Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 108 (2015) 33–47

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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jseaes

The eastern flank of the Merapi volcano (Central Java, Indonesia):

Architecture and implications of volcaniclastic deposits
Adrien Selles a,b,d,e,⇑, Benoît Deffontaines c, Heru Hendrayana d, Sophie Violette a,b
a
Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ. Paris 6, Unite de Formation et Recherche (UFR 918), 4 Place Jussieu, 75252 Paris Cedex 05, France
b
Ecole Normale Superieure & CNRS, UMR-8538 – Laboratoire de Géologie, 24 rue Lhomond, 75231 Paris Cedex 05, France
c
Université Paris-Est Marne-La-Vallée, Laboratoire International Associé ADEPT CNRS France-Taiwan, Laboratoire de Géomatique Appliquée – ENSG-IGN, France
d
Universitas Gadjah Mada, Geological Engineering Department, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
e
Danone Water, 11 Avenue Général Dupas, 74503 Evian-les-Bains Cedex, France

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Merapi volcano in central Java Island is considered to be the most active and dangerous andesitic volcano
Received 14 February 2014 in Indonesia. The volcanic history of Merapi volcano is complex, and often perturbed by frequent episodes
Received in revised form 2 April 2015 of eruptive edifice building and subsequent erosion and collapse. In this paper, we present a detailed
Accepted 14 April 2015
field, literature, and GIS-study of the well-preserved eastern flank of Merapi, which has been spared from
Available online 30 April 2015
major eruptions, in order to reconstruct the geologic and geomorphic history of the edifice. Here, the
most recent deposits arise from the remobilization of the old volcanic materials by lahar, gravitational
Keywords:
collapse of massive lava flow and local landslide processes.
Ignimbrite
Volcaniclastic fan
In this study, we describe the specific deposits and subsequent alteration and removal processes. The
Stratovolcano stratigraphic analysis was performed with respect to the distinct phases of construction due to eruptions
Geomorphology and dismantling of the volcano by erosion, gravitational collapse and the associated local to distal
Drainage anomaly re-sedimentation. Based on GIS analysis and field surveys, a drainage network anomaly was detected
in two main rivers, the Soka and the Brambang Rivers. We infer that an apex fan of volcaniclastic material
was deposited into a central paleo-Pusur river and explains the abnormal divergence of the rivers. A new
lithological 3D conceptual model is proposed based on the characterization of the lithological facies and
their temporal and spatial evolution along the eastern flank of Merapi volcano.
Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Many studies were focused on volcaniclastic deposits associ-
ated with andesitic stratovolcanoes (Fisher, 1966; Suthren, 1985;
Smith, 1988, 1991; Mathisen and McPherson, 1991; Thouret,
1999; Andreastuti et al., 2000; Manville et al., 2009a). However,
the structure and geometry of andesitic volcanic edifices subjected
to tropical climates remains poorly understood. Moreover, volca-
noes and their associated detrital deposits represent a concentra-
tion of significant hazards and natural livelihood for the
population. Although occasionally the focus of volcanic activity is
on one flank of the volcano, the apparently stable part of the edifice
can remain hazardous. The problem occurs, in particular, in vol-
canic regions subjected to strong anthropic pressure, such as
Mexico, Ecuador and Indonesia, which is the fourth most populous
⇑ Corresponding author at: Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ. Paris 6, Unite de
Formation et Recherche (UFR 918), 4 Place Jussieu, 75252 Paris Cedex 05, France.
E-mail address: adrien.selles@gmail.com (A. Selles).
country in the world and with a significant part of the population
living on volcanic slopes.
Merapi volcano, in Central Java, is considered to be a relatively
recent edifice and many studies have been published on its erup-
tive history (Bahar, 1984; del Marmol and Marsh, 1988;
Berthommier, 1990; Andreastuti et al., 2000; Camus et al., 2000;
Newhall et al., 2000; Gertisser and Keller, 2003; Gertisser et al.,
2012). Merapi experienced several steps of cone construction and
collapse; thus, the description of its geological and geomorpholog-
ical history is complex with large gaps in the geologic record. If the
western flank collapsed undoubtedly many times (dates are differ-
ent from one author to another), there is still a great lack in the
knowledge concerning the eastern part of the volcano. To recon-
struct the eruptive and geomorphological history of a stratovol-
cano in more detail, studies must be focused on the most
‘‘preserved’’ area. In the case of Merapi, recent eruptive processes
did not affect the eastern flank; hence it is selected for our study.
The main objectives of this study are: (i) to define the architec-
ture of the volcaniclastic deposits of the ‘‘preserved’’ flank of a

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2015.04.026
1367-9120/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
34 A. Selles et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 108 (2015) 33–47

Merapi

Kukusan fault Pasarbubar Merbabu

G. Turgo

G. Plawangan Ba

L1
G. Bibi
GM
River
Voro

P1
GS
GS

Gandu
er
R iv

A1
r
ve

ng
Ri

l River
ba
ka

2 km
am
So

A1 N
Br

Stratigraphic units Recent lava Recent pyroclastic

Airfall deposits L1 Lahar deposits

GS
(Gumuk series)
Merbabu deposits
A1 Airfall deposits
Faults
P1
Ba Batulawang GM Gadjah Mungkur series and surge deposits Main rivers

Eruptions
Geological history E-W-N-S Direction
Major collapse
E-S
W-S W W-S
1787 1872 2010

Ba GM
P1 P1 P1
Berthommier 1990; Gertisser et al. 2012a A1 A1
Camus et al. 2000
GS GS GS
> 400 000 138 000 30 000 4 800 1 700 600 300 Present Day

(years BP) 100 000 10 000 1000 100

Pre-Merapi Old Merapi New Merapi Gertisser et al. 2012a

Berthommier 1990;
Pre-Merapi Middle Merapi Recent Modern Merapi Camus et al. 2000

Pre-Merapi Old Merapi New Merapi Newhall et al. 2000

Pre-Merapi Old Merapi Middle Recent Modern Merapi This paper

Fig. 1. East 3D views of the upstream Merapi flank and the major geological features. Geological history of Merapi volcano summarized after Berthommier et al., 1990; Camus
et al., 2000; Newhall et al., 2000; Voight et al., 2000; Gertisser et al., 2012. Main stages are: Pre-Merapi: >200–30 ka BP; Old Merapi: 30–4.8 ka BP; Middle Merapi: 4.8–2.2 ka
BP; Recent Merapi: 2.2–0.3 ka BP and Modern Merapi: 0.3 ka BP to the present. Modified after the geological map by Wirakusumah et al. (1989) and Merapi DEM (ground
resolution 15 m, courtesy of C. Gerstenecker, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Germany (Gerstenecker et al., 2005).
 A. Selles et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 108 (2015) 33–47 35

stratovolcano and (ii) to propose a geological and geomorphologi-
cal history of the eastern flank of Merapi volcano to identify the
potential hazard and/or available resources. After a description of
the lithofacies identified on Merapi volcano during several field
surveys, a discussion about the geological history of Merapi vol-
cano is presented together with an analysis of the drainage net-
work. Combining the data from this multi-disciplinary study, we
propose an update to the recent geological evolution of Merapi vol-
cano and a revision of the conceptual lithological model of andesi-
tic stratovolcanoes.
Merapi is an andesitic stratovolcano with a high frequency of
eruptions (Voight et al., 2000). Recent eruptive activity is charac-
terized by recurrent effusive growth of viscous lava domes, with
gravitational collapses producing pyroclastic flows called
‘‘Merapi-type nuées ardentes’’ (VEI 2; Volcanic Explosivity Index
defined by Newhall and Self (1982)) and more exceptional explo-
sive eruptions of relatively large size (VEI 3–4), associated with col-
umn collapse pyroclastic flows reaching distances larger than
15 km from the summit. These types of explosions commonly gen-
erate a large diversity of juvenile lithic elements. The accumulation
of material from these eruptions can produce thick and widespread
deposits able to cover large areas for a single eruptive event (Carey,
1991; Criswell, 1987).
Although Merapi has been thoroughly studied, its geological
history remains controversial (Berthommier et al., 1990; Camus
et al., 2000; Newhall et al., 2000; Gertisser et al., 2012). Based on
this literature, we choose to divide its history into five periods:
Pre-Merapi, Old Merapi, Middle Merapi, Recent Merapi and
Modern Merapi. This division was chosen because each period
change corresponds to a major eruptive episode and is accompa-
nied by a change in the eruption type or chemical composition of
the eruptive products. Fig. 1 details the stratigraphic units and
major eruption events commonly used to divide the periods and
summarize the geological history of the Merapi according to differ-
ent authors.
2. Study site
The eastern flank of Merapi volcano is elongated in a northwest
to southeast direction, measuring approximately 40 km in length
between summit of Merapi and the Bengawan-Solo River. The
studied zone included the surface between the Woro River to the
south and the Gandul/Brambang River to the north (Fig. 2). This
area ranges in width from 4 km upstream to 27 km downstream.
The maximum and minimum altitudes are 2990 m (Merapi sum-
mit) and 200 m asl, respectively (amplitude 2790 m). The average
elevation is 1545 m asl, and 60% of the flank is lower than the aver-
age elevation.
Based on the longitudinal profile of the rivers, we note that the
Soka River profile elevation is slightly lower than the other rivers,
most likely reflecting an advanced state of erosion or a slope with a
N–S orientation of Merapi deposits (Fig. 3). This N–S orientation of

430000 440000 450000 460000 470000

B
A B
10
00

9170000
0

Cepogo
0
15

Apu
G. Bibi Ga
ndu
l
Boyolali
200
o
Senow
0

Gumuk
0

Bram
25

bang
20
00

9164000
BW04
0
80

Drajidan
ken g
Blong
G. Plawangan Pus
ur
Kemiri
G. Turgo Kaliurang So
ka Cokro

9158000
Bengawan-Solo
ing

600
n

river
Ku

Study area
Wo

C
Opak

ro

400
9152000

C
100

Klaten

0 2,5 5 10 Km
Andesite lava flows Gunung (=Hill) Bibi) Pyroclastic airfall deposits

Villages Andesite lava flows Gunung Turgo and Plawangan Recent pyroclastic flow deposits and lahars

Cities Pyroxene andesite lava flow Merbabu volcano deposits

Permanent rivers Pyroclastic flow and surge deposits Main “caldera faults”
Temporaly rivers Old pyroclastic flow and lahar deposits
Deep Bore well at Manggun village (BW04)
Photo view Lahar deposits

Fig. 2. (A) Geological map of Merapi volcano showing the distribution of different types of deposits and the study area within the dot line (after Wirakusumah et al. (1989)).
(B) View of Merapi volcano from the North, from the Merbabu summit. (C) View of Merapi volcano from the South, showing the deposits of the eruption of 2010 in the
foreground.
36 A. Selles et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 108 (2015) 33–47

3000 Merapi summit

2800
Interfluve topography
2600 Pasarbubar Brambang river

2400 Pusur river

2200 Soka river

2000

1800
Elevation (m)

1 2 3
1600

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000
Distance from the summit (m)

Fig. 3. Longitudinal profiles of the three main rivers on the eastern flank of Merapi: the Brambang (green), Pusur (red) and Soka (blue) Rivers and the interfluve topography
(dot line) based on the DEM ASTER GDEM V2 data. The Soka River profile elevation is lower than the other rivers, reflecting an advanced state of erosion. The presence of the
Merbabu volcano to the north could also explain a N–S orientation of Merapi deposits. In the north, Merapi deposits rest on Merbabu volcano but not in the south. Note three
breaks in slope at 1000 m asl, 400 m asl and 200 m asl. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this
article.)

Central facies Proximal facies Medial facies Distal facies

0,2 to 2 km from the vent 5 to 10 km 10 to 15 km above 15 km from the vent

Siliceous dome Lava Interbedded

Lahar

Intrusive Pyroclastic deposits Conglomerates

Autobreccia

3 000
ELEVATION (m)

2 000

1 000

Fig. 4. Volcaniclastic facies trends illustrating central–proximal–medial–distal facies variations in an andesitic system. Modified after Vessel and Davis (1981), Bogie and
Mackenzie (1998).

the volcaniclastic products can be explained by the presence of G.
Merbabu. To the north, Merapi merges with Merbabu Volcano
(3145 m asl) at 1000 m asl.
The eastern flank of Merapi can be divided into 4 parts, reflect-
ing the 4 facies zones described by Bogie and Mackenzie (1998)
(Fig. 4). The Central zone (above 2000 m asl) shows high slopes
(ranging from 40° to 80°) covered by the recent deposits of
Merapi eruptions and forest. The Proximal zone is less steep
(slopes ranging from 20° to 30°). River incisions are deep (more
than 80-m deep) and close to each other; the few interfluves areas
between them are cultivated with tobacco and vegetables.
Downstream from the proximal zone, lava flow deposits are not
visible, and a break in slope is observed at 1000 m asl (Fig. 3).
The slope of the Medial zone decreases progressively from 20° to
10°. This zone is primarily used for agroforestry with high urban-
ization. The slopes in the distal zone are relatively low (less than
10°), and rice cropping is the primary activity.
We updated the geometry of the volcaniclastic deposits using
our observations at Merapi volcano, especially on the eastern flank
where they have been well preserved.
3. Methods
A GIS analysis coupled with several field observations were
done. First of all, to describe the geomorphology pattern of the
 A. Selles et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 108 (2015) 33–47 37

East flank of the Merapi, a GIS analysis was conducted, focused on
the drainage network. The data acquired were processed using a
digital elevation model (DEM) with a 15-m ground resolution
(courtesy of C. Gerstenecker, (Gerstenecker et al., 2005)) and the
Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection
Radiometer (ASTER) and Global Digital Elevation Model Version 2
(GDEM V2) from the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) with a 30 m ground resolution and 1  1
degree tiles (Tachikawa et al., 2011). The drainage network was
extracted from the DEM and validated by satellite images (ALOS
2010 images with a 10-m ground resolution).
The second step was to characterize the geological structure of
the eastern flank of Merapi based on published descriptions of vol-
caniclastic deposits and field surveys performed between June
2011 and June 2013. During the campaign along the eastern rivers,
more than 100 points and outcrops were described. Dense
vegetation and extreme climatic conditions during the rainy sea-
son in the upper portion, and the significant urbanization down-
stream did not permit observations and geological mapping in
these areas.
The observations made along the rivers were compared with a
stratigraphic lithological log of a private borewell. This well
(BW04) is used for groundwater distribution at 542 m asl (Map
on Fig. 2), and was drilled on the 17th November 2012 to a depth
of 98 m. The stratigraphic lithological log was established by the
drillers. The initial phase was to identify the facies of the deposits,
regardless of the complexity of the volcaniclastic sediments. The
term ‘‘volcaniclastic’’ includes all deposits containing volcanic deb-
ris including weathering products of old volcanic rock (Fisher,
1966; White and Houghton, 2006). The facies display systematic
changes in composition, texture, geometry and distribution (Fig. 5).
4. Results
4.1. Drainage network anomaly
The entire drainage network of Merapi is distributed to the
west, the south and east only. The global plan view of Merapi
shows a radial centrifugal organization of the drainage network
(Fig. 6, part A). On the northern flank, the presence of Merbabu vol-
cano curves the pathway of the rivers to the south. On the eastern
part, the radial outward organization of the drainage network is
not well developed, and the upper portion of the Soka and
Brambang Rivers are parallel from 1500 to 700 m elevation with
a NW–SE direction (Fig. 6, part B).
From 1000 to 600 m asl, the valleys of the ephemeral rivers
with a radial organization are intercepted by the Soka and the
Brambang Rivers, which diverge symmetrically by 30° to the
southeast for the Soka River and 25° to the northwest for the
Brambang River (W–E direction) (Fig. 6, part B). Downstream (at
400 m asl), in the extension of the interrupted valleys, several riv-
ers appear to be connected to the Soka and the Brambang Rivers
(Fig. 6, part C). Moreover, several natural springs have been inven-
toried along the 400 m asl contour line (Fig. 6, part D).
This interception of the rivers is a drainage network anomaly.
Two hypotheses can explain the divergence of the Soka and the
Brambang Rivers: (1) a residual cone from the previous building
phase of Merapi (such as G. Bibi) could form relief between 700
and 400 m asl and stop the incision of the rivers, (2) the accumula-
tion of a detrital fan linked to an extreme event. These phenomena
can affect regional drainage patterns by shifting the watershed and
diverting major rivers (Rodolfo and Arguden, 1991; Manville et al.,
2007, 2009b). A paleo-relief will favour a volcanic chevron shape

Direct eruptive deposits Upstream-downstream

Proximal Distal
facies longitudinal variation

Pyroclastic fall 1 + Granulometry -

PYROCLASTIC DEPOSITS

Breccia Pyroclastic
S N Pyroclastic Distal ash of
fall deposit plinian fall deposit
2

SE NW
Pyroclastic Ash-cloud
Pumice ground-surge surge deposit
Pyroclastic surge dunes deposits
Mathisen and McPherson, 1991
3

S N

4
2m
Fractures
Indirect eruptive deposits
S N

Debris avalanche
5
deposits
1m

Lahar deposits 6

3m Lahar : No grain sorted Normal grain sorted

Local landslides 7
E W

Fig. 5. Lithofacies of the volcaniclastic and reworked epiclastic deposits on the East flank of Merapi volcano and their depositional conditions into the valleys and interfluves.
Note that the deposits can be cross-stratified.
38 A. Selles et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 108 (2015) 33–47

(Torres et al., 2004) and the triangular shape observed on the east- respectively (Fig. 3). The drainage network anomaly occurs
ern flank of Merapi supports the theory of a detrital fan accumula- between the upper two breaks in slope (i.e., 1000 and 400 m asl)
tion during a flank collapse event. where the slope is decreasing.
To better characterize the drainage network anomaly, the DEM
ASTER GDEM V2 model was used to extract 9 transverse topo- 4.2. Detrital fan revealed by litho-stratigraphical analysis
graphic profiles at different elevations on the eastern flank of
Merapi from 1550 m to 400 m asl (Fig. 7). The incision of the rivers To identify the lithological facies of the triangular anomaly, field
is described in their respective valleys. surveys were focused along the 3 main rivers. Several
From 1500 to 900 m asl, the Brambang and the Soka Rivers have litho-stratigraphic logs were collected along the Brambang, the
a deep valley incision ranging from 10 to 190 m. At 800 m asl Soka and the Pusur Rivers to define the lateral continuity of the
(Profile E), the Pusur River valley appears between the Soka and geological formations. The study area was divided in four zones
the Brambang Rivers. This incision is relatively low compared with depending on the formation occurrence and their elevations
the other rivers (less than 10 m), reflecting a younger develop- (Fig. 8). Note that this stratigraphy represents the shallow units
ment. At 400 m asl, the Pusur valley shows an incision even deeper of the edifice, and an interpolation of the old (buried) deposits
than that of the Brambang and the Soka Rivers (17 m for the Pusur, must be performed carefully.
16 m for the Soka and 12 m for the Brambang). The relatively low In zone A (from 1500 to 900 m asl) the Brambang and the Soka
incision of the Pusur River between 800 and 400 m asl compared valleys are framed by massive andesite lava deposits above
with the Soka and Brambang Rivers reflects the presence of a 1000 m asl. The andesite lavas are covered by a thick layer (5–
deposit burying the initial valley of the Pusur River. That finding 20 m) of tephra (primarily composed of ashes and lapilli)
is highlighted by the fact that below 400 m asl, the Pusur River (Fig. 9H). This tephra layer covers the eastern flank until 40 m from
has an equivalent incision with the surrounding rivers, and several the summit and that represents activity at Merapi over the last
springs are aligned along the 400 m asl contour. 2000 years. The deposits are characterized by mantle bedding of
These transverse topographic profiles allow the identification of tephras and lapilli, normally and inversely graded beds. Absence
the drainage network anomaly between 700 and 400 m asl. The of trough cross-stratification and ripple cross-lamination can be
study area is located between the Soka and the Brambang Rivers observed.
where they split and stops near 400 m asl; hence, the triangular The thick lava flows (more than 20 m thick) overlie a formation
shape is confirmed. Based on the DEM ASTER GDEM V2 model, composed of angular andesite clasts interpreted as a debris ava-
the longitudinal profiles of the Brambang, Pusur and Soka Rivers lanche layer. This last formation is composed of eroded boulders
show three breaks in slope at 1000 m asl, 400 m asl and 200 m asl, of the upper lava flow deposits (Fig. 9A and B). This formation is

110°20'E 110°30'E 110°40'E 110°30'E

300
A 90 B 1000
MERBABU 0
150

1500

500
2500

30 0
0

Gg. Bibi
400

MERAPI
1000
20

700
00

7°30'S
Bram
400 Gg. Bibi Ga 250
0 ban
n du g Rive
Apu Senowo MERAPI l r
00

2000
25

8 00

ng Pus
ng be u r Riv Bram
ke Be 00 er ban
ng 10 g Riv
10

Blo 900 er
00

0
80
0

Pu
40

ol o
100

sur
90

Riv

300
400
n-S

er
Pusur
W

R
a

500 iver
oro
Opak

aw

30
0 Soka River
ng

7°40'S
Riv

So
g

ka
Kunin

Be
er

Riv
or o

er 0
40
Ri

0
20
ve
r

100 1
700

00

0 3,75 7,5 15 Km 0 1,25 2,5 5 Km

C 1000
D 1000
1500
500

1500 Gg. Bibi

500

Gg. Bibi

MERAPI MERAPI

Bram Bram
ba n 25 0
0 ba n
25 0
0
g Riv g Riv
er er
2000
2000
80 0
800

10
10

00
00

90

300
90

0
300
0

Pusur Pusur
River River
So
W

So ka
Wo

ka Riv
or o

Riv er 0
ro

e r 0 40
40
Ri
Ri

ve
ve

r
700
r
700

0 1,25 2,5 5 Km
Permanent rivers Intercepted rivers
Temporaly rivers Extended rivers
Springs Other rivers
Anomaly area

Fig. 6. Map of the drainage network on Merapi volcano. (A) Global view of the main rivers around the eastern flank of Merapi, (B) identification of the drainage system
anomaly with rivers intercepted by the Soka and Brambang Rivers, (C) upstream (700–400 m asl) theoretical geometry of the drainage network, (D) the map of the anomaly
area characterized by a triangular shape and the occurrence of marginal springs.
 A. Selles et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 108 (2015) 33–47 39

110∞30'E

15
00 A B C1000
D E
NW SE
F G 3000

500
H N
MERAPI

300
II
2000 A

25
B

00

0
90
2000
Bram C D
80
0 ba ng R E F
1000

1500
iver
G H I

10
(m)

00
90
0
Pusur 5 10 15 20 km
River

Vo

0
ro

40
Riv
700
Soka River Pusur River Brambang River River incision (m) Topography

er
0 2,5 5 10 Km
Sok
a Riv
er

Mean elevation
A
1500 m
150m
190m

1200 m

30m
44m

C
1000 m

60m
48m

D
900 m
10m

67m

800 m
17m

25m

700 m
8m

17m 8m

600 m

10m
17m
12m

500 m

6m
8m
15m

I
400 m

16m 12m
17m

Fig. 7. Transverse topographic profiles at 9 different elevations showing the variation in river incision depths estimated from the DEM (15-m resolution) (courtesy of C.
Gerstenecker, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Germany) for profiles A to G, and from the DEM ASTER GDEM V2 model for profiles H and I. The vertical and the horizontal
scales are not the same on each profile to facilitate readability. The positions of the Brambang, Pusur and Soka rivers are indicated by the colored arrows. Note the incision
difference between the two rivers, Soka and Brambang, and the Pusur River in the central position. This difference disappears after 400 m asl, marking the downstream end of
the drainage anomaly.
40 A. Selles et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 108 (2015) 33–47

poorly sorted and non-stratified with polylithologic elements; Up
to 75% of the deposits is composed of small volcanic fragments
and some andesite clasts are up to 2 m in diameter. This formation
shows a relatively constant thickness of 10 m.
Below the debris avalanche layer, the formation is composed of
large rounded boulders intercalated with sandy deposits. This unit
is poorly sorted with erosive basal contacts (Fig. 9C and D). This
layer has been identified as channelized debris-flow deposits.
This sequence can be found also on the log of the zone B and C
(Fig. 8) with an alternation with lahar deposits (Fig. 9E and F).
Under this sequence, a thin layer of gravel to boulder size clasts
(up to 1 m of diameter) is visible. Its shows clay and interbedded
features. This formation has been noted as fluvial deposits.
Below the fluvial formation, valley sides are composed of a
build-up of pyroclastic flow deposits and remobilized material.
The remobilized deposits display sedimentary structures, including
trough cross-stratification, horizontal stratification, ripple
cross-lamination and parallel thin lamination. Several coarse block
and ash deposits are visible near the bottom of the river (block
diameter: max. 2 m).
The Fig. 10 shows the lithological log of the borewell BW04. The
profile looks similar to the stratigraphy of zone B, located inside
the anomaly zone. The debris avalanche formation, identified by
the presence of jigsaw cracks, is 13 m thick and located at 10 m
depth. Two fine clay layers were found by the drillers and could
represent hyper-concentrated flow formations.
These units overlie channelized debris flow (7 m thick) forma-
tion. The sequence ends with 8 m thick lahar formation with large
lava boulders. The fluvial facies can be found at 41 m depth and is
9 m thick. These fluvial deposits represent periods of relatively
slow volcaniclastic remobilization by stream and rivers. Below
the fluvial deposits the formation are composed by an alternation
of thick pyroclastic flow deposits (up to 17 m) and aeolian units.
The anomaly zone is primarily composed of debris avalanche
deposits and channelized debris flow formations on its margins.
No proof of a massive residual cone, such as G. Bibi, was found.
Thus, the anomaly observed on the drainage network on the east-
ern flank of Merapi results from a debris avalanche and debris flow
fan accumulation. The fan rests on the break in slope from 700 to
400 m asl. Below 400 m asl, older formations are visible, reflecting
a complex history.
Based on the interpretation of the elevation profiles and the
stratigraphic logs, a cross section along the Pusur river axis of
the volcaniclastic alluvial fan was performed (Fig. 11). The litholog-
ical facies were categorised into 5 units: (i) tephra layers, (ii) ande-
sitic lava flow, (iii) detrital fan, (iv) pyroclastic deposits, and (v)
block and alluvial deposits. Two cross sections were made at
1000 m and 500 m asl to better visualize the architecture of the
detrital fan.
At 1000 m asl, the valleys are filled with alluvial and block
deposits derived from erosion of the andesitic lava flow deposits.
Below the lava flow, the paleo-rivers are also composed of alluvial
deposits. At the termination of the lava flow deposits near
800 m asl, the detrital fan covers the paleo-topography until
400 m asl. The paleo-formation outcrops at 400 m asl near the
spring belt.

Outcrops Springs or seepage

0m
Airfall deposits Fluvial sands and gravel
Lahar and
Surge and ash cloud Debris avalanche
10 m

Gadjah Mungkur series 110°30'E 110°40'E

4.8 to 1.7 ka BP MERAPI

800

1500

(Gertisser et al., 2012b)

00
25

100
0
20

A
00

BW04
500

Bram
900

ban
10

B g
00

Rive
#
* r
0
70
9 00

Detrital fan Pus

300
0
40

u r Riv
C er
Vo
ro

D
Ri

0
ve

20
r

Soka River 7°40'S

Detrital fan 0 2,5 5 10 Km

Detrital fan

A B C D

Fig. 8. Correlation of simplified lithostratigraphic sections of Merapi Volcano along the Brambang, Pusur and Soka rivers upstream (left) to downstream (right). The logs
represent the synthesis of 4 zones depending on the elevation: zone A: from 1500 to 900 m asl, zone B: from 900 to 600 m asl, zone C: from 500 to 350 m asl and zone D: from
350 to 200 m asl. Note that the thickness of the formation is decreasing with the elevation.
 A. Selles et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 108 (2015) 33–47 41

Debris avalanche

A B

1m

C D

1m

1m

E F

Fluvial facies Airfall deposits

G H

1m

Fig. 9. Debris avalanche deposits: (A) Large fractured megaclast of andesite, (B) Basal layer with polylithologic gravel and boulders, Channelized debris flow deposits: (C)
Channel axial profile filled by a coarse debris flow deposit, (D) Longitudinal profile of channel filled by boulder and sandy matrix; Hyperconcentrated debris flow: (E)
Moderately normal graded pebble and large andesite boulder, (F) Polylithologic hyperconcentrated flow; Fluvial deposits: (G) Sedimentary figures of bedding deposits with
mature gravels; Aeolian deposits: (H) Fine-grained cross-bedded sand.
42 A. Selles et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 108 (2015) 33–47

Stratigraphic log (BW 04) Site: Manggun village, Boyolali Regency

Date: 17/11/12 X: 450360; Y: 9164195; Z: 542m Total depth: 98 m 50

brown and Compact ash

Depth

Log Description
(m)

0
Andesite rock

Fine brown sand

55

Lahar, Pebbly sand, isolated monolithologic pebble

5.0

Grey sand
Andesitic boulders
Brown clay
60
Grey sand
Gravel (until 1cm) Clay + lapilli
10.0

Paleo soil
Fractured boulders with coarse clasts, sandy matrix
65

Sandy clay to compact clay

15.0

Fractured boulders with coarse clasts, sandy matrix Lava boulders, weathered

Andesite boulder 70

Fractured boulders with coarse clasts, sandy matrix

20.0

Clay rounded pebble

Grey sand and andesitic boulders (> 10 cm)

75
Fractured boulders with coarse clasts, sandy matrix

25

and sandy matrix

Sandy clay 80

30 Sandy clay
and rounded pebble
and sandy matrix
Sandy clay to black and compact clay 85

35

Lahar, Pebbly grey to brown sand

90

40

Fluvial coarse gravel with sandy matrix, poorly sorted

95
Fine ash
Clay
45
Fluvial coarse gravel with sandy matrix, poorly sorted
Coarse gravel 98 m
Clay
100

Fluvial coarse gravel with sandy matrix, poorly sorted

Fig. 10. Stratigraphic lithological log of the BW04 borewell at 542 m asl. The sequence from 10 to 41 m depth is noted as detrital fan deposits.
 A. Selles et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 108 (2015) 33–47 43

5. Discussion
5.1. Proposed reconstruction of recent Merapi volcanic activity from
the Eastern flank deposits
Combining all of the information in this study, Fig. 12 proposes
a reconstruction of the recent geomorphological history of the
eastern flank of Merapi volcano. Based on the geological history
described earlier, we link this fan formation to a major flank col-
lapse followed by infilling of the upstream valleys by lava flow
deposits.
Firstly, during the Middle Merapi stage, rivers were radially ori-
ented from the summit. The paleo-Pusur valley reached more than
1000 m asl.
Secondly, after an extreme event that most likely combined a
debris avalanche resulting from an intense eruption activity com-
bined with probably high precipitation, an important debris ava-
lanche and debris flow accumulation was created at the first
break in slope, between 1000 and 400 m asl. The age of this erup-
tion is estimated between 5000 and 2200 years BP (Camus et al.,
2000). The debris avalanche and debris flow deposits formed a
fan with a triangular shape covering approximately 45 km2 and a
volume estimated at 2.2–3.1 km3. The fan filled the paleo-Pusur
valley and the surrounding rivers above 400 m asl. At this time,
the active crater was located in the Pasarbubar area, thus the crater
rim was lower than the present one and culminated around
2000 m asl. Therefore, the total collapse height of the debris ava-
lanche was lower than 2000 m. Considering the
hyper-concentrated debris flow deposits on the Soka and
Brambang sides, a part of the fan was remobilized during rain-
storm events and was channelized on the downstream rivers.
Rodolfo and Arguden (1991) have observed the same phenomenon
in Philippines, on the Mayon volcano. The authors describe a detri-
tal fan (Basud fan) triggers by heavy rainfall that covers the Bonga
river from 280 to 580 m asl. This fan disturbed the drainage net-
work and created two channels around the fan. The main differ-
ence between the Mayon and Merapi volcano detrital fan is the
area concerned (4 km2 for Mayon and 45 km2 for Merapi).
At the end of the Middle Merapi stage, the production of mas-
sive andesitic lava flow (the Gadjah Mungkur series), dated from
4.8 to 1.7 ky BP (Camus et al., 2000; Gertisser et al., 2012) filled
the ‘‘collapse amphitheatre’’ left by the debris avalanche and the
paleo-valleys above 1000 m asl. The upper portions of the valleys,
including the paleo-Pusur River, were clogged by the lava flow
deposits. Hence, we infer that the creation of the detrital fan
occurred before the Gadjah Mungkur series and was associated
with the major eruption/cone avalanche described by Gertisser
et al. (2012) estimated to have occurred at approximately 4.8 ky
BP.
Afterward, rainfall-induced erosion inverted the relief between
the lava flow deposits and the unconsolidated material. By com-
parison with rapid erosion of the 2010 eruption deposits on the
southern side of Merapi volcano (nearly 100 m of incision in less
than 3 years), we can suppose that the total inversion occurred
rapidly. The massive lava flow, which was significantly harder,
could not be incised and is now the interfluve, whereas the
paleo-interfluves of the non-consolidated material were eroded
and are now the valleys. Upstream, the Soka and Brambang
Rivers developed on the older interfluves between the Pusur
River and its neighbouring rivers, i.e.: Soka and Brambang. The
fan diverted the Soka and Brambang Rivers above 400 m asl where
they captured the nearby rivers at the downstream tip of the detri-
tal fan deposit. A similar drainage network anomaly is visible on
the South-East flank of Semeru volcano (East Java) between the
Kobohan and Kembar rivers (Thouret et al., 2007).
Regressive erosion headwards along the Pusur River then
incised the detrital fan, enabling evaluation of the erosion balance.
Considering that the date of the detrital fan event is here linked to

1600 m Merapi summit NW - SE geological cross section NNW - SSE geological cross section
A B C D

(m)
(m)
Soka River Brambang River Soka River Brambang River
1400 m 490
1080
1060
1040 480
1200 m A-B
1020
1000 470

1000 m 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 (m) 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 (m)

800 m

?
600 m C-D

Pusur spring

400 m Landslides ?
Tephra, lapilli, ashes

200 m
Detrital fan deposits ?
Alternation of ash and pyroclastic deposits
Paleo-channel (block, sand, alluvial deposits)
Springs

2 km 6 km 10 km 14 km 18 km
W E

Fig. 11. Topography and geological longitudinal cross-section of the detrital fan along the Pusur River axis (NW–SE) with 2 additional transverse cross-sections at 1000 and
500 m asl. The lithological facies have been simplified into 5 units. The local landslide formations are represented on the valley sides. Note that the paleo-Pusur River
(represented by the central paleo-channel) is covered by an andesitic lava flow upstream and by the detrital fan downstream. The spring alignment at 400 m asl occurs at the
termination of the detritic system where the paleo-channel crops out.
44 A. Selles et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 108 (2015) 33–47

A B
MERBABU
Drainage network with MERBABU Extreme local event:
radial organization detrital fan

Paleo-Pusur river Detrital fan

1000 m asl 1000 m asl Break in slope

500 m asl 500 m asl

OLD MERAPI STAGE MIDDLE MERAPI STAGE

C D
MERBABU
Present day situation:
Relief Inversion Drainage network anomaly
RECENT MERAPI

Filling of the New Pusur river developed by

Paleo-Pusur River
Paleo-Pusur valley regressive erosion

Spring belt

Andesitic lava Bra

mb
Brambang River
ang
rive
Soka River r va
lley

S ok a
Pu
su

river v
1 km r ri
ve
Fluvial erosion r va
alley lle
MODERN MERAPI STAGE y
MIDDLE MERAPI STAGE N

Fig. 12. Reconstruction of the recent superficial geomorphological history of the eastern flank of Merapi volcano. A: During the Old Merapi period, the rivers were organized
radially. B: An extreme event occurred at the beginning of the Middle Merapi stage (approximately 5 ka BP). A detrital fan of debris avalanche deposits lay on the breaking
slope near 500 m asl. C: At the end of the Middle Merapi stage (from 4 ka to 1.7 ka BP), the production of andesitic lava filled the paleo-valleys and closed the paleo-Pusur
River. The high rate of erosion caused relief inversion. D: Present day situation: the rivers flow in the paleo-interfluves, channelized by the lava flow deposits. The Brambang
and Soka Rivers are divergent around the detrital fan and intercept the surrounding radial rivers. The present day Pusur River incises the detrital fan by regressive erosion. At
the end of the fan, an alignment of springs (spring belt) shows a change of lithology between the fan and the paleo-topography. Drawing on Merapi DEM (15-m resolution)
(courtesy of C. Gerstenecker, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Germany, Gerstenecker et al. (2005)).

the 4.8 ky eruption, regressive erosion has progressed by 9 km
since. Stream incision reveals the paleo-Pusur channel and creates
a natural spring. Therefore, this process can explain the alignment
of the springs at 400 m asl and their occurrence where buried
paleo-channels meets the end of the fan deposit.
5.2. Origin and magnitude of the event
The highest point of the origin of the avalanche on the volcanic
edifice is usually difficult to assign with precision, because of the
failure of volcanic edifice. On the East flank of Merapi, based on
the geological history, the highest point of crater rim Pasarbubar
was substituted (i.e. 2000 m asl) to the present crater. The maxi-
mum run out (L) ranges from 1.6 to 14 km, and the maximum col-
lapse height (H) ranges from 0.16 to 2.1 km. The ratio ranges from
0.15 to 0.11. The apparent friction coefficient for the East flank of
Merapi and other volcanic avalanches is graphically represented
in Fig. 13.
Graph A presents the relationship between the maximum col-
lapse height (H) of debris avalanches and their maximum run out
distance (L) for well-known stratovolcanoes such as Colima or
Mount St. Helens (Siebert, 1984; Ui et al., 1986; Garcia Cacho
et al., 1994). The East Merapi ratio is slightly smaller than the other
stratovolcanoes but follows the main trend. This shows that this
event was not as intense as the Mount St. Helens-style eruption
described on the West flank by Camus et al. (2000) but we saw that
the impact on the morphology of the East flank and its surface
water and groundwater resource was important.
Flank collapses occurred mainly on the western flank of Merapi
volcano, and created a large horseshoe-shaped caldera (facing
west).
Graph B shows the relationship between the coefficient of fric-
tion I.e. H/L (Siebert, 1984) and the volume of the debris avalanche
deposits. All these data are very similar and comparable with those
calculated for other volcanoes and enable the East flank of Merapi
to be placed in the same group as other important volcanic ava-
lanches in term of volume.
5.3. Up-date of the andesitic volcanic facies conceptual model based on
the Eastern flank of Merapi
Based on the geomorphological history of the eastern flank of
Merapi, a new analysis of the conceptual model of the deposit
architecture for an andesitic stratovolcano is proposed herein
(Fig. 14). The partition follows the facies variation from the summit
(upstream) to the volcano basis (downstream) but also depends on
the drainage network location and the 3D architecture.
The lava flow deposits and the block and ash formations are pri-
marily located close to the vent. The relief inversion induced by the
lava channelizes the rivers into the pyroclastic flow units. In the
 A. Selles et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 108 (2015) 33–47 45

5 0.18
A PO CO
0.16 B SC

H/L (coefficient of friction)

4 SA
0.14 BE
AK
3 SO PO
SH 0.12 AS East
EG
AK FJ EG Merapi
H (km)
RN 0.10 SH
BE CH FJ CH SO
SC AS
2 0.08 RN SA
East
Merapi 0.06
0.04 CO
0.1

5 0.02
0.0

1 0
10 100 0,1 1 10 100
L (km) Volume (km3)

Fig. 13. (A) Apparent coefficient of friction (H/L) versus volume of the deposit, and (B) relation between the maximum collapse height (H) and maximum travel distance (L) of
the East flank of Merapi avalanche compared to other avalanches on stratovolcanoes. (RN = Roque Nublo (Canary Islands); EG = Egmont (New Zealand); FJ = Fuji (Japan);
AS = Asama (Japan); AK = Akagi (Japan); CH = Chokai (Japan); BE = Bezymianny (Russia); SC = Schiveluch (Russia); SH = St. Helens (USA); CO = Colima (Mexico);
PO = Popocatepetl (Mexico); SO = Socompa (Argentina/Chile); SA = Shasta (USA); the red shape shows the range of values for the East flank of Merapi avalanche). The
data are taken from Siebert (1984), Ui et al. (1986) and Garcia Cacho et al. (1994). The dashed lines in (B) represent the H/L constant ratios. (For interpretation of the
references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Debris avalanche
Faults Intrusive and detrital fan
Andesitic lava Lahar and
Breccia
(m) Alluvial channel
3000 Previous caldera Pyroclastic deposits (paleo-rivers)
fault
Fine deltaic sediments
Pyroclastic deposits
2500

2000

1500

1000 Detrital fan

500
Valleys
0

0 Cen
tr
zon al
e Pro
xim
al z
one
Me
dia
l zo
ne
Dis
tal
zon
e
40 km

Fig. 14. Conceptual model of the volcaniclastic distribution of facies associated with andesitic stratovolcanoes adapted for the eastern flank of Merapi volcano. The facies
illustrate the proximal to distal variation and the lateral distribution, depending on the valley and interfluve dynamics.

incisions of the valleys, the dominant facies are pyroclastic flow fan shape, whereas the interfluve zones are dominated by direct
and surge deposits in alternation with local lahar units. The accu- eruptive formations.
mulation of debris avalanche and debris flow deposits has a trian-
gular shape that can disturb the drainage network. At the end of
6. Conclusion
the medial zone, slopes are low, and the lahar formations accumu-
late in a fan around the main rivers. Downstream, the slopes are
The facies architecture of a stratovolcano depends on a complex
lower, and fine sediments are dominant. In the upper part of this
interaction between syn-eruptive, post-eruptive deposits, gravita-
profile, the lava flows erode, and the blocks accumulate along the
tional instability and erosion processes. In this study, we propose
main rivers. The same process occurred during the building of
a new definition of the volcaniclastic product facies considering
the volcano and created paleo-channels along the profile. This con-
lateral variation. Eruption products overlay the paleo-topography
ceptual model considers the eruptive and non-eruptive activities.
at the regional scale (such as tephra layers), while pyroclastic flows
The valley zones have more indirect sediments with a detrital
and debris avalanche or lava flow deposits are primarily
46 A. Selles et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 108 (2015) 33–47
concentrated in valleys. Indirect eruptive products are more com-
plicated to define because they have both landscape eroding and
landscape covering properties. In the upper portion of the
strato-cone, the erosion processes are dominant with the remobi-
lization of pyroclastic and volcaniclastic deposits, the incision of
the valleys and the removal of lava flow deposits. However, in
the lower portions, the indirect eruptive products are concentrated
and accumulated around the valley areas.
Merapi volcano has a complex history, and we observed that the
definition of the active period remains controversial. In the case of
the eastern flank of Merapi, this area was not impacted by major
eruptions for nearly 2000 years; thus, it is a zone that can be used
to study geomorphological evolution. Erosional processes are more
clearly identified on this part than on the other flanks of Merapi.
However, distinguishing original deposits from remobilized mate-
rial is a delicate issue in this context.
Analysis of the drainage network showed up the anomaly in the
drainage network. We interpret this anomaly as an accumulation
most likely of both detrital material and eruption products in the
paleo-Pusur valley. The observations on the anomaly enabled the
identification of debris avalanche facies. Based on several studies
with age estimation data, we propose a new geo-morphological
chronology of the shallow eastern flank. We associate fan forma-
tion with a major flank collapse during the Middle Merapi stage
(from 4800 to 1700 years BP). The drainage anomaly arises from
the combination of the detrital fan formation and the filling of
the valley in the upper portion by the lava flow units that channel-
ized surface water flow. The incision of the surrounding rivers, the
Brambang and Soka Rivers, originate in the alternative pathways
used by the surface water.
In this study, by combining a literature review and observa-
tional data, we propose an update to the conceptual model of the
architecture of stratovolcano volcaniclastic products. This new
conceptual model is a synopsis of research to better understand
the internal structure of a complex stratovolcano and can be used
for multiple purposes such as hazard prediction, hydrogeology,
geomorphological or geological studies.
Finally, we outline a general erosional history for the shallow
formation of the eastern flank of Merapi volcano for which geo-
morphological studies are rare. The remobilization and
re-sedimentation of the volcanic products may result in catas-
trophic events, such as burial of the valleys, which would ulti-
mately cause damage, even in distant areas. Severe volcanic
hazards caused by re-sedimentation of volcaniclastic debris will
spread extensively, and their effects will persist for a longer dura-
tion than those by primary eruptive processes. These results high-
light the significant and rapid transformations that the surface
water network may experience and opens up several research
opportunities on the effect of a local event on the population or
the groundwater resources in andesitic volcanic areas.
Acknowledgments
This article presents part of the research funded by Danone
Research-Water Division (France), Danone AQUA (Indonesia) and
ANRT-CIFRE (France).
The unknown reviewers are thanked for their fruitful remarks
and comments that improved the quality of the paper.
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