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Liquid Penetrant Testing Dr. Layla M. Hasan

Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT)

1-Introduction
Liquid penetrant testing (PT) is a nondestructive testing methods for the detection
of discontinuities that are open to surface such as cracks, fractures, laps, seams and
may be caused by fatigue, impact, quenching, machining, grinding, forging, bursts,
shrinkage or overload. As a result, it is often used on lots of machined parts, as well
as weldments, manufactured products, castings, forgings and other items that will be
placed into service.
Liquid penetrant testing can be performed on magnetic and non-magnetic materials,
but does not work well on porous materials. The basic principle of liquid penetrant
testing is that when a very low viscosity (highly fluid) liquid (the penetrant) is
applied to the surface of a part, it will penetrate into fissures and voids open to the
surface. Once the excess penetrant is removed, the penetrant trapped in those voids
will flow back out, creating an indication. This test is named for the liquid called
penetrant that is, applied to the sample during test in order to make any surface flaws
visible.
2- Penetrant Materials
The various materials that will be used in the different penetrant processes must
exhibit certain characteristics. Above all, these materials must be compatible with
each other and collectively provide the highest sensitivity for the application. Some
codes and specifications state that only a group of materials made by the same
manufacturer known as a “family group” (or system) should be used. The intent is
to provide a degree of assurance that the different materials will be compatible with
each other. There are usually some provisions for using materials outside the
“family” if the combination of the different materials can be proven compatible
through qualification tests.
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Liquid Penetrant Testing Dr. Layla M. Hasan

The materials used in the penetrant process are classified into four groups. The first
group of materials that are essential for a penetrant test are pre-cleaners. The second
group of materials, which has the greatest influence on sensitivity, are penetrants.
The third group comprises the emulsifiers and solvent removers, and the fourth
group the developers.
2-1 Precleaners
Typical cleaners include the following.
 Solvents are probably the most widely used liquids for precleaning parts in
penetrant testing. There are a variety of solvents that can be effective in
dissolving oil, films, grease, and other contaminants.
 Ultrasonic Cleaning. Of all the precleaner materials and processes, ultrasonic
cleaning is probably the most effective. Not only will the contaminants be
removed from the surface, but also if there are entrapped contaminants in
discontinuities and other surface openings.
 Alkaline cleaning. Alkaline cleaners used for precleaning are nonflammable
water solutions that, typically, contain specially selected detergents that are
capable of removing various types of contamination.
 Steam Cleaning. In some rare instances, steam may be used to remove
contaminants from the surface. Although very effective in removing oil-based
contaminants, this is not a widely used technique.
 Water and detergent cleaning. There are various devices that utilize hot water
and detergents to clean part surfaces.
 Chemical cleaning. Chemical cleaning techniques usually involve etchants,
acids.
 Mechanical Cleaning - Abrasive
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Liquid Penetrant Testing Dr. Layla M. Hasan

2-2 Penetrant
The penetrant materials used today are much more sophisticated than the kerosene
and whiting first used by railroad inspectors near the turn of the 20th century. Today's
penetrants are carefully formulated to produce the level of sensitivity desired by the
inspector. To perform well, a penetrant must possess a number of important
characteristics. A penetrant must:
 Spread easily over the surface of the material being inspected to provide
complete and even coverage.
 Be drawn into surface breaking defects by capillary action.
 Remain in the defect but remove easily from the surface of the part.
 Remain fluid so it can be drawn back to the surface of the part through the
drying and developing steps.
 Be highly visible or fluoresce brightly to produce easy to see indications.
 Not be harmful to the material being tested or the inspector.
 They should be nonflammable, odorless, and nontoxic; possess stability under
conditions of storage; and relatively low in cost.
Penetrant materials are classified in the various industry and government
specifications by their physical characteristics and their performance. Aerospace
Material Specification (AMS) 2644, Inspection Material, Penetrant, Other
specifications such as ASTM 1417, Standard Practice for Liquid Penetrant
Examinations, may also contain information on the classification of penetrant
materials but they are generally referred back to MIL-I-25135 or AMS 2644. A
variety of penetrant materials are available and selection is often based on the
required sensitivity level of the test, equipment available at the test site to conduct
the test and other factors. Penetrant materials come in two basic types. These types
are listed below:
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Liquid Penetrant Testing Dr. Layla M. Hasan

 Type 1 - Fluorescent Penetrants

 Type 2 - Visible Penetrants
Fluorescent penetrants contain a dye or several dyes that
fluoresce when exposed to ultraviolet radiation (or black)
light under darkened conditions

Visible penetrants contain a red dye that provides high

contrast against the white developer background

Fluorescent penetrant systems are more sensitive than visible penetrant systems
because the eye is drawn to the glow of the fluorescing indication. However,
visible penetrants do not require a darkened area and an ultraviolet light in order to
make an inspection. Visible penetrants are also less vulnerable to contamination
from things such as cleaning fluid that can significantly reduce the strength of a
fluorescent indication.
The proper selection of a penetrant is dependent on many factors such as
penetrability, visibility, type of discontinuity expected, configuration of part, surface
conditions, facilities and equipment available, etc. Selection of the proper penetrant,
therefore, should be based on penetrant sensitivity. Penetrant sensitivity is defined
as the ability of the penetrant materials and application techniques to effectively
detect discontinuities of the type and size as required. Therefore, the penetrant
materials most adaptable to these conditions are the proper penetrant materials.
Penetrants are then classified based on the strength or detectability of the indication
that is produced for a number of very small and tight fatigue cracks. The five
sensitivity levels are shown below:
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Liquid Penetrant Testing Dr. Layla M. Hasan

 Level ½ - Ultra Low Sensitivity

 Level 1 - Low Sensitivity
 Level 2 - Medium Sensitivity
 Level 3 - High Sensitivity
 Level 4 - Ultra-High Sensitivity
An interesting note about the sensitivity levels is that only four levels were
originally planned. However, when some penetrants were judged to have
sensitivities significantly less than most others in the level 1 category, the ½ level
was created.
The liquid penetrant processes are further sub-divided according to the method of
washing of the specimen. The penetrants can be:
1. Water-washable.
2. Solvent removable, i.e. the excess penetrant is needed to be dissolved in a solvent
to remove it from the test specimen surface.
3. Required treatment with an emulsifier.
2-3 Emulsifiers and Solvent Removers
The purpose of the emulsifiers used in penetrant testing is to emulsify or break
down the excess surface penetrant material. In order for these emulsifiers to be
effective, they should also possess certain characteristics, including:
 The reaction of the emulsifier with any entrapped penetrant in a
discontinuity should be minimal in order to assure that maximum sensitivity
is achieved.
 The emulsifier must be compatible with the penetrant. The emulsifier must
readily mix with and emulsify this excess surface penetrant.
 The emulsifier mixed with the surface penetrant should be readily removable
from the surface with a water spray.
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Liquid Penetrant Testing Dr. Layla M. Hasan

Solvent removers are used with the solvent removable technique and must be
capable of effectively removing the excess surface penetrant. There are a
number of commercially available solvents that make excellent removers.
These solvents should readily mix with the penetrant residues and be capable of
penetrant the final remnants from the surface. They should also evaporate
quickly and not leave any residue themselves.

2-4 Developers
There are four basic types of developers:
1. Dry developer
2. Solvent-based developers, also referred to as “spirit” or nonaqueous
3. Wet developers suspended in water
4. Wet developers that are soluble in water
3-Test Procedure
3-1 Surface Preparation
Generally, some preparation of the parts is required prior to liquid penetrant testing.
Initially, the parts should be clean and free of foreign objects and coatings that could
conceal surface defects or cause false indications. The first step is a thorough surface
cleaning to be sure the test piece is free of oil, grease, paint, rust and dirt because
these materials tend to trap the penetrant, producing false indications. The method
of cleaning depends on the nature of the material of the part and contaminants.
Typical cleaning facilities make use of detergents, organic solvents, alkali solutions,
paints removers, vapor degreasing, and ultrasonic cleaning.
The surface to be examined and all adjacent areas should be dry. It is essential that
parts be thoroughly dried after cleaning so that water or solvent remains in or over
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Liquid Penetrant Testing Dr. Layla M. Hasan

the discontinuities, as this will hinder entrance of the penetrant. Drying may be
accomplished by warming the parts with infrared lamps, drying ovens, forced air
circulation, etc.
The particular technique to be used in a given situation depends on the following:
 The type of contaminant present,
 The condition of the surface,
 The type of material being examined
3-2 Penetrant application
Both the visible and fluorescent dye penetrants can be applied to the test sample by
spraying, brushing or immersing the part in a penetrants bath. The choice of
application is usually a matter of preference, but man be influenced by the size and
shape of the test piece, the equipment available for conducting the test or the
requirement of the test specification(s) applicable to the samples. In case of small
components, they may be dipped in a tank of penetrant. Regardless of how it is
applied, it is important that all surfaces are wet by the penetrant.
3-3 Penetrant dwell time.
The liquid penetrant is left on the surface for a sufficient time to allow the liquid to
seep into any surface openings or defects. The total time that this liquid is in contact
with the surface of the sample is called the penetrant dwell time.
Dwell time varies for different types of penetrants and is generally dictated by the
test specifications. The surface finish, temperature, type and size of defect
anticipated together with penetrant, kind affect dwell time requirement.
3-4 Penetrant removal (rinsing).
After the dwell time has elapsed. The excess liquid penetrant is carefully removed
from the surface to avoid removing any of the captured penetrant from the flaw or
defect.
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Liquid Penetrant Testing Dr. Layla M. Hasan

3-5 Developer application.

A thin layer of developer is applied to the part to assist in drawing penetrant trapped
in flaws back to the surface where it will be visible as indications. Developers may
be applied by dusting with a dry powder or spraying a wet developer. The resulting
indications are larger than the actual flaw and have a high level of contrast between
the penetrant and developer, making them more visible to aid in inspection.
3-6 Developer dwell time.
The developer remains on the sample piece for the required amount of time stated in
the test specification to allow indications to develop prior to inspection.
3-7 Inspection.
The inspection process is performed by trained and certified inspectors using a visual
examination. When working with fluorescent penetrants, indications must be viewed
under darkened conditions with a high-intensity UV lamp or black light. Testing
with a visible dye requires sufficient white light. The sample will be accepted or
rejected based on the specification or acceptance criteria. The inspector also will
attempt to determine the origin of the discontinuity.
3-8 Post cleaning.
The final step in the process is to clean the surface of the sample to remove any
penetrant testing residues. The test procedure is shown in the following figure.
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Liquid Penetrant Testing Dr. Layla M. Hasan

Liquid penetration testing procedure

Some of the advantages of liquid penetrant testing are as follows:
1. Relatively low cost.
2. Highly portable NDT method.
3. Highly sensitive to fine, tight discontinuities.
4. Fairly simple method.
5. Can be used on a variety of materials.
6. All surface discontinuities are detected in one operation, regardless of
orientation.
Some of the limitations of liquid penetrant testing are as follows:
1. Test surface must be free of all contaminants (dirt, oil, grease, paint, rust, etc.).
2. Detects surface discontinuities only.
3. Cannot be used on porous specimens and is difficult to use on very rough
surfaces.
4. Removal of all penetrant materials, following the test, is often required.