ENGINEERING

   The engineering function of a gas company is very important because it determines the
standard of quality for the entire gas system. The engineering staff designs the major additions
and revisions to the gas system and its structures. It produces gas construction and material
standards that specify materials and design for all gas installations, from residential services and
meter sets, through distribution mains, to major transmission lines and city gate stations. A
drafting or CAD (computer aided design) group creates and maintains the engineering drawings
for the individual and standardized designs and for the main location maps. The engineering
department should be the center of expertise for the entire operating area for questions or
problems concerning system design, code interpretation, material requirements, etc.

Organization
   A typical Engineering Department includes these specialized sections:
 System Planning
 System Design
 Station Design
 Codes and Standards
 Environmental Affairs
 Drafting or CAD

System Planning
   System Planning maintains the adequate capacity of the existing pipe network system and
studies the system for effects of changing load patterns. All load additions to the system, whether
new residential subdivision or increased industrial loads should be cleared through system design
to 1) check that the existing system can handle the proposed additional load and 2) to size
additional main facilities needed to serve the customers. A close relationship is necessary
between system design and the various sales areas throughout the company so that future
growth of the distribution system can be handled in the most economical way. 
   Occasionally, these additional loads tax the existing system beyond its present capacity. At that
time, system design issues a system improvement letter describing the shortfall in the system and
stating the best solution to solve the problem. Such additions usually consist of a reinforcement
main or a regulator facility to add a feed point or a pressure upgrade to the system if feasible. In
addition, system design will also specify annual pressure surveys, normally taken at or near peak
day, to confirm a system’s capacity to handle present loads. 
 
   The system planning function normally requires the network flow analysis system as described
in Chapter V. Several such systems are available on the market today. Although these systems
can be expensive, the initial cost can be easily recovered as the design engineer can make
decisions on main sizing and system improvements, which solves the problem in the most
economical manner.
System Design
   System Design is the section charged with transforming the general requirements of large new
construction projects into detailed drawings, specifications, and bills of material from which the
facility can be installed. Small projects, such as simple main extensions and small subdivisions,
can be designed by the operating areas utilizing standards previously developed for such
projects.
   Modifications to the system can originate from four different sources:
1. New Business—This usually requires installing new mains into previously unserved
territories.
2. System Improvements¾These are additional mains required to improve a system so that
it will have adequate supplies on peak day.
3. Main Replacement¾This replaces an existing main in poor condition, such as steel mains
with heavy corrosion or cast iron mains with an excessive number of joint leaks or
breaks.
4. Public Improvement¾Improving a public facility such as a road widening, sewer project,
bridge, or rebuilding normally requires a main relocation. These improvements are often
major projects and quite expensive; in most cases, without adding value to the overall
system.

   System design may also be responsible for designing normal pressure reducing facilities as
well as large specially designed industrial meter sets.
Station Design
   Station Design is responsible for designing large non-standard, above-ground facilities. This
would include city gate station facilities and pressure and/or flow control regulators, odorizers,
pre-heaters, and buildings. Gas storage facilities, peakshaving plants, telecommunication and
remote control facilities required by gas control are also designed here.
Codes and Standards
   Codes and Standards is responsible for all design and construction standards for the
company. This area either writes or reviews the material specifications; and they review and
check for company compliance with existing, new, or proposed codes as issued by various
governmental agencies. Construction specifications for all phases of the system, from mains to
services to meter sets, are checked for code compliance, material usage, and customer
safety. As new material comes into the gas industry and is approved for general use, this area is
responsible for designing the standards for these new materials.
Environmental Affairs
   Environmental Affairs is a relatively new addition to engineering. Its responsibilities include
reviewing new and existing environmental laws to check for company compliance. All materials
and construction specifications need to be reviewed to eliminate environmental concerns. This
work involves obtaining permits from governmental agencies for crossing rivers, wetlands,
swamps and other sensitive areas. Procedures need to be established for hazardous spills, etc.,
and this area may get help resolve long-term problems, such as clean up of manufactured gas
plant sites.
Drafting
   Drafting generally performs two major functions: 1) producing the engineering design drawings
and 2) drawing and maintaining the gas main maps (atlases) of the system. As construction
projects are completed, updating these atlases is extremely important because all operating
areas, other utilities, and governmental agencies rely on these maps for accurate, up-to-date
information. Most engineers no longer have drafting expertise; in fact, most drafting areas now
have computer-aided drafting and design (CAD or CADD) networks, which have greatly
increased productivity. 

Cost Considerations
   Annual construction expenditures for U.S, gas distribution facilities have run at about 4 billion
dollars in recent years; new and replacement piping accounting for some 90% of this (1997 Gas
Facts, [1996 Data] Arlington, VA: American Gas Association 1997). Because these expenditures
underlie a large portion of the cost of gas to the consumer, it is important to maximize the value
received per dollar invested—consistent with safety requirements. This requires sound
engineering planning of additions to a gas distribution system, followed by efficient, well
organized construction and maintenance programs.
   Given the techniques outlined in the previous chapters for planning and sizing piping layouts for
gas distribution systems, the translation of these plans into an operating plant requires the
cooperation of many parts of the utility organization. Long-range decisions must be made on the
timing of major construction projects. These may require the approval of a plant expenditure
committee, senior officers, or a board of directors. Estimates of the work for each construction
season must be prepared so that financial officers can procure funds for the work. Considerable
paper work is required to obtain authorization and permits for the proposed work and to keep
adequate records. Field surveys precede the preparation of detailed plans for installations and
orders must be placed for pipe and other materials.
   Much of this work, unseen to public eyes, is the function of the distribution company's
engineering department. It is thus shortsighted to think only of the cost of engineering as the
lowest total cost for an installed facility, leaving out its future maintenance and reliability.
Underfunded, inadequate, engineering usually causes such costs to be unnecessarily high. And
cost control through project management techniques is essential especially on large projects.

Physical Properties of Pipe Materials

   After a piping layout has been sized, the design section specifies the pipe material and wall
thickness. The major factor that determines the pipe wall thickness needed for specified service
conditions is the stress-strain characteristics. Stress is the intensity of the internal forces in a
body of matter that resist changes in the body's shape when external or internal force is applied.
Its magnitude is the ratio of the applied force to the cross-sectional area over which the force is
applied: force/area. The three most common types of stress are tensile, compressive, and shear
(Fig. 6-1). Tensile stress resists forces tending to pull a body apart; compressive stress resists
forces tending to squeeze a body; and shear stress resists forces tending to cause one layer of
the body to slide past an adjacent layer. The stress produced in the pipe wall by the pressure of
the gas inside the pipe is tensile stress and is called the primary stress. Stresses produced by
thermal expansion or contraction, weight of backfill, passing traffic or other outside forces are
called secondary stresses. These stresses can be tensile, compressive, or shear depending on
the imposing forces and their direction.
Fig. 6-1. Three Types of Stress
 
   Strain is the change in the shape of a body that occurs when forces are applied to it. A body in
tension is elongated; a body in compression is shortened. The strain accompanying tensile or
compressive stresses is expressed as a fraction of the total length of the body. For example, if
the total length 1 of the body is increased by the amount ∆l by tensile forces, then -
Strain = ∆l/l
   The stress-strain diagram in Fig. 6-2 shows the relationship between tensile stress and strain
for pipeline steel. Strain is proportional to stress, up to a limit called the elastic limit. In this range
of stress, represented by the initial straight line portion of the curve in Figure 6.2, the dimensional
change of the body is not permanent; the body will return to its original dimensions when the
stress is removed. However beyond this limit (that is, at higher stresses), the body will not return
to its initial shape when the stress is relieved. It will have yielded.
Fig. 6-2. Stress Strain Diagram for Tensile Stress in Steel
   The yield strength is the limit at which a marked increase in strain occurs with a very slight
increase in stress. The maximum tensile strength, also called ultimate strength, is the highest
stress that a material can withstand before it begins to rupture. The strength of the materials used
to fabricate pipe is usually specified in terms of a specified minimum yield strength, SMYS, and
the pipe is designed so that the actual primary stresses experienced in operation can tolerate this
limit by some factor of safety. Polyethylene plastic uses a different term to refer to its long-term
yield, HDB or Hydrostatic Design Basis and a temperature limit.
 
   SMYS of pipe materials commonly used in gas distribution are compared in Table 6.1.
TABLE 6.1. Specified Minimum Yield Strength of Common Gas Distribution Main Materials
MATERIAL SMYS (psi) SMYS (MPa)
Steel, low carbon, ASTM A53 25,000 172
Steel, low carbon, API 5L GrB 35,000 241
Plastic Polyethylene 2306 and 3406 1,250* 8.6
Ductile Iron (modern form of Cast 42,000 290
Iron
Cast Iron (older "gray" form 11,000-21,000** 76-145
Copper 30,000-50,000 207-345

Pipe Materials
   The first pipes used to transport gas, generally over short distances to a few customers, were
either bamboo tubes, hollowed-out pine logs, or lead conduit. Today, high-pressure natural gas
travels through hundreds of miles of steel, plastic, cast iron, and copper pipe to get from the
wellhead to the consumer.
   Most gas distribution system piping in current service is steel; although steel or polyethylene
plastic pipe is preferred for new installations. Plastic, chiefly polyethylene, is increasingly the
choice, especially in the smaller diameters and for pressures up to 60 psig where its use
predominates.
Steel
   Steel pipe became the standard for gas utility use following cast iron because of its moderate
cost, high strength, and easy welding, compared to the older gray form of cast iron. A variety of
steels are produced for gas piping. Yield strength of steels commonly used in the fabrication of
steel gas distribution piping range from 25,000 to 42,000 psi (172 to 289 MPa); transmission pipe
SMYS range upward to 80,000 psi (552 MPa) with efforts being made to develop 100,000 psi
(689 MPa) pipe.
   Several methods are used to manufacture steel pipe. All except one (seamless pipe) involve
forming an elongated open-ended cylinder from pre-rolled flat steel in coils or plate; the long
edges are then welded together to seal the cylinder wall. This welding is one of several types
depending on the process. Smaller pipe, 2 in. (DN 50)* and under, is most commonly furnace-
butt-welded. Preheated edges are mechanically forced together without the benefit of added
metal or use of electric current. Somewhat larger pipe, 4 in. through 24 in. (DN 100 through DN
600)* is commonly of the electric or resistance-welded type which uses electricity to pre-heat the
edges to some 2600ºF (1427ºC) for pressure joining. Such seams are commonly longitudinal,
running lengthwise parallel to the longitudinal axis of the pipe, or, in some, spiral the pipe. This
latter design allows one pipe mill run to be reset to produce different diameters of pipe from the
same basic machinery and width of coiled plate. Spiral weld pipe is much less common, however,
in smaller diameters and in the U.S. than in foreign countries.
   The electric-resistance weld method of pipe manufacture is common to steel gas distribution
line pipe in sizes 4 in. - 24 in. (DN 100 - DN 600). It is shown schematically in Fig. 6-3. Strength of
the longitudinal joint is 100% of the pipe wall strength. For furnace butt-welded pipe, common in
sizes 1/8 in. 4 in. (DN 3-DN 100), the value is 60% and 100% for submerged arc weld pipe
common to diameters above 24 in. (DN 600). 
Fig. 6-3. Major Steps in Manufacture of Electric  
Resistance Weld (ERW) Pipe
(Courtesy United States Steel - USS Tubular Products)
   Seamless is available for Critical applications, such as river crossings in sizes 2 in. - 26 in. (DN
50 - DN 650).
   Specifications covering pipe fabricated by all of these methods have been developed by the
American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) and the American Petroleum Institute (API).
These specifications include tolerances for the pipe composition and physical properties. They
are incorporated by reference into Part 192 of the Federal Pipeline Safety Regulations, the
underlying code of minimum federal safety standards for design, construction, operation, and
maintenance of all natural gas distribution systems in the United States. * 
   Pipe grades are variations within each specification and are designated by the letters A or B,
with Grade B being stronger than A. An example of a steel pipe specification commonly used in
gas distribution is API Standard 5L Grade B Electric Resistance welded Pipe (API 5L Gr B ERW)
which has a SMYS of 35,000 psi (241 MPa).
   Higher strength grades of steel pipe, common to transmission systems and larger diameter
distribution feeder mains, permit thinner wall and hence lighter weight and lesser cost. Their
specified minimum yield strengths run from 42,000 psi (290 MPa) upwards and are also covered
in API Standard 5L. Grade designations indicate their yield strength (SMYS) in thousands of psi,
for instance, X42, X46, X52, X60, X70.
   Steel line pipe is further classified by wall thickness and according to more than one system.
One system is schedule numbers as established by the American Standards Association. For
example schedule-40 pipe has the same wall thickness as pipe formerly classified as 'standard'
weight in sizes 2 in. through 10 in. (DN 50 - DN 250). Pipe is also manufactured in thicknesses
not included in the schedule classifications. The sizes and wall thicknesses of the steel pipe
specified for a gas company's distribution systems can generally be found in that company's
standards. Usually only one or two wall thicknesses are stocked in each size. For steel
distribution pipe, the wall thicknesses are generally greater than the values called for by internal
pressures but rather are derived from consideration of 'secondary' stresses such as those
imposed by shipping, handling, construction and backfill. 
   As to length, steel pipe is supplied in random sections 16 to 22 feet (5-6.7m) long, or in double
random lengths averaging 38 feet (11.6m). This is more suitable for buried service as opposed to
the 10 foot (3m) lengths common to threaded end house piping.
Plastics
   The general term plastic covers a wide variety of chemical substances of which only a few are
used in the fabrication of pipe. The pipe plastic most commonly used for gas distribution mains
and services currently is polyethylene (PE).
   The major advantages of plastic pipe over other pipe materials are its light weight, ease of
installation, and soil-corrosion resistance. Some of its less desirable characteristics are its much
lower strength, its relatively large change in length with a change in temperature (11 to 19 times
that of steel for PE), accelerated aging when exposed to sunlight, and low melting temperature.
Most of the plastic materials now in use for buried gas piping are thermo-plastics i.e., they soften
when heated, and regain their original properties on cooling. Pipe is fabricated from these
materials by the extrusion of melted plastic resin pellets through a die with subsequent cooling in
the desired shape.
   Initially, plastic pipe was used for the insertion renewal of leaking steel services. On a mileage
basis, however, gas distribution use of plastic pipe today is predominantly in direct burial;
insertion renewal of services and mains is now second. Beyond-the-meter uses, such as buried
fuel runs for gas lights and grills or swimming pool heaters, are a distant third in footage. As to the
installation of plastic pipe, figures for the mid-1980s place plastic on a mileage basis at 76% and
steel at 24% of distribution mains installed. Just a few years later in 1989, plastic pipe dominated
with a 96% for new and replacement services (Watts, J., "24th Annual Distribution Piping Report"
Pipeline and Gas Journal, 16, (Dec 1989)).
   Polyethylene (PE). Polyethylenes, one of the thermoplastics, are waxy-like to the touch, have
relatively good resistance to cracking, and are chemically inert. They also have a relatively low
flexural modulus of elasticity which permits the coiling of small (3 in. [DN 80] and less) diameter
pipe. Other features of PE, accounting for its becoming the leading plastic material for natural gas
(buried) piping, include high impact strength, good abrasion resistance, heat fusibility (which
simplifies joining) and a tolerance for pipe squeeze off, a technique sometimes used for gas
shutoff. 
   The ASTM D1248, "Standard Specification for Polyethylene Plastics Molding and Extrusion
Materials," classifies PE's into four types depending on the density of the natural resin.
Type I: lower density materials; relatively soft, flexible, and of low heat resistance.
Type II:  intermediate, or medium density; slightly harder, more rigid and have greater tensile
strength; improved resistance to elevated temperatures.
Type Ill:  exhibit Type I and II properties to an even greater degree.
Type IV:  maximum hardness, rigidity, tensile strengths and resistance to the effects of increasing
temperature.
   PE gas pipe is made from resins with densities ranging from the higher end of Type II to the
lower end of Type III. PE materials in this density range seem to have provided the best
compromise in properties. Joining is by various forms of heat fusion (butt, socket, saddle or
electrofusion) or compression couplings with metal inserts into the ends of the PE for rigidity.
   The ASTM D1248 standard further classifies PE materials into Pipe Grades depending on other
physical characteristics, such as tensile strength, elongation, and brittleness (cold) temperature.
Pipe Grade P34 must also satisfy an environmental stress crack requirement not currently
included for the other Pipe Grades. The Type and Grade designation for PB piping materials—
Polybutylene—is referenced by ASTM D 2513, "Standard Specification for Thermoplastic Gas
Pressure Piping Systems" and the various codes and regulations controlling the use of PB piping
in fuel gas service.
   To provide a more complete and useful description of a PB plastic pipe material, ASTM D 2513
employs a four-digit material designation code. The first two digits designate the ASTM Pipe
Grade and the last two the material's maximum recommended design stress for water at 23ºC
(73ºF) in units of 100 psi with any decimals dropped.
   For example: PB 2406 is a Pipe Grade PB 24 material in accordance with U 1248 with a
maximum hydrostatic design stress (HDS) for water at 73.40F of 630 psi; PE 3408 is a Pipe
Grade P34 material with a maximum hydrostatic design stress (HUS) for water at 73.40F of 800
psi. Other PB pipe designations referenced by ASTM U 2513 are listed in Table 6-2 (Table 1-3 in
the AGA Plastic Pipe Manual: "Metric Unit (SI) Application Guide for the AGA," Arlington,
VA: American Gas Association, 1980).
   A newer specification, ASTM D3350, "Standard Specification for Polyethylene Pipe and Fittings
Materials," adds more information via its cell numbers. This document identifies PE materials by
six cell classes. The first five cells describe established value limits for short-term properties
(density, flexural modulus, tensile strengths, and stress crack resistance). The last cell reports the
material's established hydrostatic design basis for water at 23ºC (73ºF). ASTM D 3350 is more
definitive than D 1248 because it classifies PE materials by more properties, and each property is
defined over narrower value limits. Most PE pipe manufacturers are reporting in their literature the
cell classification of their materials. Table 6-2 (Table 1-3 in the AGA Plastic Pipe Manual) cross
references the older ASTM D 1248 and the newer ASTM 3350 classification systems.
   Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC). A combination of chemical resistance, good long-term strength, and
high stiffness accounts for PVC having become a popular plastic pipe material in many pressure
and non-pressure applications. Because of its greater susceptibility to brittle fracture, however,
PVC has been largely displaced by PE for gas distribution. PVC piping may readily be joined by
solvent cementing. Requirements for cements are given in ASTM D2564, "Solvent Cements for
Polyvinyl Chloride Plastic Pipe and Fittings."
   Other Plastics. A variety of other thermo plastic materials have been used or considered for
gas distribution piping as indicated in Table 6-2:
   PB - Polybutylene
   ABS - Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene
   CAB - Cellulose Acetate Butyrate
   PB has greater long-term hydrostatic strength than high density PE and is also better able to
serve at higher temperatures than PE. Concerns about brittle fracture and the maintenance of
PB's long term strength in natural gas use have limited its application in present grades. Like PE,
PB is heat fusible for joining.
   ABS comes in a variety of grades. Only one of which, 1210, has been used for natural gas. Like
PB, it has a higher hydrostatic strength than PE; but poorer experience with its other properties,
lack of fittings, and limited size range caused its use to decline dramatically after 1968 when PB
began to dominate. Like PVC, joining is by solvent cement.
   CAB was the pioneer plastic for gas distribution piping. It is no longer commercially made,
another loser to the superior qualities of PE which caused users to switch during the 1960s. Like
PVC and ABS, it was joined by solvent cementing.
 
TABLE 6-2.* Hydrostatic Design Basis (Strength Categories) and Hydrostatic Design
Stresses (HDS) for Thermoplastic Pipe Materials for Natural Gas and  
Water Service at 23ºC (73.4º F)
    Hydrostatic Design Stress (HDS) AT
23ºc(73.4ºf)3
Material Designation Hydrostatic Design    
Per ASTM D 25131 Basis (HDB)2 For Water For Fuel Gas
  --------------------------------------------------
psi-----------------------------------------------
PE 23065 1250 630 400
PE 2406 6
1250 630 400
PE 3306 6
1250 630 400
PE 3406 1250 630 400
PE 3408 1600 800 500
       
PB 2110 2000 1000 630
       
PVC 1120 4000 2000 1250
PVC 1220 4000 2000 1250
PVC 2116 3200 1600 1000
       
ABS 1210 7
2000 1000 630
       
4
CAB MH08 1600 800 500
4
CAB 5004 800 S400 315
*(Table 1-3 From Reference 2, AGA Plastic Pipe Manual)
1
The first two digits of the material designation code the material in accordance with the
applicable ASTM material specification (i.e., ASTM d1 248 for PE, D2581 for PB, D1784 for PVC,
D1788 for ABS, and D707 for CAB). The last two digits code the maximum recommended HDS
for water expressed in hundreds of psi.
2
The HDB is per ASTM D2837.
3
The maximum HDS for water is established by multiplying the HDB by a design factor of 0.5
whereas a design factor of 0.32 is used for fuel gas.
4
Cellulose-acteate-butyrate (CAB) was removed from ASTM 02513 in 1985.
5
1n 1984 the P23 grade defined in ASTM D1248 was divided into two grades, P23 and P24. Old
References to PE 2306 refer to pre 1984 grade and references to Pt 2406 to new grade system.
6
PE 3306 was removed from ASTM D2513 in 1985.
7
Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) was removed from ASTM D2513 in 1988.
 
   Reinforced Epoxy Resin is quite a different sort of plastic material than those previously
discussed. It is not thermoplastic but rather, "thermo-setting." It is hardened by the application of
heat or of the proper curing chemical and will not resoften when reheated. The resin adheres well
to a reinforcing material, usually glass fibers, to produce a much stronger material than any of the
thermoplastics such as PB or PVC. These reinforcing fibers are generally visible in the
translucent pipe which, being formed over a smooth cylindrical mandrel, is smooth inside but
somewhat uneven outside. It can be formulated to resist organic solvents and, by nature of its
reinforcing, resists large brittle breaks.
   It is rigid, however, which means that smaller sizes do not coil, is sensitive to crushing and point
loading, and more expensive than thermoplastic pipe. It is joined by epoxy adhesive or
mechanical fittings. An example distribution use has been as custom diameter, maximum-sized,
insert pipe in leaking low-pressure cast iron mains that are to remain low pressure. It is defined in
ASTM D 2517.
   New plastics will no doubt be proposed for gas distribution piping to better meet the
requirements of: strength, durability, temperature, and other environmental influences;
installation, maintenance and safety related properties; efficiency and economy; and adaptability
to development of standards. PB is the present plastic of choice, and as long as the Minimum
Federal Safety Standards limit plastic pipe in distribution service to 100 psig operating pressure
or less (49 CFR 192.123)(4), steel pipe will also be required.
   Other Materials. Very little piping is installed by U.S. gas distribution utilities other than steel or
plastic. In recent figures, only 0.6% of distribution mains installed was other than these two
predominant materials. Among these other pipe materials are ductile (nodular) iron, aluminum,
and copper. Ductile iron is manufactured to the same dimensions as the older gray cast iron,
which it largely replaced in new gas installations in the 1950's. As a result of Federal
requirements concerning coatings and cathodic protection (49 CFR 192, Subpart I) coupled with
the cost of material and installation, ductile iron is little used for new gas main installations
currently.
   Plastic coated aluminum has been applied for long rural main extensions and service tubing.
Copper has been most extensively employed in gas distribution requiring small diameter tubing
for residential services. Occasional problems with internal flaking of copper sulfide deposits, lawn
fertilizer-caused chemical corrosion, lightning attraction (if buried bare), and material cost have
limited its use for new services.
   Receipt of Materials. All materials ordered should, upon receipt, be sampled for conformity to
the purchase specifications. These specifications usually reference some material standard such
as those of the American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) and the American Petroleum
Institute (APl) for steel pipe (or both) which include dimensional tolerances, strength, finish,
etc. Acceptable Quality Levels (AQLs) indicate what percent of the shipped items can be
defective before the entire lot should be returned to the vendor.
 

Determination of Pipe Wall Thickness

   The wall thickness of pipe for a specified service must be sufficient to withstand the forces that
will be exerted on it; the thicker the pipe wall, the lower the stresses produced by forces of a
given magnitude.
   Stresses in pipe are classified into two categories, primary and secondary. Primary stresses are
those produced by the force of the internal gas pressure. Secondary stresses are those produced
by forces other than the pressure of the gas in the pipe, for example those created by thermal
expansion and contraction of the pipe against surrounding soil restraints.
   In buried service, pipe temperatures range from about 30 to 60ºF (0ºC to 15ºC) as limited by
the surrounding soil. Piping exposed to atmospheric temperature changes (see Fig. 6-4), such as
pipe hung on bridges and in above-ground regulators and metering facilities, will experience the
full range of ambient temperatures and beyond. Pipe may become hotter than the surrounding air
when exposed to direct sunlight and colder due to expansion cooling of the gas experienced
downstream of pressure reduction regulators (see Chapter Xl). Such pipe is also restrained at
various points, such as where it reenters the soil and at designed 'anchors.'
Fig. 6-4. Arch Span Stream Crossing
(Courtesy Laclede Gas Company)
 
   A pipeline may be subjected to secondary stresses from a wide variety of external forces. When
pipe is unevenly supported, by the contour of the trench bottom or because a rock is present
underneath the pipe, the forces resulting from the weight of the backfill above are concentrated.
Settling of lateral mains or services can also cause secondary stresses in a pipeline near the
point of juncture.
   Only the primary tensile stress from internal gas pressure and some above-ground piping
structural stresses can be calculated with reasonable certainty. There is less quantitative data on
the secondary stresses that occur in buried distribution piping; and their estimation is thus more
complex, varied, and less certain.
   Other factors enter into the determination of pipe wall thickness. In the past, steel pipe wall
thickness included an allowance for corrosion. This allowance is no longer necessary if steel
mains are protected from corrosion; but distribution mains should still be thick enough to permit
service fittings to be safely welded (or fused in the case of plastic) onto a live main. Pipe should
also be thick enough that it will not buckle during hoisting, yield from stacking in shipment or
storage, nor from the weight of backfill and surface loads.
   Safety factors and engineering design procedures for pipe are presented in codes that
summarize the thinking and experience of design engineers throughout the country and over
more than half a century. These codes were prepared through committee action and published by
organizations, such as the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), the American
Petroleum Institute (API), and the American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
   The U.S. Department of Transportation developed safety standards from B 31.8 as Title 49,
Part 192, Code of Federal Regulations (49 CFR 192), "Transportation of Natural and Other Gas
by Pipeline; Federal Safety Standards." As the title implies, its sets minimum standards for the
United States, but some states prescribe more stringent requirements through their Public Utility
(or similarly titled) Commissions. Canadian standards are similar and based on B 31.8 as well.
Popular with designers and operators of gas systems is the "GPTC Guide for Gas Transmission
and Distribution Piping Systems."* It contains the Federal Standards plus supplementary how-to
guide material on design, materials, and practices.
   Subpart B of 49 CFR 192 is entitled "Materials" while Subpart C is "Pipe Design". This latter
subpart contains design formulas for the determining pipe wall thickness for steel and plastic pipe
plus references to ANSI specifications for design of the less commonly used pipe materials: cast
iron, ductile iron, and copper. To support these formulae, tables of related values and limitations
are included. The basic formula behind these design formulae is derived from studies of stresses
produced in thin-walled cylinders by internal fluid pressure. Called “Barlow's hoop stress **
formula, it states that ¾
         (Eq. 6-1)
Where: Sh = Hoop stress in the pipe wall, psi (MPa)*
P = Internal pressure, psig (KPa)(1000 KPa = 1MPa)*
D = Pipe outside diameter, inches (mm) (a safe simplification, inside diameter is theoretically
correct)**
t = Wall thickness, inches (mm)
This equation may be rearranged to solve for any one of the four values if the other three are
known (or assumed).
Example: 
A 2 inch nominal size (NPS 2 = DN 20)** [2.375 inches (60.325 mm) outside diameter) H steel gas
main with 0.154 inch (3.912 mm) wall thickness is carrying gas at 60 psig (414 kPa) system
pressure. What is the stress in the pipe wall? What percentage of SMYS does this represent if the
pipe material is A25 Class 1 [Yield Point Min. 25,000 psi (172.4 MPa)]?
Solution: 
Using Eq. 6-1 (Barlow's formula) to solve for hoop stress is ¾ 
P = 60 psig (414 KPa)
D = 2.375 inches (60.325 mm)
t = 0.154 inch (3.912 mm)
Sh =  = 463 psi
(In S.l.:  Sh =  = 3.192 MPa)
The percentage of A25 Class 1 steel pipe's Specified Minimum Yield Strength (SMYS) is
therefore-
% SYMS  =  = 1.85%
(In S.l.:  %SMYS =  = 1.85%)
Example:
Asking the same questions for 24 in. nominal size pipe (NPS 24 = DN 600), (24.00 inches
(609.6mm) O.D.J., with 0.250 inch (6.35 mm) wall carrying gas at 450 psig (3103 kPa) pipe
material API 5L Grade X60 [60,000 psi (414MPa) yield]
Solution:
Substituting:
Sh =  = 21,600 psi
(In S.l.:  Sh =  = 148.9 Mpa)
and
% SYMY  =  = 36%
(In S.l.:  Sh =  = 36%)
   It is important to know when to apply Barlow's formula rather than the design formulae that add
safety factors and use SMYS values for "Sh" to solve for a maximum "design pressure." Barlow's
formula is used to correlate any "S" (stress level) with any "P" (internal pressure). A specific
application of Barlow's formula is to calculate the percentage of SMYS created by a given internal
pressure as the examples show. This concept is useful as % hoop stress is referred to in the
Federal Standards (49 CFR 192) and in ANSI 831.8 in several instances as governing actions,
such as the after-construction "Test Requirements" (Subpart J) and the basis for safety factors in
design formulae.
   As to the design formulae themselves, the one for steel uses Barlow's Formula with three
added safety factors:
P = X F X E X T
P, S. t & D are defined as before.
F = Design factor as determined by class
Location as defined in 49CFR192.111:
Class Location Design Factor (F)
1 0.72
2 0.60
3 0.50
4 0.40
E = Longitudinal joint factor as defined in:
 
    Longitudinal Joint Factor
Specification Pipe Class (E)
ASTM 53 Seamless 1.00
  Electric resistance welded 1.00
  Furnace butt welded 0.60
ASTM A 106 Seamless 1.00
ASTM A333/A333M Seamless 1.00
  Electric resistance welded 1.00
 ASTM A381 Double submerged arc welded 1.00
ASTM A671 Electric-fusion welded 1.00
ASTM A672 Electric-fusion welded 1.00
ASTM A691 Electric-fusion welded 1.00
API 5L Seamless 1.00
  Electric resistance welded 1.00
  Electric flash welded 1.00
  Submerged arc welded 1.00
  Furnace butt welded 1.00
Other Pipe over 4 inches 0.80
Other Pipe 4 inches or less 0.60
T = Temperature derating factor as determined in accordance with 192.115: 
Gas Temperature in Temperature derating
degrees Fahrenheit factor (T)
250 or less 1.000
300 0.967
350 0.933
400 0.900
450 0.867
192CODE.DOC
DT (Revised) 7/96
   The design formula for plastic uses a modified Barlow's formula in that D, the diameter term, is
presented as D-t. This results in it being the average between outside and inside diameters, a
compromise with the relatively thick wall configuration of plastic (PE) pipe. Also for plastic, only
one safety factor is used for all locations. The plastic temperature limits are stated separately
(currently -20º to +100ºF [-29º to +38ºC] for PE), and the joint factor is omitted as not applicable
to the seamless nature of plastic pipe.
   The value of SMYS for PE plastic used in the design formula is the long-term strength called
the Hydrostatic Design Basis or HDB. This is about half the short-term value, obtained from new
plastic material tests, in order to allow for loss of strength from aging over the life of the pipe. It
considers the top limit of 100 psig (690 kPa) operating pressure (P) currently imposed on plastic
pipe in most gas distribution service by 49 CFR 192.
   A convenience in the design of PE plastic pipe systems is the Standard Dimension Ratio
(SDR), which relates wall thickness to outside diameter. Specifying the same SDR and material
for a system means that all pipe will have the same design pressure regardless of size;
commonly available SDR 11 pipe, for example, has a design pressure of 80 psig (550 kPa) in
HDB 1250 psig PE material per the design formula for plastic pipe as follows:
P =  X F* = x 0.32 = X 0.32 = 80 psig
Where:
P = design pressure, psig
S =  HDB=l250 psi
R =  D/t=11 where
D =  specified outside diameter = 2.375 in.
t =  specified minimum wall thickness = 0.216 in.
F =  design (safety) factor specified in 49 CFR 192.121 as 0.32
   These design formulas are very pertinent to the determination of pipe wall thickness for
transmission pipelines and for high and intermediate pressure plastic distribution mains, both of
which operate at pressures that produce primary stresses near their design limits. For steel
distribution piping, however, the primary stresses are usually minimal and tables of least nominal
wall thickness are presented** as minimums necessary to "withstand anticipated external
pressures and loads, i.e., secondary stresses. These minimums govern wall thickness for steel
pipe, and gas distribution companies usually set their own standards at or above these
minimums.
   The "maximum allowable operating pressure" (MAOP) of a pipe system may be limited by other
factors than the design pressure calculated from the design formula. As stated in 49 CFR
192.619, other considerations may dictate a lower MAOP, such as weaker components (valves,
etc.), the after construction (post installation) test pressure, and the mill test pressure. The lowest
limits govern.
   This same internal pressure that creates the previously discussed hoop stress also produces a
primary stress in the longitudinal direction. A variation of Barlow's formula applies to steel pipe:
   Sℓ =  [Eq. 6-2]
Where:
Sℓ  = Longitudinal stress in the pipe wall, psi (MPa).
(Other terms same as Eq. 6-1).
   As can be seen by comparison with Eq. 6-1, longitudinal (primary) stress is just half of hoop
(primary) stress. More than one secondary stress can add to it, however. One is the change in
length due to a temperature drop acting against the soil restraint on the pipe. Another is the
weight of the backfill and passing traffic against imperfectly supported pipe causing bending as a
beam.

Background on Codes and Standards

   The purpose of gas industry codes and standards is "intended to set minimum safety
requirements, expressed in language which is intelligible to all who design, manufacture, and
erect piping systems" (Code for Pressure Piping, American Standard 1942).
   Although the pressure piping code was originated by industry, there was the invitation to
governmental authorities to adopt it, “to serve as a guide to state and municipal authorities in the
drafting of their regulations and it may be adopted by them in whole or in part." (Code for
Pressure Piping, American Standard 1942).
   Historically (1915-1924) there is evidence of a need for a national code on pressure piping due
mainly to steam piping and boiler failures. In 1916, the Power Piping society published the first
standard specifications for power piping. And in 1926 the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME) requested the American Standards Association (ASA) *** to initiate Project B-31
to formulate a national code for pressure piping. By 1935, a tentative B31.1 code was approved
and published. Section 2 was for gas and air piping; and by 1942, the code for Pressure Piping
was published as an American Standard with a Section 2 for gas and air piping continuing as a
part. In 1952, B 31.8 was published separately for Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping
Systems. Revisions have been published every 3 or 4 years thereafter. It is still used world-wide
as a voluntary industry code. In 1968, the U.S. Natural Gas Pipeline Safety Act became effective
adopting B 31.8 as interim standards and from 1968-1970, the Office of Pipeline Safety of the
U.S. Dept. of Transportation (D.O.T.) developed safety standards from B 31.8 and published Title
49, Part 192, Code of Federal Regulations, abbreviated 49 CFR 192.
   In 1970, the ASME published the first edition of Guide for Gas Transmission and Distribution
Piping Systems, which included the Federal Regulations (which the guide calls "Federal
Standards"). New editions followed every 3 or 4 years, with interim mailings of changes. At
present the American Gas Association is continuing this guide as the GPTC * guide. Approval of
the Guide by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is being sought.
 
   The scope of 49 CFR and the Guide is generally the continental shelf and on-shore gathering
systems (in residential or commercially developed areas only), cross-country transmission, and
distribution to and including the meter. For customer piping, i.e., beyond the meter, see the
"National Fuel Gas Code," NFPA 54/ANSI Z223.1 a voluntary industry code plus local codes and
ordinances.**
   Each state is required to adopt the Federal Standards as a minimum if they expect federal
grants to help fund the operation of their own Public Service Commission (usual title). Most do
this. A few east coast states have agreements in which they depend on the Federal Department
of Transportation to enforce violations observed and documented by state PSC staff. A few
western states have withdrawn from any agreement leaving Federal D.O.T. staff responsible for
inspection and enforcement in those states, as they are in the District of Columbia and in Puerto
Rico.
   A variation to be aware of is that some states do not include municipal gas systems in their
jurisdiction. Another variation from state to state is piping beyond a master meter, such as might
be used in mobile home courts (trailer parks) or apartment buildings. As the Federal regulations
apply to both these categories of gas systems, here again D.O.T. must pick up the responsibility
when the state does not.
   Even before the existence of such engineering society codes and state or federal laws,
operators of gas transmission and distribution systems issued written specifications and drawings
to simplify and standardize the design, material procurement, and construction of their systems.
This enabled experience-indicated revisions of past designs to be incorporated in standardized
new designs, which would hopefully minimize problems of a safety and/or cost nature.
   Materials procurement also benefited from standardization in ordering, enabling quantity
purchases and simplifying quality control and stocking. Construction benefited by minimizing the
customized nature of individually designed work in favor of familiar designs, material, and
construction methodsl. Operating and maintenance were similarly benefited.
   Today, of course, such company standards must meet the minimums required by their state
commissions and federal regulations, both largely derived from the initial efforts and codes of the
industry itself. Most engineering staffs include a specialist or small group devoted to creating,
updating, and revising company standards in response to code changes, new materials, and
operating department input.

Selection of a Pipe Material

   A prime consideration in the selection of a material is its resistance to its environment:
chemicals in the soil and in the gas, burrowing animals such as gophers, and soil micro-
organisms. Engineering measures, however, can overcome some material shortcomings. For
instance, steel corrodes in most soils, but can be protected. These methods are described later in
the chapter on corrosion prevention.
 
   Cost, another factor in material selection, consists of two major components: the cost of
materials (primarily the pipe) and of installation. The cost of any pipe depends on the amount of
material needed, the wall thickness required for anticipated service conditions, and the diameter
(size) for the required flow of gas.
   Installation costs depend strongly on local labor rates and on the training, skills, and equipment
of the available work force. Installing steel pipe requires a sufficient number of qualified welders
and helpers; plastic pipe (PE) a somewhat lesser number of qualified fusers. Ironically, a
company that installs mostly plastic pipe often finds that the installed cost of steel pipe is higher;
whereas a company that uses mostly steel pipe may find that plastic is higher especially in the
larger diameters.
   In practice, formal material cost comparisons are seldom necessary as some materials may be
ruled out as a matter of policy. For example, cast iron is not being installed by most gas
distribution companies because of its cost and service history. Plastic pipe (PE) is limited by code
to modest (60-100 psig) (414-690 kPa) pressures, and by most companies, to a maximum size as
well. The cost of copper limits its use to situations where it permits substantial reductions in
installation costs or its resistance to most soil corrosion is needed. Distribution companies soon
become familiar with the installation and service conditions that favor the use of each type of pipe
in their systems and so specify the design and construction in their company standards and
specifications.

Fittings and Joint Makeup

   Another choice the engineer makes is what fittings to use. Fittings are non-pipe components of
a piping system including those used to connect adjacent lengths of pipe (couplings and flanges),
to make transitions from larger to smaller sizes (reducers), to change direction (ells or elbows), to
connect branch lines (tees), and to close ends (caps). There are several methods of joining one
pipe length to the next, and not all involve fittings. Some methods used for joining steel pipe are
shown in Fig. 6-5. Most joining methods and fittings are covered by specifications, which are in 49
CFR 192, Appendix A.
   Threaded fittings (Fig. 6-6) are used mostly on small-diameter steel house piping that has
traditionally carried gas from the end of the service through the meter to the customer's
appliances. Pipe dope, a putty like material, or Teflon tape is applied to the male threads before
the joint is made up. It lubricates the assembly and forms a gas tight seal. In the past, threaded
fittings were used on steel and wrought iron mains up to 12 inches in diameter. Threaded
connections are now rarely specified for steel gas piping in sizes over 4 in. (DN 100) in above-
ground service or for any size in buried service except to connect steel pipe to valves 2 in. (DN
50) and smaller. The shape, dimensions, and taper of the threads on threaded pipe and fittings
are specified in the pipe thread standards of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
 
   
     
Fig. 6-5. Three Methods of Joining Steel Pipe   Fig. 6-6. Common Threaded Pipe Fittings
   Welding is the most common method to join buried gas distribution steel pipe and fittings. Heat
from an electric arc or oxygen-acetylene torch is applied to the ends to be joined. The metal melts
and fuses with filler metal from a welding rod. As indicated in Fig. 6-5, a fitting is not needed to
weld two pipe sections together. However, a variety of welding fittings are available for other
purposes, such as abrupt changes of direction, reduction of line size, or the connection of branch
lines. Welding procedures are detailed in American Petroleum Institute (API) Standard 1104,
"Welding of Pipelines and Related Facilities."
   Bolted flange joints are used in pipeline work, particularly for high-pressure joints that must be
disconnected for maintenance work. They are used frequently in 4 in. (DN 100) and larger meter
runs and connections to valves and regulators. Flanged connections (with insulating bolt sleeves,
washers and flange gasket) are also used to insulate electrically between adjacent sections of
steel gas mains. This use is also discussed in the chapter on corrosion prevention.
Flanges can be attached to pipe by a threaded connection, but they are more often welded. Two
common types of welding flanges, the slip-on and welding neck, are shown in Fig. 6-7. The
former is slipped over the end of a section of pipe and filletwelded in place, while the latter is butt
welded to the end of a pipe section. Specifications covering the use of these flanges are in
American Standard ANSI B16.5 and referenced in the 49 CFR 192 code. A gasket of pliable
material inserted between the flange faces before bolting up obtains a gastight seal.
Flanges are available in several pressure ranges called classes. Most common in distribution
piping are Class 150 (PN 20) and Class 300 (PN 50)* terms replacing the older 150 pound (psig)
class, 300 pound class, etc. These pressure ratings, however, are good for elevated
temperatures; at the more modest service temperatures of gas distribution, they are rated much
higher (see ANSI B16.5) depending on the material. Many utilities prefer Class 300 even at much
lower pressures than 300 psig, due to the greater mechanical strength of the heavier flanges for
resisting secondary stresses.
Fig. 6-7. Two-Types of Welded Flanges
   Another type of mechanical joint connection that can be taken apart is the compression
coupling, Fig. 6-8. As shown in this figure, the coupling consists of a sleeve that fits over the
outside of the pipe sections to be joined, two wedge-shaped gaskets, and two follower rings that
bolt together to compress the gaskets. The resultant joint has a degree of flexibility and permits
some longitudinal pipe movement without leaking. A modification of this coupling used on 2-in.
and smaller pipe is shown in Fig. 6-9. In this coupling, threaded end-nuts replace the follower
rings and bolts.
 
 Fig. 6-8. Compression Coupling
(Courtesy Dresser Mfg. Die., Dresser Industries, Inc.)
Fig. 6-9. Compression Coupling for Small Diameter Pipe
(Courtesy Dresser Mfg. Div., Dresser Industries, Inc.)
   Another compression coupling has an inner barrel that is forced beyond yield strength against
the rubber-gasket and pipe ends by pressuring a hydraulic fluid in an annular space between the
inner barrel and an outer ring (Figure 6-10). Once the inner barrel yields, the hydraulic pressure
can is relieved and the entry port plugged. In simpler designs in which there are no outer rings or
need for hydraulic fluid, the barrel is yielded against the pipe ends by means of a mechanical tool.
Like other compression couplings, this design can be used to join steel pipe, PE pipe (with an
inserted metal stiffener) or for a transition joint of one to the other. Unlike most other compression
fittings that can be removed and reconnected, this design creates a permanent joint.
Fig. 6-10. A Permanent Joint Compression Coupling, Hydraulic Fluid is Pressurized
From an External Source via the Bayonet Port Later Plugged
(Courtesy Dresser Mfg. Div., Dresser Industries, Inc.)
   Compression couplings have been used on plain-end cast iron, steel and plastic pipe, and for
connecting pipe of one material to another. In all cases, compression couplings must resist pipe
pullout. The friction of a properly installed coupling with rubber gaskets compressed against the
plain end pipe resists the force of internal pressure. Even this is more true of smaller size pipe
than of larger—as end forces are the product of pressure times area which increases as the
square of the diameter while the resisting friction around the circumference of the pipe increases
only in direct proportion to the diameter.
   For this reason, and to strengthen the resistance to secondary forces, such as those imposed
by temperature drops or hostile digging machinery, compression couplings on steel pipe are
commonly bridged with welded straps, or cast iron pipe movement is restrained by blocking at
bends. Although PE contracts more with temperature drop than steel, its ability to elongate more
before failure and its much lesser tensile strength make compression couplings with gripping
ability hold to the point of pipe failure (Fig. 6-14).
 
   Before 1930, most cast iron pipe was of the bell-and-spigot joint type. Although a variety of
joints and packing methods have been used, those shown in Fig. 6-11 are the most prevalent in
the U.S. These joint shapes and methods of makeup were adopted as AGA standards in 1929.
The jute packing in these joints was applied in a loose braid and the cement was a water slurry of
Portland cement. In lead joints, the lead was either melted and poured into the joint space behind
a mold fastened around the pipe, or lead-wool was hand-caulked into the joint.
Fig. 6-11. AGA Standard Bell-and-Spigot Joints for Cast or  
Ductile Iron Pipe.
   Packed bell-and spigot joints have rarely been used for gas mains since 1930. The leakage
problem that has been encountered with this type of joint when carrying the dryer natural gases is
described in the chapter on leak control. Most cast iron gas main laid after 1930 was of the
mechanical joint type (Fig. 6-12). These joints form a seal by compressing a rubber wedge-
shaped gasket much the same as does one end of a mechanical compression coupling. This joint
was also used on ductile (nodular) iron mains which succeeded gray cast iron in the 1950's. This
joint, although not generally as prone to leakage as bell and spigot, could leak, if made of natural
rubber. Fortunately, only the early mechanical joints had natural rubber gaskets as opposed to
the synthetic compound gaskets of later design.
   Older plastics, such as PVC, were joined by overlapping couplings or fittings, which were
solvent cemented. Now joints on polyethylene (PE) plastic pipe (Fig. 6-13) are most frequently
made by heat fusion. In sizes 2 in. and smaller, a socket fitting is commonly used; and in sizes 2
in. and over, 'butt' fusion of plain pipe ends seems preferred. The heating for both types of joint
has generally been done with an electrically heated iron that heats both surfaces to be joined
simultaneously. The iron is withdrawn and the surfaces joined while still hot.
Fig. 6-12. Cast or Ductile Iron Mechanical Joint
(Courtesy Cast iron Pipe Research Assoc.)
Fig. 6-13. Socket Fusion (A) and Butt Fusion (B) of Polyethylene (PE) Pipe.
(Courtesy Plexco)
   A variation of this technique features socket-like fittings with internally embedded electrical
wires or conducting polymer that can be heated from an external source of electricity to
accomplish fusion without use of a separate heating iron. This is called electrofusion
(Rosenzweig, N., "A Novel Electrically Activated Pipe Coupler". Paper 85-DT-29, AGA, 1985
Operating Section Proceedings, 1985).
   Mechanical couplings are also used as cited previously and plastic models are available (Fig. 6-
14). Such mechanical couplings are helpful in replacing short lengths (pups) of plastic pipe in
repair work. They can be more readily employed in the crowded, dirty, bad weather conditions
common to a repair excavation.
   A common plastic fitting found on PE mains is an individual customer service tee. Attachment is
commonly by 'saddle' fusion where a properly shaped tee base is heat-fused to the main (Fig. 6-
15) by heated iron or electrofusion. Also used are mechanical sleeves including a service tee in
which two halves are bolted around the main. A gas seal is made with an 0-ring around the base
of the tee in contact with the main. Connection of either of these types of service tee to the plastic
service tubing is usually by compression coupling end on the service tee. The compression
fittings for PB feature an internal metallic 'stiffener' to back up the plastic against the tightening of
the compression gasket externally, see Figs. 6-10 and 6-14.
     
Fig. 6-14. Cutaway of All Plastic Stab-In Coupling for   Fig. 6-15. Saddle Fusion of Service Tee to PE Pipe
PE Pipe Joining, Integral Metal Inserts Provided for Main.
Pipe Ends.
(Courtesy Plexco)
(Courtesy Perfection Corp.)
Valves
   Valves are installed at intervals in a gas distribution system, so sections can be isolated in area-
wide emergencies, such as flooding or at river crossings. 49CFR192, Para. 192.179 and 192.181
indicate where valves need to be located in transmission and distribution systems. A valve is
always installed in each customer's service line, often at the meter, so that the supply of gas can
be shut off in an emergency or if service is discontinued. In addition, each pressure reduction
facility in a system—whether a regulator vault, regulator station, or large meter set—features both
inlet and outlet valves and usually a by-pass valve so inspections and maintenance can be made
without shutting down the customer’s system. 
   The principal types of valves in gas systems are the gate valve, the plug valve, the butterfly
valve, and the ball valve. The common gate valve (Fig. 6-16) contains a wedge-shaped disc.
This disc is connected to the valve stem through a screw thread, so rotating the stem moves the
disc up or down. Several turns of the valve stem are normally required to move the disc between
the fully open and fully closed positions.
Fig 6.-16. Cutaway of a Gate Valve. Note clearance at gate bottom for line debris in this
newer design.
(Courtesy Kerotest Mfg. Corp.)
   The valve opening of a gate valve is roughly as large as the cross-section of the pipe in which it
is installed, although reduced opening "venturi" styles are also used. If runs of pipe contain full-
opening gate valves designed for straight-through passage (in some gate valve designs the seats
are offset or slightly smaller) they can be internally cleaned by blowing cylindrical or ball shaped
'pigs' through them. This is primarily a transmission operating procedure and rarely used in
distribution except for filling and displacing water during after-construction hydrostatic pressure
tests or in internally "swabbing," a newly constructed main to remove construction debris, such as
PB butt joint trimmings (described in the chapter on Construction). Full round opening valves are
more commonly needed in distribution for "hot taps," also discussed in the chapter on
Construction. 
   The type of valve selected may be predetermined if the valve is to be installed in a transmission
line. 49CFR 192.150 states that all new and modified transmission lines must be constructed to
accommodate the passage of instrumented internal inspection devices. This would force the
designer to use full bore ball or gate valves in the project.
   Gas-tight shutoff with the older-designed gate valves in service for many years was difficult due
to an accumulation of solid particles such as manufactured gas deposits, chips from service taps,
etc.. These settled to the bottom of the valve preventing the gate disc from seating completely.
Alternative gate valve designs now feature rubber gate edges that contact the valve body for a
'soft' seal. Also available are all-metal designs whose shallow streamlined 'seats' tend to be self-
cleaned by the velocity of the passing gas just prior to full closure. There is also the 'slab' gate
valve, common to transmission pipelines, with a full round opening in a movable 'slab' gate with
seals around the contact between valve body and 'slab' thus providing no pocket to accumulate
debris.
   The lubricated plug valve (Fig. 6-17) provides tight shutoff more consistently than the older
gate valve design. Most of the valves in existing steel distribution systems are lubricated plug
valves. This valve can be opened or closed by turning the plug through a quarter turn, i.e., an
angle of 90 degrees¾so that the plug opening is either parallel (open) or perpendicular (closed)
to the pipe axis. To keep the valve operative, lubricant is forced into it through the stem that
connects with passages around the valve plug. Although the plug opening in the tapered valve
plug shown in Fig. 6-17 is narrowed, full round opening valves with non-tapered cylindrical plugs
can be obtained. Plastic models are used in plastic systems (Fig. 6-18) as well.
   
Fig. 6-17. Cutaway of a 2" Lubricated Fig. 6-18. Cutaway of a Plastic (Non-
Plug Valve. Lubricated) Plug Valve.

(Courtesy Nordstrom Valve) (Courtesy AGA Exhibits)

   A similar valve type is the ball valve whose 'plug' is a sphere with a full round opening usually
of the same size as the pipe in which it is installed. These valves are not lubricated as are
lubricated plug valves. Due to their greater physical size and more complex machining, they are
generally more expensive than plug or gate valves. As with plug valves, there are all-plastic
models for plastic piping systems (Fig. 6-19).
   The butterfly valve features a flat disc that sits in the flow stream and is fitted to a stem which
can turn the disc a quarter turn from edgewise to the flow (open position) to across the flow
(closed position). To effect a tight closure, rubber edges on the disc or a rubber seat ring inside
the valve body affect the closure. Again, there are comparable plastic models for plastic pipe
systems (Fig. 6-20) and iron or 'cast steel' models for steel pipe systems. Butterfly valves in
distribution systems are less common than the other valve types discussed and avoided where
unobstructed full-round openings are desired for pigging or hot taps.
   Iron models for steel pipe systems usually have a very short body pattern (Fig. 6-21) and 'wafer'
designs fit between the pipes own flanges using longer bolts. This permits them to occupy less
space in the line and to weigh less than the same size valves of other designs. This is especially
advantageous in the larger sizes and on suspended, overhead piping such as in process plants
or in industrial fuel runs. Their use is more common at pressures below 150 psig (1034 kPa).
Fig. 6-19. Cutaway of a Plastic Ball Valve.
(Courtesy AGA Exhibits)
Fig. 6-20. Section Drawing of a Plastic Butterfly Valve
(Courtesy Kerotest, Mfg. Co.)
   An important consideration in the choice of a valve type is the pressure drop it creates when
passing large gas flows. Differences between types is considerable even when of the same
nominal pipe size. The full round opening ball or slab gate types, little more than an equivalent
length of straight pipe, show the least resistance to flow. Gate valves with seats and bonnets,
where the gate parks when lifted out of the flow, create some turbulence at high flows and hence
a greater pressure drop than a smooth bore. Butterfly discs, even edgewise, occupy some area
and can create turbulence. Venturi ball, gate, or plug valves with their reduced area ports reduce
pressure during flow more than full port valves; but some of the pressure will be recovered as
velocity slows downstream of the valve. Manufacturers’ literature should provide guides for
estimating such pressure losses, before choosing a valve.
Fig. 6-21. Steel Butterfly Valve, Wafer Type, for Installation between Flanges.
(Courtesy X0M0X Corp.)
   As with all other components of a gas distribution system, specifications covering minimum wall
thicknesses, fabrication materials, and dimensions of valves are incorporated into the ANSI B31.8
code and 49 CFR 192 by reference.
   In above-ground installations, smaller valves are usually operated by an ordinary wrench
applied to the stem head; larger valves require a handwheel, possibly assisted by gearing. Valves
installed underground are usually equipped with a square hub fitted to the exposed end of the
valve stem (see Fig. 6-16 and 6-22). This can be turned with a long-stemmed wrench called a
valve key. Access to this hub is provided by a cylindrical 'valve box' that consists of a load
bearing base and two risers connected by a loose-fitting thread or slide arrangement (Fig. 6-22).
This construction makes it possible to adjust the level of the top of the valve box by screwing or
sliding it up or down over the bottom riser to accommodate various depths. A lid closes off the top
at the surface when the valve is not being operated.
 Fig. 6-22. Typical Valve Box Construction Standard, Note Brick Supports.
(Courtesy Northern States Power Co.)
 
Main Location
   Distribution mains are normally laid on public property along streets and alleys in locations
selected by means of a field survey. Most surveys can be conducted with a simple measuring
wheel and measuring tape to reference locations to the property lines of the street or alley
dedicated right-of-way. These property lines are considered more permanent than the more
obvious physical features such as curbs and pavement, although sometimes it might be
necessary to dimension from the center line of a road or right-of-way (ROW) in the absence of
identifiable or changing property lines.
   Physical features are always sketched, described, and located as they affect the proposed
construction and recommended method, i.e., open trench or bore. These features and obstacles
may be above or below ground: driveways, sidewalks and street pavements trees, manholes,
water mains, sewers, cables and duct.
Dimensions along the route are referenced to a cross street's nearest property line. For example,
see the atlas page illustrated in Fig. 6-23.* The north end of the 4 in. C.I. (cast iron) main in 9th
Ave. S is dimensioned as 258 ft north (note arrow) of the north property line of 17th street which
can be stated 258 ft NN 17th. The alignment of the main in 9th Ave. is dimensioned as 21 ft east
of the west property line of 9th or 21 ft EW 9th. For the north end of the main in 9th, between 16th
and 17th, the dimensions can be combined and stated as 21 ft EW and 258 ft NN.
   Permission for use of public property in a municipality is granted as part of the franchise; that is,
the contract between the utility company and the municipality, which generally includes the
conditions under which use of the land is permitted. Important franchise provisions in engineering
are permits and restrictions on location of gas mains and other facilities, specifications as to
excavations, backfill and restoration of the ground surface or pavements, and handling of traffic
during construction.
   Usually it is also necessary to clear each project with the municipal engineering department
regarding possible interference with water mains, sewers, etc. by application for a work permit
describing the proposed work and its planned location. This can be done by the construction
forces before construction or by the engineering department. Other aspects of franchises are
discussed in a subsequent chapter.
   In unincorporated areas, new mains are usually laid along the rights-of-way of township, county
or state roadways; it is therefore necessary to apply to the appropriate authority, such as the
State Highway Commission, for a permit. Separate permits must be obtained to cross railroads,
other rights-of-way, and streams or rivers. The primary information required in all permit
applications is a detailed statement of the nature and purpose of the proposed work as well as a
separate permit drawing showing details of design in the permit area, such as casings (if
needed), river weights, and markers.
Fig. 6-23. Sample Main Location Map (Atlas) With Dimensions.
(Courtesy Northern States Power Co.)
Not all utilities show services on such maps
Fig. 6-24. Typical Construction Standard for Service Locations.
(Courtesy Northern States Power Company)
   New mains are occasionally laid on easements along or across private property. The granting
and use of an easement is covered by a contract with the owner of the property on which the
easement is located. The easement is recorded against the property and continues in effect even
after a change in ownership. Such easements usually restrict the owner from building over or
within a specified distance of the gas main. They allow for access to the utility for leak patrol and
maintenance work, provided all damages are repaired to the owner's satisfaction or compensated
for by damage payments. Such easements are most common in rural areas where large,
transmission type, feeder mains run cross country and along busy roads which appear to be
candidates for widening both pavement and dedicated width between property lines. The main, in
such cases, should then be put far enough behind present property lines to make future
relocation less likely.

Services and Meter Sets

   A service is defined as pipe or tubing laid from a gas main into or near to the building to be
served, and connected to the customers gas meter. The company-installed portion of the service
may end at the curb, just outside or just inside the property line, at the closest wall of the building,
or at a mutually agreed location depending on utility policy and franchise provisions. Location and
routing of the service is according to company standards, which takes into consideration the plan
of the facility being served, the location of gas appliances within, and the customers wishes.
   The service is normally routed at a right angle (90º) from the main to the meter location (outside
meters) or building entry point (inside meters). Some companies serve more than one residence
from a single service by branching, but most run a separate service for each. Apartment buildings
or condominiums are usually supplied from a single service manifolded to all meters serving
customers in that building (see Fig. 6-24).
   Meters are installed outside or inside buildings. As most modern gas distribution systems
operate at a higher pressure than do most customer appliances, a pressure reduction service
regulator is usually required and installed just upstream of the meter. These meter sets are
usually assembled according to the distribution company's standardized drawings (or even
prefabricated) to eliminate repeated custom design, provide uniformly safe and acceptable
function, and to present a pleasing appearance. The matter of appearance is considered
important by most utilities as meter sets are the most generally observed components of an
otherwise largely buried system.
Overall Considerations
   Engineers need to review thoroughly the total concept of each design to be incorporated into
the system. Minor design errors can cause major problems not long in the future if they are not
corrected or anticipated before construction.
   Here are some review points to consider in the design phase: 
1. Are all pipe and fittings capable of maintaining the existing MAOP? Is there a potential for
future system uprating and can the material qualify for this higher pressure?
2. Have permits from all the governmental agencies been obtained?
3. Has the total design been reviewed by the operating people and been approved with
regard to main location, valve location, cathodic protection, casings required, etc.?
 4. Have tie-in locations and types been checked and approved?
5. Has special long-term delivery material been ordered?
6. Are project cost estimates accurate and have they been approved by the proper levels of
authority?

*  DN stands for Diameter Numbers in millimeters, i.e., mm, in the S.I. It is roughly the equivalent
nominal U.S. pipe size expressed in mm at 25mm per inch and rounded vs. the exact value of
25.4mm per inch. See Metric Unit (SI) Application Guide for the AGA, Arlington, VA: American
Gas Association, 1980.

* Covers transmission systems and some parts of gathering systems for natural gas as well.

*
 Formerly the ASME Guide, published as the GPTC (Gas Piping Technology Committee) Guide
by the American Gas Association (1990).

**
 Sh in Barlow's formula Eq. 6-1) refers to hoop stress in the pipe wall, i.e., in the transverse
direction to the pipe's long axis. The name is derived from an analogy to a "hoop" of pipe one inch
or 1 centimeter in 5.1.) wide.

*
 MPa should be used for mechanical stress only while KPa should be used for fluid pressure .

**
 NPS & are "diameter numbers" in the customary (inch) and S.I. (mm) systems respectively. 2-
in. pipe is designed as NPS 2 or DN 50 without units. Actual dimensions of outside diameter and
wall thickness must be used in the equations such as Barlows and the design formula however.

†
 Nominal pipe size equals the outside diameter only in pipe sizes of 14 in. and larger; pipe 12 in.
and smaller has a standardized outside diameter greater than the nominal size.

 This is a rearrangement of the design formula for plastic pipe as shown in 49 CFR 192.121
*

where R = D/t. When R is a preferred, i.e.. standard ratio such as 9, 11, 13. etc. it is called SDR.
Standard Dimension Ratio(2).

**  This table is part of the Guide Material which supplements 49 CFR 192.103 in the GOTE
Guide for Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems.
***
Now the American National Standards Institute (ANSI).

*
 Gas Piping Technology Committee from the ASME committee structure.

 Although the National Fuel Gas code is national in scope, there are 4 or 5 regional and
**

specialized codes which include gas house piping. Each of some 1400 local jurisdictions in the
U.S. can chose among these and add variations of their own.

*
 PN is the symbol for 'Pressure Number' and is used in S.l. rather than 'Class'. See International
Standards Organization 1150 publications 2048 arid 2229 for additional data.

*
 Construction drawings will show more detail as described than an Atlas page (main map) which
is principally for locating the main once buried.