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Why Tall Buildings?

 For defense during the beginning of civilization
 Pride seems to have been the prime motivation for the building of ancient structures
 Ego and competition along with other social and economic factors (land values and
population density)
 Visible to all and attractive
 Demand by business activities to be as close to each other
 Serve as distinctive landmarks and developed as prestige symbols
 Business and tourist community, with its increasing mobility resulted in high rise malls
and city center hotel accommodations.
 Their builders were held in the highest respect and their structures are the subjects
of legends

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Stonehenge

2500 BC 76

feet (23m) tall

monolithic

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Egyptian Pyramids

 2500 BC 76

 480 feet (146m)

tall

 Limited to stone

 Not slender

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Tower of Pisa
 1350 AD
 183 feet (56m) tall
Foundation settlement
High aspect ratio = sensitive to
small base movement
Verticality during and after
construction
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Empire State Building

 1931
 102 stories
1453 feet (443m) tall
Steel frame
Full-width moment frames
 Fast construction
– Super organized
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Burj Dubai

 2008

 162 stories (850M)

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What is tall structure?

Tallness is a relative term.

Perhaps the dividing line is drawn where the design moves

from the field of statics into structural dynamics.

Therefore, for us structural engineers, a tall building is

one that is primarily affected by lateral forces from wind
and earthquakes.

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Design Criteria
 Tall buildings are designed primarily to serve the needs of an intended occupancy,
 Dominant design requirement is therefore the provision of an appropriate internal
layout
 At the same time, it is essential to keep aesthetic qualities
 The layout of structure must offer minimum obstruction to the functional requirement
of the building
 Heating, ventilating, air-conditioning, water supply and waste disposal, electrical supply,
and vertical transportation must be integrated suitably to reduce building cost
 Also the building must possess adequate reserve strength against failure, adequate
lateral stiffness, and an efficient performance during the service life of the building.

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Design philosophy
Limit states design: Probabilistic approach for both
structural property and loading condition.
Aim: loads and deformations are resisted with
reasonable safety and to have adequate durability
Two types viz.,
– Limit state of serviceability
– Limit state of strength
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A particular limit state may be reached as a result of an

adverse combination of random effects

Partial safety factors: reflect the probability of

occurrence or circumstances of the structure and loading

Design calculations are made to ensure the probability of

any particular limit state being reached is below an
acceptable value.

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LOADING
 Gravitational and lateral forces: permanent and transient

 May arise during construction and subsequent service life

 Depend on the size and shape of the building, as well as on its geographic
location

 Maximum probable values must be established before the design can proceed

 The accuracy of estimating the loads, and the probability of the simultaneous
occurrence of different combinations loads, is included in limit states design
through the use of prescribed factors.

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Sequential Loading
 For loads that are applied after completion of the building, the
analysis is independent of the construction sequence.
 For dead loads which are applied as construction proceeds, the
effects of sequential loading should be considered for analysis
 During construction stage weight of the wet concrete and formwork
may appreciably exceed the loads under service stage
 Such loads depends on rate and sequence of erection
 Axial deformation during construction stage of particular floor is
different than that calculated during design for entire structure.
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materials
 Cumulative vertical movements due to creep and shrinkage may be
sufficiently large
– Distress in nonstructural elements
– Significant structural actions in the horizontal elements
 Long-term deformations depends on
– concrete properties, loading history, age of concrete etc.
 Elastic shortening of vertical elements at lower level due to cumulative load as
the construction proceeds
 Steel and concrete must be chosen appropriately to overcome associated
problems.
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High performance concrete

High performance concrete is a concrete in which certain
characteristics are developed for a particular application
and environment, so that it will give excellent performance
in the structure in which it will be placed.
For high-rise buildings HPC helps to reduce the dead load,
the deflection, the vibration and the noise, and the
maintenance cost

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 High strength concrete generally possess high workability, strength, E,

dimensional stability, low permeability and resistance to chemical action
 A high-strength concrete is always a high performance concrete, but a
high-performance concrete is not always a high-strength concrete.
 According to Civil Engineering Research Foundation (CERP) HPC is a
concrete in which some or all of the following properties have been
enhanced.
– (a) Ease of placement (b) Long term mechanical properties (c) Early age
strength (d) Toughness

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 Components/Ingredients The main ingredients of HPC are as

follows
– Cement
– Fine aggregate
– Coarse aggregate
– Water
– Mineral admixtures (fine filler and/or pozzolonic supplementary
cementitious materials)
– Chemical admixtures (plasticizers, superplasticizers, retarders, air-
entraining agents)

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Characteristics of HPC
 Very low porosity through a tight and refined pore structure of the
cement paste.
 Very low permeability of the concrete
 High resistance to chemical attack.
 Low heat of hydration
 High early strength and continued strength development Low water
binder ratio
 Low bleeding and plastic shrinkage

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Methods for achieving High Performance:

 Better durability performance has been achieved by using high-

strength, low w/c ratio concrete.

 Two approaches to achieve

– Reducing the capillary pore system such that no fluid movement can occur. This is
very difficult to realize and all concrete will have some interconnected pores.

– Creating chemically active binding sites which prevent transport of aggressive ions
such as chlorides is the second more effective method.

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Advantages
Speed Of Construction
Economical Material In terms Of Time And Money
Higher Seismic Resistance
Improved Durability
Abrasion Resistance
High Tensile Strength
Reduced Maintenance Cost
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Disadvantages

An Extended Quality Control

 High initial Cost

 Special Constituents

Manufactured And Placed carefully

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fiber reinforced concrete

Concrete containing cement, water, aggregate, and
discontinuous, uniformly dispersed or discrete fibers is called
fiber reinforced concrete

Fibers can be in form of steel fibers, glass fibers, natural

fibers , synthetic fibers, etc.

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Why Fibers are used?

 Main role of fibers is to bridge the cracks that develop in concrete and
increase the ductility of concrete elements.
 There is considerable improvement in the post-cracking behavior of concrete
containing fibers due to both plastic shrinkage and drying shrinkage.
 They also reduce the permeability of concrete and thus reduce bleeding of
water.
 Some types of fibers produce greater abrasion and shatter resistance in
concrete
 Imparts more resistance to Impact load.

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lightweight concrete
 Light weight concrete is a special concrete which weighs lighter
than conventional concrete.
 Density of this concrete is considerably low (300 kg/m3 to 1850
kg/m3) when compared to normal concrete (2200kg/m3 to
2600kg/m3).
 Three types of LWC
– Light weight aggregate concrete
– Aerated concrete
– No fines concrete

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PRINCIPLE BEHIND LWC

 The basic principle behind the making of light weight concrete is
by inducing the air in concrete.
 To achieve the above principle practically, there are 3 different
ways
– By replacing the conventional aggregates by cellular porous aggregates
(Light weight agg. Concrete).
– By incorporating the air or gas bubbles in concrete (Aerated concrete).
– By omitting the sand from the concrete (No- fines concrete).
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ADVANTAGES of LWC
 Reduces the dead load of the building.
 Easy to handle and hence reduces the cost of transportation and
handling.
 Improves the workability.
 Relatively low thermal conductivity
 Comparatively more durable
 Good resistance to freezing & thawing action when compared to
conventional concrete.
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DISADVANTAGES
 Very Sensitive with water content in the mixture.
 Difficult to place and finish because of porosity and angularity of the
aggregate .
 In some mixes the cement mortar may separate the aggregate and
float towards the surface
 Mixing time is longer than conventional concrete to assure proper
mixing
 Lightweight Concrete are porous and shows poor resistance to water
permeability
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Loading and Movement
 Loading on tall buildings differs from loading on low-rise buildings in its
accumulation into much larger structural forces, in the increased
significance of wind loading, and in the greater importance of dynamic
effects.
 Due to large number of stories column loads of an order higher than those
in low-rise buildings
 Wind loading acts over a very large building surface with greater intensity
at greater heights and with a larger moment arm about the base
 In an extreme case of a very slender or flexible structure, the motion of
the building in the wind may have to be considered in assessing the loading
applied by the wind.
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 In earthquake regions, any inertial loads from the shaking of the
ground may well exceed the loading due to wind
 Except dead load, the loads on a building cannot be assessed
accurately.
 Maximum gravity live loads can also be anticipated approximately from
previous field observations
 Wind and earthquake loadings are random in nature, more difficult to
measure from past events, and even more difficult to predict with
confidence.
 The application of probabilistic theory has helped to rationalize the
approaches to estimating wind and earthquake loading.

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GRAVITY LOADING
 gravity loading do not differ from those in a low-rise building. But,
accumulated load because of number of stories is very much greater

 As in a low -rise building, dead loading is calculated from the designed

member sizes and estimated material densities

 Prone to minor inaccuracies such as differences between the real and the
designed sizes. and between the actual and assumed densities.

 Live loading is specified as the intensity of a uniformly distributed floor

load, .according to the occupancy or use of the space.

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 In certain situations such as in parking areas, offices, and plant rooms, the
floors should be considered for the alternative worst possibility of specified
concentrated loads.
 The magnitudes of live loading specified in the Codes are estimated based on a
combination of experience and the results of typical field surveys.
 The differences between the live load magnitudes in the Codes of different
countries indicate a lack of unanimity and consistency sufficient to raise
questions about their accuracy.
 Pattern distribution of gravity live loading over adjacent and alternate spans
should be considered in estimating the local maxima for member forces
 live load reductions may be allowed to account for the improbability of total
loading being applied simultaneously over larger areas
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Methods of Live Load Reduction

 Philosophy: At some time in the life of a structure, it is probable
that a small area may be subjected to the full intensity of live load
 Consequently, it is reasonable to design the girders and columns
supporting large tributary area for significantly less than the full
live loading.
 The different methods of live load reduction and upper limit is
usually placed in order to retain an adequate margin of safety.

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 Following three examples of methods
– Simple percentages may be specified for the reductions and for the limiting
amount. For example, the supporting members may be designed for 100% LL
on the roof. 85% of that on the top floor, and further reductions of 5% for
each successive floor down to a minimum of 50% of the live load.
– A tributary area formula with the limit built into the formula. For example,
the supporting members may be designed for a LL multiplied by a factor
0.3 + 10/ 𝐴 where A is the accumulated area in square feet.
– Maximum reduction in terms of the dead-to-live load ratio. For example, the
maximum percentage reduction shall not exceed 100 x (D + L))/4.33L

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Impact Gravity Loading

 Impact loading occurs as a gravity
live load in the case of an elevator
being accelerated upward or brought
to a rest on its way down. An
increase of 100% of the static
elevator load has usually been used
to give a satisfactory performance
of the supporting structure

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Construction Loads
 Are often claimed to be the most severe loads that a building has to withstand

 Many more failures occur in buildings under construction than in those that are
complete, but rarely special provision made for construction loads

 In a building with an unusual structure, a lack of consideration for construction

loading could increase the total cost of the project

 Typically, the construction load consists of the weight of the floor forms and a
newly placed slab, which, in total, may equal twice the floor dead load

 This load is supported by props that transfer it to the three or four previously
constructed floors below.
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3-day cycle, or even 2-day cycle, storey construction, and
especially with concrete pumping, which requires a more liquid
mix, the problem is more severe
A newly released slab, rather than contributing to supporting
the construction loads, is still in need of support itself
The climbing crane is another common construction load. This is
usually supported by connecting it to a number of floors below
Storage of construction materials on the newly cast floors
further adds load on structure
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