Statistics Made Simple Francis Galton had the greatest effect upon the fwiroduction and use of statistics in the social sciences. His doniribution in the field Of herédity and eugenics, psychology, Anthropometry, and statistics. The concept of correlation or the fsasure of agreement between two variables is credited to him. Galton also contributed the development of centiles and percent Paarson is another mathematician who collaborated with Galton Ja developing many of the correlations and regression formulas that are being used today. James McKeen Cattell is a famous American psychologist Who studied in Europe in 1880 and contacted Galton and other Huopean statisticians. Upon his return to United States, he and blr students, including E. L. Thomdike, apply statistical methods fopsychology and educational problems. In the 20th century, fhew techniques and methods were Jd to the study of small samples by R. A. Fisher, an English Pulistician, Most of his contributions were applied in agriculture and biological settings. Toda 5 Agiculture, biological, business, medical, behavio Wslences TYPES OF MEASUREMENT | The data can ontinuous and discontinuous oF diserete data Continuous data are measures like feet, pou s, These kinds of varying degrees of precision, for examp' 1 foot equals 12 inches. Introduction 7 Discontinuous or discrete data are measurement expressed in whole units. Counting of people, number of objects, number of cars passing by, number of houses, number of students, workers, and so on. MEASUREMENT OF SCALES According to Stevens, there are four types of scales that are used in sciences. These are the nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. . Nominal scales are used as measures of identity. Examples of this are classifica Like gender, male and female; yes and no answer: instance, Muslims and Christians; for politica Lakas, and KNP; dwélling place, such categories. individuals or objects. Ordinal meas object is larger or small, harder or so: ‘Agree; Agree, No Opinion, Disagree, Interval bers items. Examples are scores in a test, gradés of students, ages, blood pressur eit and Celsius thermometers. ighest type of s a c and ratio scale is that ratio scale are the measures on STATISTICAL SYMBOLSletter xigma denotes summation of, the tener f denotes frequencies letter F denotes cumulative frequencies letter n denotes sample size letter i denotes interval bapital letter N denotes population size api! lenter X denotes independent variable lenter Y denotes dependent variable denotes :nean ofthe sample apital letter m denotes popiilation mean students will find very useful to familiarize the fol- asions: x equals y x is not equal to y x is lesser than or equal toy Parameters, and The characteristics of the while the characteristics of Consider the following differ statistics, Introduction _9 Population are called parameters the sample are called statistics rent symbols on the characteristics, Characteristics Parameters Statistics . Mean by mw x | Standard Deviation 6, sigma s Number of Cases N Proportion Example 1. Solution: Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient SUMMATION NOTATION If N=5.andMade Simple _ ive Statistics is the method of collecting and includes the computation of measures of al location, likewise the It also includes. the of dispersion or varia of tables and graphs. ential Statistics is concemed with higher degree of lgment and advanced mathematical modes such as different statistical tools both the parametric and ic tests. This is concerned with the analysis and jon of data in. order, to draw conclusion and on from organized data. This also includes the testing ship between the dependent and the variables as well as the significant differences |and among independent samples. ea AND POPULATION of objects under ion as subject of and manageable when employing er, if the population is. too large, the ing a small part from the the popu! If the population under study is too large to handle and (00 much time, cost and effort, taking samples is a very mn, er ace (ere truly representative of the populsaen. DS Introduction 13 The problem that is commonly encountered is determining the sample size. It is not advisable to set a c percentage; instead, the margin of error which is from 1% to 10% in social science researches should be considered. The computation of the sample size, relative to the population size has this formula: . Example 1. Solution: Where: N= the population size f error 1a the sample size Find the sample size if the population size is 2500 at 95% accuracy At 95% accuracy, the corresponding percentage margin of error is 5% or .05 using the formula,6 SKEWNESS 6 and m ipsis _ statistics.Skewness and Kurtosis_ 83 SKEWNESS The formula for skewness is = 25 3K Md) =29.5+ [25-21] 5 Sk = 10 ‘SD =29.5+ i = Skewness i =29.5+ 20. = Standard Deviation a = constant =29.5+2 Md =31.5 Example 1. Consider whether this frequency distribution is normal or abnormal - Scores f SD= legit. (Spay 45-50 2 ' 40-44 6 35.39M4 Statistics Made Simple = 50246 = 5 (1.57) SD =7.85 ska (X= Md) » SD _ 31.5-31.5) 7.85 340) 7.85 7.85 The value of Sk = 0, so the distribution is said to be normal, Skewness and Kurtosis_85 THE DIFFERENT GRAPHS OF SKEWNESS Skewness is the shape of the distribution. The distribution is negatively skewed when the thinner tail is deviated to the left side. It is positively skewed when the thinner tail is deviated to the right but it is normal when it a bell shape. Sk= + Sk=— Sk=0 In. 2 L/w Positively skewed | Negatively skewed mn Normal THE KURTOSIS Kurtosis is another measure that tells about the distribution. The distribution is said to be normal when the value of kurtosis is equal to .265 mesokurtic. However, when its value is less than .265 leptokurtic, the distribution is abnormal and when it is greater than .265 platykurtic. the distribution is also said to be abnormal The formula for kurtosis is shown below.NO Statistics Made Simple Skewness and Kurtosis_ 87 THE DIFFERENT GRAPHS OF KURTOSIS Soll errs ion. Solve for Q:Q3Q, Pro, and Pye Leptokurtic Mesokurtic: Platykurtic - 8 125-9) na 289, 2:-Q, o- io ~si[iih =1+|—/100-8] ; a 4% Poa he 7 115 f _ = 24542 2 ¢ fion/ x Pp =L+ | A00-F] ; = 24.5 + 1.46 “f Qi = 25.96 Consider this frequency distribution whether is normal or abnormal by solving ‘the value of kurtosis. f | F Q,=0+ 2 | solve for 45-49 a 39.5 ——40-44 34.5 —— 35-39 oe 30-34 ee 24.5 —— 25-29 ——— Py 19.5 ——~ 20-24 15.19Statistics Made Simple -ose[530 n = 345+ fe) iW -u sof) ny Skewness and Kurtosis_89 Solve for Since the kurtosis computed value which is .267 is greater than .265, then the distribution is abnormal (platykurtic)PART ONE Parametric Test What are the parametric tests? ‘The parametric: tests are tests that require normal distribution, the levels of measurement of which are expressed in an interval or ratio data. The following parametric tests are: ttest for Independent Samples t-test for Correlated Samples z-test, for Two Sample Means z-test for One Sample Group F-test (ANOVA) 1 (Pearson Product Moment Coefficient -ofWhen do we use parametric tests? We use parametric tests when - the distribution is normal, that is when skewness is equal to zero and kurtosis equals .265. the level of measurement of the data to be analyzed is expressed in interval or ratio data Why do we use parametric tests? ‘They are more powerful compared to the nonparametric tests. . |How do we use parametric tests? They are used to determine the data ii or abnormal by solving the value of skewness and kurtos: sk= 2M) 3D -. 2 Kur py Py where Q= 2:22 If the result of the. skewness is equal to zero and the kurtos is equals .265 then the distribution is normal. This can be determined if the data are expressed in interval or ratio data. + What is interval data? ‘The interval data provides numbers that reflect differences among items. With interval scales the measurement units are equal. Examples are scores of intelligence tests, and time as reckoned from the calendar. They have no tree zero ‘value. What is ratio data? ‘The ratio data‘is the highest type of scale. The basic difference between the interval and the ratio scale is that the interval scale has no true zero value while the ratio scale has an absolute zero value, Common ratio scales are measures of length, width, weight, capacity and loudness and others When do you use parametric tests? You can use the different parametric tests if you meet these two major bution is normal and by u data.CHAPTER 8 —=Simpletests-of-Hypothesis:ce randomly assigned co two GrOUPS! er to be innoculated is stated as: ihe vaceine did not provi This means that nor prey : . ere is no difference be to remove factors that could eh alt solution. The rejection of He ‘e value of the vaccines. ae, aa hypothes eof polic was relatively small, che total sample ot eee ‘enough £0 insure a high degree of precision to prove i a re te vaccine did not provide immi to potios eee ady. 28 was explained in Chapter 2 of this : aaa ave to accept our alternative hypothesis, (H, vaccine, the oth controls “he eonclusion about Thus, our ejection of our Hy means our acceptance of taming, ve accept the nll hypothesis thatthe vaccine syovile immunity so polio. The aterasve hypoth ~~ presents the hypothetical statement. that the researches we to prove, ‘To summari - cgolecred with the’ aim of arriving at either of to polio. ve did not provide immu sided immunity £6 polio. ae dd rejection of Hy implies acceptance of H, cine PF ’ problem is called test of hypothes Jn this ears re necine did not provide immunity ff piance of Hy implies rejection of Hy ‘he alternative hypothesis that the vaccine yy. A test of hypothesis is 2 procedure used to Le and type Ul errors YA MSjaim which i stated a8 all hypothesis, When ‘making a decision about a proposed +h ‘we shall define shortly.” en ratte) earcarareer ‘hake el irene based elow summarizes the possibilities: _ . e table va hypothesis? oo —— otkesis is a statement oF tent sry which aims € ; [A iypostesis is 2 statenen hypotheses have their § able'8.1, Type | and Type41-Extors Gets about 07 fo some pracsical in search for an ee axed guesses” and pertinent ¢* ; turned into propositions o F ap On age HUF prop pectin Tootheses are then subjected 10 &S°TE MC they ae Decton Hy = me nd Can ee aranistically tree, they 30 accepted; if they are found = caaeaes shy. are rejected. The bast of Browress abe eject Hy er mo 1S social cciences consist in large PTD the rejection of Accept H, Correct decision Type II wae scare te ala ces of trae and cept Hy Gone decom Type Wane we disingush two Kinds of hypothes Sa the aleernative hypothesis. vess that we bope t acceps oF F)8 F300 sy could mean X> 300 Ibs. or X< 300 fa testing th resting the difference between two means, the 2-test , the test *Sut bee used. The xaest is used when the population my be aie own, while the testis used when the sample was are known. In hypothesis-testing procedure in hypothesis testing can besummarized in lowing, steps- Formulate the mull hypothesis (Ho) that. shere is Formgnificant difference berween items being con pared. State the alternative hypothesis (Hi) which is Reed in case Ho is rejected. of significance, apt set the level Tpetermine the rest verbe used. Use ztest if oP: oer standard -deviation is given, and test if vig srandard deviation given is from the samples: Determine the tabular value for the test: TO" 4 ae errmast the wble of the eritical values of & based crest hea of the normal care (Table ©) Foe 2 Ora first compute for the degrees of PORT ee tee the table of ‘distribution (Table D). |. For 2 single = number of items - 1 =n- AL ep 4 sample, df For two samples, df= m +02 -2 vehere ny refers to che nusber of tems in She resample; and the mp refers to the number of items in the second sample. Compute for 7 or ¢ as needed, using 27 of the Beep 5- following formulas: A. atest 1. Sample rican compared vith Population mean aon = (Ea Ea ee oT ae 3 ye bape offend of een tate tet oie choles that exa be male wore ee sd om n tenes en tac Wel ont Gass ME se ed woe ee fem ano raat ation ie second 6 = population standard deviation 3, ‘CEmparin; ‘Cmpating two sample proportions where Py = B. t-test 1. / V proportion of first sa tt Py Py = proportion of second sample %a1- Py . 1, = number of items in the first sampl ple ny = number of items in the second sampl ; cond sample Sample Meaa Ca: 3 Simele Compared with Popalarion Xia, 2 Ver aT =1 OES IEEE OE TYPO STS Step 1. Hy where X = sample mean Hi The 100 college. students are. really than the rest. (K> 45 kilos) (MS = population m This type of ‘alternative hypothesis. is s = sample st d test. n = number of items in the sample Step 2. nee, + comparing Two Sarple Me Step 3. ion given is based tion. ‘therefore che z-test is to he used. Step 4. The tabular valuc for a ficance is found in the following values of 2 for other levels of si in the table of normal curve areas. (See Append: s, = standard deviation of the first 5, -% OF fin; =A 5, F + (my 1 (2 mean-of the sect:d eee a Table 8.2, Critical Values of Z ot sample Varying Si sy = standard deviation of the * ‘second sample 1, = number of items in the first Sample me n= number of items inthe second sample Se ‘ i e the computed value with its corresponding i yd ae Test type One-tailed test 41.28 | 1.645 /4 1.96} 3.2.35 less chan the absolute tabular value. - these steps may be applied in actual problems. uw now see how these steps may be appl Twotailed test #1645 | #196 |i 2.33] 4 256 Example 1 cite fo ie mean weight = Dar for 2 shoal cues that the eigh Based on. the.table, given above, the tabular value of Z far ‘one-tailed test at .05 level of significance is F 1.645,ji 1 of -ailed Critical Region at .05 Level of 2 poe B14 hoy Sigr critical region i da 05 2 = 1.645 0 5, The given values in the problem are: ae xX = 47 kilos a = AS kilos 6 = Skilos = 100 ‘The formula co be used is Ri Z = shin 47 - 45, e ule = & 4 4 the tabular? 67 is greater than the tabula ee pull hypothesis MeCN SARIS NTO RONEN nA i sted value sree Lets. Therefor, rejected. PS The 100 colleges Ahan the eh act wil wink © Step 6. ES SLY ODOUS 205, Example 2 fi reseucher wishes to find out whether or not there is significant difference ber and afternoon. students in his school mean monthly The researcher also took 2 sample of noon session. ‘They were found to allewance of P148.00. The total pop. of students in that school has-a standard devises there significant difference between th rel cf ficance? fo: There is no significant difference between the samples (X, = X)) Hq: There is significant difference samples (X, # X,) ren the This type of alternative’ hypothesis calls for a ewotalled west: > Step 2. Seta = 01 Step 3. Sect the population standard. deviation is given, the atest is to be used, . Sep + Tabu value of x for a wovtiled iest at 01 level of significance +258.sane itical Region ignificance Figure 8.2. Two-tailed at 01 Le Critical Region ' ‘Acceptance Region 1 1 0 Z = 258 ‘The given values in the sample problem are XK, = Pad? RK, 4s ny = 239m = 209 6 = P40 ‘The formula to be used is: -P6 “$3.80 = 1579 sh Step 6. The absolute computed value | - 1.596 | is less. the absolute tabular value, 2.58, Accept the nul hypothesis. ~ There is no significant difference between the two samples, The ztest is also used when we want to decide whether an observed difference between two sample proportions is significant or can just be attribused fo chance. Let us illustrate by means of @ prob how these proportions are compared, Example 3 A sample sutvey of a ion program in Metro Manila shows that 86 of 200 men dislike the same program. We want to decide whether the difference between the two sample 80 _ 75. ‘gnificant ot nex Proportions; 355 = 40,and 365 = .30, is significan: or not, at .05 level of significance. Step 2, Set .05 level of significance. Step 3. Use ztest to compare two sample proportions. Step 4. The tebolar value ai .03 level of significanss far . a twotailed test is + 1.96, aSimple ‘Tests of Hypothesis == 209. Jn our first three examzles. the test of hypothesis wis made n that the population and the population resi of the exper eee fe Se eae ene ep eee eee Pretest Xx 20 30 10 to 12 20 Posttest Xz D 25 5 35 “5 23 “15 25 -10 20 -0 20 -10 2 4 20 6 20 5 15 -5 30 +12 10 s 16 “I 25 “5 10 8 45 3 15 5 10 0 18 6 28 5 D 25 25 100 0 100 16 36 25 25 144 25 I 25 64 25 0 36 25 LD=-81 LD =947 -81 we! fV0 (20 = 1) -4.05 2019) — 4.05 e189 3 =4.05 VI1.6288 -4.05 1.2762 3.17) -- ite Parametric Test 109 Solving by the Stepwise Method: 1. Problem: Is there a significant difference between the Pretest and the posttest on the use of Programmed materials in English? IL. Hypothese Hy: The posttest result is higher than the pretest result IIL. Level of Significance: a= 05 df= nl = 20-1 = 19 1.05 = -1.729 IV. Statistics: st for correlated samples V. Decision Ri If the t-computed value is greater tha beyond the critical value, rejectalue of -3.17 is beyond the e of -1.73 at .05 level of 19 degrees of freedom, thesis is therefore rejected in research hypothesis. This means ‘amples arg equal or greater iwo ways: the One-Sample Mean Vest t at.01 and 05 le n= sample size Example 1, ABC company claims that the average lifetime of a certain is at least 28,000 km. To check the claim, a taxi company the average I ‘The average lifetime of a certain is 28,000 km.fe fF aramenvic Lest bis THE TWO-SAMPLE MEAN TEST The two-sample mean test is used when comparing two separate samples drawn at random taken from a normal popula- tion. To test whether the difference between the two x, and x, is si is used: = the mean of sample 1 = the mean of sample 2 = the variance of sample 1 = the variance of sample 2 = size of sample 1 = size of sample 2 Example. An admission test was freshmen in the level of significance if Probl ference between Is there a sig the two group:V. Decision Rule: If the z-computed value is greater than or beyond the tabular value, reject Ho. VI. Conclusion: Since the z computed value of 5.774 is eater than the z tabular value of 2.575 01 level of significance, the research means t ce betwee incoming eshmen from nursing are better tha freshmen from the . THE F-TEST The F-test is the analysis of variance (ANOVA). This is _ 90-8 used in comparing the means of two or more independent groups. “Tao, 35 One-way ANOVA is used when there is only one variable in- Vio0 * 100 volved. The two-way ANOVA is used when two variables are involved: the column and the row variables. ‘The researcher is nterested to know if there are significant differences between and mong columns and rows. This is also used in looking at the in- teraction effect between the variables being analyzed ae [as fe Like the (test, the F-test is also a parametric test, which has to meet some conditions, and the data to be analyzed if they 5 are normal and expressed in an interval or ratio data. This test is more efficient than other tests of difference.Simple Analysis of Variance 347 Now, if the researc! her uses ANOVA, taking ail t pairing, the search stop: arrived a1 is that of nonsig lusion arrived at is Analysis of variance was developed by R.A. Fis Ferest used in ANOVA is named afier tural researches. Today, as first used for sesent the technique ce esing data ina on « be arranged into +0 the ii in a sample of © students ¢2. © types of teaching the end of ne of grades of the students ate er and enumerated nly diffecent from b classification model will los lela Ya tee ieee ———_—aaes fence between a single pair of samples. : Goup fe used to test nonsign pI nays ok an ae een advantage over ; Method a hes computing an co tat aorsignifcance st is used £0 te ween samaples, taking them one ence beween g them o formula is applied os many times The ANOVA tert is applied o AB, and D have to be t "yd the resca.cher use:damental Statistics to represent the sum of the first columa to iepresent the sum of the second column to represent the sum of the third columa Bxqyj + xq + Bay + Bay sum of the values of all items With the data given on Table 91 we shall be able to test the II hypothesis that the chree teaching methods are not significantly jent from each other, either at 95% or 99% o this using simple analysis of variance. Simple ANOVA is, based upon two sources of variation — the ween-column variance and the within-column variance. These y+ sometimes known 25 the between-column sum of squares (SS) ind he within-colurnn sum of squares (SS,,).. The sum of the wo Matlances make up the total sum of squares (TSS). The total veriation or the totel.sum of squares is computed by jetting the sum of the square of each entry minus the cotrection where x refers to the value of each entry and N to the total Lec us now rewrite Table 9.1 and make provisions for the putation of X? umber of items or entries Method A Student. 84 dent 2 Student 5 Student 6 STR ne teem tee an Wiener Simple Analysis of Variance 219 Ex = 1,560 2x? = 136,484 ‘The tozal sum of squares for Table 9:1 is computed as fll - ex? N TSS = 532 = 136,484 - 433,600 18 = 136,484 - 135,200 = 1,284 The between-column variance or between -sqeares is of che sum of the sq column sum of juares of the colurn sums, minus the correction term, wher re r refers to the number of rows. 5 (sum of (534? * 4652 4 soi?) . 1,56 (285,156 + 216,285 + 314,721) - 2:433,600 18sndamental Statistics Simple Analysis of Variance 21 -—et 55, = TSS- SS, Between-column df = Number of columns - 1 = 1,284 - 2 88 eae three sums of squares are placed in an analysis of vars; Ihe sources of variation, their sums of | table which contains tt t meorresponding degrees of freedovn, and, the estimated Within-column df “= total df - between ‘column df fof an analysis of variance table, Ge te - = 17-2 Je 9:2. ANOVA Table on the Three Semples Subjected to NOVA ods teen Tenching Met The ANOVA able also contains a colums for of squares which is computed by dividing each su their corresponding degrees of freedom. asl . TT MSS, . = SS,/d6, 822 2 4 462 8 30.8 cee ~ 1,284 7 ae buss, = SS, /df, s62/i5+ = 308 qers of freedom calculated? We use the After com 4 applied. ing tire entries in the ANOVA ible. ch Total df = total number of items - 7 another way so artive at the cotal degrees of freedom i 0.3 aroampomhe product of the member of rows and the number:Simple Analysis of Variance 223 Enter the sum of squares, degrees of freedom, By our ANOVA table example, the greater MSS sum of squares into an ANOVA table. i eedom, 2, is designated lu corresponding degree of freedom, i Jar MSS is 31.135 hence, the df of 15 is designated and the mean Step 4. Locate the tabular value of F by getting the intersection value of m (df of greater MSS) and n, a value at-n, = 2 and.n, = 15, at 5% significance Mss). é greater MSS) a (AE of smaller IAL 1% significance level, the tabular value is 6.36. i value is less than the tabular value, the full Seep 5. Calculate the value of F by lowing formula: gnificence of difference is accepted. How MSS, pied vale is greater ohan che tabula value, the . Foe ejecte : Step 6. the tabular F value, stived a deg Hm? 1E the compared value SE pute alue, the null hypo- thesis is accepted. Hf the computed velus > tabular value, the a. thesis is “rejected. “= ail ayo hypothesis 1 '5 no significant ‘diffefence among i be When the m level of significance isis rejected, the to find out which p; ditfe every possible par ofthe samp Exercise 1c sum of squares by the following f (ex? SN 1. The following are the mileage obtained after sevéral road fests were run using five different kinds of gasoline on a Toyota car. . Ist road test grees of freedom.” = 2nd road test Noai) Statistics were subjected to four different ailment. The following data pe of 4 patients each tment for the same Number of days that elapsed before they were sly, cured, What conclusions may be drawn sbout types of ereatment? Treatment A Trectment B Treatment C Treatment D a ve weights in ki wie below. Is there unusual variation among the groups? 4 } i t | y | ogams of 3 groups of 5 each are shown in | § First group Second group Third group 39 60 53 48 40 55 38 50 40 50 60 40 46 52 47 — matical scores of 6 groups of 4 stu ‘Test whether the differences in Stuibuted to chance, at .01 significance level, Group 1 Croup 2 Group 3 Group 4-Group 5 Group 62 | oe ee 84 20 70 98 33 88 95 73 96 Student 3 70 93 85 90 Student 4 80 9 50 9 = 0 Simple Analysis of Variance 725 3. Below are the bout the bowling scores of 4 Ar 58 ‘oups of At 5% significance level, find out ‘fhe women Sach: ng the four groups, sunusual variation “| Grou G ‘pA Group B Group C Group D Player A - 98 10 Mayer 72 ts gg. Player C . 93 30 0 33 Player 136 a5 @ ” 85 82 ”The Parametric Test_127 ‘FWO-FACTOR ANOVA with Significant Interaction /AY-ANOVA WITH INTERACTION EFFECT) TEACHER FACTOR 1. Forty five language students were randomly ‘assigned A B to one of three instructors. and ‘to one of the three 40 30 methods of teaching. Achievement was measured ona = test administered at the end of the-tertn: Use two-way ty 4t 50 ANOVA with interaction effect at .05' level of Method of 40 B Genificence o tet the ‘ : Teaching 1 3 7 1. Hy There is no significant difference’ in the oe 38 % performance of the three-groups of students Foul under three different instructors. 40, 45 There is significant: difference ii the f, 4a F performance of the three groups of students Method.of [35 —}-—gy under three different inetructors. Teaching 2 : 4 10 significant difference in thé - Snder thre different methods of teaching. a0 ficant\ difference in’ the is Method of Teaching 3 44 44 BMade Simple Stepwise Method: Is there a significant difference in the performance of students under three different teachers? 2. Is there a significant difference in the performance of students under the three different methods of teaching? 3, Is there an interaction effect between teachers and method of teaching factors? roblem: — 1. Hypotheses: 1. Ho: There is np significant difference in the performance of the three groups of students under three different «instructors. There is a significant difference in the performance of the three groups of students under three different ors. fi: There 1s a significant difforene performance of the three The Parametric Test_129 3 Ho: Interaction effects are not present Hy: Interaction effects are present. UL Level of Significance a= 05 df wal = = NI within = k(n) & column = ol mw = rl Por = /1ye1 IV. Statistics: F-Test Two-Way-ANOVA with interaction effect, rr er ee Method of 41 50 41 Teaching ; FACTOR 1 i au es (row) 39 48 38 38 45 38 Total 198 241 197 3=636The Parametric Test_131 ss, = (595) + (667 +(620F ce 15 = 183314 _apr9g 47 15 = 78887.6 ~78709.42 =178.18 - SS, ~ (636) {sf +616) | re 5 = 1180852 _ a3709.42 15 = 78723.47- 78709.42 y= 616 = 14.05 = 508.58 -129.2 178.18 ~14,05 a GUY, _ 882F _ 3541924 _aggp 49 aes , ON 45 45 SS, = 407 +417 +.. +397 +387 ~ CF The number degrees of freedom fo: = 19218 = 78709.42 problem are: oa F as6F or? aif @10f 98) | A96F , 201 @ ae : ss, <79215~! BF 96), ory gr HK 5 5 5 de Sly = Ot) = 36 (cif, 97h, @24F Q99F ye ps “Ss 5 7 5° S a = er = 19218 ~ 79088 8 =129.2ANOVA TABLE Total 508.58 MS, _ 46.79 Interaction = 395" = 3 5g = 19-03 F-Value Tabular 2t Columas #'= 2 36= 3.26 Row df =236=3.26 Interaction g'= 1 36=2.63 janstics Made Simple The Parametric Test_133 V. Decision Rule: If the computed F value is greater than the F critical/tabular value, reject Ha With the computed F-value (column) of 24.82 compared to the F-tabular value of 3.26 at .05 level of significance with 2 and 36 degrees of freedom, the null hypothesis is rejected in favor of the research hypothesis which means that there is a significant difference in the performance of the three groups of students under three different instructors. It implies that instructor B is better than instructor A. regard to the F-value (row) of 1.95, is lesser than the F-tabular value of 3.26 at .05 level of significance with 2 and 36 degrees of freedom. Hi hypothesis of no significant perforn ree different methods of tea accepted.Sim ple Regression and Correlation Analysis 243 Let us illustrate ch following da e the fist type of problem* SE eee er eee , the independe : and Y, the dependent variable x Here, we are assuming th i ; depend on the values “ft ; : a4 , niform then on oe putations to.esti : ° wo There are twe he two ways of solving this problem. provides a rough c: Ie uses th regression analysis ANALYSIS srablem of a aseries of «Fes for two concerned with the “rable depend on the oth “he dependent variable Cor dependent variable sm the weights of person 6 In thi she original data Vorresponding %© ? to levels of total investmen corresponding 0 some tion of the value of re independe‘Simple Regression and Correlation Analysis 245 Jundamental Statistics . i .o eight pairs of X fulfill condition numbers two and three but not condition number jorting the poinss aera “This ine represents | one. d in such a way thar the line ap- : ines and passes chrough the Also, the trend line need not pass through th je general direction ofthe Pre auch thar the sum of points. Should the line happen to pass through either or both her, the ne shou be drawn such Cas points, this is just a matter of coincidence. Neither i vertical distances of che Fe distance of the points be for an equal.number of points above and below the he sum of the vertical cstanes pg order co draw 2 Let. us now estimate the value of Y when X ese conditions showld be fu mate of Y. The the trend line. First we draw a vertical E nd line and get a fairly accurate es through a value of X = 16. At the point. where this vertic: and the trend line we draw a horizonaal is. The po hich this horizontal line passes is our rou Y when X is 16. Note depending on how accurately the trend line was exaniple, the estimate using the graphical method i ‘Trend Line od may yield slightly different ‘aneously by two or more persons; on which employs formulas, shewd he data used are the saine. ThisFundamental Statistics ion Line or LSRL for short. ‘The rationale behind this ids the following: ad lige is a straight line. We know from Algebra that 4 ne has an equation which follows che form: y=a+bX th a straight if'we know a and b in the equation, we an solve wige of X. The method using che LSRL {or Mavced to finding the equation of the trend line which stim is found by solving for a and b in the equation. raistcs provides us the formulas for doH0i08 the values of a and ee ‘explain briefly why the phrase least square regression line used. tease Mpa. line is che regression line, “Leese saat means Oe bee accurate trend line that may be draw? Or where at on of the squares of the vertical distances of the points from pee poems ET oa hae higher this iorthe same as saying that che sum of the vertical dis- rm the points to # cs ‘er line) of the points. above the line Should be equal to the sum of Therefore, for ¥ for any given result. f the vertical distances of the points PF ee. When these sums (above and below) sf6 2c equal, ints: { the vertical below ances of a from the line Rerarning now to for a and b are derived from what equations. These ‘normal equations are in combination of g normal equations are he equation of the ESRL, the formulas ‘normal are referred to as “Mi turn derived thr’ aphieal techniques and the use of Caleutus = aN + 62x py = sumof the values of ¥, che = the number of pairs of X and ¥ Fh alane of ema NN, | Sizuple Regression and Corcelation Analysis 247 of the column XY rf which is b g paired values of X and Seed the sum of the column X? squating the values of X X? which is derived by Based on the given 7 ¢ given data of X and Y, we can-determine a of the ators wh he abovs which means that the two eee ee calaeiee normal equations now wand &. in solve for Methods 1 and 2 are al ‘ d 2 are algebra procedure vides the foqmlas foraend’b Thos lace (DX) (BXY) ~ (2x? N fEx?uf XY and X? ¥ x¥ 1 i 2 6 ‘ 16 4 24 5 49 7 63 3 38 3 126 364 36 au 5Y N Bx 2x? ‘Therefore ExY ‘Tie sums of all four columns are also xe 1 9 16 36 64 a1 121 196 524 ro be st sing the results or the values. which are t summarizing « «te wh siated into the formulas of a and by Web seieute = 40 = 8 = 36 = 364 = 524 ‘ese values iuvo the equatio Simple Regression and Contlation Analysis 249 Y= 0.54 + 0.64 X gressi known as the best fitting line. This equation will enable us te solve for ¥ for any given value of X. In our example. when X is 16. ¥ is: “ 0.54 + 0.64 (16) . 0.54 + 10.24 = 10.78 8 not very far fr the gr result of 10.8. The method employing LSRL is very useful in providing a fairly accurate estimate when values of any two variables are given. This method assumes that one variable depends (chough not necessarily entirely) on the other variable. It also assumes that the end approximatesa_ straight line,’ This is ve diagram. This method gains more precision wh of the points in the scatter Let us now cur = values of one vari This type of data is called time series. We for a and b of the least square regressio modi years. oe us Suppose these are the sales figures Assuming that the past trend forecast sales in 1990 and 19 Year (thousand pesos! 1982 P 436 1983 469 1984. 483 1985 88 1986 Si4 * 1987 518 1988 ES320 510) 00! 490 480) 470 460 450 440 430 420 values to years. in order :o simp fy our comp 982-1 1983 1984 1985 Ww the scatter diagram in solving the proble; the picture clearer. 530, = Joan "a3 "84°85 "86-787 “88 ‘The scatrer diagram shows us that the points ap) en data, there is only one variable— for purposes of comput is created as the indepen- ion, + Year 1982 1983 1984 1985, proximate a siraight neans thar we let sc [rousene x the same manner type, Year 1982 1983 i9as 1985 1986 1987 1988 Regression and Correlation Analysis 251 we solved the preceding prob- tis, we determine the totals of the columns dX? and substitute se in the formulas for a and b. Sales (y) xy xe 436 436 469 938 4 a | for sales (Y) is he year 1990 and 10 for th been shown as th i done by of the h contains be to makeistics jundamental Stat ft portanc i the fact that the sm por is means chat the formulas for Lee ws show this. (wy) (2x2) - (2X) a ON (EX?) (EXP WEX=0, then: _ (BY) (EX?) =) (XY) 4.7 (Ex?) - (OP (wy) (2X2) -0 = ayy (Ex) 9 N (EX?) 50 — _ (ey) (2X?) N (EX?) _ oN (ExY) = (2X) (EY) N (2x2) - (EXP then : 4 = xt) EY) N (EX?) - (OP _N(EXY) 0 N (ZX?) - 0 Ine assigned values to These greatly sii a and b.may be sim- ly Year 1982 1983 1984 1985 1926 1987 1988 Sales x Y 3 436 2 469 1 483 Oo 488 sid +2516 +3 528 “0 3534 344 49057 401. 14.32 28 XY Simple Regression and Correlation Analysis 253, ified formulas for a and 8 considerably simplifies fe solution to the problem. Let us show the process: x? glenn onse values is equal 550 is 5; for 1991, 6. We equence ofyental Suatistics uf sales in 1991 is = 490.57 + 14.32 (6) = 490.57 + $5.92 = 576.49 SX =0. We values in :. This In our values to X such that that we assigned Scat 2X from zero and 2ssigsing possible by starting cons at intervals of one © hat is, 3, 3, 7) 9. eFC inple, the number of years is seven. - of wears i even ing these values to X when the number of Rhat ude oe ree a oc work, For instance, ifthe svalable at is, 4, 65 8 eX the number of years is ot foe sales is from 1983 co 1988 only, # in oe erano middle year on which to locate 2270, fuse ger and assign values abave and below zero sine Ot ewe did u t be equal to zero, sine anit. If we did this, che-sum of X will not be ca 1s shown below. Je 1 the exo be J ’ Js of one unit as followsg ssigned at intervals of © Simple Regression and Correlation Analysis 255 © difference between any swo successive assicved value rit except the difference becween the values 1 aad see a 280 units (that is, one uni from -1 ro 0 and an 6 so 1. In order to be coi be one unit as each unit 0 < should ah ference corresponds 29 a Thus, the assigned values 13 X sh oo 1983 i 1 = 1984 " 1 uniss 1 Year 1985 year: 1986 yer 1987 1988 1 yeare The. sum of these assig any two responds to a period of Let us again forecast sales for 1990 and 19% consisting of even-numbered years. Since’the to zero, the short formulas fora and 6 may be us d valves successive values is ewo Year xX 1983-5 ss 19843 A 1985 BF A 1986 +1 fl 198743 ; 1988 +5 i a) ig for a:» “py 70 nj, values of a and by the equation of the LSRL is Jp, values of a and by a+ bX 2 499.7 + 6% 0 and 1991. ast of sales, 199 ‘The ealue of X corresponding 19 1990 is 7, t0 1991, 9 yigso = 497 + 6 (7 = 499.7 + 42 = 5417 - : : -69) Vigor 7 199-7760) = 499.7 + 84 = 383.7 series data: xX such that 2X = 0 23 are ote the difference in forecasted sales: For odd-numbered years (seven years in cur exa Sales, 1990 = 562.17 Sales, 1991 576.49 For ever-numbered years (six years in our exam Sales, 1990 = 541.7 Sales, 1991 = 55: 5 sales between the odd- bered years since we are hat is, data for seven years for che odd-numbered years in-our example and data for only six years for the even-numbered years In general, onder the assumption thar che trend in the past will continue in the future, a forecast figure based on more Yata is more accurate than one based on less. Simple correlation analysis: variable based on thi Correlation anail h variables. valae and may be visually degrees of corre a Perfect corrclaticn (positive and nega fe and negative) 2, Seme degee of correlation (pStatistics J¢ snown graphically as follows: volume is constant pressure the diagram represent paired values of temperatu As pressure rises, temperature also rises. The points In some cases, the points may not form a ie traced by a smooth curv side of a physics laboratory, the correlation between any. ied sovables os senerally aot perfect, Thote will only Jaycee of cee sof this are the followin, versus heigh 's average grade in ‘cts versus his ber of hours spent é (she independent Jchough not ins es Ivis, horever, a major determinant. Thif relationship beoweti Between GNP and af Simple Regression an: gregate investment, for instance, the lustrated in the GNP Although the poi nds to rise. This considered. points such 2s po level of aggregate GNP correspo: points A and c ft ma following scatter diag do not fi is true in the long run, Y Rot necessarily be true ber tA and point BP investment than the levels of investment and GNP at at 4 When th points in This is the case w numbers that ¢ scatter diagram show As long as the dice are not lo of the points in che scatrer Die A she ee, Slee og ao i fie in a sera ove in a general dizection indicate This direction shows ich are poin that ng tO point A is higher than that ef B. however, whi feen two ve d Correlation Anat ine, they . if che en though trend or direction rrel ertheless ed by che straight dosced that as ageregate investment ‘rises, GNP re rend is ween two-very close B represents a higher level of UAE nance reertal Statistics jorespond to the nambers shar vhen the pair of dice is rolled 29 scatter diagr = * Serer diagram does not show 307 the pair of dice... Whe mber of times, the se: is different iagrams showing the wo vaiabes. sum us now ion between 1 of correlation dhegrees Figure 11.1 perfect positive 6 Figure 14.2 positive correlation Simple Regression and Correlation Analysis 261 Figure 11.4 some negative correlation Figure 11.5 perfect negative cor Figures 1,2, and 3 show the three degrees of corr were discussed earlier. We added two more figures to <0 entire range of degrees of correlation, 5 illustrate perfect correlation while Figures 2 and 4show some desea uf correlation, ive correlation relates two variables whose vahics are creasing while negative corselation describes a situation where as ons variable increases, the other variable decrease ‘The case for Figures 4 and 5 We have just discussed the concept of correlation in cerms of Let us now discuss briefly the concept of correlation in 4 value called the correlation coefficient, ‘The tion coefficient ranges from -1 to + 1. The some degree of correlation, whether positive coefficient of 0 indicates ao correlation‘Simple mple Regression end Correlstion Analy lysis 263, neal Statistics rather and heigl hough not helghe of son — are s, We can say Reieeuenaay ee et some some negative positive correlation cofrelation pecoct negative” no cof perfect positive ation relation ‘correlation eldest son . nches correla- cinula for computing the © so seated variables, the fo represented by tHE symbol Fis! coefficient Nn ex¥) = (2Xx(E¥) yin (2X7) - 7ExPl (IN (BY) — (2yF) he same terms ameters 4 a add one more ass in this formula are | ‘he values of the Pat ‘The « ‘however, WE computing, To solze for colurate| 23 mulas £¢ sion analysise y2 x xy x yt x Vi : a Vis : ff 2 gen datz shows that che eldest sons four columns used in solving for parameters g and B owing, problem will dusrate the use of theELLE OEE OES. ALEYNG OY shall proceed directly The following scale of values may be used to interpret che axis. Instead we computed results of the comelation coefficient ¢ conelation coefficient. small or weak positive correlation 3 into che Jormuls: ese values in Fiero 6 Aba . Se 7.036) (487) Two variables may be cl may be expected to strongly | icone variable is supposed to depend on another and Igebra and Scatis Meeaputed 1 i high, this confirms the dependence. {ithe computed ris low, then one has to find reasons ot ra try co explain this low value. In our ‘example relating GNP and aggregate investments, for instance, 4 low r CAA suggest that investments were not channeled isco productive ventures of that the impact on GNP may be Prmsidered to be one which is long term. Fully, the correlation coefficient, while helping us gen insights into variable relationships, merely ells os whether ireechanges in the wo variables are closely interrelased ee ot. In terms of our scatter diagram—whether points are close to each other or spread wide apatt 3 OF wclay . problem i and : Vin | Od Find the corel problem 2 and Seadscis (YP ST 82-886 7291 do 95 72 89 74 Draw the scatter diagram, Find the equation of the LSRL. Draw the LSRL on the scatter diagram. t's expected grade in Statist 2's 7? 822 B92 957 100P it of Algebra and St: San Ig id Statistics in Brercises g 9 1 xj3 56 1, Gives “YQ 3 4 6 SB following table shows our_Gross National Product (in 1B Sov i io uct esos) from 1981 to 1990, Forecast GNP in 1992 in 1993, a) Draw the scatter diagram. 1) Using a ruler, draw a srsight line (the trend bine] on you think best estimates the general direcion of be 1982 points in the scatter fines 1983 <) Using rawn in (b), estimate Y when X is 5: whe 1984 Xis12. 1985, find the equation of the bes a) For the given data, ession line, Line or the least square regr ¢) Using the equation of = hen X is 12, Compare your r {) Draw the LSRL om the seatier diagram in (2) by ples che two points corresponding to your compused F rand connecting these two points wich 2 sa! best fi pare this "9° you drew in (b)- 2. The following table shows the final gradesane Farametric Test 135 RSON PRODUCT MOMENT COEFFICIENT OF LATION, r The Pearson Product Moment Coefficient of Correlation lex of relationship between twor variables. The indep ble can be represented by x while the dependent variable |: be represented by y. The value of ris +1, zero to-1. if of ris +1 or ~1, there is a perfect correlation between x Jy. Itcan be said that x influences y or y depends on x. How- }. ifr equals zero then x and y are independent of each other. der the x and y coordinates in the graph below. igh oe is going downward, the value tes that as the value of x increases th ‘corresponding value of v . _conesponding of y decreases, x and y being negatively y High High the value of y also decreases, the x'and y being positively corre: If the trend of the line graph cannot be established either pa - upward or downward, then r= 0, indicating that correlation between the x and y variables,oe ‘for. the Pedrson' Product Moment Coefficient os a =" “~-mnidterm grades and the final examination / grades of 10 students in Mathematics. IIL. Level of Significance: a 05 = the Peaison Product-Moment Coefficient of Correlation - y= n2 n=sample size. ~~~ 2 = 10-2 Says the-sunvof the product of x and y : Ex Sy = the product of the sum of Fx and the , sumof Ly 10S = 632 Ix’ = sum of squares of x Sy sum of squares of y a IV. Stati Hxample 1. Below are the midtenn (x) and final (y) grades. : fies aera a 70_65_90_85 85 _80_70_65 90 fa fee a ere So i 4500 5625 5250 3075 65 95 90 85 90 75 70 90 65 3225 205 as 50 si00 9005 $550 85 mms 8100 7650 85 ms 12 ms £0 «400 8100 7200 7 +300 5625 5250 6 ans e500 4580 _9 sio0__8100 8100 Des Fe cco9s Tyi=ors1s Exy=64000Yay -DxDy r(x} bry'-@y) 10(64,000)- (775X815) mbular value, reject Ho. Since the computed value of r which is .94 9 eater than’ the tabular value of .63 2 (05 level of significance with 8 degrees ‘Of .dom, the null hypothesis is disconfirmed.. of the research hypothesis, This that there is a. significamt relationship between the midterm grades of students and the fin it grades igher also are the final grades becau se The Parametric Test_139 the value of r is positive. Likewise the lower the midterm grades the lower also are the final grades. Coefficient of Determination ‘The coefficient of determination is rtimes 100%. This explains the extent to which the independent variable x influences Y or the extent to which y depends on x. Example 1. What is the coefficient of determination when r= 949, cD= Fx 100% = (,949)? x 100% 9006 x 100% 90.06% This 90.06% indicates that the final examination grade de- ends on the midterm grades. Thus, the final grade is influenced by the midterm grede, 8 THE SIMPLE LINEAR REGRESSION ANALYSIS *le = —, Suppose the idterm report is x = 88, what is “he value of the final gradé? lution: APTOS op ~ bere Oxy ic > 10(64,000)-(775)815)- = °1o(60925)-G735F = _, 640 ,000 - 631.625 =~ 609,250 - 600 625 _ 8375 * 8625 b=o7 - aay-lk = 815-97) (J7.5) = 81.5 - 75.25 a=6.25 ‘The Regression Equation is, = 91.70 or 92 — final grade The Parametric Test_141 Example 2. A study is conducted on the relationship of the number of absences (x) and the grades (y) of 15 students in English. Using r at .05 level of significance and the hypothesis that there is no significant relationship between absences and grades of the students in English, determine the relationship using the following data, x y I 90 2 85 2 80 3 7S 3 80 8 65 6 70 1 95 4 80 5 80 5 75 1 92 2 89 1 80 9 ép aie imple ~ q The Parametric Test_143 Stepyrise Method. IV. Statistics: jem: Is there. a significant relationship between the + Pearscn Product Moment Coefficient of Correlation |, “7 humber.of absénces-andsthe grades of 15 peo Ey E students in an English class? * y y . » 90 : 2 is a otheses: 2 80 : BS . 3 5 Ho: There is no significant relationship between thé 3 0 A number.of absences and the grades of 15 . 8 6 Soa stucents in'an English class. ‘ ” aan 7 9s 4 7 Hy: There is a significant relationship between the 5 29 number of absences and the grades of 15 $ 5 eas students in an English class. 1 2 eal 2 89 178 1. Level of Significance 1 30 80 e ue Rs ao = ..05 - Zxs53 Ly=1201 Exy= 3050 Poe nzlSonsis a Xei53 J = 80.07 = 15-2 = BA nDxy-DeDy sia IMGT oy 0_)- (93 X1201_) 5 (67 335 )- (1201 ¥ 59250 - 63653 15 - 2809 f1460025 -1442401 | | i q 5 3= and b 7 1406 ji7624, “ ea bo DEM Eady ATIV344 . ndx?-(Sx} fy ead ee = 156950 -(63 1201 ) W977 88 — 15(281)-(53)° ee = 59250 _-63653_ ~ 4215-2809 Decision Rule: . Ifthe r computed value is greater than or ~ beyond the critical value, reject Ho, E . b= 3.13, ‘The computed r value of —.88 is: beyon' ~' the critical value’of ~.514 at .05 level. of a=y-bt — significanoe with 13. degrees of freedom, So the” fullhypothesis, is rejected. » This th = 80.07 -(3.13) 6.53) oo hh that: there is = 80.07 - (11.05) . 1.1 xelationship~ between: t mber: 0 7 ‘absences ,and the grades *of students “i cies = 80.70 + 11.05 oon ~"". Bnglish, Since the value of ris negat Py S912 eae “it innplies that“students who had ‘mor abseiices had-Jower grades. § 1 y satbx Suppose we want io predict the gradé ee + of. the student. who . has’ incurred = 91.12 + (3.13) x _ absences_(x). To” get. the ‘value of. given the” value. of x, the simple I =91.12-21,91 y = 69.21 or 69 —» gradePART TWO Nonparametric Test What are nonparametric tests? + Nonparametric tests are tests that do not require a normal distribution. + They utilize both nominal and ordinal data When can we say that the data/distribution is not normal? + When the value of skewness is either positive or negative. gh) D SI + if the x is greater than the median, it is positive. + if xis lesser than the median, it is negative.“a The Spearman Rank Order Coefficient of Median Test Two-Sample case) - Test for Two Cortelative Sample (Fisher Sign Test for K Independent Samples (The fedian Test: Multi-Sample Case) a fig. Friedman Fr Test for Randomized Block Nemar’s Test for Correlated Sample. ne Kendall's Coefficient of Concordance W. nonparametric tests? when. the ‘The nonparametric tests are used -andKu ‘distribution is abnormal that is Sk=+ >.265 < and «when the level of measurement is expressed in ordinal or nominal data.—__—__ Table 10.1. OneWay Classification of the Civil Status of 50 employees States T 7, Single a Married 4 Widowed - Leg. Separated “3 Toul 0 Table 10.2. One-Way Classification on the 10 of 40 Students High IQ | Average IQ | Low IQ | Total [=] = | a2 Table 10.3. One-Way Classification on the Production more specific categories. Quality of 1200 Products Produ . am ication has only one variable described ction Quality Number of ne variable 1,006Jundamental StALSOCS Table 108, Conti wency Table on the Academic Performan columns — the rows representing the and 1 of 100 Students everal rows and 4 the columns representing the cate- one variable, an¢ ‘other variable. tus take two variables — sex and attitude ao The variable on sex shall be categorized yuschole chor: gil: and the variable on attitude toward household 1d negative attitudes. ‘be categorized into positive an a have 2 2x 2 contingency table, meaning two cate c eo te ewe categories, like this one below. 5 4 4 13 20 49 39 | 100 Contingency Table on Sex and Attitude a te 10.4, Towerd Household Chores of 60 College Freshmen = In Table 19 5, dents with with average ha heen," tls to ee name of erpeede oa sae IQ who pa eee the number of seudent Boys Girls Total Analysis of eaumeratic fon data How ar data is done e8erRtion dats 3). The g@htoush the chest? Analysis of emma ; vest (the ehi-saqeare 57 versie statistical vese mamed 407, of ributio ‘ution which is derived under she 255¢™P wuencies (fo) are 9, 21, 9 and oo number of items that satisfy % the Thus, 9 refers to che numb tive attitud In Table 10.4, the observed freq) 1 pe the Uses Of the chi-squar 5 the Boodaess of gure are the al eheaeere teeter fin 2, ‘Math the hypothetical norm: seene number of college freshmen who a oe “se” The other 9 refers to the number of bo equi’ Out whet tribution- soo # egative arcade; and 11 refers to the number of girls a. nd some given ide Ge herwed propordae the & r expec parson vatighje, independence of she ‘ed Pe Gom 29 egative attitud se contingency table also shows the Br) allege (eeshmen with positive attitudes and 3 es There are 18 boys and 32-gils. All din the table. T subtotals for each cate St lke che fortnat used in th in the aagid the zt setae Sse Step 1. Pl. State the null hypoth: be stated in any The nnf) kypochet ™ a. Ho: The Mest Ways: : eee ast eee eee eae