LEAK DETECTION AND CONTROL

Leakage
Gas utility companies give top priority to hazard prevention in their leak control programs—
especially given the danger from the accumulation of gas in confined spaces. Leakage is
undesirable for several other reasons. Revenue is lost when gas escapes, effective system
capacity is reduced by the amount of gas lost to leaks, and vegetation can sometimes be
damaged.
Repair/Replace
Leak detection and repair comprise a major part of a utility’s operating expense. Repair/replace
decisions, therefore, require the establishment of priorities and risk levels.

Priority

1. Immediate action required

2. Moderate action (days or weeks)
3. Little or no action (monitor)

Risk

1. High risk: likely to cause damage to property and cause injury or death to public or
employees
2. Moderate risk: could develop into high risk with time
3. Low risk: needs to be monitored

Leakage on steel mains accelerates with time; thus, if leaks have been repaired in the past,
more will occur as the main deteriorates further. This is why maintaining cathodic protection of
coated systems is so important. Anode systems have to be renewed, therefore, as the anodes
are used up.
For cast iron, 4-inch and smaller cast iron needs to be replaced when leakage occurs because it
has little beam strength. The breakage rate is much greater for these sizes of main.
High-pressure cast iron should be replaced as economics justify doing so, but any cast iron
should be replaced when public improvement (roads, sewers, and water) undermine or reduce
the angle of repose to the point that the cast iron could slide into the ditch.

Repair/Replace Decisions: Considerations to be Reviewed

1. Is there bare, unprotected steel main with active corrosion?

2. What is the type of leak: corrosion pit, crack, split seam, or mechanical leak?
3. What is the number of clamps installed in the unit length of the system?
4. What did a visual inspection discover about the condition of the main when exposed
during work on the system?
 5. How many leaks occur each year on the segment of pipe? Are they increasing or
decreasing in both number and severity?

Safety Standards
Leak programs must conform with the U.S. Department of Transportation, Regulation Part 192,
Title 49 C.F.R. minimum Federal Gas Line Safety Standards—as well as any state law or statute. 
The following parts of the Minimum Federal Gas Line Safety Standards are the basis of all leak
programs:
   192.723 Distribution systems: Leakage surveys (2-11-95)
(a) Each operator of a distribution system shall conduct periodic leakage surveys.
(b) The type and scope of the leakage control program must be determined by the nature of the
operations and the local conditions, but it must meet the following minimum requirements:
   (1) A leakage survey with leak detector equipment must be conducted in business districts,
including tests of the atmosphere in gas, electric, telephone, sewer, and water system manholes,
at cracks in pavement and sidewalks, and at other locations providing an opportunity for finding
gas leaks, at intervals not exceeding 15 months, but at least once each calendar year.
   (2) A leakage survey with leak detector equipment must be conducted outside business districts
as frequently as necessary, but at intervals not exceeding 5 years. However, for cathodically
unprotected distribution lines subject to § 192.465(e) on which electrical surveys are impractical,
survey intervals may not exceed 3 years.
FREQUENCY
Consideration should be given to Increased frequency for leakage surveys based on the
particular circumstances and conditions. Surveys should be conducted most frequently in those
areas with the greatest potential for leakage and where leakage could be expected to create a
hazard. Factors to be considered include the following.
(a) Piping system. Age of pipe, materials, type of facilities, operating pressure, leak history
records and other studies.
(b) Corrosion. Known areas of significant corrosion or areas where corrosive environments are
known to exist.
(c) Piping location. Proximity to buildings or other structures and the type and use of the buildings.
Proximity to areas of concentrations of people.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AND CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITY
Conditions which could increase the potential for leakage and/or which could cause the leaking
gas to migrate to an area where it could create a hazard (such as weather conditions, wall-to-wall
pavement, porous soil conditions, areas of high construction activity, blasting, large earth moving
equipment, heavy traffic, unstable soil or areas subject to earth movement).
Any other condition known to the operator which has significant potential to Initiate a leak or to
permit leaking gas to migrate to an area where it could result In a hazardous condition (such as
an earthquake, subsidence, flooding, an increase in operating pressure, or the extensive growth
of tree roots around pipeline facilities which can exert substantial longitudinal force on the pipe
and nearby joints).
Special one-time surveys
Special one-time surveys should be considered following exposure of the pipeline to unusual
stresses (such as earthquakes or blasting).
Establishment and review of survey frequency
Leakage survey frequencies should be based on operating experience, sound judgement and a
knowledge of the system. Once established, frequencies should be reviewed periodically to affirm
that they are still appropriate.
GAS LEAKAGE CONTROL GUIDELINES
See Guide Material Appendix G-192-11 (Natural Gas) and Guide Material Appendix G-192-11A
(Petroleum Gas Systems).

   192.706 Transmission Lines Leak Surveys

Surveys of transmission lines must be conducted at intervals not exceeding 15 months but at
least once each calendar year. However, in the case of a transmission line that transports gas in
conformity with 192-625 without odor or odorant, leak surveys using leak detector equipment
must be conducted ¾
In class 3 locations at intervals not exceeding 7-1/2 months, but at least twice each year; and
In class 4 locations at intervals not exceeding 4-1/2 months but at least 4 times each calendar
year.
Leakage Classification and Action Criteria

General

The following establishes a procedure for grading and controlling leakage indications of
flammable gas. The initial step for evaluating gas leaks is to determined the perimeter of the leak
area. When this perimeter extends to a building wall, the investigation should continue into the
building.

   Leak Grades

Based on an evaluation of the location and/or magnitude of a leak, one of the following leak
grades should be assigned, thereby establishing the leak repair priority.
Grade 1: a leak that represents an existing or probable hazard to persons or property, and
requires immediate repair or continuous action until the conditions are no longer hazardous.
Grade 2: a leak that is recognized as being non-hazardous at the time of detection, but, requires
scheduled repair based on probable future hazard.
Grade 3: a leak that is non-hazardous at the time of detection and can be reasonably expected to
remain non-hazardous.

   Leak Classification and Action Criteria

Guidelines for leak classification and leakage control are provided in Tables 8-1, 8-2 and
8-3. The examples of leak conditions in the tables are guidelines and are not exclusive.
The judgment of the company personnel at the scene is the primary determinant of the
grade assigned to a leak.
Table 8-1. Leak Classification and Action Criteria – Grade 1
GRADE DEFINITION ACTION CRITERIA EXAMPLES
1 A leak that Requires prompt action* to Any leak, which in the judgement of
represents an protect life and property, and operating personnel at the scene, is
existing or continuous action until the regarded as an immediate hazard.
probable hazard conditions are no longer
to persons or hazardous. Escaping gas that has ignited.
property, and
requires ----------------- Any indication that gas has migrated
immediate repair into or under a building or into a tunnel.
or continuous *The prompt action in some
action until the instances may require one or Any reading at the outside wall of a
conditions are no more of the following. building, or where gas would likely
longer migrate to an outside wall of a building.
hazardous. Implementing company
emergency plan (192.615). A reading of 80% LEL, or greater, in a
confined space.
Evacuating premises.
A reading of 80% LEL, or greater in
Blocking off an area. small substructures (other than gas
associated substructures) from which
Rerouting traffic. gas would likely migrate to the outside
wall of a building.
Eliminating sources of ignition
A leak that can be seen, heard, or felt,
Venting the area. and in a location that may endanger
the general public or property.
Stopping the flow of gas by
closing valves or other means.

Notifying police and fire

departments
 
Table 8-2. Leak Classification and Action Criteria – Grade 2
GRADE DEFINITION ACTION CRITERIA EXAMPLES
2 A leak that is Leaks should be repaired or Leaks Requiring Action Ahead of
recognized as cleared within one calendar Ground Freezing or Other Adverse
being non- year, but no later than 15 Changes in Venting Conditions. 
hazardous at the months from the date the leak Any leak which, under frozen or other
time of detection, was reported. In determining adverse soil conditions, would likely
but justifies the repair priority, criteria such migrate to the outside wall of a
scheduled repair as the following should be building.
based on considered. Leaks Requiring Action Within Six
probable future 4. Amount and migration Months
 hazard. of gas. A reading of 40% LEL, or greater,
5. Proximity of gas to under a sidewalk in a wall-to-wall
buildings and paved area that does not qualify as a
subsurface structures. Grade 1 leak.
6. Extent of pavement A reading of 100% LEL, or greater,
7. Soil type, and soil under a street in a wall-to-wall paved
conditions (such as area that has significant gas migration
frost cap, moisture and and does not qualify as a Grade 1 leak.
natural venting). A reading less than 80% LEL in small
substructures (other than gas
Grade 2 leaks may vary greatly associated substructures) from which
in degree of potential gas would likely migrate creating a
hazard. Some Grade 2 leaks, probable future hazard.
when evaluated by the above A reading between 20% LEL and 80%
criteria, may justify scheduled LEL in a confined space.
repair within the next 5 working A reading on a pipeline operating at 30
days. Others will justify repair percent SMYS, or greater, in a class 3
within 30 days. During the or 4 location, which does not qualify as
working day on which the leak a Grade 1 leak.
is discovered, these situations A reading of 80% LEL, or greater, in
should be brought to the gas associated substructures.
attention of the individual A leak which, in the judgment of
responsible for scheduling leak operating personnel at the scene, is of
repair. sufficient magnitude to justify
Many Grade 2 leaks, because scheduled repair.
of a less critical location and
magnitude, can be scheduled
for repair on a normal routine
basis with periodic reinspection
as necessary.
 
Table 8-3. Leak Classification and Action Criteria – Grade 3
GRADE DEFINITION ACTION CRITERIA EXAMPLES
3 A leak that is These leaks should be Leaks Requiring Re-evaluation at
non-hazardous at reevaluated during the next Periodic Internals
the time of scheduled survey, or within 15
detection and can months of the date reported, A reading of less than 80% LEL in
be reasonably whichever occurs first, until the small gas associated substructures.
expected to leak is repaired or no longer
remain non- results in a reading. A reading under a street in areas
hazardous. without wall-to-wall paving where it is
unlikely the gas could migrate to the
 outside wall of a building.

A reading of less than 20% LEL in a

confined space.

   Follow-up Inspection

The adequacy of leak repairs should be checked before backfilling. The perimeter of the leak
area should be checked with a combustible gas indicator (CGI). Where there is residual gas in the
ground after the repair of a Grade 1 leak, a follow-up inspection should be made as soon as
practical after allowing the soil atmosphere to vent and stabilize; but in no case later than one
month following the repair. In the case of other leak repairs, the need for a follow-up inspection
should be determined by qualified personnel.

   Reevaluation of a Leak

When a leak is to be re-evaluated (see Tables 8-2 and 8-3), it should be classified using the same
criteria as when the leak was first discovered.
Records and Self-Audit Guidelines

   Leak Records

Historical gas leak records should be maintained. The data available should provide the
information needed to complete the Department of Transportation Leak Report Forms DOT F-
7100.1, DOT F-7100.1-1, DOT F-7100.2 and DOT F-7100.2-1, and to demonstrate the adequacy
of company maintenance programs.
The following data should be recorded and maintained, but need not be in any specific format or
retained at one location. Time of day and environmental description records are required only for
those leaks reported by an outside source or require reporting to a regulatory agency.
1. Date discovered; time reported, dispatched, investigated; and by whom
2. Date(s) reevaluated before repair and by whom
3. Date repaired, time repaired, and by whom
4. Date(s) rechecked after repair and by whom
5. If the leak was reported, the date and time of the telephone report to regulatory authority
and by whom
6. Location of leak
7. Leak grade
8. Line use (distribution, transmission, etc.)
9. Method of leak detection (if reported by outside party, list name and address)
10. Part of system where leak occurred (main, service, etc.)
11. Part of system that leaked (pipe, valve, fitting, compressor, regulator station, etc.)
12. Material that leaked (steel, plastic, cast iron, etc.)
13. Origin of leak
 14. Pipe description
15. Type of repair
16. Leak cause
17. Date pipe was installed (if known)
18. Under cathodic protection?
19. Magnitude of CGI indication

   Leak Survey Records

1. Description of system and area surveyed. (This could include maps and/or leak survey
logs.)
2. Survey results
3. Survey methods
4. Names of those making survey
5. Survey dates
6. Records for a pressure-drop test
a. The name of the operator, the operator's employee responsible for making the
test, and the test company, if used
b. Test medium used
c. Test pressure
d. Test duration
e. Pressure recording charts, or other record of pressure readings.
f. Test results.

 
Definitions
These are some of the terms that pertain to leakage detection:
 A bar hole is an opening made through the soil and/or paving for the purpose of testing
the subsurface atmosphere with gas detection instruments, including the combustible gas
indicator (CGI).
 Business districts are not defined in Title 49, Code of Federal Regulations, and the
definition is subject to interpretation. The Federal Standards use the term "Class 4 location,"
which is, more specifically, an area that extends 220 yards (200 meters) on either side of the
centerline of any continuous 1-mile (1.6 kilometer) length of pipeline where buildings with four or
more stories above ground are prevalent. See title 49, Code of Federal Regulations, Part 192
Subpart A—General, paragraph 192.5 for a complete definition of Class Locations. Many states
have their own interpretation of the term Business Districts. A typical definition is as follows:
Business Districts are areas with pavement from building wall to building wall, where principal
business activity takes place.
 Combustible gas indicator (CGI) (Figure 8-4) is a device that measures relatively small
concentrations of combustible gases in the atmosphere.
 Hydrogen flame ionization (HFI) (Figures 8-1 and 8-2) is a principle employed in a
device capable of measuring concentration of hydrocarbons in air as low as 1 PPM.
 Lower explosive limit (LEL) is the minimum concentration of a combustible gas in air
that is capable of igniting and exploding.
 Confined space is a subsurface structure (such as vaults, tunnels, catch basins, or
manholes) of sufficient size to accommodate a person and in which gas could accumulate.
 Follow-up inspection is an inspection performed after a repair has been completed to
determine the repair’s effectiveness.
 Gas-associated substructure is a device or facility utilized by a gas company (such as
a valve box, vault, test box, or vented casing pipe) that is not intended for storing, transmitting or
distributing gas.
 Natural gas is a mixture of gases, primarily methane, that is lighter than air. (See Table  
8-4).
 Petroleum gas is propane, butane, or mixtures of these gases (other than a gas-air
mixture that is used to supplement supplies to a natural gas distribution system) that is heavier
than air.
 Prompt-action is dispatching qualified personnel without delay for evaluating and, where
necessary, abating the existing or probable hazard.

 
Table 8-4. Significant Physical Properties  
of Natural Gas
Formula Blend
Normal State at atmospheric pressure Gas
at 60ºF
Specific Gravity (Air = 1) 0.6
Flammability Limits 5 
15
      Lower limit % Gas in Air 
 Upper limit % Gas in Air
Common Types and Causes of Leaks
Leakage detection as discussed in this chapter pertains to gas leaking from an existing pipeline
and does not pertain to the discovery of leaks form a pipeline being constructed, or being readied
for service. Leakage detection for lines under construction is discussed in Chapter VII,
Construction and Maintenance.
Leaks in existing lines occur frequently at bell joints in cast iron mains. They are found often at
corrosion pits in steel mains and services, at cracks in cast iron mains, along routes of foreign
construction, and at valves and fittings¾particularly at gate valves and screwed service
connections.

Bell-joint leaks

Most bell-joint leaks have been attributed to drying, shrinking, and deterioration of the jute
packing after the changeover from wet manufactured gas to dry natural gas. Many companies
reported an increase in joint leakage in the first few years after this changeover. However, studies
have shown that the basic seal in a bell-and-spigot joint was formed by the lead or cement
backing, not by the packing.
New jute packing cannot be compacted tightly enough with standard caulking tools to form a seal
that is gastight, even against the low pressures normally carried in cast iron mains. However, if
the backing seal is intact, the joint will not leak, and there is no evidence that the seal is affected
by gas changeover.
Failure of this seal must result primarily from joint movement caused by traffic vibration, thermal
expansion and contraction, frost heaving, and settling of the pipe. These factors are the real
causes of joint leakage.
In general, cement joints have performed better than lead. Lead does not wet or bond to cast iron
as solder does; it is also malleable and easily loosened by joint movement. Cement adheres to
cast iron and also resists joint movement better than lead because of its high compressive
strength. In the study noted earlier, 27 lead joints and 19 cement joints were tested for leakage
prior to removal from service. Only 4 of the lead joints were tight, compared with 13 of the cement
joints.
Drying and shrinking of tar and gum deposits from manufactured gas are believed to cause the
increases in joint leakage reported after a changeover. These deposits probably plugged the
pores in the packing to make it gastight as long as the tars and gums were kept pliable and
swollen by continued exposure to the aromatic oils, water, fresh tar, and gum in the manufactured
gas. When such a system switched to natural gas, the tar-impregnated joint packing tended to dry
and shrink, until it no longer filled the joint packing space. Then leakage occurred at joints in
which the backing seal was already broken. Efforts have been made to minimize this leakage by
introducing water vapor and oil into the gas stream.

Steel Mains and Services

Leakage from steel mains and services is usually due to corrosion penetrating the pipe wall.
Welds are also occasionally the cause of leakage. Damage inflicted during construction of other
underground structures is another major cause of leakage.

Broken Cast Iron Mains

Apart from leaks at bell-joints, cast iron mains often leak at cracks in the mains. Because of the
low strength and ductility of cast iron, 6-inch or smaller pipe is sometimes cracked or broken by
secondary stresses—settling, frost heaving, and ground vibration from heavy traffic. Cracking
most commonly occurs at points of weakness, such as tap holes and locations where the main
has been disturbed.
Cast iron mains are less likely to corrode and develop leaks than steel because they tend to
corrode more uniformly and have thicker walls. The continuity of the pipe wall is maintained by
the graphite content of cast iron pipe, which remains in place after the iron has corroded away. In
fact, a close inspection of the uncovered pipe surface is required to locate corroded areas.
However, the thickness of the external scale about the pipe is usually an indication of the extent
of corrosion. However, if graphitization of the pipe does occur, the pipe can be scraped away with
a knife. If the graphitic area is soap-tested, it will be all bubbles and probably should be replaced.
A full seal clamp might be a temporary repair.

Fittings

Leaks at gate valves usually result from packing that needs to be tightened or replaced. Seeping
leaks tend to develop at threaded service connections, at threaded caps on service tees, and at
service saddles; they often result from defective threads or poor workmanship. Corroded threads
of screwed pipe, corroded bolts of service saddles, compression couplings, and bell-joint clamps
also create fittings leaks. For this reason, special-alloy bolts, not subject to soil corrosion, are now
used for underground installations that have bolted fittings.
Corrosion is also responsible for the pit holes that sometimes develop in the bodies of
compression couplings. Settling of the pipe and cold flow of lead gaskets are other causes of
saddle gasket leaks. Leakage at compression couplings and bell-joint clamps can result from
improper installation or deterioration of the rubber gaskets used in some of the older clamps. Poor
cleaning of the bottom of cast iron pipe often is the cause of a clamp leak.
Types of Instruments
Table 8-5 and Figures 8-1 through 8-4 describe and illustrate approved leak detection
equipment.
Table 8-5. Approved Leak Detection Equipment
TYPE RANGE APPLICATION
Flame Ionization Detector (FID)  as low as 1ppm* Outdoor surveys, especially
(Fig. 8-1, 8-2) underground facilities. Not to be
used in confined spaces.
CGI (MSA, Davis)   .5-5% L.E.L.** on the L.E.L. Indoor air, building vertical riser,
Catalytic  scale 10 to 100 underground facilities using
(Fig. 8-4) barholes
Thermal Conductivity  2.5-100% on the U.E.L. scale 5 Outdoor pinpointing underground
to 100 leaks using barholes or other
openings
GAS TRAC  .01-100% L.E.L.** Indoor air, building vertical riser,
(Fig. 8-5) all exposed piping as well as
underground facilities
TRAK-IT  0.2%-100% Gas Indoor air, underground facilities
using barholes
ULTRA TRAC 2000  as low as 10 ppm and as high as Outdoor/Indoor applications
(Fig. 8-6) a 100% gas
Infrared Detector  as low as 5 ppm upper sensitivity Compressor station sites
(Figure 8-3) 25% gas
*10,000 ppm = 1% Gas 
**L.E.L. = 0 - 5% Gas
 Fig. 8-1. Flame Ionization Detector
 
Fig. 8-2. Hydrogen Flame Ionization Instruments in Use
Fig. 8-3. Infrared Methane Detector
Fig. 8-4. Combustible Gas Indicator
 
Leakage Rates

Effect of Operating Pressures

The operating pressure of an existing distribution system is sometimes raised to increase system
capacity. This pressure increase raises the rate of leakage through any openings in the system
piping and may also blow thin spots in the pipe wall to form new leaks. The increased leakage
can be anticipated and usually determines whether increasing the operating pressure will be used
to increase a system's capacity. Field studies of rates of leakage from steel pipelines have shown
that this rate is proportional to the gage pressure at operating pressures of 30 psig or more:
Qb = CPg (Eq. 8-1)
Qb  =  Leakage rate, SCF/hr.
C  =  A constant, depending on the number and size of the leaks and the specific gravity and flow
temperature of the gas.
Pg  =  Operating pressure of the line, psig.
At lower operating pressures, no general relationship has been found between leakage rate and
line pressure. In systems with cast iron pipe with bell-and-spigot joints, results of surveys are
particularly erratic. Increasing the operating pressure apparently enlarges pores through joint
packings and forces open new leak passages. The leakage rate increases in an unpredictable
way and faster than would be expected from Eq. 8-1.

Direct Measurement

It is sometimes feasible to measure total leakage rates directly from a distribution system,
particularly in systems serving smaller communities through a single city gate station. This
measurement is sometimes called a night-load leak test because it often done on a summer
evening when the gas use of residential and most commercial customers is uniform and low. In
this test, the gas is fed into the system and is measured for a short time at two different system
pressures. Assuming that the leakage rate is proportional to the gage pressure (Eq. 8-1) and that
the rate of use by the customers is constant, the average rate of input into the system at each
pressure level is:
I = CPg + L (Eq. 8-2)
I  =  Rate of system input, SCF/hr
L  =  Rate of gas use, SCF/hr
When the corresponding feed rates and operating pressures are substituted into this equation,
two simultaneous equations are obtained that can be solved for C and L.
Example: 
In a night-load test, the gas fed into a small distribution system was found to be 9,400 SCF/hr at
30 psig and 10,700 SCF/hr at 40 psig. Determine the leak rate at both operating pressure levels.
Solution:
Substitution of these values into Eq. 8-2 gives simultaneous equations that are solved for C:
10,700  =  40 C + L
9,400  =  30 C + L
Subtraction of the second equation from the first yields:
1,300  =  10 C
C  =  130
The leakage rates at each pressure are then obtained form Eq. 8-1:
Qb  = 130 (30) = 3,900 SCF/hr at 30 psig
Qb  =  130 (40) = 5,200 SCF/hr at 40 psig
Leakage rates obtained form this test are approximate, but it does show excessive leakage.
Comparison of leak test results for different towns or different sections of a large distribution
system will also show the areas where repair efforts should be concentrated for maximum
leakage reduction.
Leakage Surveys
Leakage surveys are the foundation of distribution system leak control programs. They are
systematic searches for gas leaks in buried piping systems inside exposed piping, as well as
outside above ground piping. The most frequent and intensive leak surveys are made on portions
of the system with highest leakage frequencies and in area where leaks could be more
hazardous, as in business districts and public buildings. Quicker, less costly surveys are used for
other parts of the system.
The data obtained from leakage surveys is the basis for most replacement/repair decisions, so it
plays an important part in the operating costs of a company.

Reported Gas Leaks

Because natural gas is odorless, an odorizing agent is added to warn of the presence of
unburned gas. The distinct quality of this odor makes it possible for the general public to monitor
a distribution system for leaks. When most people smell the characteristic gas odor, their first
reaction is to call the gas company.
Leaks are also reported as a result of vegetation damage or because gas can be seen bubbling
through standing water above a main or service. A few leaks are reported because of fire burning
on the ground.

Vegetation Surveys

Vegetation and soil surveys are the most rapid and economical type of leak survey in the areas
where they can be used. They are limited, however, to the growing seasons.
In vegetation surveys, leaking gas is detected by its effect on plant life near the leak. Although
natural gas is not toxic to plants, leaking gas does dry the soil and displace oxygen. This causes
injury to plant feeder roots and upsets the balance of normal soil processes; thus it destroys the
conditions of normal plant life.
The change in appearance of plant life near a leak can be detected by a trained observer, riding
in a car slowly over the streets under which the mains are laid. In some parts of the country,
changes in the appearance of the soil are detectable even in the absence of vegetation.
When abnormal conditions are observed, the suspicious area is tested for gas. If no gas is found,
the plants may be further examined and the cause of their unhealthy appearance recorded. This
procedure protects the gas company against gas damage claims for diseased vegetation.
Services of specialists in vegetation or other types of leak surveys can be obtained from several
firms.

Combustible Gas Indicator Surveys

The combustible gas indicator (CGI) is by far the most widely used type of leak detector. In the
operation of this instrument, a sample of atmosphere is drawn over a detection element with an
aspirator bulb at a controlled rate (Figure 8-4). The CGI provides a direct reading of the
combustible gas content of the atmosphere.
The instruments in current use are equipped with two detection elements and have two scales to
cover the entire range of combustible gas content in air. The most sensitive element is a hot-wire
combustion filament. Any combustible gas in the air sample drawn through the indicator oxidizes
at the catalyst-coated surface of the filament. This reaction increases the temperature and
electrical resistance of the filament by an amount related to the sample’s combustible gas
content.
The change in resistance causes deflection of the pointer on the instrument meter over a scale
that is calibrated for a particular gas in percent of its lower explosive limit. Thus, a reading of
100% on a meter calibrated for methane corresponds to a methane content of approximately 5%
in the air sample since this is the lower explosive limit of methane-air mixtures. The normal
sensitivity for this scale is approximately 0.1% natural gas in air (1,000 parts per million).
When the combustion filament is used, a sample with a very high combustible gas content will
cause little or no deflection of the meter because the sample does not contain enough oxygen to
react with more than a small portion of the combustible gas.
To indicate combustible gas concentrations that exceed the lower explosive limit, the indicator is
switched to a thermal conductivity filament. A hot-wire is used because it is extremely sensitive to
heat loss. Since combustible gases are better heat conductors than air, a sample drawn over a
hot filament loses heat more quickly in a combustible gas than in air. This cooling effect
decreases the temperature and the electrical resistance of the filament by an amount related to
the combustible gas content of the sample. The decreased resistance causes deflection of the
instrument pointer over a scale calibrated in percent of combustible gas in the sample.
Although the thermal conductivity filament can measure the percent of combustible gas in air over
the entire range of 0-100%, the combustion filament is much more sensitive for gas
concentrations below the lower explosive limit.
As shown in Fig. 8-5, the basic electrical circuit in a combustible gas indicator is a Wheatstone
bridge, consisting of three fixed resistors and the combustion filament. The resistances are
chosen so that no current flows through the meter when a sample of air is drawn over the
combustion filament. The relationship between resistances is:
Rc/R1 = R2/R3
Rc = Resistance of the combustion filament while air is drawn over it.
 
Fig. 8-5. Combustible Gas Indicator
However, the resistance of the combustion filament is increased if combustible gas is oxidized on
its surface and current flows through the meter. The amount of this current is related to the
amount of change of the filament resistance.
For simplicity, a combustion filament is shown connected to the bridge circuit in Figure 8-5;
however, a thermal conductivity filament can be substituted into this circuit by changing the
position of the indicator selector switch.
For light service, the inlet filter of the combustible gas indicator is a cotton plug, which removes
dust and water from the air sample to prevent damage to the filaments. The flashback arrestors at
the inlet and outlet for the indicator prevent damage to the filaments and prevent the hot filaments
from igniting the explosive mixture of gas and air. The instrument should never be used without
these arrestors in place.
Both scales on a combustible gas indicator are calibrated for use on specific gas; however, any
other common combustible gases cause deflection of the indicator. These other gases, alone or
in combination with natural gas, can give a false indication of the natural gas content of the
atmosphere under test.
The most common conflicting gases are engine exhaust gas (containing carbon monoxide and
hydrogen), gasoline, volatile solvents, and marsh or sewer gas (mostly methane). Interference
from gasoline and some solvent vapors can be minimized by replacing the cotton filter with a
charcoal cartridge, which preferentially adsorbs the interfering vapors. Or the charcoal filter can
be inserted preceded by another filled with desiccant to remove hydrocarbons and water.
Methods used to distinguish between natural gas and marsh or sewer gas are described later in
this chapter. The most effective way to determine the type of gas is to take a sample and have it
analyzed in a lab.

Barhole and Street-Opening Surveys

In surveys for leaks with a combustible gas indicator, the atmosphere in street openings is
sampled at regular intervals along the route of the pipe. A combustible gas indicator is not
sensitive enough to detect most leaks by sampling the unconfined air near the ground surface.
Samples must be taken in confined spaces such as valve boxes and manholes or in holes
punched in the ground (barholes) where gas can accumulate.
Spacing between tests is quite variable and is often left to the discretion of the survey team. For
effective hazard control, the openings should be close enough together to detect all leaks capable
of spreading gas to adjacent buildings. In congested areas, a spacing of twice the distance from
the main to the nearest building wall is sometimes used. Spacings of 10 to 50 feet are common in
surveys of residential areas.
In barhole surveys, the tests over the main may be supplemented with barhole tests over each
service line. Such a test is usually made near the building wall; sometimes other tests are made
at the lot line and at the main.
Barhole surveys are often made by a mobile two-person team equipped with hand tools, a
combustible gas indicator, and a drilling unit. One person prepares the barholes; the other does
the sampling. A team like this can survey one to four miles of main per day.
Although a barhole survey is generally recognized as the most effective way to survey buried
piping for leaks, it is the slowest and often the most expensive method.
When the ground surface over the pipe is not paved, a barhole can be made by driving a small
rod into the earth to pipe depth, and then removing the rod. The hole is made beside rather than
directly over the line to avoid damage to the pipe coating. Power-driven equipment is used to drill
holes through paving. For rapid, fixed-spacing surveys of mains under paving, some companies
use a pneumatic drill.
In frequently surveyed areas, such as the main commercial area of a city, permanent test
locations are sometimes installed in the paving, as shown in Figure 8-6. The paving insert shown
is sealed by a neoprene cap that prevents leaking gas from escaping the test hole. Inserting a
special probe into the top of the unit depresses the neoprene cap, and an X-cut in it opens to
permit withdrawal of a sample.

Building Surveys

In a building survey, a combustible gas indicator is used to test for leaking gas in nearby
manholes, valve boxes and other street openings, in barholes at foundation walls, near the gas
service entrance, and around gas pressure regulators and meters installed in the building.
Combustible gas indicator tests are also made at all cracks, openings, and unsealed conduit or
pipes in the building foundation walls adjacent to street containing gas pipelines. Soap solution
may also be brushed over all joints on exposed piping inside the building to detect any small seep
leaks around the fittings. As these leak tests are made, the service entrance and meter and
regulator installation are visually inspected for their physical condition, potential hazard due to
their location, and the accessibility of the meter cock. This type of survey is made periodically in
all public and in many commercial buildings as a precautionary measure. Gas surveys are often
concurrent with city fire department inspections.
Fig. 8-6. Permanent Test Hole Installed in Pavement
(Courtesy Heath Survey Consultants, Incorporated)

Mobile Surveys with an Infrared Leak Detector

Infrared detectors are based on infrared radiation, which has a wavelength longer than that of
visible light and shorter than radio waves. When this energy passes through most pure gases,
energy of particular wavelengths is absorbed by the gas. The absorption pattern is unique and
can be used to identify the gas. All hydrocarbon gases have characteristic infrared absorption
patterns; these absorption patterns can be used to determine the composition of many gaseous
mixtures. Gases not detectable by infrared include oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, and the rare
gases.
One type of infrared methane detector was diagrammed in Figure 8-3. The two compartments of
the detector cell are filled with methane and separated by a thin, flexible metal diaphragm. One
absorption cell (the comparison cell) is filled with pure air; the atmosphere to be tested is then
passed continuously through the other (the sample cell).

Survey Units

Infrared survey units have been custom-built by utility personnel from purchased components.
These units include infrared cells, amplifier, recorder, several sampling lines, one or more filters
to remove dust and moisture from the gas samples, and a means of drawing the sample through
the cell¾a blower, a positive displacement pump, or a connection to an engine manifold. Other
components required are a generator or battery to supply electricity to the amplifier and recorder,
and cylinders of pure nitrogen and standard gas samples used to zero and calibrate the
instrument.
The components in units assembled by different companies vary in a way that is much like the
component variations in custom-built high-fidelity music systems. This variation extends to
infrared cells, of which there are several different commercial models. However, all of these units
have the basic characteristics described.

Mobile Surveys with Flame Ionization Units

The flame ionization detector (see Figures 8-1 and 8-7) is another modern analytical instrument
that detects the presence of combustible gas. The sample of atmosphere to be tested is fed into a
hydrogen flame. If the sample contains a hydrocarbon, the number of electrically charged
particles or ions formed in the flame increases substantially. This increase is accompanied by an
increase in the electrical current flow between the cathode probe and the ion collector grid, which
are connected to a battery through an electrometer. The electrometer measures the rate of
electrical current flow and generates a corresponding electrical output signal, which is fed into a
recording millivoltmeter.
Flame ionization detectors have even greater sensitivity than infrared detectors. Laboratory
instruments can detect 0.01 ppm of methane in air and field units have detected of 0.1 ppm.
Flame ionization detectors are not selective, however, and respond to any hydrocarbon.
The components of each unit are diagrammed in Figure 8-7. Since the detector cell does not
distinguish between hydrocarbons, all hydrocarbons with a lower ignition temperature than
methane are oxidized in a catalytic combustion furnace before the sidestream sample reaches
the detector cell. In this way, false leak indications from gasoline or solvent vapor are prevented.
Moisture does not need to be removed from the gas sample as is done in infrared units because
water vapor has no effect on the operation of flame ionization detector cells.
Fig. 8-7. Flame Ionization Detector
Flame ionization units are vehicle-mounted as are infrared units. The mobile unit that was shown
in Figure 8-2 has a sampling boom that can be raised or lowered by a control from within the
vehicle. Swivel mounting of the hose reel for another sample line makes it possible to position the
portable probe in any direction from the vehicle. A fifth wheel mounted under the vehicle is
geared to a mechanism that makes a blip along the edge of the recording chart for every 50 feet
of travel. This relates the chart reading to location. Landmark notations are also made on the
table-mounted chart.
Surveys with mobile flame ionization units are conducted in the same manner as those with
infrared units and have similar limitations, particularly those related to dependence on venting
gas. However, the much greater sensitivity of the flame ionization detector should result in
improved effectiveness of mobile surveys. Handheld portable flame ionization units are available
for use in walking surveys.

Supply and Trunk Line Surveys

Utility supply and trunk mains are often surveyed by foot patrols at regular periods for situations
that might interfere with operation. In linewalking, a worker moves along the pipeline route and
looks for severe erosion, foreign construction, and signs of leakage—damaged or dead
vegetation, bubbles in water puddles, blowing dust, the odor of leaking gas, or blowflies—an
insect that is occasionally attracted by leaking gas.

Overodorization

Once or twice a year, some companies add two to four times the usual amount of odorization to
the gas for a day or two. As a result, many small leaks on customer premises are reported and
repaired before they become hazards. There is usually little increase in the number of street leaks
reported by people who have smelled gas. However, legitimate leak calls are accompanied by a
large number of nuisance calls where no leak is present, but someone has simply noticed the
increased odor in the gas that unavoidably escapes from range burners prior to ignition. These
nuisance calls are the primary factor that limits use of overodorization.

Distinction Between Different Types of Gas

Infrared will not distinguish between natural gas and the methane in marsh or sewer gas. The
most effective way to make this distinction is to test for ethane, which is always present in natural
gas but is not a constituent of the conflicting gases. Testing for ethane can be done by laboratory
analysis, an infrared ethane detector, or a combustible gas indicator modified for ethane
detection.
A modified combustible gas indicator that can be used for field ethane detection is shown in
Figure 8-8. The packed column attached to this instrument is a chromatograph column filled with
silica gel, which has an active surface that adsorbs different gases to different degrees. Gaseous
mixtures are separated as they pass through such a column because a gas that is strongly
attracted to the silica column-packing surface will displace a more weakly attracted gas.
To use this detector, a sample of the combustible gas to be tested is trapped in the 15-cu cm
sampling coil as a slug. A constant air or oxygen flow rate of about 100 cu cm per minute is then
established through the chromatograph column and detector chamber. When oxygen is admitted
to the sampling coil by opening valves 2 and 3 and closing valve 1, the gas is forced out of the
coil and through the column. Within 30 or 40 seconds it causes a deflection of the indicator
needle. If any ethane is in the sample, it will leave the column about 2 minutes later and cause a
second deflection of the needle. If these deflections don’t occur within these approximate time
limits, neither methane nor ethane is in the sample.
If the meter deflection caused by the passage of methane is not followed by the second deflection
about 2 minutes later, natural gas is probably absent. The source of methane is then considered
to be marsh or sewer gas. A concentration of 0.05 volume-percent of ethane, which corresponds
to a natural gas-air mixture of about 20% of the lower explosive limit, can be detected in this
manner. Although the results of this test can be the basis for immediate field action, confirmation
of the results by laboratory analysis is recommended.
Fig. 8-8. Combustible Gas Indicator Modified for Ethane Detection
Leak Classification
In most surveys, leaks are classified to establish their priority in repair schedules. This is done by
determining the potential hazard of the leak, according to five factors (refer also to Tables 8-1, 8-
2, and 8-3):
1. Volume of gas escaping
2. Proximity of leak to locations at which a significant volume of gas can accumulate, such
as manholes or basements of buildings
3. Type of ground cover over the leak. Building-to-building pavement forces gas to be
vented via a devious path, which might vent in an enclosure where it could accumulate.
4. Proximity of leak to ductwork or new trenches that often provide a low-resistance path for
conduction of the gas to enclosures
5. Proximity of leak to valuable vegetation

Leaks have different relative hazard potentia,l and therefore priorities, in this order:
1. Service leaks, because they are closest to the customer
2. Broken cast iron mains, because large volumes of gas are related
3. Construction damage, because this frequently results in the sudden, unexpected releases
of large gas volumes
4. Corrosion leaks in high-pressure steel mains, because they can quickly develop into
large-volume leaks
5. Joint leaks in medium-pressure cast iron mains, because these leaks occur frequently
and have appreciable volume
6. Joint leaks in low-pressure cast iron mains.

Survey Programs

Barhole and street-opening surveys using a combustible gas indicator are part of the leak
survey programs of most gas utility companies. They are still the method usually used to survey
mains under paving.
Vegetation surveys are limited to areas where adequate vegetation is growing; they can't be
used where there is standing water, very wet soil, in the spring when plants are experiencing
rapid growth, and in the fall when vegetation is turning. This method indicates leaks, but findings
should be checked using CGI or flame ionization instruments.
Flame-ionization units are effective in surveys of mains under or within a few feet of unpaved
parkways. Because they are fast, they can also be used to make repeat surveys of high-pressure
mains or of central business districts several times in a year.
In areas with building-to-building paving, mobile surveys are not as effective as barhole and
street-opening surveys using a combustible gas indicator. However, barhole and street-opening
surveys are even more effective with flame ionization units using manually positioned probes.
Pinpointing Leak Locations
Leak survey methods do not locate leak sources; they simply indicate the presence of leaks in the
general area. Thus, precisely locating the leak source is the first step in making repairs.

Soap Tests

The conventional way to locate leaks in exposed piping is to brush soap solution over the
suspected area. A leak is indicated by the formation of bubbles or expanding foam. Chemical
solutions foam more readily and produce a longer lasting foam.
The Gas Trac or Ultra-Trac 2000 leak detectors are also very effective in pinpointing above-
ground leaks (both inside and outside).
As a usual first step in pinpointing, the outside perimeter of the leak migration should be
determined. The leak can be expected to be along the pipeline, approximately at the center of the
migration pattern. The extent of leak migration can be determined using barholes, available
openings, etc. This should be done fairly rapidly.
The identification of one's underground facilities is most important. The more one knows about
tees, stubs, joints, dual pipelines, services, etc., the easier the task of pinpointing. It’s also very
helpful to identify other underground facilities, such as drains, ducts, etc. Often, a leak occurs
because of third-party damage. Therefore, it’s important to the pinpointers to accurately locate
crossings of their pipelines and other utilities where there is evidence of recent excavations.
Leaks may also follow the route of other utilities.
Once the approximate location of the leak is identified, barholes are usually made. Using a
combustible gas indicator, readings are taken from these barholes. When these readings are
uniform or off-scale, a purging of the barholes may be performed. One purging method uses a
small venturi vacuum operated from an air compressor, which purges all the holes. The recovery
of migrating gas into the holes is then monitored to determine the hole closest to the leak. Care
must be taken in this procedure to avoid drawing gas into the holes and thus confusing the
pinpointer. Where time permits, simply allowing the gas in barholes to evacuate naturally is an
equally satisfactory method.
Precise leak pinpointing requires experience and a good knowledge of the technique. Those
proficient in this skill reduce the overall cost of repair.

Converging Barhole Method

This is by far the most widely used method for pinpointing leaks in buried piping. A combustible
gas indicator is used to sample the atmosphere in barholes drilled or punched progressively
closer together in the vicinity of the leak. The hole in which the highest reading is obtained is
usually closest to the leak source.
Both handheld and mobile flame-ionization can quickly determine below-grade main and service
leaks, as well as outside meter set and above-ground piping leaks. Some companies use the
mobile and infrared.
In areas with building-to-building paving, mobile surveys can indicate the presence of leaks, but
they will not pinpoint the source. Barholes or street openings with the use of combustible gas
indication or a handheld flame ionization unit will pinpoint the below-ground leaks. For above-
ground leaks, soap, Gastrac, or Ultra-Trac 2000 can pinpoint leaks indoors or outside. When
there is a question as to the source of the gas or odor, a sample should be taken and sent to a
laboratory for testing.
Checklist for Leakage Detection Procedures

   Qualification of Personnel

Gas leakage surveys should be performed by personnel who are qualified by training and
experience in the type of survey being performed.

   Reports from Outside Sources

Any notification from an outside source (such as police or fire department, other utility, contractor,
customer, or general public) reporting an odor, leak, explosion, or fire, which may involve gas
pipelines or other gas facilities, should be investigated promptly. If the investigation reveals a
leak, the leak should be graded and action should be taken in accordance with these guidelines.

   Odors or Indications from Foreign Sources

When leak indications (such as gasoline vapors, natural gas, petroleum, or sewer or marsh gas)
are found to originate form a foreign source or facility, or customer-owned piping, prompt action
should be taken where necessary to protect life and property. Potentially hazardous leaks should
be reported promptly to the operator of the facility and, where appropriate, to the police
department, fire department, or other governmental agency. When the company's pipeline is
connected to a foreign facility (such as the customer's piping), necessary action—such as
disconnecting or shutting off the flow of gas to the facility—should be taken to eliminate the
potential hazard.

   Leakage Surveys and Test Methods

The following gas leakage surveys and test methods may be employed, singly or in combination,
in accordance with written procedures.
1. Surface Gas Detection Survey

Definition¾A continuous sampling of the atmosphere at or near ground level for buried gas
facilities and adjacent to above-ground gas facilities with a gas detector system capable of
detecting a concentration of 50 ppm of gas in air at any sampling point.
Procedure¾Equipment used to perform these surveys may be portable or mobile. For buried
piping, sampling of the atmosphere should, where practical, take place at no more than 2 inches
above the ground surface. In areas where the piping is under pavement, samplings should also
be at curb line(s), available ground surface openings (such as manholes), catch basins, sewer,
power, telephone duct openings, fire and traffic signal boxes, cracks in the pavement or sidewalk,
or other interfaces where the venting of gas is likely to occur. For exposed piping, sampling
should be right next to the piping.
Utilization¾The use of this survey may be limited by adverse conditions, such as excessive wind,
excessive soil moisture, or surface sealing by ice or water.
2. Subsurface Gas Detection Survey

Definition¾The sampling of the subsurface atmosphere with a combustible gas indicator (CGI) or
other device capable of detecting 0.5% gas in air at the sample point.
Procedure¾The survey should be conducted using tests with a CGI in a series of available
openings and/or barholes over, or adjacent to, the gas facility. The location of the gas facility and
its proximity to buildings and other structures should be considered in the spacing of the sample
points. Sampling points should be as close as possible to the main or pipeline, placed at twice the
distance between the pipeline and the nearest building wall, or at 30 feet, whichever is shorter. In
no case should the spacing be less than 10 feet. The sampling pattern should include sample
points adjacent to service taps, street intersections, and known branch connections, as well as
over or adjacent to buried service lines at the building wall.
Utilization¾Good judgment should be used to determine when available openings (such as
manholes, vaults, or valve boxes) are sufficient in number to provide an adequate survey. When
necessary, additional sample points (barholes) should be made.
Sampling points should be deep enough to directly sample within the subsurface or substructure
atmosphere.
3. Vegetation Survey

Definition¾Visual observations made to detect abnormal or unusual indications in vegetation.

Procedure¾All visual indications should be evaluated using a CGI. Personnel performing these
surveys should have good all-around visibility of the area being surveyed and their type and
speed of travel should be determined by taking into consideration the following: the system
layout, amount and type of vegetation, and visibility conditions (such as lighting, reflected light,
distortions, terrain, or obstructions)
Utilization¾ This survey method should be limited to areas where adequate vegetation growth is
firmly established. It should not be conducted when the soil moisture content is abnormally high,
when vegetation is dormant, and when vegetation is in an accelerated growth period, such as in
early spring.
4. Pressure-Drop Test

Definition¾A test to determine if an isolated segment of pipeline loses pressure due to leakage.
Procedure¾Facilities selected for pressure-drop tests should first be isolated and then tested.
Test Pressure¾A test conducted on existing facilities solely for the purpose of detecting leakage
should be performed at a pressure at least equal to the operating pressure. A pressure test
conducted for line qualifications or uprating must be performed in accordance with the
requirements of Subparts J or K of the Minimum Federal Safety Standards.
Test Medium¾the test medium used must comply with the requirements of 192.503(b) of the
Minimum Federal Safety Standards.
Test Duration¾The test should be long enough to detect leakage, and the following should be
considered to determine duration:
 the volume under testing
 the time required for the test medium to become temperature-stabilized
 the sensitivity of the test instrument.

Utilization¾Pressure-drop tests should be used only to establish the presence or absence of a

leak on a specifically isolated segment of a pipeline. Normally, this type of test will not provide a
leak location. Therefore, facilities on which leakage is indicated may require further evaluation by
another detection method in order that the leak may be located, evaluated, and graded.
5. Bubble Leakage Test

Definition¾The application of a soap-water or other foam-forming solutions on exposed piping to

determine the existence of a leak.
Procedure¾The exposed piping systems should be reasonably cleaned and completely coated
with the solution. Leaks are indicated by the presence of bubbles.
Utilization¾This test method may be used for above-ground portions of a system (such as meter
set assemblies or exposed piping on bridge crossings) and for a tie-in joint or leak repair that is
not included in a pressure test.
6. Ultrasonic Leakage Test

Definition¾The testing of exposed piping facilities with an instrument capable of detecting the
ultrasonic energy generated by escaping gas. The instrument used should be suitable for the
pressure involved.
Procedure¾In the testing of a gas facility by this method, the following should be considered:
Line Pressure¾As the line pressure increases, the magnitude of the ultrasonic energy generated
by a leak increases.
Location of Facility¾Objects near or surrounding a facility being tested may reflect or attenuate
the ultrasonic energy generated, making it difficult to detect or pinpoint the leak.
Leak Frequency¾A number of leaks in a given area can create a high ultrasonic background
level, which may reduce the detection capabilities of this type of test.
Type of Facility¾Pneumatic and gas-operated equipment generate ultrasonic energy. The
location and amount of this type of equipment should be known to determine if the ultrasonic
background is too high.
Personnel conducting this type of test should scan the entire area to eliminate the tracking of
reflected indications.
Ultrasonic indications of leakage should be verified and/or pinpointed by one of the other
acceptable survey or test methods.
Utilization¾The ultrasonic test may be used to test exposed piping facilities. However, if the
ultrasonic background level produces a full-scale meter reading when the gain is set at mid-
range, the facility should be tested by a different method.
Other survey and test methods may be employed if they are deemed appropriate and are
conducted in accordance with procedures that have been tested and proven to be at least equal
to the methods listed in this section.
Relation of Leakage to Unaccounted-For Gas
The only readily accessible information on the amount of gas leakage in a distribution system is
the unaccounted-for gas records. Unaccounted-for gas is the difference between the amount of
gas sent out during a month or a year, as indicated by input metering records, and the amount
sold to customers during the same period, as indicated by billing records. It is most commonly
expressed as a percent:
Percent Unaccounted-For =
It is also often expressed in terms of MCF per mile of 3-in. equivalent pipe (the length of 3-in. pipe
that would have the same inside surface area as that of the actual mains in the distribution
system).
Example:
Compute the miles of 3-in. (3.068-inch-I.D.) equivalent pipe for a small distribution system
consisting of 3 miles of 4-in. and 15 miles of 2-in. Schedule-40 pipe.
A = p (I.D.) L
A = Surface area
I.D. = Inside diameter of pipe
L = Pipe length
The inside diameters of 2-in. and 4-in. pipe are 2.067 and 4.026 in. If L is the equivalent length of
3-in. pipe, the inside area of the imaginary 3-in. pipe can be equated to that of the pipe in the
system:

   Causes for Unaccounted-For Gas

Leakage is only one of the factors contributing to unaccounted-for gas. There are other major
factors:
1. The metering discrepancy caused by the difference between the base temperature and
pressure of the sendout measurements and the temperatures and pressures at which the
gas used by customers is measured. Gas used by customers is usually measured
volumetrically at the temperature and pressure present at the meter location. In the
discussion of Charles' and Boyle's laws in Chapter II, it was shown that the mass of a gas
varies with its temperature and pressure.
2. Variation in time periods covered by customer billing records, since all customer meters
are not read at the same time. The effect of this variation is minimized when
unaccounted-for gas is computed for a year ending in August. The day-to-day usage of
gas is more uniform in summer than in winter.
3. Failure of some customer meters to register total amount of gas used at low rates, and
inaccuracy of some customers' meters
4. Unmetered gas used in company operation:
o Gas used in pigging lines and blowing traps
o Gas used in calorimeters, specific gravity recorders and flow controllers
o Gas loss to atmosphere during construction and maintenance work
o Use of gas to fill new mains

Repair of Cast Iron Leaks

Bell-Joints

When bell-joint clamps are installed (Figure 8-9), the face of the bell must be thoroughly cleaned
and often refaced to assure proper seating of the gasket.
Fig. 8-9. Bell-Joint Leak Clamp
(Courtesy Dresser Manufacturing Division, Dresser Industries, Inc.)
Encapsulation or anaerobic joint sealing is a more effective way to seal leaking bell-joints than the
standard bell-joint clamp. These methods are even more effective when used with the keyhole
method of excavating the bell.

   Encapsulation

A canvas bag is placed around the bell after it has been sand blasted. A two-part sealant is mixed
and injected into the canvas bag around the bell and allowed to cure a short time before
backfilling. When used with the keyhole method of excavation, it is very cost-effective.

   Anaerobic Sealant

In this method, the bell is drilled and tapped in two or three locations depending on size of the
pipe. The tap is made over the area that contains jute packing. The anaerobic sealant is injected
through these taps and will wick through the jute and seal the joint. This can also be done using
the keyhole method.

   Heat Shrink Sleeves

Heat shrink sleeves may also be used to cover a leaking bell. This will take a larger excavation,
and heat is required to shrink the sleeve. This would leave a hazardous situation as long as a
leak was present with people in the tap hole.
These methods do not take the system out of service during repairs.

Cracked or Split Cast Iron

A slip-sleeve (Figure 8-10) or a full-seal band clamp (Figure 8-11) can be used to repair a broken
or cracked pipe or a 2-in. service connection to 4-in. or 6-in. main or to renew service with a bad
tap (Figure 8-12).
Fig. 8-10.  Cracked Bells or Cracks Approximately 12" Long MWP - 25 PSIG 
Dresser Style #126 Split Repair Sleeve Cast Iron Pipe
NOTE: This clamp can also be used with cast iron pipe (stainless steel full circle clamps)
Fig. 8-11. To Repair Leaks Caused by Corrosion, Circumferential or Longi-tudinal Splits
Porous Welds and Punctures (also cracked or split CI MWP- 60 psi)
Fig. 8-12. For Broken or Cracked Pipe and for 2-in. Service Connection to 4-in. and 6-in.
Main or Renewal Service Connection to all Mains 
MWP - 25 psig (Servi-Seal Multi-Purpose Clamp for Cast Iron Pipe)
Several methods of cast iron joint repair require the section of main to be taken out of service so
that the joint can be sealed from the inside. Some of these methods are the never-seal method,
 fueling method, and spring band method. Before using these methods insertion or lining might be
a better solution. Insertion can be done both live or dead and high pressure can be inserted in
low-pressure mains.
Repairs on Plastic Mains
According to Title 49 CFR, Part 1292 Subpart G¾General Construction Requirements for
Transmission Lines and Mains, paragraph 192.311 Repair of Plastic Pipe, "Each imperfection or
incident of damage that would impair the serviceability of plastic pipe must be repaired by a
patching saddle or removed." See also the AGA Plastic Pipe Manual for Gas Services on repairs.

Guidelines

The recommendations of the plastic pipe manufacturer should be taken into consideration when
determining the type of repair to be made. Special consideration should be given to the extent of
fiber damage in the case of thermosetting plastic pipe.

   Sleeves and Patches

Material—The wall thickness of the patch or sleeve should be at least equal to that of the pipe. If
the repair is made by heat fusion, the patch or sleeve should preferably be the same type and
grade.
If the repair is made by solvent cement, the patch or sleeve should be essentially the same type
and grade.
Special Considerations—If a patch of full encirclement sleeve is used, it should extend far enough
beyond the damaged area to ensure structural integrity.
If a full encirclement split sleeve is used, the longitudinal join line should be as far as possible
from the defects but in no case should be closer than one-half inch.
Repairs on Steel Mains
Generally, repairs on a steel system are performed using an external repair clamp. Prior to
installation, the main must be cleaned to accept the clamp, and the repair is made by tightening
the mechanical clamp against a resilient gasket to form a leak-tight seal.
 If pressure or other conditions dictate, repairs can be made by a combination mechanical
and welding clamp. Initial repairs are made using a mechanical clamp, which can then be welded
over, giving added strength.
 When repairs are required on steel facilities because of corrosion, consideration should
be given to adding anodes at the time of repair for added protection.
 Insertion with plastic should be considered rather than delaying the repair if advanced
corrosion or other maintenance problems are encountered.
 See also Title 49, Code of Federal Regulations Part 192, Subpart G–General
Construction Regulations for Transmission Lines and Mains, paragraph 192.309, Repair of Steel
Pipe.

   192.309 Federal Standard: Repair of Steel Pipe (11-12-70)

 1. Each imperfection or damage that impairs the serviceability of a length of steel pipe must
be repaired or removed. If a repair is made by grinding, the remaining wall thickness must
at least be equal to either:
a. The minimum thickness required by the tolerances in the specification to which
the pipe was manufactured; or
b. The nominal wall thickness required for the design pressure of the pipeline.

Each of the following dents must be removed from steel pipe to be operated at a pressure that
produces a hoop stress of 20%, or more, of SMYS (specified minimum yield stress).
2. .A dent that contains a stress concentrator such as a scratch, gouge, groove, or arc burn.
a. A dent that affects the longitudinal weld or a circumferential weld.
b. In pipe to be operated at a pressure that produces a hoop stress of 40% or more
of SMYS, a dent that has a depth of:
i. More than ¼-inch in pipe 12¾ inches or less in outer diameter; or
ii. More than 2% of the nominal pipe diameter in pipe over 12¾ inches in
outer diameter.

Here a "dent" is defined as a depression that produces a gross disturbance in the curvature of the
pipe wall without reducing the pipe-wall thickness. The depth of a dent is measured as the gap
between the lowest point of the dent and a prolongation of the original contour of the pipe.
3. Each arc burn on steel pipe to be operated at a pressure that produces a hoop stress of
40%, or more, of SMYS must be repaired or removed. If a repair is made by grinding, the
arc burn must be completely removed and the remaining wall thickness must be at least
equal to either:
a. The minimum wall thickness required by the tolerances in the specification to
which the pipe was manufactured; or
b. The nominal wall thickness required for the design pressure of the pipeline.
4. A gouge, groove, arc burn, or dent may not be repaired by insert patching or by pounding
out.
5. Each gouge, groove, arc burn, or dent that is removed from a length of pipe must be
removed by cutting out the damaged portion as a cylinder.

Clamps such as those shown in Figure 8-13 are used to repair leaks at small pitted areas of steel
pipe. Long clamps such as those shown in Figure 8-14 are used to repair cracks or a series of pit
leaks. The split sleeves in Figures 8-15 and 8-16 are loosely bolted together around the pipe, and
then slid over the leaking area. Split-sleeve compression gaskets at each end of the sleeve are
then expanded against the main to seal off the encased portion. The plugged opening shown in
the sleeve vents the leaking gas to the atmosphere until installation is completed.
Fig. 8-13.  To Repair Average Corrosion Leaks or Other Small Leaks 
MWP - 60 psig (Stainless Steel Band Clamp)
Fig. 8-14.  Enclosed Broken Weld, Screw Coupling, Hole in Pipe or Split Up to 8-in.
Long. MWP - 60 psig 
(Dresser Style #73-C Cast Split Repair Sleeve Steel Pipe)
 Fig. 8-15.  Enclose Broken Weld Screw Coupling, Hole in Pipe or Split Up to 8-in. Long
MWP - 500 psig 
(Dresser Style #93 Split Repair Sleeve)
Fig. 8-16.  Same as Dresser Style #93 Above Except  
It Will Take 14-in. Long Split MWP - 500 psig 
(Dresser Style #96 Split Repair Sleeve)
A full-seal stainless steel band clamp that is then covered with style #220 Dresser split weld
sleeve (or the equivalent) can be used to repair leaks or small holes due to third-party damage on
steel mains operating 600 and 230 psi.
Leak and Pipe Condition Records
Leak reports are prepared whenever the pipe is exposed during construction or repair operations.
Pipe condition reports contain observations of the extent of rusting and pitting of the pipe wall.
Since report files are not a very convenient source of information, leakage and pipe condition
data are sometimes summarized on large-scale maps of the system. These leak atlases provide
a handy reference of pipe condition that is valuable in making replacement/repair decisions. Until
a practical method of inspecting buried pipe is developed, these important economic decisions
will continue to be based on data from leakage and pipe condition records.
Leak information can also be obtained from Department of Transportation Reports. Even with
leak atlases still being used, a more practical approach that is evolving is computerizing all leak
information. This will greatly help in making repair/replace decisions.