RESEARCH DESIGN

Assoc. Prof. Dr Rasidah Arshad

FEP, UKM
RESEARCH DESIGN

A research design is a blueprint for

the collection, measurement, and
analysis of data (based on the
research questions of the study).
ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Purpose of study
• Exploratory, descriptive, causal
Extent of research interference
• Minimal, moderate, excessive interference
Location
• Study setting
Research strategy
• Experiment, surveys, interviews, case studies
Temporal aspects
• Time horizon
Unit of analysis
• The level at which the data will be analyzed
ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Sampling design
• Types of sample to be used

Measurement
• How variables will be measured

Data analysis
• How data are analyzed to test the hypothesis
 PURPOSE OF STUDY

Purpose/ Types of the Study

▪ Exploratory
▪ Descriptive
▪ Causal
 EXPLORATORY STUDY

• Very little information is available on the subject under

investigation.
• Attempt to explore new areas of business research.
• Undertaken when:
• Not much is known about the situation at hand
• No information is available on how similar problems have been solved in the past.
• Extensive preliminary work needs to be done
• To understand the problem
• To assess the magnitude of the problem.
EXPLORATORY STUDY: EXAMPLE
• Example :
• A manager of an American corporation working in its subsidiary in
India wants to know if the work ethic values of employees working in
the subsidiary office are different from those of Americans
• Very little information is known about work ethic values in the
subsidiary and also in India
 DESCRIPTIVE STUDY

• A research study that describes the phenomena /variable of

interest.
• Attempts to determine and to describe the characteristics of
the variables of interest (eg. persons, events or situation).
• May involve correlational research
• Research that describe relationships among variables.
DESCRIPTIVE STUDY: EXAMPLE

• A bank manager wants to have a profile of the customers

who have outstanding loan for 6 months and more.
• Details of average age, earnings, occupation, employment status etc.
• The findings may help to determine the characteristics of individuals not eligible
for loans in the future.
 CORRELATIONAL STUDY

• A correlation is a measure or degree of

relationship between two variables.
• A statistical measure that describes the size and
direction of a relationship between two or more
variables.
• Commonly used measures of correlation:
Pearson's correlation coefficient.
 CORRELATIONAL STUDY

• Describes association among variables.

• Describes relationship (if fulfill certain conditions)
between variables.
• The variables under study can be
• Positively correlated
• Negatively correlated
• Not correlated at all
CORRELATIONAL STUDY: EXAMPLE

• Is there a relationship between a person's education level and

their health?
• Is pet ownership associated with living longer?
• Did a company's marketing campaign increase their product
sales?
• Is there a relationship between job involvement and job
satisfaction?
 CAUSAL STUDY

• A causal relation between two variables/events

exists if the occurrence of the first causes the
other.
(The first event is called the cause and the second
event is called the effect.
 CAUSAL STUDY

• Causal study: Research that test whether one variable causes change
to another variable.
• Attempt to highlight one or more factors that are causing the
problem.
• Example:
• Variable X causes Y. So when X is removed or altered, problem Y is solved.
• Conducted to establish cause-and-effect relationships among variables.
• Hypothesis testing stage – examine whether or not the expected
(conjectured ) relationships have been supported.
ESTABLISHING CAUSATION

• The use of a controlled study is the most effective way of

establishing causality between variables.
• In a controlled study, the sample is split in two similar groups.
• The two groups then receive different treatments, and the
outcomes of each group are assessed.
ESTABLISHING CAUSATION: EXAMPLE

• In medical research, one group may receive a placebo

while the other group is given a new type of medication.
• If the two groups have noticeably different outcomes, the
different experiences may have caused the different
outcomes.
 CORRELATION & CAUSATION

• A correlation suggests that there is a relationship between two

variables.
• But finding a correlation does not mean that one variable causes
a change in another variable
• A correlation between two variables does not imply causation.
• However, if there is a causal relationship between two variables,
they must be correlated.
CORRELATION & CAUSATION: EXAMPLE

• Hypothesis: There is a negative correlation between a student's

anxiety before a test and the student's score on the test.
• But we cannot say that the anxiety causes a lower score on the test;
• There could be other reasons—the student may not have studied
well!
• So the correlation here does not imply causation.
CORRELATION & CAUSATION: EXAMPLE

• There is a positive correlation between the number of hours

spent studying for a test and the score you get on the test.
• There is causation.
• The more time spent in studying, the higher test score.
 RESEARCHER INTERFERENCE

• The extent to which the study is manipulated and

controlled by the researcher
• 3 types of interference:
• Minimal interference
• Moderate interference
• Excessive interference
 RESEARCHER INTERFERENCE

• Correlational studies:
• Conducted in a natural environment with minimal interference.

• Causal studies:
• Researcher usually manipulate certain variables to study the effect of such manipulation
on the dependent variable
• Cause-and effect relationship.
• Usually involve moderate / excessive interference.
DIFFERENT DEGREE OF
INTERFERENCE
24
Minimal
Example 1
Want to test the relationship
between the emotional support
and the stress level experienced by
the nursing staff at a hospital.
• Correlational study
• Collect data from the nurses
through questionnaires
• Measure emotional support and
stress
• Check for the relationship.
Moderate
Example 2
Want to determine that if the nurses had
emotional support from doctors and
technicians, this would cause them to
experience less stress.
• Causal study
• Hypothesis: Emotional support helps
to reduce stress
• Researcher purposely manipulate the
extent of emotional support
o Group 1- doctors and technicians
provide emotional support to the
nurses when they face stressful
events
o Group 2- only technicians
support the nurses
o Group 3 – no emotional support
• Findings would likely show Group 1
has lowest stress level.
• But there might be external factors
that effect the stress level.
Excessive
Example 3:
Control the external factors that might
effect the stress level
• Divide medical students into 3 group
• Assign them the same task (medical
task)
o Group 1- doctors provide
assistance in the task
o Group 2- doctors are nearby, only
offer assistance if sought
o Group 3 – no assistance available
• Excessive interference and artificial
setting
• Can establish cause-and-effect
relationship (causal relationship).
STUDY SETTING

1) Non-contrived setting
• Natural setting.
• Studies conducted to establish cause and effect relationship using the
same natural environment in which sample normally functions are
called field experiments

2) Contrived setting
• Artificial setting
• Experiments done to establish cause and effect relationships in a
contrived environment and strictly controlled are called lab
experiments.
 STUDY SETTING
Field Study
Correlational studies done in non-
contrived setting.
Various factors are examined in the
natural setting with minimal interference.
Example 1:
• To investigate the relationship
between interest rate and bank
deposit.
• Record amount of deposits as
interest rate changes
• Correlate balance in accounts to the
changes in interest rate
• No interference to normal work
routine (non-contrived)
Field Experiment
Causal study done in non-contrived
setting.
Involves some amount of research
interference but still normal setting.
Example 2:
• To investigate the relationship
between interest rates and the
amount of deposit in the bank.
• Select 4 branches of bank
• Advertise annual rate for 1 week
• Branch 1: 9%, Branch 2: 8%, Branch 3:
10%, Branch 4: 5% (the actual rate)
• Record the amount of deposit and
interest rate.
• Does interest rate has any effect on
deposit?
• Examine the cause-and-effect
relationship between the interest
rate and the tendency to save money
in the bank.
Lab Experiment
Causal study done in contrived
setting.
Requires the creation of an artificial and
contrived environment.
Example 3:
• To test causal relationship between
interest rate and savings.
• Pick 40 business major students
• Divide into 4 groups
• Give each $1,000 (they can do anything
with the money).
• Create artificial environment
(contrived-setting)
• Offer return on savings
• Group 1: 6%, Group 2: 8%, Group 3:
9%, Group 4: 1%
• Can determine cause-and-effect
relationship between interest rate and
deposits.
 RESEARCH STRATEGIES

• General plan of what method of research the researchers

will use to collect the data needed to answer research
questions.
• Different approaches for quantitative and qualitative research
 RESEARCH STRATEGIES

(1) Experiments
• Deductive research
• To establish causal relationship

(2) Survey Research

• A survey is a system for collecting information from people, or about people,
• To describe, compare or explain their knowledge, attitude and behavior
 RESEARCH STRATEGIES

(3) Observation
• Go into the natural setting of people,
• Watch what they do,
• Describe, analyze and interpret what has been observed.

(4) Case studies

• Focus on collecting information about a specific object, event or activity
• Example: information about an organization
 RESEARCH STRATEGIES

(5) Grounded theory

• A systematic set of procedure to develop a theory from the data.

(6) Action research

• A method of initiating change processes
• Involves identification of problem and implementation of a tentative solution.
• The effects are evaluated, defined and diagnosed
• Research continues until the problem is fully resolved.
 RESEARCH STRATEGIES

(7) Mixed Methods

• Combinations of method:
• Example: Exploratory & questionnaires survey
• Triangulation
 UNIT OF ANAYSIS

• Level of aggregation of the data collected during data

analysis:
• Individuals
• Dyad (two-person group)
• Groups
• Organizations
• Cultures
 TIME HORIZON

• When are data collected?

▪ Cross-sectional studies
▪ Longitudinal studies
 CROSS SECTIONAL STUDIES

• Data for the research are collected only once.

• Data are collected at one point in time.
• Collected over a period of days, weeks or months
• To answer the research questions
• “One-shot” study - measure of constructs at a single point in
time.
• Example:
• Data collected from stock brokers in between April and June to
study their concern in turbulent stock market
• Survey among customer before introduction of a new product
 LONGITUDINAL STUDIES

• Data are collected at various points in time to answer the

research question.
• Constructs measured at multiple points in time.
• Examples:
• Evaluate employees’ productivity before and after a change in the top
management
• Assess business volume after a shutdown, data collected month after
month to see progress.
 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
26 Research design & analysis

Planning & Defining RESEARCH ✔ Reporting

DESIGN
L6
PROBLEM ✔ REPORT
STATEMENT WRITING
INTRO
✔ L3
SAMPLING L13

L1
LITERATURE ✔ L10

REVIEW
SCI.
✔ L4
MEASUREMENTS
RESEARCH L7
HYPOTHESIS ✔
L2
DEVELOPMENT
L5
DATA
COLLECTION
L8-

RESEARCH ✔
9

FRAMEWORK
L5
DATA ANALYSIS L11-
12
THANK YOU!