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CARBOHYDRATE
METABOLISM
BIOCHEMISTRY
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
METABOLISM
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
METABOLIC PATHWAY
• a series of consecutive biochemical reactions used
to convert a starting material into an end product.
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
“Cellular Respiration”
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
• Not breathing
• Cells release energy from food
molecules (glucose)
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
TYPES OF RESPIRATION
Oxygen Debt
ETC
ETC
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
PHOSPHORYLATION
• The addition of a phosphate to molecule or protein
• KINASES - enzymes that phosphorylate molecules
- uses phosphate ion from ATP to add to a molecule
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
SUBSTRATE-LEVEL PHOSPHORYLATION
• Synthesis of ATP by direct transfer of phosphate group from a
substrate to a molecule of ADP
• Reaction is catalyzed by kinases
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
GLYCOLYSIS
• The metabolic pathway in which
glucose is converted to two
molecules of pyruvate
• Anaerobic catabolism of glucose
• Takes place in cytosol
• Has 10 steps
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STEP 1: PHOSPHORYLATION
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
STEP 2: ISOMERIZATION
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
STEP 3: PHOSPHORYLATION
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
STEP 4: CLEAVAGE
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
STEP 5: ISOMERIZATION
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
STEP 8: ISOMERIZATION
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
STEP 9: DEHYDRATION
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
REGULATION OF GLYCOLYSIS
• Control points of glycolysis: Steps 1, 3, and 10
Two Types:
• Allosteric
• Hormonal
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
REGULATION OF GLYCOLYSIS
• Step 1: Conversion of glucose to glucose 6-phosphate by
hexokinase:
• Hexokinase inhibited by glucose 6-phosphate (feedback
inhibition)
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
REGULATION OF GLYCOLYSIS
• Step 3: Fructose 6-phosphate converted to fructose 1,6-
bisphosphate by phosphofructokinase:
• High concentrations of ATP and citrate inhibit
phosphofructokinase
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
REGULATION OF GLYCOLYSIS
• Step 10: Conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate by
Pyruvate kinase:
• Enzyme is inhibited by high ATP concentrations.
• Both pyruvate kinase (Step 10) and phosphofructokinase (Step
3) are allosteric enzymes.
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
FATES OF PYRUVATE
OXIDATION TO ACETYL COENZYME A
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
FERMENTATION
LACTATE FERMENTATION
• anaerobic conversion of pyruvate to lactic acid
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
ETHANOL FERMENTATION
• anaerobic conversion of pyruvate to ethanol and CO2
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
FATES OF PYRUVATE
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
GLYCOGENESIS
• Metabolic pathway by which glycogen is synthesized from
glucose
• Involves three steps:
— Formation of Glucose 1-phosphate
— Formation of UDP Glucose
— Glucose transfer to a Glycogen Chain
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
GLYCOGENESIS
• STEP 1: Formation of Glucose 1-phosphate
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
GLYCOGENESIS
• STEP 2:
Formation of UDP Glucose
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GLYCOGENESIS
• STEP 3: Glucose transfer to a Glycogen Chain
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
GLYCOGENESIS
• STEP 3: Glucose transfer to a Glycogen Chain
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
GLYCOGENOLYSIS
• Breakdown of glycogen to glucose-6-phosphate:
— It is not just reverse of glycogenesis because it
does not require UTP or UDP molecules
— Glycogenolysis is a two-step process
— Step 1: Phosphorylation of a glucose residue
— Step 2: Glucose 1-phosphate isomerization
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
GLYCOGENOLYSIS
• STEP 1: Phosphorylation of a glucose residue
GLYCOGENOLYSIS
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
GLUCONEOGENESIS
• Metabolic pathway by which glucose is synthesized from non-
carbohydrate sources
• Non-carbohydrate starting materials for gluconeogenesis:
— Pyruvate
— Lactate (from muscles and from red blood cells)
— Glycerol (from triacylglycerol hydrolysis)
— Certain amino acids (from dietary protein hydrolysis or from
muscle protein during starvation)
GLYCOLYSIS VS.
GLUCONEOGENESIS
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
Cori Cycle
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
Insulin
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
Epinephrine
• Also called adrenaline
• Released by the adrenal glands in response to anger, fear, or
excitement
• Function is similar to glucagon, i.e., stimulates glycogenolysis
• Primary target is muscle cells
• Promotes energy generation for quick action
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
Epinephrine
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
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