With all of magnetic domains lined up, the magnetic bar develops

total force = sum of all of the magnetic domains.

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Force that attracts other magnetizable materials to the magnetic poles

is known as magnetic flux.

• Magnetic flux is made up of all of the lines of force.

• Magnet will attract other magnetizable material only where the

lines of force leave or enter the magnet.

• If a magnet is bent into a complete loop as shown

Below, the magnetic field is entirely within, thus no external
force.

• A crack in the circular magnet will disrupt the flow of lines of

force and create a flux leakage.

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 Leakage fields (flux leakage) are actually magnetic lines of force that

leave the part and pass through air from one pole to the other of

opposite polarity.

• Whenever the leakage field is forced out of the part, iron

particles would be attracted showing an indication of a
discontinuity.

• Even some subsurface discontinuities may be detected if the

leakage field is strong enough

as shown below.

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 - Diamagnetic metals:

- have a small and negative Susceptibility to magnetization

- (slightly repelled).
– Copper, silver, and gold are examples of diamagnetic
materials.
- Paramagnetic metals:
- have a small and positive Susceptibility to magnetization

- (slightly attracted).

– Magnesium, molybdenum, lithium, and tantalum are

examples.

- Ferromagnetic metals:
- have a large and positive susceptibility to magnetization. They
have strong attraction and are able to retain their magnetization
after the magnetizing field has been removed.
– Iron, cobalt, and nickel are examples of ferromagnetic metals.
Ferromagnetic materials are the o n l y metals
commonly inspected with the magnetic particle testing
method

- Magnetic flux:
the total number of magnetic lines of force existing in a magnetic
circuit is called magnetic flux.•Flux density or induction is usually
designated in “gauss” units and refers to the flux­per­unit area at right
angles to the direction of the flux.

– Permeability:

This refers to the ease with which a magnetic flux is established in the

article being inspected.

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 – Reluctance:

– This is the opposition of a magnetic material to the establishment

of a magnetic flux. A material with high permeability will have a

low reluctance.

– Residual magnetism:
– This refers to the amount of magnetism retained after the
magnetizing force is removed.

– Retentivity:

Refers to the ability of the material to retain a certain amount of

residual magnetism

- Coercive force:

- Refers to the reverse magnetizing force necessary to remove the

residual magnetism from the part.

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- For example:

- if a piece of high carbon steel were placed in a magnetiz­ing field, it

would exhibit the following:

- It would have low permeability because it would be hard to

magnetize.

- It would be highly reluctant to accept a magnetic flux because of the

high carbon content.

- – It would have a high residual magnetic field. The high carbon steel is

reluctant to accept a magnetic flux but is also reluc­tant to give it up

once it has been accepted.

- It would be highly retentive of the magnetic field that it has accepted

- It would take a high coercive force to remove the residual magnetism

from the high carbon steel part.

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• Magnetic Flux:

Total number of magnetic lines of force existing in a magnetic circuit

• The lines of force in a magnetic circuit are always closed

loops, therefore, a magnetic circuit is always closed.

• Flux density induction is usually designated in “gauss” units and

refers to the flux per unit area at right angles to the direction of the

flux.

Circular Magnetization

In a ferromagnetic material the lines of force are established within

the material. Iron is permeable and readily conducts the magnetic

field.

• In both ferromagnetic and nonmagnetic materials, the lines of force

are at right angles (90°) to the direction of electric current flow.

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• Iron particles will not be attracted to a magnetized part
except where a flux leakage exists. A crack in the part as
shown below would cause a typical indication.
• A crack that runs parallel to the lines of force will not attract
particles because no poles or flux leakage exists at the crack.

• The circular magnetization created with prods will also only detect

discontinuities that are essentially perpendicular to the lines of force.

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•Longitudinal Magnetization

A longitudinal magnetic field is induced into a specimen by:

– Coil: when the length of the specimen is several times its

diameter or cross section, the specimen can be successfully

magnetized by placing it lengthwise in the field of the coil

• Yoke: yoke may be used to magnetize a specimen longitudinally.

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• The yoke is essentially a temporary horseshoe magnet.

It is made of soft, low retentivity iron, which is magnetized by a small

coil wound around its horizontal bar.

• As number of turns of coil increase, the flux density increase in

the longitudinal direction.

• Parts being magnetized should be placed near the inside surface of

the coil.

• Alternating current

(AC) is the most widely used power source for conducting

magnetic particle testing.

• AC can be readily converted to the low voltages used in magnetic

particle inspection by the use of transformers
• Ac has little penetrating power and provides the best detection of
surface discontinuities. It is not effective for subsurface. Since AC is
continuously reversing direction, the magnetic field has a tendency
to agitate or make the iron particles more mobile.

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  Direct current (DC):

 single phase AC can be rectified to produce half wave

alternating current (HWAC) commonly called half wave

direct current (HWDC).

Used for surface and subsurface defects due to high ability to

penetrate metals than AC current

• The permeability of amaterial can be determined by increasing the

magnetizing force (electric current strength) until the material

“reaches its saturation point”.

Current Requirements
(Circular Magnetization)
• Amount of current will vary with the shape and permeability of the
material being tested.
• a test specimen with a typical indication is a good method to
assure that only enough current is used to show the indication .

– Too much current will burn the part or may cause

heavy accumulations of iron particles.

– Too little current may not provide sufficient flux leakage to

attract the iron particles.

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 Current Requirements
(Longitudinal Magnetization)
•The effective field it creates is determined by the product of the
number of amperes and the number of turns in the coil.
Magnetic Particle Testing

• The following should be considered when selecting

1. Is equipment for wet or dry method?

2. Magnetization requirements (AC or DC).

3. Demagnetization incorporated or separate unit?
4. Amperage required.

5. Line voltage requirements.

6. Accessories needed or required

 Wet horizontal equipment

– Specimen is clamped between the head and tail stocks.

– For longitudinal magnetizationthe coil is moved so that the area
to be tested is encircled by the coil.
– Wet horizontalunit usually accommodatesboth AC a n d
HWDC magnetization.

• Wet continuous field method has three basic steps:

– 1. Flow bath through nozzle and over entire surface

of part.
– 2. Stop bath flow.
– 3. Apply current at the instant bath flow is stopped.

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 • Dry continuous field method:
1. Apply magnetizing current.
2. Blow powder particles over magnetized area.
3. Blow excess powder off part.
4. Shut off magnetizing current.

• The powder should float to the magnetized area so the particles

will be attracted to any flux leakage.

• The dry powder method is typically used with both mobile and

portable equipment

• However, the penetration depends on the permeabilty of the

material, type of discontinuity, and amount and type of current
used.
• Magnetic particle mediums and their preparation
– When the medium, whether dry or liquid, is applied to the
specimen while the magnetizing current is flowing, the
procedure is known as the continuous method.
– If the medium is applied after the magnetizing current is
shut off, the procedure is known as the residual method.

• In the dry method, the powder is applied by sprinkling or

dusting the specimen.
Particles of the testing medium must possess

two important properties:

1. High permeability
2. Low retentivity

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• Magnetic particles containing these characteristics will give
maximum response in a leakage field, but will not remain
magnetized when the field is removed.
• The size of the particles used in the dry method varies but they
will usually all pass through 100 MESH screen.
• The shape of the magnetic particle should be spherical and must
have a high degree of mobility and still have substantial attractive
power.
– Round smooth particles offer good mobility but have low
attractive power.
– Long, slender, jagged particles have. Excellent
attractive power, but do not have the mobility to
move in a leakage field.

Visibility is important in magnetic particle

testing and a good light source is essential.
• Magnetic particles are usually available in grey, red, and black, and

the choice of color is determined by the best contrast with the

specimen surface.

• Fluorescent particles are commonly used in the wet method to

aid visibility, but this requires the use of a black light.

• Direct current to obtain indications of

discontinuities that may be subsurface, direct

current (DC) or half wave rectified current

(HWDC) should be used.

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• Alternating current AC is used when the discontinuities are
suspected to be on the surface of the specimen.

• Cleaning may involve removal of flake, slag,

heavy build­up of paint, rust, grease or other

organic material that may interfere with the test results.

Limitations of magnetic particle testing:

– Nonmagnetic materials cannot be tested.

– Magnetic particle testing will not detect discontinuities that
are deeper than approximately ¼” below the surface.

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 • Location of discontinuities
• Discontinuities can be located either on or directly below the

surface of the specimen.

• Discontinuities located on the surface appear as sharp, distinct

lines, whereas. Discontinuities located below the surface appear as
irregular, rough, hazy indications.
• Discontinuities can be divided into three general categories:
1. Inherent discontinuities are usually formed when the
metal is molten.
Inherent wrought discontinuities relate to the melting and
solidification of the original ingot before it is formed into slabs,
blooms, and billets.
Inherent cast discontinuities relate to the melting, casting, and
solidification of a cast article. Usually caused by inherent
variables such as inadequate feeding, gating, excessive pouring
temperature, and entrapped gases

2. Processing discontinuities are usually related to the various

manufacturing processes such as machining, forming, extruding, rolling,

welding, heat treating, and plating.

3. Service discontinuities are related to the various service

conditions such as stress, corrosion, fatigue, and erosion.
4. Non relevant indications can be caused by the following:
1. Excessive magnetizing current.
2. Structural design of the article.
3. Variances of permeability within the article

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