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Introduction 
Monday, June 7, 2021  2:40 PM 

Instrumentation 
 
Instrumentation can be defined as the application of instruments, in
the form of systems or devices, for monitoring and sensing in terms of
measurement or control, or both. Some examples of physical
measurement employed in instrumentation systems are: 
• Acceleration 
• Capacitance 
• Chemical properties 
• Conductivity 
• Current 
• Flow rate 
• Frequency 
• Inductance 
• Luminosity 
• Mass 
• Position 
• Pressure 
• Radiation 
• Resistance 
• Temperature 
• Velocity 
• Viscosity 
• Voltage 
 
This definition is not all encompassing and might mean different things
to different people. For example: to a process engineer, it might mean
pressure sensors, heater elements, solenoid-controlled valves and
conveyors. A research scientist might think of lasers, optical power
sensors, servo-driven X-Y microscope stages and event counters. An
electrical engineer might define instrumentation as digital voltmeters,
oscilloscopes, frequency counters, spectrum analyzers and power
supplies. 
 
Generally speaking, whatever can be measured can also be controlled,
although some things are more difficult to control than others (at least
with our current technology). When a measured input value is used to
generate a control output for a system, often referred to as the plant,
the input may need to be modified, or transformed, in some way to
match the operating parameters of the system. This might entail

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amplification, conversion from current to voltage, time delays, filtering

or some other type of transformation. 
 
The purpose of instrumentation may be: 
a. Product testing and quality control; 
b. Monitoring in the interest of health, safety or costing; 
c. Part of a control system; or 
d. Research and development. 
 
Mechanical instruments' usage is on the decline in favor of electronic
equipment for the following reasons: 
i. The very rapid speed of response of electronic devices; and 
ii. The ease with which electrical signals may be increased in
amplitude and transmitted over long distances. 
The key to successful instrumentation is undoubtedly accurate
measurements, which can be achieved only if the needs and limitations
of the instrumentation systems are understood. Measurements can be
defined as a comparison with a standard; thus one should always be
aware of the basic standard against which the comparison is being
made. Calibration and periodic routine maintenance of the instruments
are prerequisites of accurate measurement, without which one may
too often waste time and effort recording meaningless readings and
results. 
 
Instrumentation is a multidiscipline subject which embraces physics,
thermodynamics, mechanics, fluids, chemistry and electrical principles
and as such is an interesting and often stimulating area of engineering.
Indeed, the engineer who understands and applies instrumentation
needs to know a `little bit about everything'. 
 
Standards and calibration 
The adoption of a fundamental set of standards and units provides a
common basis upon which a measurement can be made. If these
fundamental or reference standards are natural ones --- definable in
atomic process terms --- they may be accurately reproduced anywhere
in the world rather than being kept in one particular laboratory under
special conditions. 
 
The process of comparing an instruments' reading with a known
standard is referred to as 'calibration'. Calibration is normally
performed either by varying one input quantity with all other
parameters kept constant and observing the resulting output variations
or, possibly, by marking or graduating an output scale as the primary
quantity is varied through its full range. 

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In practice, a 'primary-standard' instrument is used to calibrate a
secondary or working-standard instrument which in turn is used to
calibrate the device in use. The accuracy and calibration of each device
is therefore traceable back to the fundamental standard via the
secondary and primary standards. 
 
The measuring system 
Any measuring system can be broadly represented by the three-block
diagram, shown if fig. 1-1. The blocks represent the following functional
elements: 
a. A transducer 
b. A signal conditioner, and 
c. A recorder or indicator. 
These may be further subdivided into several other blocks so that a
more detailed block diagram may be produced representative of all the
individual functions. 
 

The three-block-diagram approach should be approached cautiously,

since some systems and devices do deviate from such a generalization.
However, the basic approach does allow some categorization of the
various functions and elements which are available. 
 
The transducer 
The transducer element in fig. 1-1 is an energy converter which receives
the physical quantity being measured (referred to as the measurand)
and converts it into some other physical variable; e.g. flow to pressure,
speed to voltage, strain to resistance.  

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The transducer is undoubtedly the weakest link in the measuring chain,
for the measured quantity is always modified by the presence of the
transducer, making a perfect measurement theoretically impossible.
This 'loading' effect can be minimized by the design and installation of
the transducer, but it is always present to some degree. 
 
The signal conditioner 
The signal conditioner in fig. 1-1 rearranges the transduced signal into a
form which can be readily recorded or monitored. 
 
The recorder or display 
The third element in the block diagram shown in fig. 1-1, is the
recorder, display or indicating device. 
 
Many recorders have a transducing action at their input followed by
some further signal conditioning. For example, an electromagnetic
voltmeter -- a recording device -- transduces the input voltage into the
displacement of a pointer moving over a calibrated scale. Even so, the
voltmeter is usually represented by a single block as a recorder or
monitoring device. 
 
The Bourdon-tube pressure gauge may be represented by the block
diagram shown in fig. 1-2. The Bourdon tube transduces the input
pressure to a displacement at its closed end. The linkage system and
gears condition the tip displacement into a movement of the indicating
pointer across a graduated scale. 
 

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Bourdon tube pressure gauge 

applied to a clinical thermometer: the temperature is 'transduced' into
volumetric expansion of a bulb of mercury, a capillary tube 'conditions'
the expanding mercury, and a scale permits measurement of the
temperature in terms of length. 
 
LOADING EFFECTS 
Since most measuring devices or instruments require energy to operate
them, they absorb energy from the source. The presence of the
measuring device thus changes the characteristics of the quantity being
measured; for example, connecting a tachometer on to a rotating
mechanism increases the friction and inertia of the system and so
decreases the speed of rotation. 

An example of this loading effect is shown in fig. 1.3, which shows a

voltage source V having an internal resistance [Equation] , and output
terminals A and B. With terminals AB on open circuit, i.e. no load, 
 
Terminal voltage [Equation] = V volts 
 
When a meter having a resistance [Equation] is connected across
terminals AB, current I flows and  
 
Terminal voltage [Equation] = V - I. [Equation]  
 
But 
 
I = [Equation]  
 
Hence 
[Equation] = V [Equation]  
 
Note that, if  R   is much greater than [Equation] , 
L

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vAB = V  
 
The conditions which must therefore be satisfied to minimize the
loading effect are either 
a. The source resistance must be small, or 
b. The measuring-device resistance must be high. 
Applying this to the general case, for accurate measurement the
impedance of the measuring device should be much higher than the
'impedance' of the source, where impedance (opposition to flow) can
be defined in general as  
 
f orce variable
Impedance =  
f low variable

 
Note that all measuring devices load the system to some extent.
This problem can never be entirely eliminated and it should be
taken into account. 
 
General guide-lines 
One should familiarize oneself with the needs and limitations of any
instrumentation being used by referring to the manufacturers'
handbooks, which usually detail the setting up, calibration, and
operational procedures. 'When all else fails, read the instructions' is a
maxim which unfortunately is too often applied by practising engineers.
Time spent reading these handbooks is invaluable, since it helps to
avoid inaccurate measurement or, even worse, damage to the
instruments. 
 
Where possible, measurement should always be begun with the
instruments or the system on a low sensitivity or gain setting which can
then be progressively increased until the desired sensitivity is reached.
Overloading of the equipment may be avoided by using small loads, if
possible, at the outset of the measurement. One should check and
recheck. Never assume that the equipment is within the manufacturer's
specification-test the calibration figures before and after the
measurement. 
 
Above all, cultivate good health-and-safety habits. The health and
safety at work act imposes strict responsibilities on employer and
employee alike to make them increasingly aware of hazards such as
electric shock; chemical and gaseous poisoning; bodily damage; and
burns caused by direct contact with or radiation from X-rays, ultra-
violet light, or radioactive rays. 
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