Liquid Penetrant Testing :

Discontinuities are detected by a penetrating colored liquid.

Indications form directly over the defect.
This method detects surface breaking discontinuities only.

• This examination process is useful

for detection of open to surface
discontinuities only.
• Applicable to varieties of non
porous materials.
• Produces enlarged indication for
easy detection.
• Relative volume of a flaw is
indicated by the amount of bleed
out.
Testing Limitations :
• This process requires elaborate surface cleaning.
• Surface cleaning shall be properly done otherwise there will not show
any indication.
• Processing is time consuming.
• The process has temperature limitations.
100 to 520 C. [ 2000 C, if high temp special penetrant materials are
used ].
• requires careful processing.
• Does not indicate the size of the discontinuities.
• Difficult to test porous materials & rough surface.
• Requires post cleaning.
Penetrant Process : Step 1
Surface is cleaned to remove all contaminants to the extent that the
interior of the discontinuities are clean and dry.

• Surface to be cleaned
using appropriate cleaning
methods such that dirt, oil,
grease, scale, rust, paint etc
are completely removed.
• The flaw openings must be
clean to allow entry of
penetrant.
• Following cleaning, the part
shall be completely dried.
Penetrant Process : Step 2
penetrant may be applied by, spraying, dipping, flooding, brushing.

• For penetrant application the

part temperature must be within
100 to 500 C.
• Penetrant must be applied to
clean dry surface.
• The entire area to be tested
must be covered with a thin layer
of penetrant.
• Penetrant must not dry during
the entire test cycle.
• A penetration time between 10
to 30 minutes are used.
Penetrant Process : Step 3
To detect entrapped penetrant, excess penetrant on the surface is
removed. Care must be taken not to remove entrapped penetrant from
the discontinuities.
• Depending on the type of
penetrant, excess surface
penetrant is removed by one of
the following methods,
• Rinsing with coarse water
spray.
• Emulsifying the penetrant and
rinsing with water spray.
• Rinsing with emulsifier
solution.
• Manually wiping the surface
with solvent dampened cloth.
Penetrant Process : Step 4
A Developer is applied to bring entrapped penetrant back to the surface
by reverse capillary action [ blotting ].

• A developer, uniform coating

of fine white powder, is used for
blotting the penetrant out of
the discontinuities.
• Developer also provides a
contrasting background
for the indication.
• Penetrant bleeds and spreads
into developer and the
indication become easily
detectable. The indication may
enlarge with time.
Penetrant test method :
The pre cleaning operation removes surface contaminants and opens up
the discontinuities.
Penetrant test method :
Penetrant test method :
Penetrant test method :
Penetrant test method :
Penetrant test method :
Portable kit for Penetrant testing :
For field use penetrant materials are packed in aerosol spray cans.
A set of cleaner / remover, penetrant and developer are all that required to
carry out the field examination.
Aerosol cans provide uncontaminated liquids for the examination and can
have a shelf life of 5 years. However, if the pressure inside the can drops
significantly, the can becomes useless.
Penetrant materials are available in aerosol spray cans as well as in bulks.
Surface Cleaning :
Very important step in penetrant testing.
Cleaning must clear the discontinuity opening to allow the penetrating
liquid to enter.
Surface contaminations closes Discontinuity openings :
Surface cleaning plays critical role for effective penetrant testing

• Any contamination such as oil, rust,

scale, corrosion & different types of
coatings and surface treatments
cover the discontinuity opening and
prevent entry of penetrant in to it.
• To detect the discontinuities, test
surface shall be free from
abovementioned contaminations,
otherwise indications will not appear.
Contaminants does not allow penetrant to enter discontinuities

• Dirt and contamination

blocks or closes the
discontinuity openings and
prevent entry of penetrant.
• If a discontinuity is filled,
there is no room for the
penetranrt to enter.
• This is a limitation of liquid
penetrant testing where as
magnetic particle testing can
be carried out even with
foreign material embedded
onto the discontinuities.
Parts shall be cleaned such that the interior of the
discontinuities are free from contaminants and dry :

Cleaning Methods :
• Detergents.
• Steam cleaning for assemblies
• Solvents for oil, grease etc
• Hot Alkaline cleaning
• Ultrasonic agitation with cleaning
materials.
• Paint strippers
• Acid or alkaline etching for rust
scales and corrosion.
Cross section of a part shows entrapped penetrant
:

• The liquid must fill the cavity as

much as possible. This depends on
the viscosity of the penetrant and the
temperature of the part.
• At higher temperature, the liquid has
low viscosity and enters and fill a
cavity easily.
• At low temperature the viscosity
increases and longer penetration time
is needed.
Capillary Action :
Principle of Liquid penetrant
testing.
Liquid enters narrow openings due to capillary action.

• Liquid rises through the

cavity of a fine bore tube
against the gravity. This is
known as capillary action.
• The finer the bore, the more
is the capillary force.
• Liquid enters narrow
discontinuities because of
capillary forces.
• A plant takes in water through
capillary action.
Contact Angle :
A good penetrant must easily spread on the test surface and enter tight
discontinuity openings.

• Low surface tension and low

contact angle allow liquids to
spread on the surface easily.
• Liquid penetrants are
formulated to have low surface
tension, low contact angle and
low viscosity.
• Higher viscosity reduces the
speed of penetration.
Types of Penetrants :

Liquid penetrants are available in three types.

Type 1 : Fluorescent dye, visible only under Ultra Violet light.

Type 2 : Color contrast, visible in ordinary light, usually Red color.

Type 3 : Dual sensitivity. Combination of fluorescent and color

dye. Examined under ultra violet as well as ordinary
light. Used for special applications.
Penetrant is a solution of brightly colored visible or fluorescent dye in a
colorless non volatile liquid, usually highly refined hydrocarbon distillates.
The penetrant possesses many controlled properties for its successful
operation.
Visible dye used in the penetrant is bright red or magenta in color.
Fluorescent dye is a pale yellow liquid which fluoresces brilliant
yellow-green in color under ultraviolet illumination.
Penetrant is a solution of brightly colored visible or fluorescent dye in a
colorless non volatile liquid, usually highly refined hydrocarbon distillates.
The penetrant possesses many controlled properties for its successful
operation.
Visible dye used in the penetrant is bright red or magenta in color.
Fluorescent dye is a pale yellow liquid which fluoresces brilliant
yellow-green in color under ultraviolet illumination.
Penetrant is a solution of brightly colored visible or fluorescent dye in a
colorless non volatile liquid, usually highly refined hydrocarbon distillates.
The penetrant possesses many controlled properties for its successful
operation.
Visible dye used in the penetrant is bright red or magenta in color.
Fluorescent dye is a pale yellow liquid which fluoresces brilliant
yellow-green in color under ultraviolet illumination.
 Fluorescent indication Color contrast indication
Fluorescent Type 1 : These penetrants contain a fluorescent dye and are
visible only under ultraviolet illumination in a darkened area. The
penetrants have high sensitivity and used for sensitive applications.

Color contrast Type 2 : These penetrants use a color dye visible under
ordinary light. The penetrants have lower sensitivity compared to
fluorescent types and is used when high sensitivity is not required.
Color contrast Process :
These penetrants use a brightly colored red dye visible under ordinary light.
These penetrants are recommended ;
when the part can not be inspected in a darkened area
when electrical supply is not available.
When high sensitivity is not required.
Fluorescent Process :
These penetrants contain a fluorescent dye and are visible only under
ultraviolet illumination in a darkened area. These penetrants have high
sensitivity and used for high sensitivity examinations. Fluorescent
penetrants are available in five different sensitivity levels [ ½ to 4 ].
The use of minimum sensitivity penetrant which is capable of detecting
the discontinuities of interest is recommended.
Penetrant application :

* Before penetrant application part surface must be

thoroughly cleaned and dried.

* The penetrant must cover the examination area in a thin

consistent layer.

* Penetrant may be applied by dipping, spraying, flooding or

brushing.

* Application by rubbing with a penetrant soaked cloth is not

permitted.
Penetrant application by
a brush :
For testing of a small area,
penetrant may be applied with
a brush.
Solvent Removable Method :
uses Solvents as penetrant remover.
* Solvent method is highly sensitive, does not require additional

equipments.
* Recommended for spot testing.
* Most suitable for field use.
* Requires careful processing.
* Shall not be used near open flame.
Solvent process : step 1
Precleaning

• After the part surface

is prepared for the
examination, cleaner is
sprayed on to the test
surface to remove
traces of oiliness.
• The surface is allowed
to dry by evaporation or
wiping.
Solvent process : step 2
Penetrant application

• The part surface must be

completely dry before
penetrant application.
• The penetrant is brushed /
sprayed on the entire test
area in a thin film.
• The penetrant is then
allowed to dwell on the part
surface for the required
time.
• The penetrant must not dry
during the dwell time.
• Penetrant may be
reapplied during the dwell
time.
Solvent process : step 3
Removal of excess penetrant.

• The part surface is

wiped with clean dry cloth,
followed by fresh solvent
dampened cloth.
• Wiping is repeated until
no traces of penetrant is
visible on the rag.
• Penetrant wiping shall
be done carefully
otherwise it will remove
penetrant from the
discontinuities affecting
the sensitivity of
examination.
Solvent process : step 4

• A developer is used to
complete the examination
process.
• Developers are inert
white powders used dry or
as a liquid suspension.
• The developer is sprayed
carefully to cover the
entire test area in a thin
uniform coating.
• Avoid wet runny coating.
Solvent process : step 5
• Gross discontinuities produce
immediate indications.
• Tighter discontinuities take
longer time to produce
indications.
• A minimum of 7 minutes
development time is
recommended.
• The size of the indications
gives relative idea of the nature
of the discontinuities.
The solvent process summary :
The solvent process summary :
Water washable Method :
for fast and economical processing of large number of parts.

* These Penetrants can be washed directly with water.

* Water washable penetrants contain an emulsifier which make
them water washable.
* Emulsifier increases the viscosity which calls for longer
penetration time.
* These penetrants can not enter very tight discontinuity opening.
* Because of easy washability, water washable method is not
suitable for wide shallow discontinuities.
* These penetrants are used where high sensitivity is not required.
* Good for examination on rough surface, threads, keyways,
narrow grooves and where liquid has a tendency to accumulate.

Water washable method is less sensitive when compared to solvent and

post emulsification methods.
Water washable process : fast & economical
* After the penetration time, the part is rinsed with plain water to remove
the excess surface penetrant.
* Rinsing is performed with a coarse water spray from a nozzle, at
around 450 to the surface, from a distance of 6 to 12 inches.
* Water pressure, nominal 40 PSI, max 50 PSI, temp 10 – 380 C
* Maximum rinsing time for any area shall not be more than 2
minutes.
A coarse water spray removes loose penetrant by scrubbing action :
A coarse water spray removes loose penetrant by scrubbing action :
Post Emulsification Method :

Highly Sensitive penetrant examination.

Uses an external emulsifier to make the penetrant water washable.

Two types of Emulsifiers are used

Lipophylic [ oil based ] work by diffusion process.

Hydrophylic [ detergent based ] works by scrubbing action.
Lipophylic [ oil based ] Emulsifier :
works by diffusion process. Emulsification time is critical and
depends on roughness, viscosity of emulsifier, temperature.

• Once the penetration time is over,

the part is dipped into the emulsifier
tank and removed for draining.
• With time, the emulsifier diffuses
into the penetrant layer and the
resulting mixture is water washable.
• Excess penetrant is then removed
by water rinsing.
• Emulsification time varies between
1 to 4 minutes and must be
determined practically for each type
of parts.
• Emulsifier can not be applied by a
brush.
Lipophylic [ oil based ] Emulsifier :
works by diffusion process. Emulsification time is critical and
depends on roughness, viscosity of emulsifier, temperature.

• Once the penetration time is over,

the part is dipped into the emulsifier
tank and removed for draining.
• With time, the emulsifier diffuses
into the penetrant layer and the
resulting mixture is water washable.
• Excess penetrant is then removed
by water rinsing.
• Emulsification time varies between
1 to 4 minutes and must be
determined practically for each type
of parts.
• Emulsifier can not be applied by a
brush.
Lipiphylic Emulsifier process :
oil based emulsifier, applied by dipping the part in the emulsifier tank. The
emulsifier is then allowed to act for a controlled period of time. The
resultant mixture is water washable and to be removed by water rinsing.
The emulsifier in the tank gradually gets contaminated by penetrant
and is finally discarded when contamination exceeds 20%.
Hydrophylic [ detergent based ] Emulsifier :
Most used emulsifier process. Loose penetrant is first removed by plain
water rinse. The remaining penetrant is then removed by spraying the
part surface using 2.5 to 5% solution of emulsifier.
The emulsifier may also be used by immersing the part in a 10 to 30%
emulsifier solution with mild agitation. The part surface is then sprayed
with plain water again to remove residue of the emulsifier solution.
These emulsifiers are less sensitive to contact time and is easy to
control than the lipophylic emulsifier process.
Hydrophylic Emulsifier
solution Concentration :
The concentration plays an
important role in excess penetrant
removal process. The concentration
is monitored using a refractometer.
Developers :

there are 4 Forms of Developers :

Dry developers.
[ Chemically inert white powders ]

Aqueous [ water base ]

Water solution developers. [ water soluble particles ]
Water suspension developers. [ insoluble particles ]

Non Aqueous
Solvent suspension developers.
[ insoluble particles ]
Devloper action [ blotting ] :
Developer extracts penetrant from discontinuities by blotting action.
Provide contrasting background.
Penetrant spreads through the developer and magnifies the indication
making it more visible to the eye.
Developer Spray :
A thin uniform coat of developer is required to initiate the blotting action.
Thick coating masks weaker indications must be avoided.
Dry developer application :
Dry developers are normally used with fluorescent process only.
Can be applied by dipping, scooping, brushing and spraying.
Electrostatic charged spraying or dust chamber application is most
suitable. The developer must cling to the surface in a fine film of dust.
Dry developer must be applied on a dry surface only.
Dry developer application by scooping :
Dry developers are normally used on rough surfaces.
Applied by dipping, scooping and brushing. Excess developer is removed
by shaking and gentle air blast.
Dry developer application in a dust storm closed cabinet :
Dried parts are placed on the grid, the cabinet is closed and the powder is
blown by moisture free compressed air or a fan mounted at the bottom of
the cabinet to form a cloud of dust. While settling the powders coat the
part surfaces.
 Water soluble developer :

Water soluble developer particles dissolve in water to produce a clear

working solution.
Water suspension developer is suspension of insoluble particles in
water. Suspension developer requires continuous agitation during use.
Application by spraying and dipping is recommended. [ dipping is not
allowed for water washable type penetrants ]
After the application of developer, parts require drying in a temperature
controlled oven.
Non aqueous developer is being applied by spraying :
The recommended method of application of non aqueous developer is by
spraying. A thin uniform coat is applied to the part surface by spraying from
a suitable distance. A wet runny coating must be avoided.
Inspection :

* Indications are interpreted in terms of type and size.

* Indications are classified as Linear or Rounded.
* Size of the indications are larger than the discontinuity openings.
* The size of the indications are the deciding factor.
Linear and Rounded indication :
Linear ; Length greater than 3 times the width.
Rounded ; Length less or equal to 3 times the width.
Accept – Reject decision depends on the type of indication.
Sources of Non relevant indications :

• Tool marks.
• Finger prints.
• Penetrant patches at the table or
at the fingers of the operator.
• Lint or dirt particles on surface.
• Scales on surface.
• Oily residue on surface when
fluorescent is performed.
Ultraviolet Bulbs [ mercury vapor lamps ] :
Low power [ 100 / 125 Watts ] uses an internal deep purple coating as filter
for short wave length ultraviolet radiation. The dark color of the coating
filters out visible light.
High power bulbs uses external [ Koop ] filter. With filter, the bulb transmits
300 to 400 nm wavelength ultraviolet light with peak wavelength around
365 nm.
The florescent material coating absorbs this energy and re- emits yellow
green light which is highly visible.
Bulbs with damaged filter
or coating must not be
used.

Unfiltered ultraviolet light

burns the exposed skin
and the retina of the eye
causing blindness.
Portable UV Light :
lamp head with igniter / ballast power supply. The system operates from
110 / 220 v power supply. The bulb becomes very hot.
The head which houses the UV bulb. The head may use external filter if
required by the bulb. A plastic pistol grip is used to hold the head during
use. An external ballast type power supply provides power to the head.
The lamp must be left on unless a long idle period follows. Once switched
off, the lamp does not switch on until it cools down sufficiently.
Hand held UV lamp illuminates parts at any location.
Florescent pigments are used for preparing fluorescent penetrants. Under
ordinary light, fluorescent penetrants look pale yellow.
Fluorescent materials glow brilliantly under ultraviolet illumination.
Fluorescent materials used in non destructive testing responds to
ultraviolet radiation around 365 nano meters.
The fluorescent dye used in the penetrant absorbs invisible ultraviolet
radiation and emits visible light in yellow – green color.
The eye has maximum sensitivity 525 – 575 nm..
Visible light
spectrum
Ultraviolet Bulbs [ mercury vapor lamps ] :
Low power [ 100 W ] uses internal coating as filter.
High power uses external filter.

• With filter, the bulb transmits

300 to 400 nm wavelength
ultraviolet light with peak
wavelength of 365nm.
• Bulbs with damaged filter or
coating must not be used.
• Without filter if directly
exposed it damages human
eye and the skin.
• Fluoroscent penetratn
testing needs UV light
Liquid Penetrant Testing :
Discontinuities detected by a penetrating colored liquid.

• Penetrant entered into

discontinuties and
shows indication
• Linear indication is a
indication length greater
than three times of the
width
• Rounded indication is a
indication length atleast
equal to three times of
width
Solvent Removable Method :