CORROSION CONTROL

Introduction
   Older iron and steel piping buried in the ground must often be repaired or replaced because of
corrosion damage. It is common knowledge that ordinary iron and steel rusts or corrodes in
contact with oxygen and moisture; and buried gas distribution piping composed of these metals is
no exception.
   Through the years, it has been common practice to increase the wall thickness of pipe to allow
for corrosion and increase a pipe’s service life. This practice has been only partially successful
because corrosion is not uniform but is concentrated at local areas. However, for new piping,
research on the corrosion of buried metal structures, including much work at the National Bureau
of Standards, has resulted in installation and maintenance techniques that protect the metal from
corrosion for many years. Much can be done to reduce the rate of corrosion of old pipe, but it may
not be practical to protect it completely.
   This chapter consists of two parts. The first part, comprising the five sections, reviews the
corrosion fundamentals: the basic concepts and principles of electricity and electrochemistry
needed to understand corrosion processes. The second part outlines common causes of
corrosion in gas distribution systems and the utility practices to control it.

Part 1: Fundamentals and

measurement
Fundamentals of Electricity and Electrochemical Processes
   Most metals are found in nature as ores, often oxides of the metal. These ores are the most
stable of the metals in their natural environment. Thus corrosion of metals buried in the ground
can be viewed as nature at work, converting metals back into ores. In 1903, Dr. Willis Rodney
Whitney discovered that this conversion process is an electrochemical process. An
electrochemical reaction takes place the same as the reaction within a battery and is
accompanied by a flow of electricity. Understanding of the corrosion process requires an
understanding of the fundamentals of electricity and electrochemical processes.

Fundamentals of Electricity

   All matter is made up of combinations of neutral and electrically charged particles. Although we

cannot give a simple definition of electrical charge, much is known about the properties and
behavior of charged bodies. Through experiments, we believe there are two types of charged
bodies, negative and positive. Both negative and positive charged bodies exert forces on each
other. If two bodies carry the same type of charge, they repel each other; if they carry opposite
charges, they attract each other.
   Two of the basic building blocks of matter, the electron and the proton, carry electrical charges.
The electron has a very small mass, only 1/1840 the mass of the hydrogen atom, and it carries a
unit of charge which is the smallest known amount of negative electrical charge. All other
electrical charges are multiples of the charge on the electron. The proton has a mass very nearly
equal to the mass of the hydrogen atom, and carries the smallest possible amount of positive
electrical charge. In fact, the charge on the proton is equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to
that on the electron.
   These natural units of charge are much too small for ordinary use, and the practical unit of
charge is the coulomb, which is 6.25 X 1018 as great as the charge on the electron. A coulomb is
an amount of electrical charge, just as a standard cubic foot is an amount of gas.
   Normally matter is electrically neutral, that is, it has no net electrical charge because it contains
exactly equal amounts of positive and negative charges. The positive charges are concentrated in
the nucleus of each atom of matter; the electrons circulate around the nucleus.
   The magnitude of the attractive or repulsive force exerted by charged bodies on each other,
when their dimensions are small compared to the distance between them, is given by Coulomb's
law:
   F = (qq'/r2)k [Eq. 9-1]
F =  force exerted between the bodies
q = electrical charge on one body
q’ = electrical charge on the other body
r = distance between the charged bodies
k = a constant whose value depends on the media surrounding the bodies and on the units in
which the other quantities in the equation are expressed.
This equation shows that the forces of attraction or repulsion increase as two charged bodies are
brought closer together and become very small when the distance between the bodies is large.
Thus force is required to move a charged body toward a fixed body with the same type of charge.
If the force is removed, the movable body will be pushed away from the fixed body by the force of
repulsion between the two bodies.
   The movable body can be used to do work if it is connected to a suitable mechanism. Thus, a
charged body has potential energy (the ability to do work) because of its position near another
charged body, just as a raised weight has potential energy because of its position above the
earth's surface.
   If the movable body has a unit of positive electrical charge, one coulomb in practical units, its
potential energy at any location near another charged body is called the electrical potential of the
location. As a body with a unit positive charge moves away from another positively charged body,
its potential energy decreases. It follows that the electric potential near a positively charged body
is maximum at the surface of the body, and decreases with distance from the surface. Lines of
constant potential about a positively charged spherical body are shown in Figure 9-1. Conversely,
the electrical potential near a negatively charged body is at a minimum at its surface and
increases with distance from the surface.
Fig. 9-1. Lines of Constant Potential Around a  
Positively Charged Spherical Body
   A charged body, therefore, conditions the space around it. When a second charged body is
present, force is exerted on it wherever it is placed. At every point in space about the charged
body, a force of a specific magnitude and direction is exerted on the second charged body. The
term electric field is used to denote the presence of this force pattern around all charged bodies.
Each field has a characteristic force pattern, which depends on the shape of the charged body
and the magnitude of its charge.
   There is no convenient method of measuring electrical potential; but the difference in potential
between two bodies or between two locations in materials that conduct electricity is easily
measured with a voltmeter. The practical unit of potential difference is the volt.
   In materials that are good conductors of electricity, some of the electrons are free to move. If a
steady potential difference is maintained between two locations in a conductor, such as the two
ends of a section of copper wire, a steady flow of electrons will move between the two locations.
The direction of this electron flow will be from the lower potential toward the higher potential,
since the electron has a negative charge and potential is defined with respect to positively
charged bodies. Positively charged bodies spontaneously migrate from higher to lower potential
regions; negatively charged bodies spontaneously migrate from lower to higher potential regions.
   Current flow through electrolytes such as water solutions or moist soil is due to movement of
both positively and negatively charged bodies (ions) in opposite directions. The movement of the
opposite charges in opposite directions produces current flow in the same direction. Thus the
total current is the sum of the current produced by the movement of the positively charged ions
plus that produced by the negatively charged ions.
   The early experimenters who first studied electricity and its properties assumed that electrical
current always consisted of the flow of positively charged bodies from regions of higher potential
to regions of lower potential. This point-of-view is still widely used in electric power work and in
corrosion work and is used in the remainder of this chapter. Flow of positively charged bodies will
be termed conventional current flow, viewed as the flow of only positively charged bodies.

Electrical Circuits and Terminology

   These electrical terms are analogous to some of the quantities described in earlier chapters:
Voltage or potential difference denotes the electrical pressure difference, which causes electricity
to flow. An analogy would be the pressure drop along a pipeline.
Amperes or current denotes the rate of flow of electricity. This is analogous to the quantity of gas
flowing through a pipeline, such as cubic feet of gas per second.
Ohms or resistance refers to the resistance of a conductor to electrical flow just as a pipeline
offers resistance to the flow of gas.
   The practical unit of current flow is coulombs per second, a unit given the name ampere. Ohm’s
laws projects the current flow that will occur between two locations in a given conductor when a
steady potential difference is maintained between them:
         [Eq. 9-2]
I = rate of current flow, amperes
E = potential difference, volts
R = resistance of the conductor to the flow of electricity between two locations, ohms
The resistance of a uniform conductor to the flow of electricity is given by the equation:
   R = r  [Eq. 9-3]
L = the length of the current path through the conductor, cm
A  = the cross sectional area through which the current flows, cm2
r = the resistivity of the conductor, a property of the material, ohm-cm
Eq. 9-3 shows that the resistance of a large wire is less than that of a small one, and the
resistance of a long wire is greater than that of a short one. The lower resistance in materials, the
better the conductor. Consequently, copper and aluminum wire and cable are commonly used as
low-resistance conductors of electricity.

   Series Circuits

   When two or more resistors are connected in series, their total resistance is the sum of their
individual resistances.
Example: 
If three resistors, a 2 ohm, a 3 ohm and a 5 ohm, are connected in series as shown below, their
total resistance is 10 ohms.
The voltage drop across these resistors produced by a current flow of 2 amperes can be obtained
from Ohm's law:
E = IR = 2 X 10 = 20 volts

   Parallel Circuits

When two or more resistors are connected in parallel, the resistance of the combination is
frequently expressed as an equivalent single resistance. This resistance is smaller than that of
any of the individual resistors and can be computed from the equation:
   1/Re = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + . . . [Eq. 9-4]
Re = equivalent resistance, ohms
R1, R2 R3 = resistance of individual resistors, ohms
The total current flow divides among the resistors in inverse proportion to their resistances:
   Ii = (It Re)/Ri [Eq. 9-5]
Ii =  current flow through ith resistor, amperes
It = total current flow through all of the resistors
Ri = resistance of the ith individual resistor connected in parallel, ohms
Re = equivalent resistance of the parallel resistors, ohms
Example:
If the three resistors of the previous example—2, 3, and 5 ohms—are connected in parallel, as
shown below, compute their total resistance. Determine the current flow through each resistor if
the total current flow is 10 amperes.
Parallel Circuit
Solution: 
The total resistance is obtained by use of Eq. 9-4.
I/Re =  l/2 + 1/3 + 1/5
= 0.50 + 0.33 + 0.20 = 1.03
Re =  = 0.97ohm
 
   The current flow through each resistor is obtained from Equation 9-5:
I1 =  (10 X 0.97)/2 = 4.9 amperes
I2 =  (10 X 0.97)/3 = 3.2 amperes
13 = (10 X 0.97)/5 = 1.9 amperes
      Total 10.0 amperes

D-C Electrical Instrumentation

   Voltmeters

   In corrosion work, it is often necessary to measure potential differences and current flows with
electrical instruments. The most common instruments are digital voltmeters and ammeters. A
diagram of the working parts of this instrument is shown in Figure 9-2. The digital instruments
provide accurate numerical readouts for corrosion control work because they take very little
energy from the external circuit. The current needed to operate the circuitry comes from a battery
installed within the meter. 
   The key parts of an analog meter (Figure 9-3) are a permanent magnet and a` coil. The two
ends of the wire wound in the coil terminate at binding posts (terminals) that can be used to
connect the meter into an electrical circuit. When a potential difference is impressed across the
two terminals, current flows through the coil which pivots from its current position. In the current
flow shown in Figure 9-3, the coil and attached pointer deflect in the clockwise direction.
   An analog meter differs from a digital meter in that the current to operate the digital meter
comes from the circuit itself. Consequently, when used as a voltmeter, the current drawn by the
voltmeter must be extremely small to avoid significant error in the potential difference being
measured. This requires use of high sensitivity meters with a high internal resistance, usually 10
megohms (10,000,000 ohms) or more.
   
Fig. 9-2. Digital Voltmeter Fig. 9-3. Analog Voltmeter

Ammeters

   Electric current is measured with an ammeter, which is a voltmeter connected in parallel with a
calibrated, low-resistance shunt. The resistance of the shunt is very low, a few hundredths or
thousandths of an ohm, so that most of the current flows through the shunt, and only a small
fraction flows through the parallel-connected voltmeter. When the current flowing through a
branch of an electric circuit is to be measured, an ammeter is connected into it in series (Figure 9-
4).
Fig. 9-4. Current Flow Measurements
   To measure the current flowing in a pipeline, it is seldom possible to use an ammeter. When we
measure current along an electrically continuous welded pipeline, usually there is no way to insert
an ammeter. The current is determined by measuring the voltage drop over a length of pipe,
typically 100 to 200 feet. This is usually accomplished through a voltage drop on a current span
test station as shown in Figure 9-5. Once the resistance of the test span is known, the current
flowing can be calculated from Ohm's law. To avoid error caused by the resistance of the test
leads, a high-resistance voltmeter, such as a digital instrument with a 10 megohm input
resistance, should be used. 
Fig. 9-5. Measurement of Potential Drop Along a Pipeline
Multimeters

   To facilitate corrosion field measurements, test equipment has been developed that combines
into one compact unit (Figure 9-6) the instruments required for most of the current and potential
difference measurements.
Fig. 9-6. Multiple Purpose Meter for Corrosion Field Testing
(Courtesy Harco Technologies Corp.)

Electrochemical Processes

   The simplest example of an electrochemical process is the common dry cell, which represents
the basic corrosion cell. The essential parts of a dry cell are two dissimilar metals called
electrodes, which are immersed in a current-conducting solution called the electrolyte and
connected to an external circuit. As shown in Figure 9-7, the electrodes of an ordinary dry cell are
the zinc case and the carbon rod in the center of the cell; the pasty material between the
electrodes is the electrolyte.
   A potential difference of 1.5 volts exists between the two electrodes. Therefore when a
conductor of electricity is connected across the terminals of this cell, a chemical reaction
occurs, and electricity flows through the conductor. This flow consists of the movement
of electrons from the zinc outer case through the wire to the central carbon rod. These
electrons are generated by the electrochemical reaction at the inner surface of the zinc
case:
Zn ® Zn++ + 2e
(one atom of (forms) (one zinc ion in + (2 electrons)
metallic zinc) solution)
   In this reaction, each atom of metallic zinc loses two electrons and goes into solution as a
positively charged ion. This is an example of the basic corrosion reaction. As indicated, metal
atoms do not dissolve in water intact; they lose one or more electrons and go into solution as
positively charged ions. Each drop of tap water or ground water commonly contains trillions of
ions, both positively and negatively charged, including ions of several metals.
 
   In electrochemistry, electrodes at which electrons are generated by solution of the electrode
(oxidation) are called anodes, so this term is associated with the location at which corrosion
occurs. (This term is sometimes confused with similar terms in electronics. Electrodes which emit
electrons ¾ negative charges ¾ are called cathodes. Readers familiar with electronics
terminology will have to study the electrochemical definitions of the terms anode and cathode
carefully to avoid confusion.)
Fig. 9-7. Dry Cell Battery
(Basic Corrosion Cell)
   Electrons arriving at the central carbon rod by the wire connection are consumed by
another chemical reaction which takes place at the surface of this rod:
2H + + 2e ® H2
two hydrogen + 2 electrons form one molecule of
ions in solution hydrogen
   The hydrogen ions taking part in this reaction are present in any water solution, including the
battery electrolyte. Any electrode at which an electron-consuming reaction (reduction) takes place
is called a cathode.
   Flow of electricity also takes place through the electrolyte. In this case, the electricity is carried
by the movement of ions in solution. Positive ions in the solution, such as the hydrogen ions,
move toward the central carbon rod. Negatively charged ions, such as hydroxyl ions (OH-), which
are also always present in water solutions, move toward the zinc outer case. The net effect can
be viewed as a flow of negative charges of electricity from the carbon rod toward the zinc case, or
alternately, as a flow of positive charges (the conventional current) in the reverse direction. All of
these effects continue to occur only as long as there is an electrically conducting circuit
connected between the two electrodes of a battery. When the circuit is opened, the current flow
ceases and the potential difference between the electrodes gradually increases to its open circuit
value.
   Electrons flow through a circuit connected between the electrodes of a battery because there is
a difference in electrical potential between them. This electron flow proceeds from the electrode
with the higher electron pressure, the anode, to the electrode with the lower electron pressure,
the cathode (Figure 9-8).
 
Fig. 9-8. Measurement of Potential Difference Between Two Electrodes ¾ No Current Flow
Between Them
   Whenever any electrode is immersed in an electrolyte. a chemical reaction takes place at the
electrode surface. The net effect of this reaction will be either the generation or consumption of
electrons and of positive or negative ions, and the gathering of equal but opposite charges of
electricity by the electrolyte and the electrode. The resulting difference in electrical potential
between the metal and the solution is called the electrode solution potential difference.
   The difference in potential between an individual electrode and the surrounding electrolyte can
be measured with a reference electrode as shown in Figure 9-8. The potential quantities involved
in this measurement are shown in the figure in terms of a relative potential diagram.
   The electromotive force series, Table 9-1, is a tabulation of potential differences between a
standard hydrogen reference electrode and other pure metal electrodes with clean surfaces
immersed in electrolytes containing a specified concentration of ions of the metal, at a
temperature of 25ºC.
 
   The standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) consists of a platinum electrode with a specially
treated surface immersed in an electrolyte containing a specified concentration of hydrogen ions
in close contact with bubbles of hydrogen gas at a pressure of 1 atmosphere. Metals near the top
of the electromotive series, which have negative potentials with respect to the SHE, are
highly reactive and corrode readily. Lithium, potassium, calcium, and sodium, for
example, react violently with water. Metals near the bottom of the list, such as platinum,
mercury and silver, are notably unreactive. 
 
Table 9-1. Electromotive Force Series of Metals
Metal Ion Formed Standard Electrode Potential,
volts
 Lithium Li+ -3.02
+
Potassium K -2.92
++
Calcium Ca -2.76
+
Sodium Na -2.71
Magnesium Mg ++
-2.35
Aluminum Al +++
-1.66
Zinc Zn ++
-0.76
Chromium Cr ++
-0.56
Iron (Ferrous) Fe ++
-0.44
Cadmium Cd ++
-0.40
Cobalt Co ++
-0.28
Nickel Ni ++
-0.24
Tin Sn++ -0.14
Lead Pb ++
-0.13
Hydrogen H +
0.00
Antimony Sb +++
+0.10
Copper (Cupric) Cu ++
+0.34
Silver Ag +
+0.80
Mercury HG ++
+0.86
Platinum Pt ++
+1.20
   The potential difference between any two electrodes can be obtained as the difference between
their potentials with respect to the standard hydrogen electrode. For example, the potential
difference between the standard iron electrode and the standard copper electrode is:
 
EºCu  =  0.34 V; EºFe = -0.44 V
Eº Cu - EºFE =  VºCu - VºFe = 0.34 - (-0.44) = 0.78V
Eº Cu = the potential of a standard pure copper electrode with respect to the SHE
EºFe = the potential of a standard pure iron electrode with respect to the SHE
VºCu = the potential of the copper metal
VºFe = the potential of the iron metal
In this example, the potential of the iron is negative with respect to the potential of the copper.
Therefore, if these two electrodes and their associated electrolytes are coupled together to form
an electrochemical cell, the iron electrode is the anode and will corrode.
   If two metals immersed in any electrolyte are coupled together, generally the metal higher in the
electromotive series will serve as the anode of the resulting galvanic cell. However, there are
many conditions where this is not true. For example, zinc may become cathodic with respect to
iron in tap water as the water nears its boiling point. For this reason, severe corrosion is
sometimes experienced in galvanized hot water tanks (zinc-coated steel) when the water
temperature is raised above 140ºF, the temperatures required by automatic washing machines.
   The electromotive force series as a guide to the corrosion behavior of metal couples is limited
because most of the metals used as gas piping contain impurities and are alloys of several
metals. A list of the potentials of commercial metals immersed in a specified electrolyte with
 respect to a reference electrode is called a Galvanic series. A brief Galvanic series for metals
in neutral soils is given in Table 9-2. 
Table 9-2. Galvanic Series of Metals and Alloys in Neutral Soils a
Material Electrode Potential,a volts
Magnesium (High Potential) -1.75
Magnesium (H-I Alloy) -1.60
Zinc -1.10
Aluminum -1.05
Cast Iron, Steel -0.50
Brass, Copper, Bronze -0.20
Carbon +0.30
a
With respect to a copper-copper sulfate electrode
The values in Table 9-2 differ significantly from the corresponding values for Table 9-1 because
the potentials in Table 9-2 are measured against a copper-copper sulfate electrode.
Common Distribution System Corrosion Cells
   In general, any dissimilarity in the composition of two electrodes immersed in the same
electrolyte, or in the environment surrounding a single electrode of uniform composition, will form
electrochemical cells and the anode reaction that produces corrosion of the metal. In the case of
metal structures such as steel piping buried in the ground, moist soil of varying composition
serves as the electrolyte. The very composition of the pipe, which contains varying amounts of
carbon, nickel, and copper, also produces anodic and cathodic areas along its length. Steel pipe
of slightly variable composition is exposed to an electrolyte of variable composition, and the
electrochemical cells established cause varying degrees of destruction to each anodic point.
      The list of conditions and figures that follow illustrate the common areas in which unprotected
steel gas piping is anodic and thus susceptible to corrosion. In many of the figures, arrows
through the soil indicate the direction and approximate path of conventional current flow through
the soil from anode to cathode.

Common areas for corrosion

 Steel gas lines in contact with brass valves or copper water lines (Figures 9-9 and 9-10)
 Steel gas mains in contact with cast iron water or gas lines
 New steel gas lines touching old steel gas lines (Figure 9-11)
 Steel gas services touching old cast iron gas lines
 Steel gas lines passing through soils of different oxygen or mineral content (Figure 9-12)
 Bright exposed steel on services and mains at wrench marks or at threads (Figure 9-13)
 Steel lines in aerated soil touching steel lines in non-aerated soil, such as top and bottom
of bare gas main (Figure 9-14)
 Steel gas main in contact with cinders (Figure 9-15)

Fig. 9-9. Corrosion of Steel Adjacent to Brass Valve Body

(Courtesy Columbia Gas Systems Service Corporation)
 Fig. 9-10. Corrosion of Steel and Cast Iron Connected  
to a Copper Water Service
(Courtesy Columbia Gas System Service Corporation)
Fig. 9-11. Corrosion of New Pipe Welded to Old Pipe
(Courtesy Columbia Gas System Service Corporation)
Fig. 9-12. Corrosion Caused by Dissimilar Soils
(Courtesy Columbia Gas System Service Corporation)
Fig. 9-13. Corrosion Caused by Dissimilarity of Surface Conditions
(Courtesy Columbia Gas System Service Corporation)
Fig. 9-14. Corrosion Caused by Differential Aeration of Soil
(Courtesy Columbia Gas System Service Corporation)
Fig. 9-15. Corrosion Caused by Cinders
(Courtesy Columbia Gas System Service Corporation)
   The corrosion of iron in water or in moist soil takes place in several steps, (Figure 9-16). Iron
atoms on the surface of the pipe each release two electrons and go into solutions as ions. Each
of these ions combines with two negatively charged hydroxyl ions to form ferrous hydroxide; this
combines, in turn, with dissolved oxygen in the electrolyte to form rust, ferric hydroxide (FeOH3).
The electrons released from the iron at the anode flow through the metal to the cathode where
they react with hydrogen ions or oxygen, Figure 9-17. The hydrogen gas then combines with
oxygen to form water. When oxygen is present, the principal process on the iron cathode is
believed to be oxygen reduction: 2H2O + O2 + 4e ® 4OH.
Fig. 9-16. Steps in Electrochemical Corrosion of Iron
Fig. 9-17. Common Reaction at Underground Cathodes
Stray Current Corrosion
   Just as it is possible for chemical reactions to produce electrical energy, as is done in a dry cell
or galvanic corrosion cell, it is also possible to produce chemical changes by the appropriate
application of external electrical energy.
   Direct current is introduced into the earth in several industrial operations, notably in coal mining
operations (Figure 9-18) and in the operation of d-c electrified railways (Figure 9-19). This current
sometimes flows onto a pipeline at one location and flows off at another as shown in Figures 9-18
and 9-19. In both cases, current flows to the train by way of the overhead conductor (or third rail)
and returns to the d-c substation by two parallel paths, along the rail and from the rail through the
soil to the pipe, along the pipe, and then from the pipe through the soil to the negative ground of
the generator. The pipeline receives cathodic protection where current flows from the earth to the
pipe, but it is severely corroded in the areas where the current leaves the pipe to return to earth.
The corrosive action of this current is called stray current corrosion.
Fig. 9-18. Stray Current from a Coal Mine
(Courtesy Columbia Gas System Service Corporation)
   The corrosive effects of stray direct current can be eliminated by connecting the pipe with a low-
resistance cable through a reversing switch to the negative bus bar of each d-c
substation. Current then returns to the negative bus through this cable, instead of through the
earth. This setup eliminates the corrosion of the pipe in the vicinity of the substation.
Fig. 9-19. Stray Current from an Electrified Railway
(Courtesy Illinois Power Company)
 Fig. 9-20. Corrosion Due to High-Resistance Couplings
(Courtesy Illinois Power Company)
   A circumstance that further promotes stray current corrosion is the frequent occurrence of high-
resistance, mechanically-coupled joints in sections of pipe near the substations. When such
joints in a section of main carry appreciable stray current electricity, the current leaves the pipe on
one side of the coupling and flows through the soil to piping on the other side (Figure 9-20).
Corrosion occurs at each location where current leaves the pipe. To eliminate corrosion from this
source, each joint is jumpered with a short length of low-resistance metal strap called a bond.
These bonds establish a continuous metallic path for current flow.
Corrosion Rates

Polarization

   The measured potential difference between two metals buried in the soil, but not connected
together, is usually much greater than the potential difference that prevails after they have been
connected to form a corrosion cell. As soon as a connection is made between two electrodes to
permit current to flow between them, their potential difference begins to decrease and finally
levels out at a much lower value. This voltage change is called polarization. Polarization has the
important effect of slowing down the corrosion rate. It is caused by the changes produced at the
electrodes by the chemical reactions that accompany the flow of current and by the energy
consumed in causing the reactions to occur. The lower potential difference between the polarized
electrodes is the driving voltage that applies over an extended time in a corrosion cell.
   The magnitude of these effects at each electrode depends on the current density (the total
current entering or leaving an electrode divided by the surface area of the electrode). The effects
of polarization are illustrated in Figure 9-21 for two electrodes of equal surface area. The potential
difference between the two electrodes, represented by the distance b-c, is the potential difference
between the two polarized electrodes when the current I is flowing between them.
Fig. 9-21. Electrode Polarization in an Electrochemical Cell
   If the total circuit resistance were small, the current flow would correspond to Imin in Figure 9-21
because the polarized anode and cathode electrode potentials become nearly equal.
   The solid lines in Figure 9-21 are called polarization curves. The shape and slope of these
curves varies with the material in the electrode, the condition of the electrode surface, and the
composition of the electrolyte; but the cathode will always polarize to more negative values and
the anode to more positive values as the current flow between the electrodes decreases. The
change in the potential of the cathode is shown as greater than that at the anode for each current
density. This is the situation encountered frequently in practice.
   The reaction at the cathode often results in the production of a film, as shown in Figure 9-17.
This partly covers the cathode and the resulting decrease in effective surface area increases
current density and cathodic polarization at a given total current flow. If the film is composed of
hydrogen, it can react with dissolved oxygen to form water. In this case, oxygen acts as a
depolarizer and contributes to an increased rate of corrosion.
   Polarization, therefore, is a retardation in the rate of corrosion, or current flow, caused by a
reduction in the voltage difference or an increase in resistance between the anode and cathode. 
   There are two types of polarization, activation and concentration. Activation polarization is
inherent in the reaction itself. Essentially, it represents the speed at which electrons can be
transferred from the cathode surface to a cation (ions attracted to the cathode) such as hydrogen
evolution. Hence, the varied rates of corrosion occur for different metals. As time progresses,
hydrogen may adhere to the surface of the cathode, thus reducing the rate of electron transfer to
hydrogen ions in the electrolyte.
   Concentration polarization represents a depletion of cations adjacent to the cathode surface. If
hydrogen is being evolved, for example, the availability of hydrogen ions around the cathode may
be reduced, thus reducing the rate of corrosion. The evolution of hydrogen may cause a film of
hydrogen to develop over the cathode surface. Likewise, corrosion products may adhere to the
anode surface. Both of these reactions cause an increase in the anode to cathode resistance and
reduce the rate of current flow.

Anode/Cathode Ratio

   The relative area between the anode and cathode greatly affects the rate at which the anode
corrodes. If the anodic area is small in relation to that of the cathode (a steel rivet in a copper
plate, for example), the anode will corrode rapidly. This is because the corrosion current is
concentrated in a small area. Also, the large cathode may not polarize easily and so maintain a
high rate of corrosion.
   When a large anode is connected to a small cathode (copper rivet in a steel plate, for example),
corrosion is spread out over a large area. Thus, the concentration of corrosion current is not so
dense, and the anode corrodes more slowly. Polarization may play an important role here
too. The small cathode may polarize rapidly, reducing the rate of corrosion current flow.

Effect of the Metal Itself

   Different metals corrode at different rates because of the difference in the amount of energy
stored in them. The rate is expressed by Faraday's law:
W = K x I x T
where:
W = Weight Loss in One Year
K = Electrochemical Equivalent in Pounds per ampere per Year
I = Corrosion Current in Amperes
T = Time in Years
 
   The electrochemical equivalents for several common metals:
      Iron or Steel 20
      Lead 74
      Copper 45
      Zinc 23
      Aluminum 6.4
      Carbon 2.5
Field Measurements
   Pipeline corrosion behavior depends on field conditions: the soil environment, the nature and
location of other underground structures, and the condition of any coatings or isolating fittings.
Thus, the basic data needed to plan and maintain an effective and economical corrosion control
program must be obtained from field measurements. Since the corrosion process is
electrochemical, the quantities usually measured are d-c electrical currents, potential differences,
and soil resistivities (whether the soil has a low or high resistance to electrical current).

Soil Resistivity Profiles

   Pipeline corrosion rates increase as the resistivity of the soil surrounding the pipe decreases. In
addition, the variations in the oxygen, moisture, and mineral content of the soil determine the
resistivity of the soil. Dense, moist, unaerated soil with high soluble-minerals content has a
relatively low resistivity compared to loose, well aerated soil with low soluble-minerals content.
Thus soil resistivity surveys can be used to locate low resistivity areas where corrosion rates are
likely to be high. Soil resistivity measurements are also used to design cathodic protection
installations, described in the next section of this chapter.
   Soil resistivity may be measured with a single-probe resistivity meter (Figure 9-22) or by the
four-pin (Wenner) method (Figure 9-23). To make a measurement with a single-probe meter, the
probe is pushed into the soil as shown in Figure 9-22, a switch is pressed, and the soil resistivity
is obtained directly from the meter reading. It is the most rapid method of measurement, but it
measures the resistivity of only a small spherical sample of soil near the tip of the probe. Its use is
restricted to measurements of the resistivity of exposed soil strata in a trench or the resistivity of
ground water.
   
Fig. 9-22. Single-Probe Resistivity Meter Fig. 9-23. Measurement of Soil Resistivity by
Four-Pin Method

(Courtesy Illinois Power Company)

   In the four-pin method (Figure 9-23), the pins are placed in a straight line with an equal spacing
between them. A flow of alternating current is produced between the two outside pins. The
instrument measures this current, and the resultant voltage drop between the inner two
pins. From these data, the method calculates the resistance between the inner two pins and
presents this as a dial reading in ohms. Resistivity is then calculated from:
   p = 191.5 X A X R (Eq. 9-6)
p = Resistivity in ohm centimeters
A = Spacing between the pins in feet
R = Resistance between the inner two pins (dial reading) in ohms.
   The measured resistivity is the average from the surface to a depth equal to the pin
spacing. Typical pin spacings are 5 feet and 10 feet. The resistivity of the layer between 5 and 10
feet, or between other pin spacings, can then be calculated. 

Pipe-to-Soil Potential Measurements

   The most valuable field measurement in corrosion work is the pipe-to-soil potential. However,
the use of this term for measurement is somewhat misleading. The value obtained is not a
potential between the pipe and the soil adjacent to it. Instead, it is the potential between the pipe
and the metal electrode in the reference half-cell that is in contact with the soil near the pipe
(Figure 9-24).
   The reference electrode universally used in pipeline work is the saturated copper/copper-sulfate
half-cell (Figure 9-25), so named because the electrolyte in the cell is a saturated solution of
copper sulfate. This electrolyte makes contact with the soil through the porous plug in the bottom
of the cell.
Fig. 9-24. Pipe-to-Soil Potential Measurement
Fig. 9-25. Copper and Saturated CuSO4 Reference Half-Cell
   Pipe to soil potential measurements can be used to locate anodic and cathodic areas on
unprotected or partially protected pipelines. They are also the primary means of evaluating the
effectiveness of cathodic protection. This testing requires that accurate data be collected to avoid
errors introduced by voltage drops caused by cathodic protection current. This is discussed
further under "Maintenance of Cathodic Protection Systems" later in this chapter.

   Stray Current Tests

   The presence of stray current is indicated if the pipe-to-soil potential fluctuates erratically. If only
galvanic corrosion cells are present along a pipeline, the pipe-to-soil potential is steady. However,
stray current effects from offending rectifiers can be steady and may be identified only by
interruption of the rectifier.
   Fluctuations to more positive values indicate stray current is leaving the pipe and causing it to
corrode. Fluctuations to more negative values indicate current flow to the pipe which gives it
cathodic protection.
   Recording voltmeters and data loggers are often used to monitor the stray current flow in
pipelines for periods up to 24 hours or more through measurement of line current flow. They are
also used to record pipe-to-soil potentials. If the source of the stray current is unknown, the
pattern of the recorded fluctuations may help locate it. If stray current bonds have been installed,
the recordings will show whether bonds have eliminated stray current corrosion at the point of the
test.
   The amount of stray current flowing in a pipeline is often determined by measuring the potential
difference between two test leads spaced a known distance apart on the pipeline. A favored
spacing, although sometimes impractical, is one for which a potential drop of 1 millivolt
corresponds to a current flow of 1 ampere. For API Standard 5L Grade-B pipe, the spacing
required to produce this relationship can be estimated from Ohm's law, the weight-per-foot of the
pipe, and the equation:
 
   RI = (246 X 10-6)/W [Eq. 9-7]
RI = resistance of the pipe per foot of length, ohms/ft
W = weight of the pipe per foot of length, lb/ft
Example:
A pair of test leads is to be installed on a new 8-in. pipeline fabricated of Schedule.40, API
Standard 5L Grade-B seamless pipe, which weighs 22.36 lb/ft. Calculate the test lead spacing
that will produce a potential difference of 1 millivolt for each ampere of current flow through the
pipe.
Solution:
Obtain the total resistance between the leads from Ohm's law (Eq. 9-2:).
R = E/I = 0.001/I = 0.001 ohm
   Calculate the resistance of the pipe per foot of length from Eq. 9-7.
   To compute the test lead spacing, divide the total resistance by the resistance per foot of pipe:
   For accurate results, the relationship between potential drop and current should be determined
by field calibration. (A simple procedure for this calibration is given by A.W. Peabody in Control of
Pipeline Corrosion, Houston TX: NACE International, 1978).

Test Stations

   A test lead for measuring pipe potential is a short length of insulated copper wire with one end
attached to the pipe by thermite welding, a chemical welding process. The free end is brought to
the surface of the ground and enclosed in a receptacle that can easily be found when the test
lead is to be used. On distribution piping, where this receptacle often should not extend above the
ground surface, a stubby cast iron or plastic valve box just a few inches long is used. Two test
leads to the pipe per test station are usually installed.

Redox Measurements

   Redox potential measurements are used to indicate whether soil conditions are favorable for
the existence of a type of bacteria that contributes to the formation of corrosion cells along the
pipe.

Part 2: corrosion prevention

Corrosion Prevention Practices
   Corrosion of distribution piping results in loss to utilities of millions of dollars yearly. Much of this
can be saved through the use of preventive maintenance. The basic components of a program to
prevent pipe corrosion are 1) electrical isolation of the pipe from other facilities, 2) protective
coating, and 3) cathodic protection. If the necessary preventive measures are applied at the time
of construction, the cost is a small percentage of the total cost of pipe installation.

Electrical Isolation

   Isolating fittings provide electrical separation between portions of a structure or between

different structures, although the presence of heavy stray currents may limit their use. In a
distribution system, the use of isolating couplings (Figure 9-26) or flanges (Figure 9-27) at the
necessary points in both the mains and the service lines connected to the protected pipe is
required. In addition to isolating protected sections of mains, these isolating fittings are also used
to break large protected sections into smaller sections, as shown in Figure 9-28, to facilitate
troubleshooting the protective system. The test-leads connected across the isolators are used to
test their effectiveness.
Fig. 9-26. Cross Section of Insulating Compression Coupling
In practice, protected-to-unprotected connection is made with metal-tipped gasket on protected
side
(Courtesy Corrpro Companies, Inc.)
Fig. 9-27. Isolating Flange Assembly
Fig. 9-28. Isolating Fittings Used to Sectionalize a Piping System
(Courtesy Gas Age)
   A variety of fittings are used to isolate steel services. Isolation of the service at the main is
achieved with an isolation compression fitting, usually a tee or an elbow. Steel services are
isolated from cast iron mains. When this is done, the fittings connected to the main are fabricated
of a material slightly cathodic to cast iron to avoid rapid penetration by corrosion. An isolating
fitting must be installed somewhere in the gas service piping to prevent electrical connection of
the gas piping to water piping, as in Figure 9-10. Three fittings widely used for this purpose are
isolating meter bars, unions, and meter swivels. When the meter is installed in a basement,
problems of accidental shorting around these isolating fittings through clothes hangers, wire
clothes lines, etc., can be minimized if the fitting is placed as near as possible to the service
entrance to the basement. Pipelines that have cathodic protection are nearly always electrically
isolated from other structures. This way, cathodic protection current is confined to the structure to
be protected, making smaller and less expensive cathodic protection systems possible. This is
particularly common practice in protecting coated pipe.
   Whenever isolating fittings are used, it is important that they not be bypassed or "shorted.” Any
metallic path, such as a kick brace, regulator equalizing line, or remote monitoring device that
goes around an isolator will render the isolator ineffective.

Protective Coatings

   Pipe is coated with materials that are insulators to separate the soil from the metal. To be
effective the coating must be:
1. continuous (free of voids or holidays)
2. impervious to water absorption
3. chemically inert to the surrounding soil
4. well bonded to the pipe
5. resistant to soil stresses
6. a poor conductor of electricity

   The coating on most of the pipe installed in distribution systems is factory applied under
carefully controlled conditions. Thus, pipe delivered to a construction site is coated except for a
specified cutback area at each end of the pipe.

Materials
   The most common coatings in use today are liquid- and fusion-bonded epoxies, extruded
polyethylene, and types of hot and cold applied tapes. Several of the cold applied tapes are two-
or three-layer systems applied over special primers. Tapes and heat shrinkable devices are
frequently used to coat welded joints.
   Coatings by themselves, however, are not considered adequate for corrosion control, because
there is no such thing as perfect coating. All coatings have inherent holes, or
holidays. Sometimes the coating is damaged during construction. Concentrated corrosion at the
coating breaks often causes failures sooner on coated structures than on bare ones. In stray
current areas, severe damage may occur on coated pipe because of the high density of
discharge current at coating faults. For these reasons, Federal regulations require cathodic
protection on most coated natural gas and hazardous liquid pipelines.
   The most important function of coating relates to cathodic protection. When structures are
coated, it is necessary to protect only small areas with coating holidays. Careful applications of
coating and careful handling of coated structures leads to maximum coating effectiveness,
minimizing protective current requirements and costs. Also, lower current usage generally means
less chance of stray current effects on other structures. Consequently, management personnel
need to assure that good quality coatings are purchased and correctly applied, and that coated
pipe is properly handled and laid.

Handling and Storage

   Coatings can be seriously damaged by rough handling and careless storage. When coated pipe
is loaded or unloaded, it should never be dropped into place but should be guided to the ground
to prevent impact with rigid objects and subsequent damage. Small-diameter pipe can be stacked
or loaded by hand. Larger pipe is handled with end-hooks. Use of chains, bare cables, and belts,
with exposed metal rivets results in severe coating damage.
   Pipe smaller than 4 inches is often stored in steel racks. Larger pipe is stacked on padded skids
pyramid-style. Padding such as fire hose or heavy belting is placed between layers, at the center
or at either end of the joints of pipe. Carriers that are used to transport pipe should be fitted with
wide cradles, padded skids, or runners to support the pipe. Heavy belting or fire hose should be
used as tie-downs to secure the load.

Coating of Joints and Fittings

   The cutback area at each weld as well as most fittings and valves must be coated in the field. A
wide variety of materials is used for this purpose, but the material used on a specific job should
be compatible with the line coating.
   Tape coatings are often used to coat the joint cutback area. Tapes may be made of tar-
impregnated cloth or glass fiber, pre-fabricated polyethylene, or polyvinylchloride. The tar tapes
are heated with a portable torch to make them pliable and tacky enough to spiral wrap over the
joint; then the torch is played over the tape coating to fuse it into a smooth, continuous film. Heat-
shrinkable sleeves are also used for this purpose.
   The first step in the coating procedure for all of these materials is to clean the area to be coated
to remove rust, scale, dirt, oil, and other surface contaminants. If this is not done, the coating will
not stick to the surface. Solid surface contaminants are normally removed with a wire brush or
rasp; solvents or heat must be used to remove organic liquids. Improved adhesion of both tar-
impregnated and plastic tapes is obtained if a primer is first painted over the cleaned surface and
allowed to become tacky. This primer must be compatible with the tape coatings.
   Coatings are also required for fittings such as service compression couplings, tees, elbows, and
sometimes even such irregular fittings as bolted compression couplings. These coatings include
heavy-bodied tar, asphalt or wax mastics, and two-part epoxy systems and petroleum tapes.
Compression couplings are usually supplied pre-coated. Such factory coating of fittings simplifies
a difficult field coating operation

Inspection

   Just before a pipe is lowered into the ground, its coating may be inspected for damaged areas
and faults or holidays. This inspection may be entirely visual, or it may be done with the aid of an
electrical inspection device called a holiday detector.
   The two basic components of a holiday detector are a battery-powered generator of high-
voltage electricity and a spring coil which extends around the pipe (Figure 9-29). The spring coil is
pushed along the pipe with an insulated handle. A contact mounted on the end of the handle is
connected to the generator with an insulated cable that runs down the inside of the handle.
   The electrical signal produced by most generators is a series of short duration pulses with a
peak voltage up to 15,000 volts. As the exploring coil passes over breaks or voids in the coating,
a spark jumps the air gap between the pipe metal and the exploring coil and a ringing bell or
flashing light alerts the operator to the presence of a holiday. Each holiday is marked by the
inspector and repaired by hand-patching. The peak voltage is adjustable and must be varied with
the changing weather conditions or coating thickness to locate most holidays without coating
breakdown through application of excessive voltage.
Fig. 9-29. Electronic Holiday Detector
(Courtesy Tinker-Rasor)
   Low voltage (67.5V) detectors with a wet-sponge electrode may be used for small diameter
pipe with thin film (10-12 mils) coatings. In all cases, it is necessary that the pipe be grounded (a
clip lead to a ground rod will suffice) for the holiday detector to operate.
   Holiday-detection is used primarily as a quality control measure to prevent excessive coating
damage during construction. Construction supervisors soon realize that time saved by quick
rough handling of coated pipe is soon lost in hand-patching holidays. 

Cathodic Protection

   A perfect coating could completely prevent all pipeline corrosion by itself. Because such a
coating is not attainable, some pinholes and holidays are present in all pipeline coatings, cathodic
protection is used to prevent accelerated corrosion at coating faults.
   To achieve cathodic protection, electrons are forced onto the protected structure rapidly enough
that only cathodic reactions take place at all points on its surface. In terms of conventional current
flow, current flows through the soil from the anode to the pipe. This current, in turn, overcomes
corrosion reactions on the pipe, again making the pipe the cathode of the new cell. Cathodic
protection is accomplished in two ways.
      In galvanic protection, a metal that is strongly anodic to steel, usually magnesium or zinc, is
buried in the ground adjacent to the pipe and connected to it with copper wire (Figure 9-30). This
establishes an electrochemical cell or battery in which the buried metal is the anode, the pipe is
the cathode, and the soil is the electrolyte.
      In impressed-current protection, a large mass of expendable metal (or graphite), called a
ground bed, is buried in the ground some distance from the pipe (Figure 9-31). This ground bed is
connected to the positive side of a source of direct current and the pipe is connected to the
negative side. The current source can be viewed as a pump for electrons with its suction side
connected to the ground bed and its discharge connected to the pipe. As electrons are removed
from the material in the ground bed, an electron-generating or anodic reaction occurs at its
surface. The exact nature of the reaction depends primarily on the material of the ground
bed. Again, in terms of conventional current flow, the ground bed is the anode, producing current
which flows to pipe, thus making it a cathode.
   In both types of cathodic protection, flow of current occurs through the soil from the buried
material to the pipe, as shown in Figure 9-31.

Galvanic Anode Installations

   The materials used for galvanic anodes are magnesium and zinc. For underground use,
magnesium is commonly supplied in 9-, 17-, 32- and 50-Ib cylinders. Zinc is supplied in 5-, 30-,
60-, and 150-lb rods with a square cross section. The backfill material illustrated in Figure 9-30 is
a mixture of gypsum and bentonite clay, which has a low resistivity. This backfill swells when wet
to provide a good, low-resistance contact between the anode and the soil, and it also minimizes
polarization of the anode. Both types of anodes can be purchased complete with backfill, encased
in a cloth bag, and with a section of insulated copper wire attached. This lead wire is usually
fastened to a steel core that extends most of the length of the anode.
 
Fig. 9-30. Magnesium Anode Installation
Fig. 9-31. Cathodic Protection With Impressed Current Protection System
(Courtesy Columbia Gas System Service Corporation)
   Galvanic anodes are usually installed below pipe depth in augered 8 to 12 in. diameter
holes. Installation below the pipe keeps the anodes active whenever there is enough moisture
around the pipe to make the soil around it an electrolyte. On well-coated lines, the anode can be
installed at the side of the pipeline ditch within a foot or two of the pipe as in Figure 9-30. On bare
or poorly coated lines, the anodes must be separated by several feet from the protected line or
most of the protective current will flow to the portion of the pipe directly adjacent to the anode
location. 
   In distribution systems, this separation is best obtained by installing the anodes near the pipe 5
or 6 feet deep because the connecting wire of anodes installed several feet to one side of the line
is vulnerable to damage. The deeper holes required for these installations and for installation
from the surface of the ground are made with truck-mounted power augers (Figure 9-32). After
the anode has been lowered into the hole, fine dirt should be firmly packed around it for good
contact between the backfill and the surrounding soil.
   To complete the anode installation, the free end of the anode wire is fastened to the pipe by
thermite welding. The bare weld area is then coated. If future tests of anode performance are
desired, the slack loop of wire is brought to the surface of the ground in a test station as in Figure
9-33. 
Fig. 9-32. Power Auger for Anode Installations
(Courtesy Northern Illinois Gas Company)
Fig. 9-33. Test Station at Galvanic Anode
   Since galvanic anodes are the anode of an electrochemical cell in which the pipe is the
cathode, the current output of a 17-pound magnesium anode with packaged backfill in this
equation becomes:
   Ia =  [Eq. 9-8]
DE = driving voltage between anode and pipe, volts (anode to soil potential minus desired pipe to
soil potential).
Ia  = electrical current from 1a = electrical flow from the anode to the pipe
ρ = Soil resistivity, ohm per cm
   The life of a galvanic anode is limited. Based on Faraday's laws of electrochemistry, the
corrosion of 1 lb of magnesium will theoretically generate 1,000 amp-hr (1 ampere flowing for
1000 hours) of electricity, and the corrosion of 1 lb of zinc, 372 amp-hr. In practice, only about
50% of the theoretical current generated by the corrosion of a magnesium anode and 90%- of
that generated by the corrosion of a zinc anode flows onto the protected structure. The rest flows
to impurities in the anodes which serve as cathodes of parasitic local corrosion cells on the anode
surface.
   At these current efficiencies, the rate of dissolution of a magnesium anode is 17.5 lbs/amp-yr;
that of zinc is 26.2 lbs-amp-yr. The life of a magnesium anode in years can be estimated by
multiplying the weight of the anode by 0.0571 and dividing by the current output in amperes. To
estimate the life of a zinc anode in years, a multiplier factor of 0.0382 is used. Anodes are
commonly sized for lives of 10-20 years.
Example: 
A I7-Ib magnesium anode with a driving voltage of 0.88V is buried in soil with a resistivity of 3000
ohm-cm.
      Estimate the life of the anode.
Solution:  
Estimate the anode output from Eq. 9-8.
The anode life is given by:
Anode life =

   Impressed Current Installations

   The materials used in impressed current ground beds are scrap iron or steel, such as
abandoned railroad rails, graphite or high silicon, chromium cast iron rods, and titanium rods clad
with oxides of iridium and platinum, known as mixed metal oxide anodes. The last material has
the advantage that the anodic reaction does not usually involve the corrosion of the anode, but
commonly consists of the formation of oxygen from hydroxyl ions according to the equation:
2OH ® H2O+ ½ O2 + 2e
Hence these special materials are much longer lived than expendable ground bed materials such
as scrap iron.
   Most ground bed anodes are installed in augered holes 9 to 12 feet deep that are formed in the
same way as those for galvanic anodes and backfilled with a carbonaceous material called coke
breeze. If it is tamped firmly into place around the anode, the backfill effectively increases the
anode dimensions to those of the backfill and thus reduces the resistance of the anode to the
surrounding earth.
   Several of these anodes are installed in parallel, as shown in Figure 9-31, to reduce the
resistance of the ground bed to earth to the point where a moderate d-c voltage of the order of 5-
15 volts will drive sufficient protective current onto the pipe. These anodes are usually installed in
two ways: 1) remote from the pipeline to be protected with the nearest anode at least 50 feet from
the pipeline (Figure 9-31) or 2) distributed at widely spaced intervals along the line (Figure 9-34).
In a remote ground bed, the anodes are spaced 15 to 20 feet apart in a line either parallel or
perpendicular to the pipeline.
Fig. 9-34. Impressed Current Protection System With Distributed Groundbed
(Courtesy Corrpro Companies, Inc.)
   A third type of groundbed is the deep anode bed. This type of installation, shown in Figure 9-35,
consists of anodes placed in the bottom of a 50- to 300-foot-deep drilled hole. Such installations
are used in congested areas, such as pumping stations or where the right-of-way is limited. Since
the protective current flows upward rather than horizontally through the earth, the deep
groundbed tends to have less effect on foreign structures than a surface point installation. Deep
groundbeds can have problems, however, and they may not be successful in all applications.
   To complete the ground bed installation, the anodes are connected to the positive side of the
current source. This is done by laying in a narrow trench a collector cable that connects the
anodes together and terminates at the current source. Each anode lead is then connected to the
collector cable by thermite welding or by mechanical connectors. The bare metal exposed at each
connection must be carefully coated and sealed to prevent electrolytic corrosion of the ground
bed cable.
Fig. 9-35. Deep Anode Groundbed
 
   The driving voltage of an impressed current protection system is the output voltage of a d-c
current source, which can be varied over a range of values. The relationship between the driving
voltage and protective current output of an impressed current protection system is directly related
to Ohm's law (Eq. 9-2).
   Ohm's law clearly shows the effect of soil resistivity on the performance of a transformer
rectifier and ground bed installation. The driving voltage required to achieve a specified protective
current output increases with increasing soil resistivity. Since the cost of purchased electricity
depends on the number of units of electrical power used, the cost of cathodic protection current is
directly related to the resistivity of the soil. Thus corrosion engineers seek to install cathodic
protection ground beds in areas of low soil resistivity and often use soil resistivity surveys to
prospect for good ground bed locations.
   Transformer rectifiers (commonly called rectifiers) are the usual power sources for impressed
current protection systems. The transformer reduces incoming a-c power from 120 or 230 volts to
a usable out voltage of typically 15 to 30 volts. The rectifier converts a-c electric current into d-c
current. In the rectifier units used for cathodic protection, the rectifying device is a semi-conductor
which has a much higher resistance to current flow in one direction than in the other. Because of
this property, semi-conductors can function as electrical check valves to permit significant
amounts of current to flow in only one direction.
   The types of semi-conductors most often used in cathodic protection rectifier units are selenium
and silicon, although silicon units are predominant. Commercial rectifiers consist of a transformer
with several adjusting taps, a number of rectifier cells connected in series and parallel, an
ammeter, and a voltmeter (Figure 9-36). This equipment is mounted in a metal cabinet designed
for exposure to the atmosphere for easy adjustment and monitoring of its performance. The
output ratings of commercial cathodic protection rectifiers range from 9 to 100 volts and from 3 to
150 amperes.
Fig. 9-36. Rectifier Components
   A Rectifier installation requires a constant source of a-c electrical power. This presents no
problem near urban areas but prevents the use of rectifiers at locations remote from power
lines. To provide cathodic protection power in these areas, thermoelectric generators, solar cells,
and wind-powered generators can be used.
   Rectifiers are often mounted on wooden poles (Figure 9-37). Just as a cable must be laid to
connect the ground bed to the rectifier, another cable must be laid from the rectifier to the pipeline
and attached to it. This connection is thermite welded and then coated.
Fig. 9-37. Pole Mounted Rectifier
(Courtesy Corrpro Companies, Inc.)
   Since the driving voltage of impressed protection systems can be set at values many times
higher than the low-fixed driving voltage of galvanic anodes, an impressed-current installation can
supply a much larger amount of current than a galvanic anode installation. One impressed current
installation can protect several miles of pipe, whereas one galvanic anode may protect only tens
or hundreds of feet of pipe.
   The current required to protect a section of pipeline is approximately proportional to the
exposed surface area of the line. Ranges of values of the current requirements for a
number of distribution systems are given in Table 9-3. These values show that the use of
a good coating can reduce the amount of protective current required to one-thousandth of
the amount required to protect bare pipe.
Table 9-3. Current Required for Cathodic Protection of  
Bare and Coated Pipe
  Current Requirement,  
Coating ma sq ft
Well coated pipe 0.001
Old low-grade coating 0.05-0.35
Bare pipe 0.5-5.0
   The use of fittings to isolate the section of pipe to be protected also reduces the amount of
protective current required since they channel the current onto the section of pipeline to be
protected. In a city street, for example, if a coated gas distribution line were not isolated from bare
cast iron water mains, the gas line could not be protected without also protecting the water line.
As much as 95% of the current output of cathodic protection installations connected to the gas
line could be flowing to the water line. And so these methods of isolation, coating, and cathodic
protection work hand-in-hand to provide the most effective, economical means of preventing the
corrosion of metal gas distribution piping (Figure 9-38).
Fig. 9-38. Protected Section of Gas Distribution Piping
(Courtesy Columbia Gas System Service Corporation)

Design

   Galvanic Anodes

   Galvanic anode protection systems have been favored for cathodic protection of distribution
systems in urban areas. This type of protection is very flexible and does not create interference
problems in which stray cathodic protection current damages other underground structures.
Severe interference problems may be difficult to avoid in congested urban areas if rectifier and
ground bed installations are used to protect only one of the major underground metal structures
present. Interference problems are discussed further in the next section of this chapter.
   The complete engineering design of a galvanic anode cathodic protection installation requires
an extensive soil resistivity survey along the pipeline route. It also requires field tests to determine
the current required for protection if the pipeline has already been installed. Experience has
shown that the cost of this engineering field work cannot be justified on most of the smaller
distribution system construction projects. Instead, field testing for design purposes is limited to a
few spot measurements of soil resistivity at most. Then enough galvanic anodes are installed to
provide adequate cathodic protection for the worst conditions that can reasonably be expected
based on estimated current requirements (shown in Table 9-3). This approach permits installation
of the anodes at the edge of the pipeline ditch during construction of the line at a fraction of the
cost of later installation.
   The current required for cathodic protection of new distribution pipe is usually estimated as the
product of the outside surface area of the pipe and a rule-of-thumb factor based on square foot of
surface area. Ranges of values of the current requirement factor are given in Table 9-3.
Example: 
Estimate the cathodic protection current required to protect 4000 feet of 6-in. Schedule-40 steel
pipe coated with a reinforced coal tar enamel. Previous experience indicates that the cathodic
protection current required by pipe coated with this material is 0.020 ma/ft2
Solution: 
Obtain the outside surface area per foot of length of 6-in. Schedule-40 pipe from a table of pipe
dimensions:
      outside surface area = 1.734 ft2/Iinear ft
      Current Required = 4000 X 1.734 X 0.020 = 140 ma
   Corrosion engineers draw on their experience with coatings and construction practices to
specify the rule-of-thumb factor used in these calculations. To express current requirements as
the length of pipe protected per anode, the current output per anode must first be estimated. This
estimate is then divided by the estimate of the current required per foot of pipe.
Example: 
Estimate the anode spacing and total number of 17 lb. magnesium anodes required to
cathodically protect the section of pipeline of the previous example if it is buried in soil with a
resistivity of 3000 ohm-cm. Take the anode driving voltage as 0.88 volt.
Solution: 
From Eq. 9.8
Ia = 
= amperes or 54 ma
      In a previous example, the life of a 17-lb magnesium anode installed in 3000 ohm/cm soil was
estimated as 18 years, a value within the usual design range.
      To obtain the total number of anodes required, divide the total current requirement by the
output per anode:
No. of anodes = 140/54 = 2.6 or 3 anodes
      To obtain the spacing between anodes, divide the output per anode by the current required
per foot of pipe:
La = 54/(0.020 X 1.734) = 1,600 ft
where
La = length of pipe protected per anode
   As illustrated in the example, a value of soil resistivity is needed to estimate anode current
output. Since it is impractical to make resistivity measurements along the route of every section of
pipeline laid, the design value must often be estimated from resistivity data. This is easily done if
the data are plotted on large-scale piping maps of the territory served.
   The amount of cathodic protection to be installed on new distribution piping is commonly
specified in terms of the size of anodes to be used and the spacing between anodes, estimated
by procedures similar to those of the preceding examples. General guidelines on preferred anode
locations may be given to construction supervisors.
   It is rarely economical to provide complete cathodic protection for older, bare pipelines. The
current requirements are much too large. Instead, anodes are installed at some of the corroding
areas as indicated by leak records or pipe-to-soil potential surveys. Some companies follow the
practice of installing one or more anodes each time a corrosion leak on a steel main is repaired.

   Impressed Current

   Since impressed current cathodic protection installations protect large amounts of pipe, the
engineering design of these installations is quite practical. Protective current requirements are
obtained from field tests. In these tests, impressed d-c current is temporarily applied to the line
from a portable source connected to the line and to a temporary ground bed (Figure 9-39). The
current source may be a large battery or a portable rectifier connected to a gasoline-driven
generator, depending on the size of the pipe and the condition of its coating. The ground bed may
be several sections of small-diameter iron pipe inserted in holes augered in the earth and filled
with salt solution or a sheet of metal foil in contact with the dampened surface of the earth.
Fig. 9-39. Cathodic Protection Current Requirement Test
(Courtesy Columbia Gas System Service Corporation)
   After current has been applied long enough to polarize the pipe as indicated by pipe-to-soil
potential measurements, the test current is periodically interrupted with an automatic switch.
Pipe-to-soil potentials and line currents are then measured at intervals along the line as shown in
Figure 9-39. The current applied to the line is also measured. With this data and soil resistivity
measurements at likely ground bed locations, knowledge of the local terrain, and the location of
other underground structures, a corrosion engineer can design an impressed-current protection
system.
   The details of the design procedure can become quite complex. Some of the important design
considerations are the number and location of the rectifier and ground bed installations, the
current output of each installation, and the output voltage of each rectifier. Rectifier output voltage
depends on the current output needed and the ground bed resistance, which is fixed by the size
and shape of the ground bed and the resistivity of the soil. This design complexity is similar to
that of the layout and sizing of a piping network. Many possible combinations of rectifier and
ground bed installations provide adequate cathodic protection for a distribution piping system.
The relative economics and operating characteristics must be compared to select the one to be
used. In the case of pipe sizing problems, many cathodic protection designs have been
programmed for computer solution.

Criteria of Cathodic Protection

   Pipe-to-soil potential measurements are the most widely used method of testing the adequacy
of cathodic protection installations. When cathodic protection current is applied to a pipeline, the
pipe-to-soil potential becomes more and more negative as the current density is increased.
   Extensive studies conducted both in the laboratory and in the field have shown that a pipe-to-
soil potential equal to or more negative than -0.85 volt, measured between the pipe and a copper-
copper sulfate reference electrode, indicates complete protection of a steel pipeline from
corrosion at the location at which the measurement is made. On many pipelines, complete
protection is obtained at even less negative values, but the exact value required for each pipeline
is difficult to establish in practice. The value of -0.85 volt, therefore, is almost universally used as
the criterion for coated lines.
Fig. 9-40. Example of Cathodic Protection Interference
Source:  Parker, M. E. and Peattie, E. G., Pipeline Corrosion and Cathodic Protection, Third
edition, Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing Co. 1984.
   A pipe-to-soil potential of -0.85 volt does not indicate complete suppression of all corrosion cells
unless the contact to the soil is right next to the pipe. The location of the reference electrode,
therefore, is extremely important. As the electrode is moved away from the pipe, the value
obtained becomes more and more negative. When measurements are made on well-coated pipe,
the location of the reference electrode is not so critical, and the reading obtained directly over the
pipe may not differ significantly from a reading obtained if contact to the soil were made near the
pipe. 
   The latest criteria for cathodic protection will be found in NACE International Recommended
Practice 0169-96, "Control of External Corrosion on Underground or Submerged Metallic Piping
Systems," (Houston, TX: 1996). This document should be studied carefully for a complete
understanding of the validity and application of the -0.85 volt criterion.

Interference Problems

   Cathodic protection current can flow onto unprotected pipelines and cables at one location and
flow off at another the same way as do stray currents (Figure 9-40). As with stray current,
 corrosion occurs at locations where the current flows from the structure to earth. Thus the
application of cathodic protection to one structure can aggravate corrosion problems on another.
This adverse side-effect of cathodic protection is called interference. Operators of a cathodic
protection installation have the responsibility of preventing damaging interference effects.
   The amount of cathodic protection current collected by an unprotected line depends on many
factors:
 Proximity of the unprotected structure to the ground bed and to the protected structure.
Structures close to a ground bed and near protected lines collect more current than remote
structures.
 The coating on the unprotected structure. Coated structures collect much less current
than bare structures.
 The power output of the cathodic protection installation. Higher power outputs correspond
to more severe interference problems.
 The resistivity of the soil in the vicinity of the cathodic protection installation. Higher soil
resistivity causes the interference effects to spread out over a wider area.
 The longitudinal conductivity of the unprotected structure. A structure with many high-
resistance joints is less able to transport interference currents, but can be more seriously
damaged by them.

   These last two factors can be controlled by designing the cathodic protection installation so
ground beds are located in low-resistance soil remote from other structures to minimize
interference effects.
   The corrosive effects of interference currents are eliminated in the same manner as stray
current corrosion. If the cathodic protection ground bed is properly located, the interference
current will nearly always discharge to earth at a location near the protected structure (Figure 9-
40). The installation of a metallic bond between the two structures eliminates current discharge to
earth. A resistor is often incorporated in the bond to limit the current drained from the unprotected
structure to an amount just sufficient to eliminate discharge of current to earth. A low-resistance
bond usually drains more current than necessary so that the unprotected line receives a
substantial amount of free cathodic protection. The data required to size resistance bonds are
obtained from field tests, which are usually conducted jointly by representatives of the structures
involved.
   Severe and complex interference problems are difficult to avoid when impressed current
cathodic protection systems are installed in urban areas crisscrossed with buried pipelines,
cables, and other structures. Several techniques have been developed to minimize or eliminate
the interference problems of impressed current systems in urban areas:
 Using many low-output rectifiers connected to distributed ground beds
 Protecting all underground structures with jointly owned and operated cathodic protection
installations
 Using deep-anode ground beds

   Local Corrosion Coordinating Committees have been formed in most areas of the country to
exchange information on proposed or operating corrosion control devices that may produce or
alter interference. All utilities and organizations with plant facilities susceptible to inference are
represented on these committees. These committees are a convenient source of information on
underground plant locations and an existing corrosion control devices. Regional and national
coordinating committees established by NACE International exchange information on a broader
scale and promote coordination activities. Plans for new corrosion control measures should be
cleared through the appropriate coordination committee.

Maintenance of Cathodic Protection Systems

   The installation of corrosion protection is just the beginning of a corrosion control program for a
distribution system. Perpetual vigilance is necessary to maintain it in effective
operation. Measurements of pipe-to-soil potentials at locations midway between or most remote
from installations are the primary means to monitor performance. The protective system for a
well- coated line is considered to be operating effectively if the values obtained at these locations
satisfy the -0.85 volt criterion for complete cathodic protection, with consideration of voltage drop
(covered in NACE International Recommend Practice RP-01-69).
   In a distribution system protected with galvanic anodes, a sharp decline in the pipe-to-soil
potential from one reading to the next usually indicates the protected system is shorted to another
underground structure, possibly the water main. The usual cause is a short around the insulating
fitting in a customer service or the omission of a fitting. Other possible causes are accidental
contact resulting from construction, or the breakdown of an isolating fitting by a heavy current—
lightning stroke or from a power system fault. Loss of electrical isolation is the most common and
serious maintenance problem of the distribution corrosion engineer.
   The early detection, location. and elimination of metallic connections to unprotected structures
is essential to maintain protected distribution piping corrosion free. These connections are
detected by periodic measurements of pipe-to-soil potentials at selected locations. DOT
regulations (40CFR Part 192, Subpart I) require that pipe-to-soil potential measurements be
made at least annually throughout the piping system. There are many maintenance requirements
in the regulations and based on good maintenance techniques. 
   Since interpreting measurements involves comparing present and past values, good records
must be kept. Sometimes the values are recorded on large-scale maps of the protected piping
system which also show the location of cathodic protection installations. Or, measurement
records may be kept on summary sheets, computer, or in a card file with a separate card for each
location.

   Short Circuits

   Locating an accidental contact is often a multi-step process. In sectionalized networks (Figure

9-28) pipe-to-soil potential measurements in each sub-section will indicate the one in which the
short is located; additional pipe-to-soil potential measurements within this sub-section may
narrow the search area. Using a transmitter is the most rapid method to pinpoint a connection.
A transmitter of a pipe locator impresses an electrical signal onto the gas main, and the receiver
searches out the connection (Figure 9-41). A strong signal over a service line indicates an
omitted, or shorted, meter isolator in the service.
Fig. 9-41. Location of Shorts by Use of Pipe Locator
   The final step in the search is often a test of the effectiveness of an isolating fitting. This may
require excavating the gas main at the point of an indicated accidental contact. A number of
methods are then used to test insulating fittings.
   To monitor corrosion protection systems, permanent test points are installed at locations
frequently visited by company personnel, such as regulator or metering stations. In these
installations, a permanent copper-copper sulfate electrode is buried in the earth. Whenever the
site is visited, a pipe-to-soil potential reading is taken. If the value deviates from the normal value,
the corrosion engineer responsible for the line is notified. This alerts him/her to the
underprotected condition of the line. 
   If an indication of underprotection is obtained for a section of piping protected with impressed
current, the closest rectifier and ground bed installations are checked. If the current output of
these units is at or above normal, the trouble is usually a short to another structure. If the output
of these units is well below normal, the corrosion engineer seeks the cause. It may be a broken
ground bed cable, failure of the power supply, or worn out rectifier parts.
   In addition to inspections following discovery of underprotection, engineers inspect rectifier-and-
ground bed installations at regular intervals (also required by DOT), read the current and voltage
outputs of the rectifier, and clean any debris present inside or around the rectifier
cabinet. Measurement of the a-c power input to the rectifier is also made and the efficiency of the
rectifier cells in the conversion of a-c to d-c is computed. A value significantly below the normal
level of 60 to 80 percent indicates aging of the cells, and some or all of them may be replaced.
The results of these inspections are usually summarized on record sheets. One record is often
kept in the rectifier itself; another in a master office file.
   The routine inspection of galvanic anode installations is limited to measurements of the pipe-to-
soil potential and the current output of selected anodes at intervals specified by company
standards and the DOT regulations. Records of these readings help the corrosion engineer
evaluate anode performance, estimate anode life, and refine his design procedures.

Employee Education

   An effective corrosion control program requires the cooperation of many people throughout the
operating department of a gas utility company. Construction and maintenance crews often install
corrosion control devices for mains and services; fitters install insulating fittings in the meter loop
piping. Meter readers watch for shorts around insulators and sometimes read monitor
instruments.
   The corrosion department must provide all of these people with the information and training
they need to perform their corrosion control functions. This is done in part through the
development of specifications for corrosion control equipment and installations and through
educational programs. Educational programs on corrosion control may include forums, seminars,
and demonstrations for all job levels, laborers through management. Courses are available from
NACE International and from several corrosion consultants. Under the proposed DOT Operator
Qualifications Rule (1999), many employees working with or testing cathodic protection systems
will need written certification of their qualifications.
 
 Additional Reading
   Papers on current developments in corrosion control are published monthly in Materials
Performance, a publication of NACE International, Houston TX (Tel: 281-228-6200). NACE
International also publishes many Recommended Practices, Test Procedures, and other
reference material covering pipeline corrosion control. Broad coverage of corrosion control
fundamentals and practice is given in the texts and proceedings of the Annual Appalachian
Underground Corrosion Short Course, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV (Tel: 304-293-
3745).
   For those who wish to pursue further study of corrosion control and cathodic protection, the
following reading is suggested:
Corrosion Basics, An Introduction, L. S. VanDelinder, Editor. Houston, TX: NACE International.
1984.
Fontana, M. G. & Greene, N. D., Corrosion Engineering, Third Edition, New York: McGraw Hill,
1986.
NACE Corrosion Engineer’s Reference Book, Second Edition, Treseder, R. S., Baboian, R.
Munger, C. G., Editors. Houston, TX: NACE International, 1991.
The Corrosion Handbook, Uhlig, H. H., Editor. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 1948. (Second
Edition to be published early 2000).
Lewis, T. H., Deep Anode Systems, Hattisburg, MS: Loresco Int., 1997.
Muhlbauer, W. K., Pipeline Risk Management Manual, Second Edition, Houston, TX: Gulf
Publishing Co., 1996.
Parker, M. E. & Peattie, E. G., Pipeline Corrosion and Cathodic Protection, Third Edition,
Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing Co., 1984.
Cathodic Protection Criteria – A Literature Survey, Houston, TX: NACE International, 1989.
Romanoff, M., Underground Corrosion, U.S. National Bureau of Standards (National Institute of
Science and Technology) Circular 579. Houston, TX: NACE International, Printing Office. 1957
(Reprinted 1989).
Practical Corrosion Control Methods for Gas Utility Piping, Second Edition, Houston, TX: NACE
International, 1995.
Morgan, J. H., Cathodic Protection, Second Edition, Houston, TX: NACE International, 1993.