LIPIDS are heterogeneous class of naturally occurring bioorganic compounds that have the common

property of being soluble in non-polar solvents. They are grouped together not by the presence of a
distinguishing functional group or structural feature, but rather on the basis of common solubility properties:
*
they are insoluble in water but highly soluble in one or more organic solvents.
*
- although certain lipids contain ionized groups (e.g., phosphate or choline), the bulk of any lipid
molecule is nonpolar
- widely distributed in biological world and play a wide variety of roles in both plant and animal tissues:
o as an energy source, lipids provide 9 kcal of energy per gram
o triglycerides provide energy storage in adipocytes
o phosphoglycerides, sphingolipids, and steroids are structural components of cell membranes
o steroid hormones are critical intercellular messengers
o lipid-soluble vitamins (A, E, D, K)
o dietary fat acts as a carrier of lipid-soluble vitamins into cells of small intestine
o provide shock absorption and insulation
- the primary form of energy storage; stored fat allows certain animals to hibernate during winter
- has a very high energy value, twice as much as an equal weight of carbohydrates
- the amount of fat in the body is very much related to the carbohydrate level in the body: when
carbohydrate levels become low, fats are degraded to provide energy; when high, fats are stored
in cells of adipose tissues (under the skin, around the kidneys, etc.)
- structurally, the lipids are quite diverse; there is no common subunit in their structure.
- the primary building blocks in human lipids are fatty acids, glycerol, sphingosine, and sterols.

CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS
3.1 Fatty Acids 3.4 Complex lipids
3.2 Glycerides 3.4.1 Phospholipids
3.2.1 Neutral glycerides (TAG) 3.4.2 Glycolipids
3.2.2 Phosphoglycerides (lecithins, cephalins) 3.4.3 Lipoproteins
3.3 Nonglycerides 3.5 Miscellaneous Lipids
3.3.1 Waxes 3.5.1 Terpenes (carotenes)
3.3.2 Sphingolipids 3.5.2 Fat-soluble vitamins
a. sphingomyelin
b. glycolipid (cerebrosides)
c. ganglioside
3.3.3 Steroids
a. sterols c. sex hormones
b. bile acids/bile salts d. adrenocortical hormones

Classification of lipids on the basis of polarity and type of structural subunits present
A. Nonpolar, fatty-acid containing lipids (TAG: fats, oils)
B. Polar, fatty-acid containing lipids
a) Phosphoacylglycerols (lecithins, cephalins)
b) Sphingolipids (sphingomyelins, cerebrosides)
C. Non-fatty-acid containing lipids
Steroids: cholesterol, bile salts, steroid hormones (sex hormones, adrenocortical hormones)

3.1 FATTY ACIDS

- are long straight-chain (no branching) naturally occurring monocarboxylic acids; rarely found free in nature
but mostly in esterified form in the lipids
- as a consequence of their biosynthesis, fatty acids typically have an even # of C atoms, long-chain fa’s (12 -
26 C) are found in meats and fish; medium-chain (6 - 10 C) & short-chain fa’s (< 6C) primarily in dairy
products
- can be either saturated or unsaturated; saturated fatty acids have no double bonds, unsaturated fatty
th
acids contain one or more carbon-carbon double bonds, the first is usually at the 9 carbon
1
- the double bonds are not conjugated and are usually in a cis configuration; cis double bonds result in a
bent chain which doesn’t allow fatty acids to pack as close together and consequently lower the melting
point
H H O
C C CH2 CH2 CH2 C
O
CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH3

saturated fatty acids (CnH2n + 1):

4:0 butyric acid n-butanoic C3H7COOH butter
6:0 caproic n-hexanoic C5H11COOH goat’s milk
8:0 caprylic n-octanoic C7H15COOH
10:0 capric n-decanoic C9H19COOH
12:0 lauric n-dodecanoic C11H23COOH coconut
14:0 myristic n-tetradecanoic C13H27COOH nutmeg
16:0 palmitic n-hexadecanoic C15H31COOH palm
18:0 stearic n-octadecanoic C17H35COOH animal fat
20:0 arachidic n-eicosanoic C19H39COOH peanut oil

unsaturated fatty acids : (up to six double bonds are found in biochemically important fatty acids)
∆9
16:1 palmitoleic cis-9-hexadecenoic acid C15H29COOH
∆9
18:1 oleic cis-9-octadecenoic C17H33COOH olive, corn
∆9,12
18:2 linoleic cis,cis-9,12-octadecadienoic C17H31COOH soybean,
safflower, sunflower
∆9,12,15
18:3 linolenic all cis-9,12,15-octadecatrienoic C17H29COOH herring, linseed
∆5,8,11,14
20:4 arachidonic all cis-5,8,11,14-eicosatetraenoic C19H31COOH
∆5,8,11,14,17
20:5 EPA
∆4,7,10,13,16,19
22:6 DHA

essential fatty acid is a PUFA that is needed by the human body and that must be obtained from dietary
sources because it cannot be synthesized within the body from other substances. Linoleic and linolenic acids
are called essential fatty acids that must be supplied in the diet.

omega (ω) fatty acids

- a fatty acid has two ends, the methyl (CH3) end and the carboxyl (COOH) end; the omega classification
system for fatty acid is based on numbering the carbon chain beginning at the methyl end, thus omega-3(ω3)
fatty acid is a PUFA with its endmost double bond three carbons away from its methyl end; omega-6 (ω6) fatty
acid is a PUFA with its endmost double bond six carbons away from its methyl end.

2
- Linolenic acid is the primary member of the ω3 family of fatty acids. From dietary linolenic acid, the body can
make the 20- and 22- carbon members of the ω3 fatty acid series. Omega-3 fatty acids are important for
the structure and function of cell membranes, particularly in the retina of the eye and the CNS. Because
fish are a good ω3 fatty acid source, nutritionists recommend adding more fish to the diet; cold-water fish
tend to have higher ω3fatty acid concentrations than do warm-water fish.
- Linoleic acid is the primary member of the ω6 family of fatty acids. Given dietary linoleic acid, the body can
make necessary longer carbon-chain members of the ω6 fatty acid series such as arachidonic acid (20:4).
Normally, vegetable oils and meats supply enough linoleic acid to meet the body’s needs for it. Omega-6
fatty acids are important for growth, skin integrity, fertility, and maintaining red blood cell structure. Lack
of linoleic acid causes the skin to redden and become irritated. Infants have especial need for linoleic acid
for their growth. Human breast milk has a much higher percentage of it then cow’s milk.
- Arachidonic acid, a 20:4 fatty acid, is an ω6 fatty acid synthesized from linoleic acid. In the body, it serves as the
precursor for a family of molecules called eicosanoids, which are oxygenated derivatives of this acid.
Eicosanoids are present in all cells except the red blood cells. Eicosanoids regulate a wide range of body
functions including blood pressure, blood clotting, blood lipid levels, the sleep/wake cycle, and the
inflammation response to injury and infection

- Eicosanoids are hormone-like molecules; they are not transported in the bloodstream to their site of action but
rather exert their effects in the tissues where they are synthesized. The name eikosanoid is derived from
the Greek word eikos, meaning twenty, because they are all derivatives of 20 carbon fatty acids. The
eicosanoids include three groups of structurally related compounds: the prostaglandins, the leukotrienes,
and the thromboxanes

3
Biological processes regulated by eicosanoids
1. Blood clotting - Thromboxane A2 stimulates constriction of blood vessels and platelet aggregation;
Prostacyclin dilates blood vessels and inhibits platelet aggregation
2. Inflammatory response - Prostaglandins mediate aspects of inflammatory response
3. Reproductive system - Stimulation of smooth muscle by PGE2
4. Gastrointestinal tract - Prostaglandins inhibit gastric secretion; Prostaglandins increase
secretion of protective mucus; Inhibition of hormone-sensitive lipases
5. Kidneys - Prostaglandins dilate renal blood vessels; Results in increased water and electrolyte
excretion
6. Respiratory tract - Leukotrienes promote the constriction of bronchi; Prostaglandins promote
bronchodilation

3.2 GLYCERIDES - these are glycerol-containing lipids

3.2.1. Neutral glycerides

- so named because they are nonionic and nonpolar; produced from the esterification of glycerol with one or
more fatty acids: monoglycerides; diglycerides ; triglycerides

Triglycerides (or triacylglycerol, TAG)

- serve as energy storage in adipose cells; esters of glycerol and fatty acids
a) simple triglycerides
- if all three –OH groups of glycerol molecule are esterified with the same fatty acid; have been
synthesized in the laboratory but rarely occur in nature

e.g., Glyceryl tripalmitate (Tripalmitin)

b) mixed triglyceride
- contain 2 or 3 different fatty acid components; most fats and oils are mixed TAG
e.g., CH2-O-COC17H33
CH–O-COC11H23
CH2-O-COC15H31
Glyceryloleolauropalmitate
Fats vs. Oils
- fats contain a greater proportion of saturated fatty acids than unsaturated fatty acids; so solid or semi-
solid at room temperature; beef tallow and pork lard are fats
- oils contain a greater proportion of unsaturated fatty acids than saturated fatty acids; so liquid at same
temperature; soybean oil, canola oil, peanut oil

4
 - coconut oil, which is highly saturated, is an exception: this oil is a liquid not because it contains more
double bonds within the fatty acids but because it is rich in shorter-chain fatty acids, particularly lauric
acid (12:0)
- lipids obtained from animal sources are usually solids whereas oils are generally of plant origin. Hence,
we commonly speak of animal fats and vegetable oils .

A comparison of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids in some foods

Physical Properties of Lipids

- either liquid or noncrystalline solids at room temperature
- pure fats and oils are colorless, tasteless, odorless, lighter than water, poor conductors of heat and
electricity (therefore, serves as excellent insulators for the body)
- the characteristic color, odor, flavor associated with lipids are imparted to them by foreign substances
that have been absorbed by the lipid and are soluble in them. For example, the yellow color of butter is
due to the presence of carotene, taste is due to 2 compounds: diacetyl, CH3CO-COCH3, and 3-hydroxy-2-
butanone, that are produced by bacteria in the ripening of the cream.
- the melting points of fatty acids depend on both the length of their hydrocarbon chains and the degree
of unsaturation; typical saturated fatty acids are tightly packed together so they have higher melting
points than unsaturated acids with the same number of carbon atoms; cis double bonds prevent good
alignment of molecules in unsaturated fatty acids leading to poor packing and lower mp relative to
saturated or trans acid.
- the greater the degree of unsaturation the greater the reduction in melting point; this is explained by
decreased molecular attractions between carbon chains with increasing degree of unsaturation.

Chemical Properties of Lipids

1) Alkaline hydrolysis
- lipids may be hydrolyzed by alkali or by enzymes called lipases; reaction is termed saponification
because one of the products of hydrolysis is a soap, generally Na- or K- salts of fatty acids
- provides a useful analytical method for the determination of a constant, saponification number, which
is characteristic of the simple lipids
- saponification number is the number of mg of KOH required to saponify 1 g of a fat or oil; high for lipids
containing short-chain fatty acids (contains more acid molecules); low for lipids containing long-chain
fatty acids (contains fewer acid molecules) and indicates high molar mass
- experimentally,a weighed sample of fat is saponified with a standard solution of alc. KOH. Following
saponification, the excess alkali is determined by titration with standard acid
2) Halogenation
- a test for unsaturation; the amount of halogen absorbed by a lipid can be used as an index of the
degree of unsaturation; the index value is called iodine number , the number of grams of iodine that
will add to 100 g of fat or oil; the rule is: high I2 number indicates a high degree of unsaturation
- experimentally, a weighed sample of lipid is treated with an excess of the iodine reagent. After reaction
is complete, the unused iodine is determined by titration with a standard solution of Na2S2O3
3) Hydrogenation
- converts oils to fats (hardening); hydrogen is bubbled through hot oil in the presence of a nickel
catalyst; control of the degree of hydrogenation gives the various types of partially hydrogenated
vegetable products on the market today – soft margarine, solid stick margarine, and shortenings
- partial hydrogenation of unsaturated fats generates trans fats; if hydrogenation is allowed to continue
for a long period of time, glycerol and long-chain alcohols are formed (reduction of esters)

5
4) Rancidity
- the development of disagreeable odor
- a fat or oil becomes rancid when its double bonds are oxidized by oxygen and lipases furnished by
microorganisms in the air forming short-chain fatty acids and aldehydes as products which have
disagreeable odor; also responsible for the odors associated with workouts and heavy perspiration
- oxidation also occurs in the oils that accumulate on the surface of the skin during heavy exercise. The
relatively high body temperature and the presence of microorganisms on the skin promote rapid
oxidation of these oils as they are exposed to oxygen and water
a) hydrolytic rancidity
* under moist and warm conditions, microorganisms in the air furnish the lipases that catalyze the
process; hydrolysis of ester linkages occurs, liberating the volatile, low mol. wt. acids (e.g., butyricacid
from rancidity of butter)
* prevented by storing butter covered in a refrigerator
b) oxidative rancidity
* occurs in triglycerides containing unsaturated fatty acids
* highly unsaturated oils react with oxygen forming aldehydes and acids
* antioxidants may be used like Vit. E, ascorbic acid, BHA, BHT

[O] O | [O] | |
-CH=CH-  -C-H + H-C=O  HO-C=O + HO-C=O

Fat Substitute
Olestra (also known by its brand name Olean) is a fat substitute that adds no fat, calories, or
cholesterol to products. It has a sucrose base instead of the alcohol base of fat. Compared with conventional
fats, which have up to three fatty acids attached to the base, olestra has between six and eight fatty acids
attached to alcohol groups. These groups hang from a ring of sucrose molecules. The ring is completely
impenetrable to fat-removing enzymes and therefore remains indigestible, contributing zero calories. It has
been used in the preparation of traditionally high-fat foods such as potato chips, thereby lowering or
eliminating their fat content. In the late 1990s, Olestra lost its popularity due to side effects (cramping,
flatulence, loose bowels, diarrhea), but products containing the ingredient can still be purchased at grocery
stores.

6
Soaps and Detergents
Soaps are sodium or potassium salt of long-chain fatty acids; potassium soaps are more expensive but
produce a softer lather and are more soluble, used in liquid soaps and shaving creams.
- +
Soap molecule structure, CH3(CH2)16COO Na , is composed of a large nonpolar hydrocarbon portion
(hydrophobic) and a carboxylate salt end (hydrophilic)

The cleansing action of soap: (emulsification and lowering of the surface tension of water)
When soap is added to water, the hydrophilic ends of the molecules are dissolved, but the
hydrophobic ends are not and consequently form a thin film (suds) on the surface of water. When this soap
solution is brought into contact with grease or oil (most of the dirt is held to clothes by a thin film of grease or
oil), soap molecules become reoriented. The hydrophobic portions dissolve in the grease or oil and the
hydrophilic ends remain dissolved in water. Mechanical action, such as scrubbing, causes the oil or grease to
disperse into tiny droplets, and soap molecules arrange themselves around the surface of the globules forming
micelles which don’t coalesce because of repulsions between their surrounding carboxylate groups. The entire
micelle becomes water-soluble which may be washed away by a stream of water.

Detergents don’t form precipitates with ions of hard water

1. Anionic detergents – sulfates of fatty acids or sulfonate salts of hydrocarbons
2. Cationic detergents – referred to as invert soap because their water-soluble end carries a positive,
rather than negative charge; widely used in hospitals, good cleansing agents, have germicidal
properties
3. Nonionic detergents – contain polar covalent structures that provide the required water solubility;
used extensively in dishwashing liquid and on all occasions that call for absence of inorganic ions.

7
3.2 2 Phosphoglycerides (glycerophospholipids, or phosphatides)
phospholipid is a more general term
- a group of lipids containing a phosphate group; found in all living organisms; abundant in the liver,
brain, & spinal tissue and are found in the outer membranes of most cells
- contain acyl groups derived from long-chain fatty acids esterified at C1 and C2 of glycerol-3-P
- the simplest phosphoglyceride contains a free phosphoryl group and is known as phosphatidate

- when the phosphoryl group is attached to another hydrophilic group, a more complex phospho-
glyceride is formed.
e.g. phosphatidylcholine (lecithin) & phosphatidylethanolamine (cephalin)
- two of the common PL found in membranes; primary function is to act as emulsifying agent at cell
membrane surfaces since it contain both a polar and nonpolar component
- their bipolar nature is central to the structure and function of cell membranes
a) lecithin (phosphatidylcholine)
o +
- contains choline, a 4 ammonium salt, HOCH2CH2 N(CH3)3, joined to a H3PO4 residue by means of an
ester linkage
- the N in choline carries a formal positive charge and the phosphate a negative charge so that in
solution, at most pH values, lecithin exists as an internal salt or ZWITTERION
- pure lecithin is especially abundant in eggyolk and soybeans, wheat germ and yeast; also found in
brain and nervous tissue

- excellent emulsifiers and for this reason eggyolk is an excellent emulsifier to hold olive oil and water
together as mayonnaise; emulsifying agent (aids in the suspension of fats in water) in ice cream
- claims arise that lecithins should be taken as a nutritive supplement; some claims indicate it will
improve memory. There is no evidence that these supplement s are useful. The enzyme lecithinase in
the intestine hydrolyzes most of the phosphatidylcholine taken orally before it passes into body fluids,
so it does not reach body tissues. The phosphatidylcholine present in membranes is made by the liver;
thus phophatidylcholines are not essential nutrients.

8
b) cephalin (phosphatidylethanolamine or phosphatidylserine)
- the term is derived from its chief occurrence in the body, namely the head, & spinal tissue (Greek,
Kephalikos, head); found in heart and liver tissue and in high concentrations in the brain.
- in cephalins, the choline is replaced by ethanolamine, H2N-CH2CH2OH, (phophatidyl ethanolamine) or
by the amino acid serine, H2N-CH(CH2OH)-COOH, (phosphatidyl serine)
- play an important role in the process of blood clotting

3.3 NONGLYCERIDES (these are lipids not derived from glycerol)

3.3.1 Waxes
- easily melted solids, widely distributed in nature and are found in both plants and animals
- not as easily hydrolyzed as the triglyerides and therefore are useful as protective coatings
- plant waxes are found on surface of leaves and stems and protect the plant from dehydration and
invasion by harmful organisms; animal waxes are found on surface of feathers, skin, and hair.
Some common waxes Source Application
a) Beeswax honeycomb shoe polishes, candles, lipstick,
(myricyl palmitate) wax paper
C15H31COOC30H61
b) Carnauba wax Carnauba palm polishes, floor wax, automobile wax
(myricyl cerotate) (in Brazil) wax
C25H51COOC30H61
c) Spermaceti sperm whale ointments, soaps, cosmetics
(cetyl palmitate) manufacture of candles
C15H31COOC16H33
d) Lanolin wool skin ointments & lotions to aid
mixture of cholesterol retention of water which softens
& esters of several fatty acids the skin

- paraffin wax is different because it is merely a mixture of hydrocarbons and is not an ester.

3.3.2 sphingolipids
- derived from sphingosine, an 18-carbon unsaturated amino dialcohol
- can be regarded as derivatives of ceramide (core of each type of sphingolipid), a compound consisting
of sphingosine and a fatty acid

CH3(CH2)12CH = CH – CH – OH
|
H2N – CH
|
Sphingosine CH2OH

a) sphingomyelin
- the white matter of the myelin sheath, a coating surrounding the nerve cells that increases the speed
of nerve impulses and insulates & protects the nerve cells
- located throughout the body but function principally in brain and nerve tissue; found in all cell
membranes and are important structural components of the myelin sheath that surrounds and
insulates cells of the central nervous system. Their role is essential to proper cerebral function and
nerve transmission.
- may also be classified as phospholipids since they contain phosphate group

9
b) glycolipids (cerebrosides)
- occur primarily in the brain (7% of the solid matter) and in the myelin sheath of nerves
- composed of sphingosine, a fatty acid, and a sugar moiety; galactocerebrosides are almost entirely
found in the cell membranes of brain; various members of the class differ only with respect to their
constituent fatty acid

c) gangliosides
- similar to cerebrosides but contain oligosaccharide groups with one or more sialic acid residues.
- important in cell membranes as receptors for hormones, viruses, and several drugs

Diseases originating from abnormal metabolism

and accumulation of sphingoilipids

Disease Symptom Sphingolipid Enzyme

Tay-Sachs Blindness, muscles weak Ganglioside β-hexose-aminidase A

Gaucher’s Liver & spleen enlarge, Glucocerebroside β-glucosidase

MR

Krabbe’s demyelation, MR Galactocerebroside β-galactosidase

Nieman-Pick MR Sphingomyelin Sphingomyelinase

10
3.3.3 steroids
- complex derivatives of triterpenes; occur in plant and animal tissues, yeasts, and molds, but not in
bacteria, and may exist free or combined with fatty acids or carbohydrates
- for many years a great deal of controversy has surrounded various steroids. We worry about the
amount of cholesterol in the diet and the possible health effects. We are concerned about the anabolic
steroids by athletes who wish to build muscle mass and improve their performance. However,
members of this family of molecules derived from cholesterol have many important functions in the
body. The bile salts that aid in the emulsification and thus digestion of lipids are steroid molecules, as
are the sex hormones testosterone and estrone.
- all steroids have cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene nucleus which consists of a completely
saturated phenanthrene moiety fused to a cyclopentane ring

a) sterols
- steroids containing one, two, or three double bonds and one or more hydroxyl groups
- differ from other lipids in that they do not undergo saponification
e.g., cholesterol
- best known and most abundant (about 240 kg) steroid in the body; high occurrence in the brain and
nervous tissue; the principal constituent of gallstones from which it can be isolated as a white
crystalline solid. Its name is derived from this source (Greek, chole – bile; steros – solid)
- found in the membrane of most animal cells; readily soluble in the hydrophobic region of membranes
and is the principal membrane lipid involved in regulation of the fluidity of the membrane.
- Cholesterol plays a vital biochemical role in chemical synthesis within the human body; it is the
starting material for the synthesis of numerous steroid hormones, vit. D, and bile salts; its presence in
the body is essential to life
- Cholesterol is not necessary in the diet. The human body, mainly within the liver, synthesizes about 1
gram of cholesterol each day, an amount sufficient to meet the body’s biosynthetic needs.; when it is
ingested, the amount synthesized by the body is reduced; however, the reduction is less than the
amount ingested so that the body cholesterol level increases with dietary cholesterol level.
- Medical science now considers high blood cholesterol, along with high blood pressure and smoking, as
the major risk factors for cardiovascular disease (CVD). High blood cholesterol contributes to
atherosclerosis, which is characterized by the buildup of plaque along the inner walls of the arteries.
Plaque is a mound of lipid material mixed with smooth muscle cells and calcium; much of the lipid
material in plaque is cholesterol. Cholesterol, in combination with other substances, appears to coat
the arteries, resulting in a narrowing. As this narrowing increases, more and more pressure is
necessary to ensure adequate blood flow. The pressure in the blood vessels increases, and high blood
pressure (hypertension) develops. Hypertension is also linked to heart disease.

11
b) bile acids/ bile salts
- salts of bile acids are the most important constituents of human bile; bile is produced by the liver,
stored in the gall bladder, and secreted into the intestine
- a bile salt is an emulsifying agent that makes dietary lipids soluble in the aqueous environment of the
digestive tract; main function is to facilitate the absorption of fats through the wall of the intestine
- cholic acid is the most abundant bile acid
- bile salts are cholesterol oxidation products where cholesterol is oxidized to carboxylic acid which is
then bonded to an amino acid by amide linkage; the two principal bile salts are sodium glyocholate
(glycine is the amino acid) and sodium taurocholate (taurine is the amino acid).

c) steroid hormones
- a hormone is a chemical messenger secreted by specific glands and carried by the blood to a target
tissue, where it triggers a particular response. Hormones serve as a means of communication between
various tissues; hormones, together with the central nervous system(CNS), are the regulators of body
reactions like metabolism, growth and development, etc.
adrenocortical hormones
- produced by the outer part, or cortex, of the adrenal glands, small organs on top of each kidney
- regulate numerous biochemical processes in the body; effect the metabolism of foodstuffs and control
+ +
inflammation and allergies (glucocorticoids); maintain the proper balance of electrolytes Na and K
ions in cells (mineralocorticoids)
- adrenal hormones are widely used in the treatment of rheumatic fever and rheumatoid arthritis.

` Aldosterone Cortisol Cortisone Prednisolone

(a mineralocorticoid) (a glucocorticoid) (an anti-inflammatory drug) (an anti-inflammmatory drug)

sex hormones
a. androgens - the male sex hormones, the most important is testosterone; synthesized in the testes and
o o
adrenal cortex; regulate the development of 1 and 2 male sex characteristics
b. estrogens - the female sex hormones; synthesized in the ovaries and adrenal cortex; regulate the
o o
development of 1 and 2 female sex characteristics and for regulation of the menstrual cycle; also
stimulate the development of the mammary glands during pregnancy and induce estrus (heat) in animals.
c. progestins - the pregnancy hormones; for normal pregnancy; produced in the ovaries and in the placenta,
it is responsible for both the successful initiation and completion of pregnancy;
it prepares the lining of the uterus (endometrium) for implantation of the ovum. Once the egg is attached,
progesterone is involved in the development of the fetus and also plays a role in the suppression of further
ovulation during pregnancy

Estradiol Testosterone
(the principal estrogen; (the principal androgen; (the principal progestin;
for female sex characteristics) for male sex characteristics) for normal pregnancy)

12
 - increased knowledge of the structures and functions of sex hormones has led to the development of a
number of synthetic steroids; among the best known are oral contraceptives and anabolic agents.
- anabolic steroid abuse can result in a wide range of harmful side effects including some that are
physically unattractive such as acne and breast development in men; the side effects can also be life-
threatening, such as liver cancer and heart attacks.

Norethynodrel RU-486 Methandrostenolone

(a synthetic progestin) (mifepristone; a synthetic abortion drug) (a synthetic tissue-building steroid)

3.4 COMPLEX LIPIDS (lipids that are bonded to other types of molecules)
3.4.1 phospholipids
- see phosphoglycerides, & sphingomyelin;
- fatty acids, glycerol, H3PO4 and a nitrogenous base on hydrolysis
3.4.2 glycolipids
- see cerebrosides, & gangliosides; fatty acids, sphingosine, and a carbohydrate on hydrolysis
3.4.3 lipoproteins
- responsible for the transport of other lipids in the body; lipids are only sparingly soluble in water, and
the movement of lipids from one organ to another through the blood stream requires a transport
system that operates via plasma lipoproteins
- lipoprotein particles consist of a core of hydrophobic molecules such as triglycerides or cholesterol
esters (cholesterol esterified to fa’s). The shell around the core consists of polar lipids and proteins

Four major classes:

a) chylomicron
- transports dietary TAG, cholesterol, etc. from the intestines to other tissues (adipose tissue and liver),
except kidney; 90% triglyceride + 1% protein
b) very low density lipoprotein (VLDL)
- bind triglycerides synthesized in the liver and carry them to adipose tissues and other tissues for
storage; 50% triglyceride + 10% protein
c) low density lipoprotein (LDL)
- carry cholesterol to peripheral (adipose) tissues and help regulate cholesterol levels in those tissues;
regulates de novo synthesis of cholesterol; 10% triglyceride + 20% proteins
- liver LDL receptors enable large amounts of cholesterol to be removed from the blood, thus ensuring
low concentrations of cholesterol in plasma. Other factors being equal, the person with the most
lipoprotein receptors will be the least vulnerable to a high-cholesterol diet and will have the least
likelihood of developing atherosclerosis.
d) high density lipoprotein (HDL)
- transports cholesterol from peripheral tissues to the liver; 5% triglyceride + 50% protein
13
 - there is evidence that high levels of HDL in the blood help to reduce the incidence of atherosclerosis.
This may be due to the fact that HDL carries cholesterol from the peripheral tissues back to the liver. In
the liver, some of the cholesterol is used for bile synthesis and secreted into the intestine, from which
it is secreted.
* High VLDL and low HDL are risk factors in atherosclerosis and predisposes toward strokes
and coronary infarction
* When the level of LDL is high in relation to the HDL there is a high risk of coronary disease
(LDL/HDL above 4.0)

Structure of Cell Membranes

Living cells contain ~10,000 kinds of molecules in an aqueous environment confined by a cell
membrane A cell membrane is a structure that separates a cell’s aqueous-based contents from the aqueous
environment surrounding the cell. Besides its “separation” function, a cell membrane also controls the
movement of substances into and out of the cell. Up to 80% of the mass of a cell membrane is lipid material;
hence the consideration of cell membranes in the chapter on lipids. Cell membranes contain various
phosphoacylglycerols (phospholipids) and sphingolipids. The “head and two tail” structure of these lipids is of
key importance to an understanding of the lipid bilayer structural feature of the cell membranes. A lipid
bilayer is ~6-9 nanometers, two-layer thick structure of lipid molecules aligned so that the nonpolar tails of the
lipids form the interior of the structure and the polar heads form the outside surfaces.
Cholesterol molecules are also components of cell membranes. They regulate membrane fluidity.
Because of their compact shape cholesterol molecules fit between the fatty acid side chains of the lipid bilayer,
restricting movement of the fatty acid side chains and making the bilayer more rigid.
Proteins are also components of the lipid bilayers. They are responsible for moving substances such as
nutrients and electrolytes across the membrane, and they also act as receptors that bind enzymes, hormones,
and neurotransmitters.

14
 Small carbohydrate molecules are also components of cell membranes. They are found on the outer
membrane surface covalently bonded to protein molecules (a glycoprotein) or lipid molecules (a glycolipid).
They function as markers, substances that play key roles in the process by which different cells recognize each
other.

Characteristics of cell membrane

1. Fluidity - increasing percentage of unsaturated fats leads to more fluidity of the membrane. Lateral
movement of phospholipids is rapid. Flip-flop, from one side to the other is rare.
2. Selective permeability - the hydrophobic nature of the membrane makes it impenetrable to the transport of
ionic and polar substances. Membrane proteins regulate passage of ionic and polar substances by
binding to the polar compound or by providing a channel.
3. Self-sealing capacity - a break in the membrane immediately and spontaneously seals.
4. Asymmetry - bulkier molecules occur more often in the inner side of the membrane.
5. Strong and rigid

Membrane Transport Mechanisms

1. Passive transport – there is no direct energy input
a) simple diffusion – molecules move through a membrane down a concentration gradient (toward
lower concentration)
b) facilitated diffusion – molecules move through protein channels in membrane; permease, a
membrane protein assists in diffusion
2. Active transport – require energy
+ +
a) primary – energy is provided by ATP (e.g., Na - K pump system)
b) secondary – concentration gradients generated by the primary active transport are used to move
+ + +
substances across membranes (e.g., Na gradient from Na - K pump system is used to transport
glucose in kidney tubules.

15
Saponifiable and Nonsaponifiable Lipids
- saponifiable lipids produce fatty acids upon treatment with NaOH
- include fats/oils, waxes, phospholipids (glycerophospholipid, sphingolipid), and glycolipids
- nonsaponifiable lipids include steroids and terpenes, can’t be hydrolyzed by NaOH

3.5 MISCELLANEOUS LIPIDS

- Vitamin = “vital amine,” from an early belief that vitamins might all be amines
- the body cannot make vitamins; they must be in the diet
- the term vitamin applies to any compound or a closely related group of compounds satisfying the
following criteria:
• it is organic rather than inorganic or an element
• it cannot be synthesized at all (or at least in sufficient amounts) by the body
• its absence causes a specific vitamin deficiency disease
• its presence is essential to normal growth and health
• it is present in foods in small concentrations, and it is not a carbohydrate, a saponifiable lipid, an
amino acid, or a protein
- function in the body either as precursors for coenzymes or as coenzymes themselves. Most of the
nutritionally required minerals function as cofactors to enzymes

3.5.1 Terpenes or isoprenoids

- are polyenes, alkenes with several double bonds, are found in nature; built from one or
more five-carbon units called isoprene, CH2=CCH3CH=CH3
- steroids, chlorophyll & carotenoid pigments, fat-soluble vitamins.
3.5.2 Fat-soluble vitamins
- fat-soluble vitamins are largely hydrocarbon-like, and water-soluble vitamins are polar or ionic
- fat-soluble vitamins occur in the lipid fractions of their sources
- their molecules have double bonds or phenol rings, so oxidizing agents readily attack them; hence,
these vitamins are destroyed by prolonged exposures to air or to the organic peroxides that develop in
fats and oils turning rancid. These are actually good properties; because the fat-soluble vitamins are
easily oxidized, they destroy oxidizing agents (which are involved in the development of coronary
heart disease, genetic mutations, and cancer)

a) Vitamin A (retinol)
- a primary alcohol of molecular formula C20H30O; occur only in the animal world, where the best
sources are cod-liver oil and other fish-liver oils, animal liver and dairy products
- provitamin A is found in the plant world in the form of carotenes. Provitamins have no vitamin
activity; however, after ingestion in the diet, β-carotene is cleaved at the central carbon-carbon double
bond to give 2 molecules of Vit. A.

- the major action of Vit. A is probably on epithelial cells, particularly those of the mucous membranes
of the eye, oral cavity, digestive, respiratory, reproductive and genitourinary tracts. Without adequate
supplies of vitamin A these membranes become hard and dry (keratinized)
16
 - though harmless, excessive β-carotene ingestion makes the skin yellow or orange. In distinction to
observation in cases of jaundice, the sclera remains white
- Vit. A (retinol) is oxidized to retinal, or vitamin A-aldehyde, which combines with opsin, a protein, to
form rhodopsin, the light-seeing pigment in the retina.
- most obvious effects of vit. A deficiency is on the eye. The cells of the tear glands become keratinized
and stop secreting tears, & the external surface of the eye becomes dry, dull, and often scaly. Without
tears to remove bacteria, the eye is susceptible to serious infection, which if not treated on time,
blindness results  xerophthalmia
- a less serious condition is night blindness, the inability to see dim light or to adapt to subdued light

b) Vitamin D (“solar vitamin”)

0 2+
- a 2 alcohol; C28H44O; the antirachitic vitamin; primary effect is on Ca metabolism, it increases the
2+
absorption of Ca from the intestinal tract; necessary for the normal calcification of bone tissue
- compounds with antirachitic activity:
* Vitamin D2 or ergocalciferol (vegetable origin)
* Vitamin D3 or cholecalciferol (animal origin); fish-liver oils – richest source

Ergocalciferol (D2) Cholecalciferol (D3)

- pigment in the skin, 7-dehydrocholesterol, is a provitamin D; when irradiated by the sunlight becomes
converted to Vit. D3
- humans exposed to sunlight year-round do not require dietary Vit. D

c) Vitamin E
- a group of about seven compounds of similar structure; of these, α-tocopherol has the greatest
potency; tocopherol  Greek, promoter of childbirth; the antisterility vitamin
- functions in the body as an antioxidant in that it inhibits the oxidation of unsat’d fatty acids by O2
17
 - occurs in fish oil, cottonseed and peanut oil, green leafy vegetables; the richest source is wheat germ
oil

α-tocopherol

d) Vitamin K
- essential for the synthesis of prothrombin in the liver; the antihemorrhagic vitamin

Vitamin K2
(n may be 5, 6, or 8)

- synthesized by intestinal bacteria

- deficiency may occur during the first few days after birth, because newborns lack the intestinal
bacteria that produce Vit. K and because they have no store of Vit. K (it does not cross the placenta)
- hence, all newborns are given vitamin K injection to prevent hemorrhagic disease
- deficiency may also occur following antibiotic therapy that sterilizes the gut

18
19
20
 Lipids
CHEM2N LAB CLASS BSN1
Presented by

JHON ABRIEN S. SOLIZA, RCh

 Lipids
• Lipid comes from the Greek word “lipos” meaning fat.
• Consist of fatty acids
• insoluble in water
• serve as energy storage
• membranes components
• aid absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K)
• aid enzyme activities
• Messengers
-Primary: Hormones
-Secondary: mediate hormonal response
• forms layers of fats to insulate the body
Fig 20.1, p.501
 Fatty Acids

• Most abundant are

palmitic acid
(16:0), stearic acid
(18:0), and oleic
acid (18:1)
• Are amphipathic
 Fatty Acid Notation

• Delta Nomenclature
/ C – SYSTEM
 Fatty Acid Notation

• Omega
Nomenclature/ n-
system
Table 20.1, p.496
 Fatty Acids
Melting COOH
Carbon Atoms/ Common Point COOH
Double Bonds* Name (°C)
Saturated Fatty Acids
COOH
12:0 Lauric acid 44
14:0 Myristic acid 58
16:0 Palmitic acid 63
18:0 Stearic acid 70
20:0 Arachidic acid 77
Unsaturated Fatty Acids
16:1 Palmitoleic acid 1
18:1 Oleic acid 16
18:2 Linoleic acid -5
18:3 Linolenic acid -11
20:4 Arachidonic acid -49
 Packing of Saturated vs Unsaturated Fatty Acids

• Larger surface area

• more interaction with each other • Presence of double bond in kink structure give a
• higher IMF smaller surface area
• solid or semi solid at room temp • Less interaction with each other
• higher melting point • Lower IMF
• Liquid at room temp
• Lower melting point
Lodon dispersion forces is the dominant IMF in fatty acid since it contains long chain of nonpolar molecule
 Classification of Lipids
• Simple Lipids – Fatty Acids +
Alcohol
– TAG (Triacylglycerol)
Triglyceride (triacylglyceride): an ester
of glycerol with three fatty acids
 Triglycerides
• Physical properties depend on the fatty acid
components
– More carbons: higher melting point
– More saturated (fewer C=C): higher melting point
– Oils:
• More unsaturated fatty acids
• Liquid at room temperature
– Fats:
• Primarily saturated fatty acids
• Semisolids or solids at room temperature
 Triglycerides
• Melting points related to 3-D shape of
triglyceride
– Saturated fatty acids can pack closely together
• More London dispersion forces between chains
• Higher melting points (above room temperature)
– Unsaturated fatty acids have cis double bonds
• Bend in chain prevents close packing
• Fewer London dispersion forces between them
• Lower melting points (below room temperature)
 Hydrogenation

• Can convert liquid oil to solid fat by adding H2

to double bonds by using H2/catalyst
– Can control hardening to produce fats of a desired
consistency
– Examples: Crisco, Spry, Dexo, etc.
– Margarine produced by partial hydrogenation of
polyunsaturated oils derived from corn, cottonseed,
peanut, and soybean oils
 Iodine or Bromine Test for
Unsaturation

• Add Br2 (or I2) to C=C.

• The more Br2 or I2 you add, the greater the

number of double bonds in the fat or oil

• Iodine number is a measure of unsaturation.

 Soaps
• Natural soaps are prepared by boiling lard or other animal
fat with NaOH, in a reaction called saponification (Latin,
sapo, soap)
O
O CH 2 OCR
saponification
RCOCH + 3N aOH
O
CH 2 OCR CH 2 OH O
- +
A triglyceride CHOH + 3RCO N a
(a triester of glycerol) Sodium soaps
CH 2 OH
1,2,3-Propanetriol
(Glycerol; Glycerin)
 Soaps
• Soaps clean by acting as emulsifying agents
– their long hydrophobic hydrocarbon chains cluster
so as to minimize their contact with water
– their polar hydrophilic carboxylate groups remain in
contact with the surrounding water molecules
– driven by these two forces, soap molecules
spontaneously cluster into micelles
 Waxes
• High molecular-weight esters
• Paraffin wax are special types of waxes which aren’t
esters. They are high molecular weight alkanes mainly
used for candles.

46 C total for triacontyl palmitate

 Complex Lipids

Fatty Acids + Alcohol + additional Group. One of the hydroxides

reacts with a different group.

• Phospholipids
• Glycolipids
• Lipoproteins
 • Phospholipids
– contain an alcohol, two fatty acids, and a phosphate
Complex Lipids ester
– in glycerophospholipids, the alcohol is glycerol
– in sphingolipids, the alcohol is sphingosine
 Membrane bilayer
• Hydrophilic head outside
• Hydrophobic tails inside
Simple lipids Complex lipids found in membranes

Fig 20.1, p.501

 Glycerophospholipids
• A phosphatidic acid
palmitic acid
O
glycerol
O CH2

O CH -
oleic acid O
-
O CH2 -O-P-O
O
– Fatty acid attached to C-2 is always unsaturated
– Can also add small alcohol to the phosphate to
make a glycerophospholipid
 Glycerophospholipids
Name of
Name and Formula Glycerophospholipid
ethanolamine cephalin
HOCH2CH2 NH2
choline lecithin
+
HOCH2CH2 N(CH 3)3
serine cephalin
-
HOCH2CHCOO
+
NH3

inositol OH phosphatidylinositol
OH
HO OH
HO OH
 Sphingolipids
• Found in the myelin sheath of
nerve axons
– Sphingomyelin deterioration found in
MS
• Contain sphingosine, a long-chain
aminoalcohol
(CH 2 ) 12 CH 3 (CH 2 ) 12 CH 3 (CH 2 ) 12 CH 3

HO HO O HO O
N H2 N HCR N HCR
O- +
OH OH OPOCH 2 CH 2 N(CH 3 ) 3
Sphingosine A ceramide
O
(an N-acylsphingosine)
A sphingomyelin
 Glycolipids
• Glycolipid: complex lipid that contains a sugar
– Sugar is glucose or galactose
– Cerebrosides found in brain and nerve synapses
(CH2 ) 12CH 3

a ceramide
a unit of
b-D-glucopyranose HO O
H OH NHCR
HO
HO O
HO a b-glycosidic bond
H
OH
H H
 Transport of Lipids
• Lipoproteins
– Classified by their density and function
 Lipoproteins
• Cholesterol, along with fats, are transported
by lipoproteins
Composition (% dry weight)
Cholesterol Phospho- Tri-
Lipoprotein Proteins and esters lipids glycerides
High-density 33 30 29 8
lipoprotein (HDL)
Low-density 25 50 21 4
lipoprotein (LDL)
Very-low density 10 22 18 50
lipoprotein (VLDL)
Chylomicrons 1-2 8 7 84
• Cholesterol forms plaque
deposits on inside of blood
vessels (atherosclerosis)
• Narrows blood vessel
diameter
• Lowers blood flow
• Can lead to heart attack,
stroke, kidney disfunction or
other problems
 Derived Lipids
• Steroids
• Terpenes
• Eicosanoids
• fat soluble vitamins
 Steroids
• Steroids: a group of plant and animal lipids that have a
steroid ring structure

C D

A B
 Cholesterol
• Cholesterol is the most abundant steroid in
the human body, and also the most
important
– Component in animal plasma membranes
– Precursor of all steroid hormones and bile acids

HO
 Steroid Hormones
• Androgens: male sex hormones
– synthesized in the testes
– responsible for the development of male secondary sex
characteristics
H3 C OH H3 C O

H3 C H3 C

O HO
Testosterone Androsterone
 Steroid Hormones
• Among the synthetic anabolic steroids are

H 3C CH3 H3 C OH H3C O
OH
H3 C
H3 C CH 3 H3 C

O O O
Methandienone Methenolone 4-Androstene-3,17-dione
 Steroid Hormones
• Estrogens: female sex hormones
– synthesized in the ovaries
– responsible for the development of female
secondary sex characteristics and control of
the menstrual cycle
CH 3
H3C C=O H3C OH

H 3C

O HO
Progesterone Estradiol
 Steroid Hormones
• Progesterone-like analogs are used in oral contraceptives
CH3
N
H3 C OH
H3C C CCH3
"Nor" refers to
the absence of a
methyl group here H C OH
3 C CH

O
Mifepristone
(RU486)
O
Norethindrone
 Steroid Hormones
• Glucorticoid hormones
– synthesized in the adrenal cortex
– regulate metabolism of carbohydrates
– involved in the reaction to stress
CH 2 OH
– decrease inflammation OH
O C=O
CH

H3 C H

H H
O
Aldosterone
 Bile Salts
• Bile salts, the oxidation products of cholesterol
– synthesized in the liver, stored in the gallbladder,
and secreted into the intestine where they emulsify
dietary fats and aid in their absorption and digestion
O O
HO NH HO NH

COO-
2-
SO3

HO OH HO OH
Glycocholate Taurocholate
(from glycine) (from taurine)
 Prostaglandins
• Prostaglandins are synthesized in response to
specific physiological triggers
• Made from membrane-bound 20-carbon
polyunsaturated fatty acids such as arachidonic
acid
9 8 6 5
COOH

11 12 14 15

Arachidonic acid
 Eicosanoids 9
COOH

• are signaling 11 15
Aspirin and other
NSAIDs inhibit
Arachidonic acid
molecules which this enzyme

are derivatives of 2O2 cyclooxygenase (COX)

O
arachidonic acid 9
COOH
PGG2
(carboxylic acids O 11
15

with 20 carbon OOH

atoms). O
9
HO
9
COOH COOH
15 15
11 11
HO HO
OH OH
PGE2 PGF2 a
 Prostaglandins
• Prostaglandins:
• play a key role in the generation of the inflammatory
response. Their biosynthesis is significantly increased in
inflamed tissue and they contribute to the development of
the cardinal signs of acute inflammation.
• acts as vasodilators - they widen blood vessels. They also
inhibit platelet aggregation. 7 5 3
1
9
6 2
COOH
8 4

10

12 14 16 18 20
11
13 15 17 19
 Thromboxanes
• Thromboxanes are also derived from
arachidonic acid
• acts as vasoconstrictors – they can make the
blood vessels narrower.

9
8 1
10
O COOH
11 15 20
O 12

OH
Thromboxane A
 TERPENES
• are aromatic lipids found in many
plants that are multiple of
isoprene units. Terpenes are non
– saponifiable meaning there are
no acid functional group in the
chain.
Fat soluble
vitamins
• Vitamins A, D, E and K
• Vitamin A is best known for its vital role in maintaining
vision. It’s also essential for body growth, immune
function, and reproductive health.
• vitamin D is the maintenance of calcium and phosphorus
levels in blood. It benefits bone health by promoting the
absorption of these minerals.
• Vitamin E’s key role is to serve as an antioxidant,
protecting cells against free radicals and oxidative
damage.
• Vitamin K is vital for blood clotting and supports bone
health.
 Tay-Sachs
disease
• is an inherited metabolic
disease caused by the harmful
buildup of lipids in various cells
and tissues in the body. It is
part of a group of genetic
disorders called the
GM2 gangliosidoses.
• Tay-Sachs and its variant form
are caused by a deficiency in
the enzyme hexosaminidase A.
Affected children appear to
develop normally until about
age 6 months and then begin to
show symptoms
 Fabry’s disease
• (also called alpha-galactosidase-A
deficiency) is caused by the lack of or faulty
enzyme needed to metabolize lipids, fat-like
substances that include oils, waxes, and fatty
acids.
• The mutated gene allows lipids to build up to
harmful levels in the autonomic nervous
system (which controls involuntary functions
such as breathing and digestion),
cardiovascular system, eyes, and kidneys.
 Gaucher disease

• Gaucher disease is one of the inherited metabolic

disorders known as lipid storage diseases. Lipids
are fatty materials that include oils, fatty acids,
waxes, and steroids (such as cholesterol and
estrogen). People with Gaucher disease either do
not produce enough of the enzyme
glucocerebrosidase needed to break down lipids or
have enzymes that do not work properly. Fatty
materials can accumulate in the brain and other
organs.
• General symptoms may begin in early life or
adulthood and include skeletal disorders and bone
lesions that may cause pain and fractures, enlarged
spleen and liver, liver malfunction, anemia, and
yellow spots in the eyes.
• There are three common clinical subtypes of
Gaucher disease
Niemann-Pick
disease
• refers to a group of inherited metabolic
disorders known as lipid storage
diseases. Lipids (fatty materials such as
waxes, fatty acids, oils, and cholesterol) and
proteins are usually broken down into
smaller components to provide energy for
the body. In Niemann-Pick disease, harmful
quantities of lipids accumulate in the brain,
spleen, liver, lungs, and bone marrow.
• Types A and B are caused by a missing or
malfunctioning enzyme called
sphingomyelinase.
• type C is a rare inherited disease
 COLEGIO SAN AGUSTIN – BACOLOD
College of Health and Allied Professions CHEM2N LABORATORY ACTIVITY
Nursing Program

Activity 4
Bicarbonate-Carbonic Buffer System

A buffer is a solution that can resist pH change upon the addition of an acidic or basic
components. It is able to neutralize small amounts of added acid or base, thus maintaining the
pH of the solution relatively stable.
Buffering in blood is crucial to our survival. The pH of blood must be kept constant for
normal body functions to work. If blood becomes too acidic, or too basic, then enzymes and
proteins are unable to function. Normal blood pH is 7.4. If it drops below 6.8, or rises above 7.8,
respiratory and cardiac function are compromised, the blood-clotting process changes, and death
may occur.
Red blood cells play an important role in the removal of excess hydrogen ions in the body.
This is achieved by a carbonic acid/Bicarbonate buffering system. This buffer system can be
represented as an equation:

This buffer works well because concentrations of the buffer components HCO3 - and CO2
(formed from H2CO3) are much greater than concentration of H+ ions. This means that changes
in the concentration of H+ ions have little effect on the pH of blood.
Other body organs play important roles in this buffer system. The lungs get rid of most of
the H+ ions produced by metabolism by removing carbon dioxide and driving the reaction
forward. The kidneys also remove H+ ions that are excreted in urine. The kidneys are also
involved in regulation of pH of body fluids through a complex interaction of H+, HCO3 - , H2O, CO2
and ions such as Na+.

OBJECTIVES

This activity should enable the students to:

1. Learn how buffer solution works
2. Importance of buffer systems in our body
3. Learn how to create a buffer solution

Materials :

• purple camote leaves juice • 2 plastic cup or clear glass (garapon or

• teaspoon baso) approximately 250-500mL
capacity (clear not colored)
• 1 Sodium bicarbonate tablet 650mg
(crushed into powder form)
• Medicine Dropper
• 5mL syringe
• Clear soda (Sprite or 7Up, for example)
(approximately 0.035M as carbonic acid)

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 COLEGIO SAN AGUSTIN – BACOLOD
College of Health and Allied Professions CHEM2N LABORATORY ACTIVITY
Nursing Program

Follow the procedure on the link bellow:

making camote leaves pH indicator
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_pKbtNQVU0s
What you have in each cup is a solution of anthocyanin
(made from boiling purple camote leaves), which is an acid-base indicator. It turns blue in the
presence of high pH and pink in the presence of low pH. In between, it turns a variety of colors.
Right now, it should be a light purple, which indicates a pH of roughly 7.
Procedure:
1. using the 5mL syringe draw about 10 syringe full of the purple camote leaves Juice
Indicator into 2 clear glass/plastic cups to make approximately 50 mL.
2. Add crushed sodium bicarbonate tablet to one of the clear glass. You should see the color
change towards green. That is because the bicarbonate ion in the baking soda is a base.
The green color is anthocyanin’s reaction to the higher pH. Label this container “Buffer”.
3. Label the other clear glass/plastic cups “Control.”
4. Use the same syringe to add the Clear soda Sprite to the “Buffer” beaker that you just put
the baking soda in. Use that tablespoon to stir the solution. Continue to add Sprite one
syringe at a time (stirring in between) until the color of the solution roughly matches the
color of the solution the control (the one you haven’t added anything to). This sample
now has a mixture of an acid (carbonic acid from the Sprite) and base (bicarbonate from
the baking soda). This is the bicarbonate buffer.
5. You now have samples, each at roughly the same pH. One has a buffer solution, the other
does not.
6. Take the medicine dropper or syringe and add two drops of vinegar to the beaker labeled
“Control” that does not have the buffer. Swirl the glass to mix the vinegar in the solution.
a. Record: Note the color.
7. Next, repeat step 6 with the “Buffer” container. Record: Note the color change, if any.
8. Alternatively add two drops of vinegar to each solution, swirling in between. Continue
until each solution changes color.
a. Record how many drops were added to each solution.
b. Record: Compare how quickly the bicarbonate buffer solution changes colors to
how quickly the other solution changes colors.
9. Clean everything up.
10. Make a video presentation on every process and observation make sure to upload this
or comment in NEO submission.

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 COLEGIO SAN AGUSTIN – BACOLOD
College of Health and Allied Professions CHEM2N LABORATORY ACTIVITY
Nursing Program

Respond to the following:

1. Explain any differences you saw between how quickly each solution changed color.
2. How does this relate to what we’ve discussed about buffers?
3. Why would buffers be helpful in the body? Your answer should refer to the term
homeostasis
4. Create a flow chart of boxes illustrating each step of this activity and the color reaction of
each beaker. Labels should help a reader understand what is happening. It should be
colored.
5. What is alkalosis?
6. What could lead to alkalosis in the body?
7. What is acidosis?
8. What could lead to acidosis?
9. What is the conjugate base and the acid in the buffer solution?

References

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textboo
k_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Acids_and_Bas
es/Buffers/Introduction_to_Buffers

https://www.uwa.edu.au/study/-/media/Faculties/Science/Docs/Buffering-systems-in-
the-human-body.pdf

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 COLEGIO SAN AGUSTIN – BACOLOD
College of Health and Allied Professions CHEM2N LABORATORY ACTIVITY
Nursing Program

Name: ____________________________________________ Section:________

Date Performed: ________________________ Group No.: ______ Rating: ________

ACTIVITY NO. 3

Show your solution :

From the preparation above What is pH of the buffer?

assuming no volume change upon addition of sprite
Ka of carbonic acid = 4.5 × 10−7

Write your observations in steps 2-8 of the procedure attach pictures of the color change
record each color change of the solution
the number of drops to change the color of the control and the buffer

CONCLUSION:

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 COLEGIO SAN AGUSTIN – BACOLOD
College of Health and Allied Professions CHEM2N LABORATORY ACTIVITY
Nursing Program

Activity 5
Protein denaturation

Proteins are essential for all living things to function. They are large molecules made up
of long chains of amino acids. Depending on the types of amino acids they have, proteins fold in
very specific ways. The way they fold controls what the proteins are able to do. Proteins help
move other molecules, respond to signals, make reactions happen more quickly, and replicate
DNA, among other things. However, if proteins lose their specific folded shape, they are not able
to work properly.

Proteins require specific conditions to keep their shape. For example, most proteins in
our bodies rely on us to keep a warm (but not hot) body temperature, stay hydrated, and take in
enough of specific nutrients like salt. If our bodies aren’t able to maintain these conditions, some
of our proteins may not function as well, or at all. Most organisms actually produce special
proteins called “molecular chaperones” that help other proteins and molecules continue to work
even if conditions are becoming difficult to tolerate.

When a protein is exposed to conditions too far outside of a range it can tolerate, that
protein’s shape will come undone. This is called “denaturing” (basically, breaking) a protein.

Source: Karla Moeller. (2018, May 29). Breaking Proteins. ASU - Ask A Biologist. Retrieved
March 11, 2022 from https://askabiologist.asu.edu/activities/breaking-proteins

OBJECTIVES

This activity should enable the students to:

1. Learn how proteins reacts to certain conditions
2. Importance of proteins in our body
3. Learn how to break proteins.

Materials :

2 Eggs 2pcs 5mL syringe

Spoon, Fork Stove
Alcohol Frying Pan
Vinegar Spatula

Water Tissue
Glass containers/ plastic Cups (5)

JASSoliza/WPalacios/GDalipe/ Page 1 of 4 2nd Sem 2021-2022

 COLEGIO SAN AGUSTIN – BACOLOD
College of Health and Allied Professions CHEM2N LABORATORY ACTIVITY
Nursing Program

Procedure:
Note: use 1 syringe only for egg white alone the other syringe wash it with water before drawing
alcohol and vinegar
Preparation of Egg Albumin Solution

• Add 5 mL (1 full draw of syringe) of Egg whites in container #1

• Add 45 mL (9 full draw of syringe) of water
• Mix slowly by swirling the mixture
• Set aside as and label as negative control

Effect of Mechanical Agitation

• Add 5 mL of Egg whites in container #2

• Beat the egg whites with fork until color change
• Compare with negative control

Effect of Heat

• Use hot water

• Add 5mL of egg white in the pan
• Stir slowly using fork
• Compare with negative control

Effect of Alcohol

• Add 2mL of the egg albumin solution to container #4

• Add 3-5mL of alcohol
• Mix thoroughly using fork. Stand for 5 minutes.
• Compare with negative control

Effect of Acid

• Add 2mL of the egg albumin solution to container #5

• Add 3-5mL of vinegar.
• Mix thoroughly. Stand for 5 minutes.
• Compare with negative control

Respond to the following:

1. What other things change color when their proteins are denatured?

2. Why might a living organism want to keep their proteins from denaturing?

3. In this activity, why was it important to have egg whites that we did not cook or add
alcohol to?

4. How did the proteins change when they were denatured?

5. What is the disadvantage of protein denaturation?

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 COLEGIO SAN AGUSTIN – BACOLOD
College of Health and Allied Professions CHEM2N LABORATORY ACTIVITY
Nursing Program

6. Can denatured protein still function?

7. Can water denature proteins?

8. What happens if a muscle protein is denatured?

9. Is denaturation pH reversible?

10. Why is denaturation harmful?

11. Why is denaturation important?

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 COLEGIO SAN AGUSTIN – BACOLOD
College of Health and Allied Professions CHEM2N LABORATORY ACTIVITY
Nursing Program

Name: ____________________________________________ Section:________

Date Performed: ________________________ Group No.: ______ Rating: ________

ACTIVITY NO. 5

Record your observation and comparison to negative control here:

Note: paste pictures of your comparisons

CONCLUSION:

JASSoliza/WPalacios/GDalipe/ Page 4 of 4 2nd Sem 2021-2022