CHRK

UNIT –IV

nowledge Representation:

Introduction, Approaches to Knowledge representation, Knowledge

representation using Semantic Network, Extended Semantic Network for KR,
Knowledge representation using Frames Advance Knowledge Representation
Techniques: Introduction, Conceptual Dependency Theory, Script Structure,
CYC Theory, Case Grammars, Semantic Web

4.1 Knowledge Representation

● Knowledge representation (KR) is an important issue in both cognitive

science and artificial intelligence.

− In cognitive science, it is concerned with the way people store and

process information and

− In artificial intelligence (AI), main focus is to store knowledge so

that programs can process it and achieve human intelligence.

CH
● There are different ways of representing knowledge e.g.

− predicate logic,

− semantic networks,

− extended semantic net,

− frames,
RK
− conceptual dependency etc.

● In predicate logic, knowledge is represented in the form of rules and facts

as is done in Prolog.

4.2. Semantic Network:

 Formalism for representing information about objects, people, concepts

and specific relationship between them.

 The syntax of semantic net is simple. It is a network of labeled nodes and

links.

− It’s a directed graph with nodes corresponding to concepts, facts,

objects etc. and

− arcs showing relation or association between two concepts.

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 The commonly used links in semantic net are of the following types.

− isa  subclass of entity (e.g., child hospital is subclass of

hospital)

− inst  particular instance of a class (e.g., India is an instance of

country)

prop  property link (e.g., property of dog is ‘bark)

4.3. Representation of Knowledge in Sem Net

“Every human, animal and bird is living thing who breathe and eat. All birds
can fly. All man and woman are humans who have two legs. Cat is an animal
and has a fur. All animals have skin and can move. Giraffe is an animal who is
tall and has long legs. Parrot is a bird and is green in color”.

4.3.1Representation in Predicate Logic

● Every human, animal and bird is living thing who breathe and eat.

CH
X [human(X)  living(X)]

X [animal(X)  living(X)]

X [bird(X)  living(X)]

● All birds are animal and can fly.

RK
X [bird(X)  canfly(X)]

● Every man and woman are humans who have two legs.

X [man(X)  haslegs(X)]

X [woman(X)  haslegs(X)]

X [human(X)  has(X, legs)]

● Cat is an animal and has a fur.

animal(cat)  has(cat, fur)

● All animals have skin and can move.

X [animal(X)  has(X, skin)  canmove(X)]

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● Giraffe is an animal who is tall and has long legs.

animal(giraffe)  has(giraffe, long_legs)  is(giraffe, tall)

● Parrot is a bird and is green in color.

bird(parrot)  has(parrot, green_colour)

4.3.2.Representation in Semantic Net

Semantic Net
breathe, eat
Living_thing prop
isa isa
two legs isa fly
Human Animal Bird
isa isa inst isa inst

Man Woman
CH Giraffe Cat Parrot
prop green

john
inst
prop

skin, move
RK prop

tall, long legs

prop
fur

4.4.Inheritance

● Inheritance mechanism allows knowledge to be stored at the highest

possible level of abstraction which reduces the size of knowledge base.

− It facilitates inferencing of information associated with semantic

nets.

− It is a natural tool for representing taxonomically structured

information and ensures that all the members and sub-concepts of
a concept share common properties.

− It also helps us to maintain the consistency of the knowledge base

by adding new concepts and members of existing ones.

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● Properties attached to a particular object (class) are to be inherited by all

subclasses and members of that class.

4.4.1.Property Inheritance Algorithm

Input: Object, and property to be found from Semantic Net;

Output:Yes, if the object has the desired property else return false;

Procedure:

● Find an object in the semantic net; Found = false;

● While {(object ≠ root) OR Found } DO

{ If there is a a property attribute attached with an object then

{ Found = true; Report ‘Yes’} else

object=inst(object, class) OR isa(object, class)

●
};
CH
If Found = False then report ‘No’; Stop

Coding of Semantic Net in Prolog

Isa facts
RK
Instance facts Property facts

isa(living_thing, nil). inst(john, man). prop(breathe, living_thing).

isa(human, living_thing).
isa(animals, living_thing).
isa(birds, living_thing).
isa(man, human ).
isa(woman, human).
isa(cat, animal).
inst(giraffe, animal). prop(eat, living_thing).
inst(parrot, bird) prop(two_legs, human).
prop(skin, animal).
prop(move, animal).
prop(fur, bird).
prop(tall, giraffe).
prop(long_legs, giraffe).
prop(tall, animal).
prop(green, parrot).

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4.4.2.Inheritance Rules in Prolog

Instance rules:

instance(X, Y) :- inst(X, Y).

instance (X, Y) :- inst(X, Z), subclass(Z,Y).

Subclass rules:

subclass(X, Y) :- isa(X, Y).

subclass(X, Y) :- isa(X, Z), subclass(Z, Y) .

Property rules:

property(X, Y) :- prop(X, Y).

property(X, Y) :- instance(Y,Z), property(X, Z).

property(X, Y) :- subclass(Y, Z), property(X, Z).

Queries
CH
RK

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4.5.Knowledge Representation using Frames

● Frames are more structured form of packaging knowledge,

− used for representing objects, concepts etc.

● Frames are organized into hierarchies or network of frames.

● Lower level frames can inherit information from upper level frames in
network.

● Nodes are connected using links viz.,

− ako / subc (links two class frames, one of which is subclass of

other e.g., science_faculty class is ako of faculty class),

− is_a / inst ( connects a particular instance of a class frame e.g.,

Renuka is_a science_faculty)

− a_part_of (connects two class frames one of which is contained in

CH
other e.g., faculty class is_part_of department class).

Property link of semantic net is replaced by SLOT fields.

RK
● A frame may have any number of slots needed for describing object. e.g.,

− faculty frame may have name, age, address, qualification etc as

slot names.

● Each frame includes two basic elements : slots and facets.

− Each slot may contain one or more facets (called fillers) which
may take many forms such as:

 value (value of the slot),

 default (default value of the slot),

 range (indicates the range of integer or enumerated values, a

slot can have),

 demons (procedural attachments such as if_needed,

if_deleted, if_added etc.) and

 other (may contain rules, other frames, semantic net or any

type of other information).

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4.5.1.Frame Network – Example

university

a_part_of

department hostel

a_part_of is_a

faculty nilgiri hostel

ako

CH science_faculty

renuka
RK
is_a

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4.5.2.Detailed Representation of Frame Network

frame0

f_name: university
phone: (default: - 011686971)
address : (default - IIT Delhi)

frame1 frame2

f_name : department f_name : hostel

a_part_of : frame0 a_part_of : frame0
programme : [Btech, Mtech, Ph.D] room : (default - 100)

frame11
CH frame21

f_name: faculty
a_part_of : frame1
age : range (25 - 60)
nationality: (default - Indian)
qual: (default - Post graduate)
RK f_name : nilgiri
is_a : frame2
phone : 0116862345

frame12 frame13

f_name : science faculty f_name : renuka

ako : frame11 is_a : frame12
qual : (default - M.Sc) qual : Ph.D
age: 45
adrress: Janak Puri

4.5.3.Description of Frames

● Each frame represents either a class or an instance.

● Class frame represents a general concept whereas instance frame

represents a specific occurrence of the class instance.

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● Class frame generally have default values which can be redefined at

lower levels.

● If class frame has actual value facet then decedent frames can not modify
that value.

● Value remains unchanged for subclasses and instances.

4.5.4.Inheritance in Frames

● Suppose we want to know nationality or phone of an instance-frame

frame13 of renuka.

● These informations are not given in this frame.

● Search will start from frame13 in upward direction till we get our
answer or have reached root frame.

● The frames can be easily represented in prolog by choosing predicate

name as frame with two arguments.

CH
● First argument is the name of the frame and second argument is a list of
slot - facet pair.

4.5.5.Coding of frames in Prolog

RK
frame(university, [phone (default, 011686971),
address (default, IIT Delhi)]).

frame(deaprtment, [a_part_of (university), programme ([Btech, Mtech, Ph.d]))]).

frame(hostel, [a_part_of (university), room(default, 100)]).

frame(faculty, [a_part_of (department), age(range,25,60), nationality(default,

indian), qual(default, postgraduate)]).

frame(nilgiri, [is_a (hostel), phone(011686234)]).

frame(science_faculty, [ako (faculty),qual(default, M.Sc.)]).

frame(renuka, [is_a (science_faculty), qual(Ph.D.), age(45), address(janakpuri)]).

4.5.6.Inheritance Program in Prolog

find(X, Y) :- frame(X, Z), search(Z, Y), !.

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find(X, Y) :- frame(X, [is_a(Z),_]), find(Z, Y), !.

find(X, Y) :- frame(X, [ako(Z), _]), find(Z, Y), !.

find(X, Y) :- frame(X, [a_part_of(Z), _]), find(Z, Y).

● Predicate search will basically retrieve the list of slots-facet pair and will
try to match Y for slot.

● If match is found then its facet value is retrieved otherwise process is

continued till we reach to root frame

4.6.Extended Semantic Network

● In conventional Sem Net, clausal form of logic can not be expressed.

● Extended Semantic Network (ESNet) combines the advantages of both

logic and semantic network.

● In the ESNet, terms are represented by nodes similar to Sem Net.

CH
● Binary predicate symbols in clausal logic are represented by labels on
arcs of ESNet.

RK
− An atom of the form “Love(john, mary)” is an arc labeled as ‘Love’
with its two end nodes representing ‘john’ and ‘mary’.

● Conclusions and conditions in clausal form are represented by different

kinds of arcs.

− Conditions are drawn with two lines and conclusions

are drawn with one heavy line .

Example:

● Represent ‘grandfather’ definition

Gfather(X, Y)  Father(X, Z), Parent(Z, Y) in ESNet.

Z
Father Parent

X Y
Gfather

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● Represent clausal rule “Male(X), Female(X)  Human(X)” using binary

representation as “Isa(X, male), Isa(X, female)  Isa( X, human)”
and subsequently in ESNet as follows:

male
Isa Isa
X human
Isa
female

4.6.1.Inference Rules in ESNet

● Inference rules are embedded in the representation itself.

● The inference that “for every action of giving, there is an action of taking”
in clausal logic written as

“Action(E, take)  Action(E, give)”.

ESNet
E
Action
CH take

E
Action
give
RK
● The inference rule such as “an actor of taking action is also the recipient
of the action” can be easily represented in clausal logic as:

− Here E is a variable representing an event where an action of

taking is happening).

Recipient(E, Y)  Acton(E, take), Actor (E, Y)

ESNet Action
E take
Recipient
Actor

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Example 2:

● Represent the following clauses of Logic in ESNet.

Recipient(E, Y)  Acton(E, take), Actor (E, Y)

Object (e, apple).

Action(e, take).

Actor (e, john) .

apple

Object
e E Recipient
Actor Action Actor
Action

john take Y

CH
4.6.2.Contradiction

• RK
The contradiction in the ESNet arises if we have the following situation.

Part_of
P X

Isa
Part_of
Y

4.6.3. Deduction in ESNet

● Both of the following inference mechanisms are available in ESNet.

− Forward reasoning inference (uses bottom up approach)

 Bottom Up Inferencing: Given an ESNet, apply the following

reduction (resolution) using modus ponen rule of logic ({A 
B, B} then A).

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III Year CSE II Sem Artificial Intelligence Unit IV

− Backward reasoning inference (uses top down approach).

Top Down Inferencing: Prove a conclusion from a given ESNet by adding the
denial of the conclusion to the network and show that the resulting set of
clauses in the network is inconsistent

Example: Bottom Up Inferencing

Given set of clauses Inferencing

Isa(X, human)  Isa(X, man) Isa(john, human)

Isa(john, man).

human human
Isa

X Isa
Isa

john Isa
man

CH john

Here X is bound to john

Example: Top Down Inferencing

RK
Given set of clauses Prove conclusion

Isa(X, human)  Isa(X, man) Query: Isa(john, human)

Isa(john, man). denial of query

human human
Isa Isa

X X
Isa Isa Isa

man man

john Isa john Isa

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4.7.Advance Knowledge Representation Techniques:

4.7.1.Conceptual Dependency (CD)

● CD theory was developed by Schank in 1973 to 1975 to represent the

meaning of NL sentences.

− It helps in drawing inferences

− It is independent of the language

● CD representation of a sentence is not built using words in the sentence

rather built using conceptual primitives which give the intended
meanings of words.

● CD provides structures and specific set of primitives from which

representation can be built.

● ATRANS CH
Primitive Acts of CD theory

Transfer of an abstract relationship (i.e. give)

● PTRANS

● PROPEL
RK
Transfer of the physical location of an object (e.g., go)

Application of physical force to an object (e.g. push)

● MOVE Movement of a body part by its owner (e.g. kick)

● GRASP Grasping of an object by an action (e.g. throw)

● INGEST Ingesting of an object by an animal (e.g. eat)

● EXPEL Expulsion of something from the body of an animal

(e.g. cry)

● MTRANS Transfer of mental information (e.g. tell)

● MBUILD Building new information out of old (e.g decide)

● SPEAK Producing of sounds (e.g. say)

● ATTEND Focusing of a sense organ toward a stimulus

(e.g. listen)

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III Year CSE II Sem Artificial Intelligence Unit IV

Conceptual category

● There are four conceptual categories

− ACT Actions {one of the CD primitives}

− PP Objects {picture producers}

− AA Modifiers of actions {action aiders}

− PA Modifiers of PP’s {picture aiders}

Example:

I gave a book to the man. CD representation is as follows:

CH
with same meaning. For example

− I gave the man a book,

RK
● It should be noted that this representation is same for different saying

− The man got book from me,

− The book was given to man by me etc.

Few conventions

● Arrows indicate directions of dependency

● Double arrow indicates two way link between actor and action.

O – for the object case relation

R – for the recipient case relation

P – for past tense

D - destination

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Some of Conceptualizations of CD

● Dependency structures are themselves conceptualization and can serve

as components of larger dependency structures.

● The dependencies among conceptualization correspond to semantic

relations among the underlying concepts.

● We will list the most important ones allowed by CD.

Remaining can be seen from the book.

Rule 1: PP  ACT

● It describes the relationship between an actor and the event he or she

causes.

− This is a two-way dependency, since neither actor nor event can be

considered primary.

● Example: CH
− The letter P in the dependency link indicates past tense.

John ran

CD Rep:
RK
P

John  PTRANS

Rule 2: ACT  PP

● It describes the relationship between a ACT and a PP (object) of ACT.

− The direction of the arrow is toward the ACT since the context of
the specific ACT determines the meaning of the object relation.

− Example: John pushed the bike

CD Rep: John  PROPEL  bike

Rule 3: PP  PP

● It describes the relationship between two PP’s, one of which belongs to

the set defined by the other.

● Example: John is doctor

CD Rep: John  doctor

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Rule 4: PP  PP

● It describes the relationship between two PP’s, one of which provides a

particular kind of information about the other.

− The three most common types of information to be provided in this

way are possession ( shown as POSS-BY), location (shown as LOC),
and physical containment (shown as CONT).

− The direction of the arrow is again toward the concept being

described.

− Example: John’s dog

poss-by

CD Rep dog  John

Rule 5: PP  PA

CH
● It describes the relationship between a PP and a PA that is asserted to
describe it.
RK
− PA represents states of PP such as height, health etc.

● Example: John is fat

CD Rep John  weight (> 80)

Rule 6: PP  PA

● It describes the relationship between a PP and an attribute that already

has been predicated of it.

− Direction is towards PP being described.

− Example: Smart John

CD Rep John  smart

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● It describes the relationship between an ACT and the source and the
recipient of the ACT

● Example: John took the book from Mary

CH
● It describes the relationship that describes the change in state.

● Example: Tree grows

RK

● It describes the relationship between one conceptualization and another

that causes it.

− Here {x} is causes {y} i.e., if x then y

Example: Bill shot Bob

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● It describes the relationship between one conceptualization with another

that is happening at the time of the first.

− Here {y} is happening while {x} is in progress.

− Example:
CHWhile going home I saw a snake

I am going home

I saw a snake
RK
4.7.2.Generation of CD representations:

Sentences CD Representations
p o d ?
Jenny cried Jenny  EXPEL  tears
eyes
poss-by 
Jenny

p d India
Mike went to India Mike  PTRANS
? (source is unknown)
Mary read a novel p o d CP(Mary)
Mary  MTRANS  info
novel
 i (instrument)

p o d novel
Mary  ATTEND  eyes
?

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Sentence CD Representation

o r One
Since One  INGEST  durgs
drugs can Mouth
kill, I
stopped. c
health = -10
One
health > -10

tfp o r I
I  INGEST  durgs
mouth

Sentence CH
CD Representation

John warned
p
John  Do1
o
John  MTRANS
r
RK Mike

Mike with dire John

consequence.

f
State bad
 poss-by
Mike

Poss-by
r memory  Mike
Mike  MTRANS
o John
Mike  Do2

Mike
 poss-by
John  Do1 State bad
f

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4.7.3.Inferences Associated with Primitive Act

● General inferences are stored with each primitive Act thus reducing the
number of inferences that need to be stored explicitly with each concept.

● For example, from a sentence “John killed Mike”, we can infer that “Mike
is dead”.

● Let us take another example of primitive Act INGEST.

● The following inferences can be associated with it.

− The object ingested is no longer available in its original form.

− If object is eatable, then the actor has less hunger.

− If object is toxic, then the actor’s heath is bad.

CH
− The physical position of object has changed. So PTRANS is
inferred.

ownership of an object.
RK
● Example: The verbs {give, take, steal, donate} involve a transfer of

− If any of them occurs, then inferences about who now has the
object and who once had the object may be important.

− In a CD representation, these possible inferences can be stated

once and associated with the primitive ACT “ATRANS”.

 Consider another sentence “Bill threatened John with a broken nose”

− Sentence interpretation is that Bill informed John that he (Bill) will

do something to break john’s nose.

− Bill did (said) so in order that John will believe that if he (john)
does some other thing (different from what Bill wanted) then Bill
will break John’s nose.

Problems with CD Representation:

● It is difficult to

− construct original sentence from its corresponding CD

representation.

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− CD representation can be used as a general model for knowledge

representation, because this theory is based on representation of
events as well as all the information related to events.

● Rules are to be carefully designed for each primitive action in order to

obtain semantically correct interpretation.

● Many verbs may fall under different primitive ACTs, and it becomes
difficult to find correct primitive in the given context.

● The CD representation becomes complex requiring lot of storage for

many simple actions.

● For example, the sentence “John bet Mike that Indian cricket team will
win incoming world cup” will require huge CD structure.

4.7.4.Conceptual Parsing

● Conceptual parsing is required for generating CD representation from

CH
source sentences in natural language.

● The main steps involved in CD parsing are as follows:

RK
− Syntactic processor extracts main verb and noun along with
syntactic category of the verb (transitive or intransitive) from the
sentence.

− Conceptual processor then makes use of verbACT dictionary.

− Once the correct entry from dictionary is chosen, CD processor

analyses the rest of sentence looking for arguments for empty slots
of the verb.

− CD processor examines possible interpretation in a well-defined

order.

Example:

● Case1: Handling of ‘with PP’ phrase by CD processor and formulating

strategies to disambiguate the meanings.

− Type1: John broke the door with hammer non animate

− Type2: John broke the door with Mike animate

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● Rule 1: If PP in ‘with PP’ phrase is non-animate and CD Act requires

instrument then the sentence is of Type1, where PP (hammer) is resolved
to instrument.

● Rule 2: If PP in ‘with PP’ phrase is animate and CD Act requires

instrument then the sentence is of Type2, where PP (Mike) is resolved as
co-actor.

● Case2: If PPs in both the sentences are non-animate, then they have to
be resolved using semantic lexicon.

− Type3: John went to the garden with flowers

− Type4: John went to the garden with bag

● In Type3, non-animate noun ‘flowers’ is part of garden, whereas in

Type4, non-animate ‘bag’ is some object not related to garden.

● Such association of word senses could be found in Word-Net and then

CH
disambiguation is possible.

● Here noun ‘bag’ is treated as possession by John.

RK
● Case 3: If PPs in the sentences are animate, then they have to be
resolved using semantic lexicon and context.

● Consider the following examples.

− Type5: John went to the garden with Mike

− Type6: John went to the garden with butterflies

− Type7: John went to the garden with dog

● In these sentences, Mike, butterflies and dog are animate PPs and can be
resolved as follows:

Mike is easily resolved to co-actor of John as both are human and have similar
characteristics

● Word-Net can be used to check if butterfly and garden has some common
sense.

● Dog is still ambiguous.

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● It may be treated as possession of actor or may be a part of garden as

animals many wonder in garden.

● Such situations can be further resolved by considering the context of

sentences.

● We can use semantic lexicon dictionary to resolve some of the

ambiguities.

4.8.Script Structure:

● Scripts were introduced by Schank and Abelson introduced in 1977 that

used CD framework.

● The scripts are useful in describing certain stereotyped situations such

as going to theater

● It consists of set of slots containing default values along with some

information about the type of values similar to frames.

CH
● It differs from FS as the values of the slots in scripts must be ordered
and have more specialized roles.

RK
● In real world situations, we see that event tends to occur in known
patterns because of clausal relationship to the occurrence of events

4.8.1.Script Components:

● Each script contains the following main components.

− Entry Conditions: Must be satisfied before events in the script

can occur.

− Results: Conditions that will be true after events in script

occur.

− Props: Slots representing objects involved in the events.

− Roles: Persons involved in the events.

− Track: Specific variation on more general pattern in the

script. Different tracks may share many components of the same
script but not all.

− Scenes: The sequence of events that occur. Events are

represented in conceptual dependency form.

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Script : Play in theater Various Scenes

Scene 1: Going to theater

Track: Play in Theater
 P PTRANS P into theater
Props:  P ATTEND eyes to ticket counter
 Tickets
 Seat Scene 2: Buying ticket
 Play
 P PTRANS P to ticket counter
Roles:  P MTRANS (need a ticket) to TD
 Person (who wants to see a play) – P  TD ATRANS ticket to P
 Ticket distributor – TD
 Ticket checker – TC Scene 3: Going inside hall of theater and sitting
on a seat

Entry Conditions:  P PTRANS P into Hall of theater

 P wants to see a play  TC ATTEND eyes on ticket POSS_by P
 P has a money  TC MTRANS (showed seat) to P
 P PTRANS P to seat
 P MOVES P to sitting position
Results:
 P saw a play
 P has less money
CH Scene 4: Watching a play

 P is happy (optional if he liked the

play)
RK
 P ATTEND eyes on play
 P MBUILD (good moments) from play
Scene5: Exiting

 P PTRANS P out of Hall and theater

Script Invocation:

● It must be activated based on its significance.

● If the topic is important, then the script should be opened.

● If a topic is just mentioned, then a pointer to that script could be held.

● For example, given “John enjoyed the play in theater”, a script “Play in
Theater” suggested above is invoked.

● All implicit questions can be answered correctly.

● Here the significance of this script is high.

− Did john go to theater?

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− Did he buy ticket?

− Did he have money?

● If we have a sentence like “John went to theater to pick his daughter”,

then invoking this script will lead to many wrong answers.

− Here significance of the script theater is less.

Getting significance from the story is not straightforward. However, some

heuristics can be applied to get the value.

Advantages / Disadvantages of Script

● Advantages

− Capable of predicting implicit events

− Single coherent interpretation may be build up from a collection of

observations.

● Disadvantage
CH
RK
− More specific (inflexible) and less general than frames.

− Not suitable to represent all kinds of knowledge.

● To deal with inflexibility, smaller modules called memory organization

packets (MOP) can be combined in a way that is appropriate for the
situation.

4.9.CYC

What is CYC?

 An ambitious attempt to form a very large knowledge base aimed at

capturing commonsense reasoning.
 Initial goals to capture knowledge from a hundred randomly selected.
 Both Implicit and Explicit knowledge encoded.

Example: Suppose we read that Wellington learned of Napoleon's death

Then we (humans) can conclude Napoleon never new that Wellington had died.

How do we do this?

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We require special implicit knowledge or commonsense such as:

 We only die once.

 You stay dead.
 You cannot learn of anything when dead.
 Time cannot go backwards.

Why build large knowledge bases:

Brittleness
-- Specialised knowledge bases are brittle. Hard to encode new situations
and non-graceful degradation in performance. Commonsense based
knowledge bases should have a firmer foundation.
Form and Content
-- Knowledge representation may not be suitable for AI. Commonsense
strategies could point out where difficulties in content may affect the
form.
Shared Knowledge
-- Should allow greater communication among systems with common

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bases and assumptions.

How is CYC coded?



By hand.
Special CYCL language:
o LISP like.
o Frame based
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o Multiple inheritance
o Slots are fully fledged objects.
o Generalised inheritance -- any link not just isa and instance.

4.10.CASE GRAMMAR

 Case grammar is a system of linguistic analysis, focusing on the link

between the valence, or number of subjects, objects, etc., of a verb and
the grammatical context it requires. The system was created by the
American linguist Charles J. Fillmore in (1968), in the context
of Transformational Grammar. This theory analyzes the surface syntactic
structure of sentences by studying the combination of deep cases (i.e.
semantic roles) -- Agent, Object, Benefactor, Location or Instrument—
which are required by a specific verb. For instance, the verb "give" in
English requires an Agent (A) and Object (O), and a Beneficiary (B); e.g.
"Jones (A) gave money (O) to the school (B).
 According to Fillmore, each verb selects a certain number of deep cases
which form its case frame. Thus, a case frame describes important

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aspects of semantic valency, of verbs, adjectives and nouns. Case frames

are subject to certain constraints, such as that a deep case can occur
only once per sentence. Some of the cases are obligatory and others are
optional. Obligatory cases may not be deleted, at the risk of producing
ungrammatical sentences. For example, Mary gave the apples is
ungrammatical in this sense.
 A fundamental hypothesis of case grammar is that grammatical
functions, such as subject or object, are determined by the deep,
semantic valence of the verb, which finds its syntactic correlate in such
grammatical categories as Subject and Object, and in grammatical cases
such as Nominative, Accusative, etc. Fillmore (1968) puts forwards the
following hierarchy for a universal subject selection rule:
 Agent < Instrumental < Objective
 That means that if the case frame of a verb contains an agent, this one is
realized as the subject of an active sentence; otherwise, the deep case
following the agent in the hierarchy (i.e. Instrumental) is promoted to
subject.
 The influence of case grammar on contemporary linguistics has been

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significant, to the extent that numerous linguistic theories incorporate
deep roles in one or other form, such as the so-called Thematic

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structure in Government and Binding theory. It has also inspired the
development of frame-based representations in AI research

4.11.SEMATIC WEB

The Semantic Web is an extension of the World Wide Web through standards
set by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). The goal of the Semantic Web is
to make Internet data machine-readable. To enable the encoding of semantics
with the data, technologies such as Resource Description
Framework (RDF) and Web Ontology Language (OWL) are used. These
technologies are used to formally represent metadata. For example, ontology
can describe concepts, relationships between entities, and categories of things.
These embedded semantics offer significant advantages such as reasoning over
data and operating with heterogeneous data sources.
These standards promote common data formats and exchange protocols on the
Web, fundamentally the RDF. According to the W3C, "The Semantic Web
provides a common framework that allows data to be shared and reused across
application, enterprise, and community boundaries." The Semantic Web is
therefore regarded as an integrator across different content and information
applications and systems.
The term was coined by Tim Berners-Lee for a web of data (or data web) that
can be processed by machines—that is, one in which much of

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the meaning is machine-readable. While its critics have questioned its

feasibility, proponents argue that applications in library and information
science, industry, biology and human sciences research have already proven
the validity of the original concept.
In addition to the classic “Web of documents” W3C is helping to build a
technology stack to support a “Web of data,” the sort of data you find in
databases. The ultimate goal of the Web of data is to enable computers to do
more useful work and to develop systems that can support trusted interactions
over the network. The term “Semantic Web” refers to W3C’s vision of the Web of
linked data. Semantic Web technologies enable people to create data stores on
the Web, build vocabularies, and write rules for handling data. Linked data are
empowered by technologies such as RDF, SPARQL, OWL, and SKOS.

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