Master’s Thesis

Solid Waste Management in Negombo Municipal Council:

Evaluating Current Demand to Expand the Future

Composting Capacity

By

Warnakulasooriya Araliya Madhushani Fernando

51219002

March 2021

Master‘s Thesis Presented to

Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of International Cooperation Policy

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 Table of Contents
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................................................................... 6
ACKNOWLEDGMENT ............................................................................................................... 8
SUMMARY .................................................................................................................................. 9
CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 13
1.1 Background ........................................................................................................................... 13
1.2 Definition .............................................................................................................................. 15
1.3 Research Focus ..................................................................................................................... 17
1.4 Overall Research Aim ........................................................................................................... 18
1.5 Research Questions .............................................................................................................. 19
1.6 Outline of Research Methods ................................................................................................ 19
1.7 Justification of the Research ................................................................................................. 20
1.8 Summary ............................................................................................................................... 21
CHAPTER 02 – LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................ 23
2.1 Introduction of Solid Waste .................................................................................................. 23
2. 2 Solid Waste Management .................................................................................................... 25
2.3 Common Disposal Methods .................................................................................................. 26
2.3.1 Open garbage disposal ................................................................................................... 26
2.3.2 Sanitary disposal ............................................................................................................ 26
2.4 Least Developed Countries (LDCs) ...................................................................................... 27
2.5 Solid Waste Management in Developing Asian Countries ................................................... 27
2.5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 27
2.5.2 Waste Composition ........................................................................................................ 29
2.5.3 Waste Generation and Collection................................................................................... 30
2.5.4 Waste Treatments and Disposal ..................................................................................... 32
2.5.4.1 Composting ............................................................................................................. 32
2.5.4.3 Waste disposal ......................................................................................................... 33
2. 5. 5 Barriers for Organic Solid Waste Management in Developing Countries ................... 34
2.5.6 Barriers for MSW Composting ...................................................................................... 35
2. 5. 6 Public Awareness ......................................................................................................... 36
2.6 Summary ............................................................................................................................... 38
CHAPTER 03 - SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN SRI LANKA ...................................... 40
3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 40
3.2 Generation, Collection, and Disposal amount of waste ........................................................ 41
3.3 Health and environmental problems ..................................................................................... 44

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3.4 Intermediate treatment .......................................................................................................... 46
3.5 Negombo Municipal Council (NMC) ................................................................................... 48
3.5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 48
3.5.2 Generation and Collection amount of waste in Negombo Municipal Council............... 51
3.5.3 Waste treatment and disposal ......................................................................................... 53
3.5.3.1 Divert food waste .................................................................................................... 53
3.5.3.2 Composting ............................................................................................................. 53
3.5.3.3 Recycling ................................................................................................................ 54
3.5.3.4 Waste Disposal ........................................................................................................ 55
3.6 Potential Organic waste management practices for Sri Lanka .............................................. 56
3.6.1 Composting .................................................................................................................... 56
3.7 Barriers for MSW Composting in Sri Lanka ........................................................................ 59
3.8 Summary ............................................................................................................................... 60
CHAPTER 4- RESEARCH METHODS .................................................................................... 62
4.1 Research Strategy .................................................................................................................. 62
4.2 Data Collection ..................................................................................................................... 62
4.3 Framework for Data Analysis ............................................................................................... 65
4.4 Limitations and Potential Problems ...................................................................................... 67
4.5 Summary ............................................................................................................................... 68
CHAPTER 5- RESULTS ............................................................................................................ 70
5.1 Current Composting Capacity ............................................................................................... 70
5.2 Farmers‘ Perception .............................................................................................................. 76
5.3 Composting Plant .................................................................................................................. 79
5.3.1 Quality of feedstock ....................................................................................................... 79
5.3.2 Productivity .................................................................................................................... 80
5.4 Capacity Expansion............................................................................................................... 81
5.4.1 Possibility of capacity expansion on the Kurana composting plant side ....................... 81
5.4.2 Possibility of capacity expansion on the Government side ........................................... 82
5.4.3 Possibility of capacity expansion on the sales outlet side .............................................. 83
5.5 Summary ............................................................................................................................... 83
CHAPTER 6- DISCUSSION...................................................................................................... 85
6.1 Discussion ............................................................................................................................. 85
6.2 Summary ............................................................................................................................... 95
CHAPTER 7- CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................ 97
References ................................................................................................................................. 100
ANNEXES ................................................................................................................................ 111

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 List of Tables
Table 1: Waste composition in developing Asian countries .......................................... 29

Table 2: Solid Waste generation and GDP in selected Asian countries ......................... 31

Table 3: Daily collection of solid waste by LAs ............................................................ 42

Table 4: Number of final disposal sites owned by LAs ................................................. 43

Table 5: Number of composting plants in Sri Lanka ..................................................... 46

Table 6: Farmers‘ profile ................................................................................................ 70

Table 7: Cropping Calendar for NMC............................................................................ 89

List of Figures
Figure 1: Map of NMC area ........................................................................................... 48

Figure 2: Ward Map of NMC ......................................................................................... 50

Figure 3: Waste piles placed at maturation in Kurana composting plant ....................... 54

Figure 4: Compost bag produced in Kurana composting plant ...................................... 54

Figure 5: AIs collect data from farmers through the survey .......................................... 63

Figure 6: Framework ...................................................................................................... 65

Figure 7: Type of fertilizer use by farmers ..................................................................... 71

Figure 8: Type of compost used by famers .................................................................... 72

Figure 9: Cultivated land size in perch ........................................................................... 73

Figure 10: Type of crop cultivated by farmers ............................................................... 73

Figure 11: Fertilizer usage by farmers............................................................................ 74

Figure 12: Annual expenditure for fertilizer per perch .................................................. 75

Figure 13: Type of soil improver used by farmers ......................................................... 76

Figure 14: Type of quality compost selected by farmers ............................................... 76

Figure 15: Reasons to used compost by famers ............................................................. 77

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Figure 16: Farmers‘ perception of compost as a safe product ........................................ 77

Figure 17:Farmers‘ perception of compost can reduce environmental pollution........... 78

Figure 18: Farmers‘ perception of compost improves the quality and quantity of the
crop .................................................................................................................................78

Figure 19: Farmers‘ perception of MSW compost can reduce the solid waste problem in
their municipal area ........................................................................................................ 78

Figure 20: Annual compost requirement after arising their perception about compost . 79

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 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AI - Agriculture Instructor

AIT - Asia Institute of Technology

BOD - Biological Oxygen Demand

CMC - Colombo Municipal Council

GDP - Gross Domestic Production

ILO - International Labor Organization

JICA - Japan International Cooperation Agency

KOICA - Korea International Cooperation Agency

LA - Local Authority

LDCs - Least Developed Countries

LKR - Sri Lankan Rupee

MC - Municipal Council

MSW - Municipal Solid Waste

MSWM - Municipal Solid Waste Management

NA - No Answer

NGOs - Non Governmental Organizations

NMC - Negombo Municipal Council

PHI - Public Health Instructor

PS - Pradeshiya Sabha

SLTB - Sri Lanka Tea Board

SLS - Sri Lanka Standards

SPSS - Statistical Package for the Social Sciences

SW - Solid Waste

UC - Urban Council

UNFPA - United Nations Funds for Population Activities

UNEP - United Nations Environment Programme

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 CERTIFICATE PAGE

I, Warnakulasooriya Araliya Madhushani FERNANDO (Student ID 51219002) hereby

declare that the contents of this Master‘s Thesis are original and true, and have not been

submitted at any other university or educational institution for the award of degree or

diploma.

All the information derived from other published or unpublished sources has been cited

and acknowledged appropriately.

Warnakulasooriya Araliya Madhushani FERNANDO

2020/12/04

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific

University for offering me the opportunity to become a student at the university with a

scholarship and giving me a valued chance to conduct my research.

It is with great pleasure and honor to thank all the assistance and contribution of

many individuals who have given their support hand to success in my research. First, I

would like to express my heartiest thanks to my supervisor, Professor Thomas Jones, for

his valuable guidance, excellent supervision, kind assistance, expert advice,

encouragement, and helpful criticisms during these two years. I am very much intended

for his priceless help which has given me to make this effort a success. I am very

thankful to Mr. Dasun and Mr. Saman, Agriculture Instructors, Department of

Agriculture, Negombo Municipal Council for their contribution, and dedication to my

survey, and without their help on the survey could not have been achieved. To Public

Health Instructor, Waste Management section of Health Department, Negombo

Municipal Council, for giving me his precious time and providing me useful

information on solid waste management in the Negombo Municipal Council. To head of

the compost plant in Kurana, for according to well- informed interview. To salesperson

in compost outlet for his honest support and giving me sales data on municipal solid

waste compost. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my college Dasun Silva

for his assistance and support me with data analysis.

It is with a warm heart that I express my deepest gratitude to my mother,

husband, and my little daughter for their constant encouragement and for creating

pleasure and a dynamic environment to carry out my research.

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 SUMMARY

Negombo Municipal Council (NMC) is a prime commercial and service hub, a

second-order town in the Western Province, a famous tourist destination, and one of the

main fishery harbors in Sri Lanka. As the population of NMC increased from 146,864

to 161,484 from 2003 to 2011, also the amount of waste generation increased due to

rapid urbanization and economic growth. The daily waste generation is about 157.7 MT

and household waste is the most prominent waste category. NMC is collected only 70

MT of generated waste per day and other generated waste goes to onsite disposal, onsite

composting, recycling, and illegal disposal. Management of increasing solid waste

became the main challenge for NMC as in other urban areas in Sri Lanka. Kurana

composting plant which operated through the management of the local government

intakes 10MT of collected waste daily for the production of compost. Apart from

composting a small amount of collected waste is used for recycling and sold as animal

feed. Still, most of the collected waste goes to Ovitiyawatta's final disposal site resulting

in numerous environmental and public health-related problems.

The main objective of this thesis is to investigate the contribution of composting

as a successful SWM technique in Sri Lanka concerning the Negombo Municipal

Council. Also, this research plans to evaluate the current demand to expand the future

composting capacity in existing composting plants in NMC to help tackle the SWM

problem via four questions.

I. What is the current composting capacity within MSW in NMC?

II. What is the farmers‘ perspective on composting capacity?
III. Is NMC composting plant receiving enough quality feedstock after
expanded capacity?
IV. How can composting capacity be expanded to help tackle the SWM
problem in NMC?
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 This study depends on fieldwork that involved a mixed-method approach with a

survey and interviews, also current research and government reports. This research

includes both qualitative and quantitative research approaches. This is empirical

research that investigates existing aspects deeply and in its real-life situation. Data were

collected by surveying farmers in the Negombo municipality area and interviewing the

head of the composting plant in Kurana, PHI in the waste management section of the

Health Department in NMC, and salesperson in the composting outlet in Kurana. A

closed-ended questionnaire was used for the survey and a mixture of an open and closed

questionnaire for all the telephone interview. Data were analyzed using simple

tabulation and average value calculation. Apart from that, the Pearson correlation

coefficient test which statistically evaluates how strong the relationship between two

continuous variables and how they correlate to each other was used to analyse factors

that determine the farmers‘ perspective on MSW compost.

Findings show that all are small-scale farmers and most of them (16 farmers)

have 0.1- 0.15 ha size land for cultivation. 37 farmers cultivated vegetables, while 9

farmers cultivated fruits, and 5 farmers cultivated cereals. Due to a large number of

vegetable farmers, 46.15% of farmers used both chemical and compost fertilizer for

their cultivations. Normally people get used to applying animal manure, garden waste,

household waste compost, and MSW compost and the percentage of fertilizer used is

32.69%, 36.54%, 0%, 30.77% of farmers respectively. In the NMC, the percentage of

MSW usage among farmers is relatively low due to the low availability in the market as

the MSW compost is produced only by Kurana composting plant. This composting

plant was established by the government on the 13th of August 2007 for the production

of compost using organic waste collected from the NMC. The Kurana composting plant

is a small-scale plant with a capacity of 2.5MT to 3MT per day using kitchen waste,

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garden waste, leftover fruits, and vegetables from the market and pola. The produced

compost from the Kurana plant is sold under the brand name of ―Meepura organic

fertilizer‖ and NMC earns LKR 300,000 to LKR 325,000 per month by selling this

compost.

Compost application is cheaper because 71% of farmers in NMC spend less than

LKR 1000 per perch annually for compost but most of the farmers using chemical

fertilizer (33%) spend LKR 3000-4000 per pech annually. Recommended vegetables for

the Negombo area (brinjal, cassava, Kiri-ala, sweet potato, okra, cucurbits, diascoreas,

and leafy vegetables) are suitable for both monsoon seasons which are Yala (May to

August) and Maha (September to March) seasons. Most farmers (86.54%) selected

MSW compost as higher quality compost, while only 7.69% selected animal manure,

and 5.77% selected garden waste. Farmers in NMC have a higher perception of the

benefits of compost to the environment and crops. Because 52.38% of farmers used

compost concerning its environmental friendliness and most of the farmers (88.46%)

have a higher perception of its safeness, ability to reduce environmental pollution,

improve the quality and quantity of the crop, and 86% of farmers already know the

application of MSW compost can reduce the solid waste problem in their municipal

area. Perception has a positive impact on fertilizer requirements because after arising

their perception more than 200kg annual fertilizer requirement was increased from 17%

to 25%, and 54 percent of the total annual compost requirement represents both 100-

200kg and more than 200kg requirements. Based on these results, price, the crop being

grown, the season in which the crop can be grown, quality of compost, and farmers‘

perception of compost have a positive impact on current compost demand.

2MT of kitchen waste, garden waste, leftover fruits, and vegetables from the

market and pola is transported daily on a dry basis for Kurana composting plant. The

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feedstock used for the composting is of high quality because non-compostable materials

like plastic straws, polythene bags, plastic-coated milk cartons, cigarette butts, etc are

removed manually in received separated waste before using the composting process and

the raw materials are received on a dry basis. 2.5-3 MT of compost are produced daily

using an open windrow process with the help of 15 laborers. Normally the compost

outlet sells 60 bags in 20kg and 25 to 30 bags in 5kg per day. Due to the higher demand,

it is easy to find new customers through existing customers (15 regular customers).

NMC allocated sufficient budget, supplied vehicles for waste collection, and necessary

machinery for the composting. And also, conducted community awareness programs on

waste separation, source reduction, and MSW composting. NMC provided local and

foreign training for employees and conducted advertising programs and promotional

campaigns to encourage the use of MSW compost.

NMC can tackle the existing SWM problem by expanding the future composting

capacity in Kurana composting plant. Kurana composting plant alone could not tackle

the existing waste problem because even though increase the current waste receiving

capacity of 2MT/day to 10MT/day of the maximum capacity of the plant, half of the

collected organic waste is unavoidable from going to open dumps. The government

should support to established MSW composting projects in all the Pradeshiya Sabha in

NMC, get involved the private agricultural farms in the NMC for future compost

programs, should pay more attention to compost quality, and conducted awareness

programs on waste separation for school children can be mentioned as the

recommendations.

Keywords: Organic waste; farmers’ perception; demand; expansion capacity;

feedstock quality; SWM

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 CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Solid waste has become a critical problem in both developed and developing

countries in recent years. Because throughout the world solid waste generation is

increasing day by day with the rapid population growth, modification of human

lifestyle, fast economic development, and expeditious urbanization (Guerrero et al,

2013). Managing an increasing amount of solid waste is a crucial problem in Sri

Lanka as a low-middle income country. This problem becomes critical in low-

middle income countries mainly due to inadequate waste collection and disposal.

Normally municipal councils are responsible for collecting waste within their

municipality area. Less working staff than the required level, poor health conditions,

and the higher number of absentees of working staff in municipal councils are the

main obstacles for insufficient waste collection (Abeynayaka and Werellagama,

2007). And also, it becomes serious with this kind of adequacy of resources and

poor infrastructure facilities (Fernando, 2019). Based on the above reasons urban

residents in some developing countries did not receive any waste collection service

provided by either government or private companies. Therefore, disposing of their

waste becomes a serious problem for urban residents with limited space so people

simply through their waste to canals, other water sources, roadsides, abounded

lands, forestry, etc. (Halbach et al, 2005).

The next challenge in the waste management process in Sri Lanka is the poor

disposal method which is open dumping. Still, it considers the most common

disposal method in Sri Lanka. Mostly open dumping occurs on low-lying degraded

land owned by the government and used for flood control. And also, some areas of

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Sri Lanka used private land for waste disposal by paying for landowners (Bandara,

2011). Most of the dumping sites are located in wetlands, riverbanks, saltwater

inlets, and gullies and near to residential, commercial, and institutional

establishments (Nawarathna and Joyce, 2016).

The inefficient collection and disposal lead to various environmental and

public health-related problems such as air and water pollution, flooding, erosion,

spread skin disease, respiratory problems, and viral disease (The World Bank, 2012;

Nawarathna and Joyce, 2016). Low budget allocation and the lack of a national

policy for solid waste management have a direct impact on the unsolved solid waste

problem in Sri Lanka. There is a need for a well-established national policy for solid

waste management to encourage all the parties responsible for solid waste

management to contribute well.

Composting is the most common waste treatment in municipal councils in

Sri Lanka because composting can be used for plantation crops, home gardens, crop

cultivations, and paddy cultivations (Samarasinha et al, 2015). But due to public

opposition, too high cost of production than revenue, low production capacity, lack

of government involvement, low level of public participation in waste separation,

and lack of political and managerial commitment, most of the compost projects were

failed. Therefore, a large amount of solid waste still goes to the final disposal site

with increasing solid waste problems, exceeding the holing capacity of disposal

sites, and introducing new challenges for finding new land for disposal sites.

Most of the researchers investigated potentiality, barriers, failure reasons for

composting. Some reported successful examples and how they achieve their success

in composting in particular composting plants. There is limited research on the level

14
 of contribution of composting as successful waste management technology for help

to tackle the unsolved waste problem in Sri Lanka.

1.2 Definition

Municipal Solid Waste (MSW):

MSW includes refuse originated through household activities, non-

hazardous industrial, commercial, and institutional (including hospital) waste in

solid form, and waste from markets, gardens, and street sweeping (Ogwueleka,

2009).

Organic Waste:

Agricultural waste, kitchen waste, market waste, MSW, and solid food waste

from city areas are categorized as organic waste. Any waste that can be easily

biodegradable is referred to as organic waste and its competence depends on pH,

temperature, carbon-nitrogen ratio, and moisture content (Kadir et al, 2016).

Biodegradable Waste:

All types of waste can digest via aerobic or anaerobic disintegration. Food

waste, yard waste, paper, and cardboard are categorized as biodegradable waste

(Saveyn and Eder, 2014).

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Waste Management:

Waste management is defined as a process of waste collection, transport,

intermediate treatment, recycling, reuse, and disposal of waste in a safe manner

(Ogwueleka, 2009). It can mitigate the environmental and human health-related

problems which are resulted from waste, encourage economics, and assure the

quality of life therefore, waste management can be referred to as a solution for solid

waste problems (Henry et al, 2006).

Composting:

Composting is a method of controlled disintegration of waste into humus via

microbiological activities (Chen et al, 2011). During the composting process,

organic waste is converted into humus which can be used as a soil improver

(Cooperband, 2002).

Municipal Solid Waste Compost:

MSW compost is an organic nutrients portion that is available in solid waste

(Ndegwa and Thompson, 2001). Not only does it enhance the plants‘ growth and

quality of soil but can also be an economically viable MSWM practice (de Araújo et

al, 2010).

Least Developed Countries (LDCs):

As stated in the United Nations definition low-income level countries and

countries that have serious fundamental difficulties to achieve sustainable

development categorizes as LDCs (Department of Economic and Social Affairs,

2015). Significant exposure to environmental and economic collapse and poor

16
 human assets are considered as indicators of difficulties. There are forty-nine

countries in this category (United Nations, 2015).

Perspective:

Perspective is referred to as an extremely influential impact on human

attitudes (Zimbardo, 2012). It is a fashion of understanding the comparative effects

of conditions and specific way of concerning object (Hughes, 2005).

Capacity Expansion:

Provide facilities to assure the increasing demand with time (Manne, 1961).

Capacity expansion is primarily involved with the optimum time, quantity of

capacity receiving, and optimum capacity granting (Taghavi and Huang, 2014).

1.3 Research Focus

Firstly, this research focused on the MSW problem and solutions in Sri

Lanka. The waste problem becomes worse day by day not only due to the adequacy

of support by the government but also due to very poor public participation and

awareness. Public participation and awareness consider as critical factors for

introducing a successful solid waste management strategy (Rathi, 2006; Zurbrugg,

2002). Now, most of the municipal councils stated awareness programs for residents

in their municipality areas to educate them on waste separation and the importance

of active participation in mitigating the solid waste problem.

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 The second focus is on the current state of waste separation and collection on

composting plants in Negombo municipal council (NMC). This step could be

evaluated the success of training programs and how this collected solid waste

quality affects the final quality of compost and failure of composting plants.

Because most of the literature revealed that mixed solid waste resulted in low-

quality compost with high production costs, malodor, compost contains a higher

amount of moisture than the SLS recommendation (<25% moisture by dry basis) on

rainy days (Aheeyar, 2007), availability of toxic matter, glass particles, and heavy

metal increase the hazardous level in MSW compost, and eventually, it reduces the

demand and failure of composting plants (Bekchanov, 2017).

The overall focus of this research is to investigate the actual demand for

MSW compost produced in the compost plant in the Kurana area which is run by

NMC to conclude the contribution of compost for help to tackle the solid waste

problem via the expansion of existing composting plants. Finally, the author

evaluated the expansion capacity of compost needed to tackle the waste problem

based on famers‘ perspective. The absence of literature on the level of contribution

of composting in SWM leads to conduct this research following the above sub-

focusing areas.

1.4 Overall Research Aim

The overall aim of this study to investigate the contribution of composting as a

successful SWM technique in Sri Lanka concerning the Negombo Municipal Council.

Also, this research plans to evaluate the current demand in order to expand the future

18
composting capacity in existing composting plants in NMC to help tackle the SW

problem.

1.5 Research Questions

There are four research questions to achieve the overall aim of this research as

follows:-

I. What is the current composting capacity within MSW in NMC?

II. What is the farmers‘ perspective on composting capacity?

III. Is NMC composting plant receiving enough quality feedstock after expanded

capacity?

IV. How can composting capacity be expanded to help tackle the SWM problem in

NMC?

1.6 Outline of Research Methods

The author shall spend more time on a comprehensive literature review for

understanding the municipal solid waste problem in both developed and developing

countries, the current SWM technique adopted in developed countries, reasons for

failure SWM techniques in Sri Lanka, and formulated research questions. Special effort

is needed to find literature on NMC due to a lack of literature. Book chapters, journals,

conference papers, official websites, and government reports have been reviewed under

the literature review to formulate a clear direction and conclude the research effectively.

19
 Both qualitative and quantitative research methods will be used for this research.

Empirical data will be collected through a survey and personal interviews. Due to this

pandemic situation postal survey was conducted on 52 farmers in NMC with the help of

the two Agriculture Instructors responsible for the Negombo municipality area. The

sample will be selected voluntary basis due to limited time. Personal interviews will be

conducted with the PHI in the waste management section of the Health Department in

NMC, head of the composting plant, and salesperson in the compost outlet in NMC

using structured questionnaires. Data will be analyzed using descriptive and inferential

statistics methods.

1.7 Justification of the Research

Most of the research conducted to investigate current states of MSWM, different

SWM practices practiced by a particular country, SWM of some country, potential

waste management techniques for developed countries and developing countries,

barriers for composting, reasons for the failure of composting plans, etc. But this study

is important because this will provide an actual contribution of composting and

depending on demand how can be expanded the existing compost plants help to tackle

the SW problem.

The findings of this research will be useful for the NMC to introduced some new

policies, techniques, and enhancing their capacities to achieve waste-free Negombo in

the future. Using these findings they can reduce the amount of solid waste currently

being disposed of in final landfills by expanding the existing MSW composting plants

as a successful treatment for organic waste not only in NMC but also in other

municipalities in Sri Lanka. Simultaneously, findings may help to mitigate the

20
environmental and public health-related issues that cause by inefficient waste collection

and disposal. Findings also help to tackle the problem of scarcity of land for new

disposal sites and exceeding the loading capacity of existing disposal sites not only in

NMC but also in all other municipalities in Sri Lanka.

On the other hand, they can use these results to educate the residents and school

students about waste separation and its impact on successful waste management.

Because literature says the absence of citizen participation and public awareness and

training are some vital factors for failure of the SWM strategy (Gustavson, 2008;

Zurbrugg, 2003). The results of this research can be used for researchers for their future

research and this research will be a platform for future researchers.

1.8 Summary

Sri Lanka also faces a crucial challenge in managing an increasing amount of

solid waste due to inadequate waste collection and disposal. Less working staff, poor

health conditions, and the higher number of absentees of working staff in municipal

councils are the main obstacles for insufficient waste collection. Most of the dumping

sites are near residential, commercial, and institutional establishments leading to

environmental and health-related problems such as air and water pollution, flooding,

erosion, spread skin disease, respiratory problems, and viral disease.

After the landfilling, composting is the most commonly used waste treatment in

Sri Lanka, but some obstacles lead to the failure of composting projects such as public

opposition, too high a cost of production than revenue, low production capacity, lack of

government involvement, low level of public participation in waste separation, and lack

of political and managerial commitment.

21
 The overall aim of this study to investigate the level of contribution of

composting as a successful SWM technique in Sri Lanka concerning the Negombo

Municipal Council. Also, this research plans to evaluate the current demand in order to

expand the future composting capacity in existing composting plants in NMC to help

tackle the SW problem. Both qualitative and quantitative research methods were used

for this research. Empirical data will be collected through a survey and personal

interviews.

There is limited research on the level of contribution of composting as

successful waste management technology for help to tackle the unsolved waste problem

in Sri Lanka. Research findings will help to introduce some new compost subsidy

policies to encourage MSW compost use, techniques for monitoring the quality of

manufactured compost, and enhancing their capacities to achieve a waste-free

environment in the future not only in NMC but also in all other municipalities in Sri

Lanka. And also these results can use to educate the residents and school students about

waste separation and its impact on successful waste management.

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 CHAPTER 02 – LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction of Solid Waste

Solid waste defines as rejected or discarded materials that resulted from

domestic, industrial, commercial, and institutional activities in urban areas (Hagerty et

al, 1973). Governmental and non-governmental sectors originated unwanted or useless

non-liquid waste materials during domestic activities, commercial installations,

agricultural activities, industries, and institutions (Ministry of Environment, 1999).

Two types of solid waste are identified:- organic and inorganic (Tchobanoglous

et al,1993). Burnable and decomposable waste material is categorized under organic

solid waste. As an example, food waste, paper, and cardboard. The inorganic solid

waste category includes non-combustible waste and waste that can not be decomposed

by microorganisms such as glass, iron, and aluminum (Afrizal, 2016). Among these two

types, my research focused on organic solid waste because collected municipal solid

waste contains a higher organic portion (50-60% of total waste) in Sri Lanka

(Samarasiri et al, 2017). Composting is the most suitable waste technique for this kind

of waste because, it reduces nearly half of generated waste (Visvanathan and Trankler,

2003). The further organic portion of municipal solid waste has led to excessive

leachate causing water pollution, odor problems, provide breeding places for flies,

mosquitoes, and finally spread vector-borne diseases.

Some researchers define solid waste based on its origin (domestic, industrial,

commercial, construction, or institutional); composition (organic materials, glass, metal,

plastic, paper, etc.), and hazard ability (toxic, non-toxin, flammable, radioactive,

infectious, etc.) [Hagerty et al, 1973].

23
 There are seven waste categories in Sri Lanka depending on origin and hazard

ability (Abeysuriya et al, 2007).

1. Household waste - originated through domestic activities such as

food preparation, fuel burning, cleaning, yard sweeping, gardening, and various

household waste.

2. Commercial waste - originated through trade, service, processing, and

some production enterprises.

3. Market waste - originated through market selling. This type of

waste includes a large portion of vegetables, fruits, meat, and/or fish.

4. Institutional waste - originated through hospitals, schools, other

education centers, religious institutions, and central and provincial government offices.

5. Industrial waste - includes lightweight and weighty manufacturing,

fabrication,

construction sites, power, and chemical plants originated through miscellaneous

industries.

6. Construction and demolition waste- originated through construction,

reconstruction, and destruction activities, etc.

7. Hazardous waste - can be originated through miscellaneous sources

containing household components like batteries, spray cans, etc. This type of waste may

be toxic, causing a risk to public health and the environment. Sri Lankan situation

management of sharps, clinical waste, body parts, and highly infectious waste through

hospitals become a considerable burden.

24
 This research focused on Household waste, Commercial waste, and Market

waste because among seven categories only those three are categorized within the

municipal solid waste, and due to the same reason other four categories are excluded.

2. 2 Solid Waste Management

Limitation of waste generation, storage, collection, transfer, and transport, and

final disposal define as solid waste management (Badgie et al, 2012). Solid waste

management is a procedure of production, storage, source separation, collection,

transportation, processing, recycling, and disposal of organic and inorganic waste

(Eusuf et al, 2011).

According to Afrizal (2016), solid waste management is a sequence of

generation, storage, collection, transfer, transportation, processing, and disposal of a

waste considering the public health, economy, construction, natural beauty, and

environmental issues. Any special solution used for overcoming the solid waste

problem is further acknowledged as solid waste management. Not only it reduces or

eradicates the negative consequences of inappropriate solid waste management on the

environment and human health, but also enhanced the quality of life, finally prepared a

clean and livable environment for future generations, and helps the economic

development of the country (Henry et al, 2006).

25
2.3 Common Disposal Methods

2.3.1 Open garbage disposal

It is the inappropriate way of removal of any waste (household residue, garbage,

barrels, tires, destruction/construction waste, appliances, shingles, pipes, metal, or any

substances which may decay, crumble, or burn) on an accessible land or meadow, down

a valley, along the roadside. Open dumping is the cheapest waste disposal method, but it

requires a large area and proper drainage (Srigirisetty et al, 2017). Developing countries

widely used this method because they allocate a low budget for waste disposal. This

type of improper waste disposal method creates air, soil, and water pollution. And also,

open dumping creates various problems related to the environment and public health

due to excessive leachate and methane gas emission (Gunawardana et al, 2009;

Basnayake et al, 2007). When this type of dumpsites are exposed to mosquitos, flies,

etc., the people who live near these sites face many health-related problems such as

dengue, cholera, and viral diseases (Gunawardana et al, 2009). Due to the leachate of

waste, groundwater, and soil contamination, therefore in these areas no clear water for

drinking the surrounding residents (Basnayake et al, 2007).

2.3.2 Sanitary disposal

A Sanitary landfill defines as a procedure of disposing of municipal solid waste

in a scientifically constructed area. Waste is spreading as fine coatings, condensing the

waste to the smallest feasible quantity, and cover the waste daily with soil. Methane gas

is formed by anaerobic disintegration of organic matter in solid waste (Goorah et

al,2009).

26
 ―Sanitary landfilling is a method of disposing of refuse without creating

nuisances or hazards to public health or safety, by utilizing the principles of

engineering to reduce it to the smallest practical volume, by cover it with a layer of the

earth”(Luton, 1996).

2.4 Least Developed Countries (LDCs)

As stated in the United Nations definition low-income level countries and

countries that have serious fundamental difficulties to achieve sustainable development

categorizes as LDCs (Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2015). Significant

exposure to environmental and economic collapse and poor human assets are considered

as indicators of difficulties. There are forty-nine countries in this category (United

Nations, 2015)

2.5 Solid Waste Management in Developing Asian Countries

2.5.1 Introduction

Urbanization and rapid population growth became crucial factors for managing

solid waste in most urban areas in developing Asian countries (Idris et al, 2004).

Statistics of the World population stated in 2030 world urban population will be

extended by 60%. From 2007 to 2030 urban population increment in the least developed

countries will be 44% to 56% (UNFPA-State of World Population, 2007). And also, the

quantity of solid waste generation in those cities is increasing due to rapid economic

growth (World Resources Institute, 1996). Urbanization and rapidly growing economies

27
in urban areas have a direct influence on the increasing number of people and their

changing living standards. Because of these factors generated the amount of municipal

solid waste in developing countries increasing day by day (Minghua et al, 2009). Based

on the 2012 World Bank Report, the present generation of solid waste in urban cities is

1.3 billion tonnes per day and it will be reached up to 2.2 billion tonnes by 2025

(Nawarathna and Joyce, 2016). Normally municipal council is responsible for managing

waste in urban areas but they have faced difficulties regarding the supply of effective

waste collection and processing systems to residents with the increasing amount of

generated waste (Sujauddin et al, 2008). As a result of that, they are unable to collect

one to two-thirds of generated solid waste in their municipalities (World Resources

Institute, 1996). Landfills in a more or less controlled way are the most common

method of disposing of their collected waste in nearly all the municipal councils in

Asian countries. This type of improper waste management system generates severe

problems for environmental and public health such as surface and groundwater

contamination, soil degradation, air pollution, and methane gas emission. Not only that

but also the remaining uncollected waste in the streets is helping to flood, spreading

diseases due to supply breeding places for insects and rodents (Zurbrugg, 2002).

Problems of municipal solid waste management in Asian countries are

associated with a lack of institutional facilities, financial support, and legal and

administrative regulations on the environment. Not only those problems but also less

awareness level of people on waste management and environmental ethic are also major

problems in Asian countries (Visvanathan and Trankler, 2003). Politicians in

developing countries give less concern for solid waste compared to other municipal

activities (Moghadam et al, 2009). Those countries' waste collectors have low social

28
status therefore, employees have low motivation for solid waste collection

(Vidanaarachchi et al, 2006).

2.5.2 Waste Composition

The waste composition differs extensively day by day, season to season, country

to country, between neighboring local authorities, and between types of property in the

same city (Idris et al, 2004). But according to the Visvanathan and Trankler, (2003)

waste composition of developing countries is identical because their waste consists

higher portion of biodegradable waste. The waste composition differs among regions

depending on the climatic, cultural, industrial, infrastructural, and legal factors. Some

researchers argued that waste composition varies with income level and consumption

patterns of the people (Zurbrugg, 2002).

Table 1: Waste composition in developing Asian countries

Country Biodegradable Paper Plastic Glass Metal Textile Inert

(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) & &
leather others
(%) (%)
Indonesia 74 10 8 2 2 2 2
Malaysia 40 15 15 4 3 3 20
Nepal 80 7 2.5 3 0.5 - 7
Thailand 48.6 14.6 13.9 5.1 3.6 - 14.2
Vietnam 58 4 5.6 1.6 1.5 1.8 27.5
Philippines 41.6 19.5 13.8 2.5 4.8 - 17.9
India 42 6 4 2 2 4 40
Sri Lanka 76.4 10.6 5.7 1.3 1.3 - 4.7
Thaiwan 31 26 22 7 4 9 -
Source: Shekdar, (2009).

According to the above table in Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Indonesia contain a

greater proportion of biodegradable waste than other countries. Food and yard waste is

responsible for the greater proportion of biodegradable waste in developing countries.

29
These countries not only have a higher percentage of biodegradable waste but also have

a higher percentage of organic waste including a large amount of paper and cardboard

(Dhussa and Varshney, 2000). Based on the above table paper content in Sri Lanka is

lower than the Philippines, Malaysia, and Thailand, and also plastic, glass, and metal

content are lower than all other countries. Because some people reused plastic and glass

waste for other purposes and some people make money by selling the bottle, paper, and

metal waste to scavengers or shops (Thivyatharsan et al, 2016). In Sri Lanka, some

bottles and paper collectors buying newspapers and glass from households (Pilapitiya,

2006).

All the developing countries contain biodegradable waste as the most prominent

component and the second component is paper followed by plastic of generated waste

(Dhokhikah and Trihadiningrum, 2012).

2.5.3 Waste Generation and Collection

The volume of municipal solid waste generation is rapidly increased in both

developed and developing countries due to the emergence of urban areas, migration of

people into cities, growth of per capita income, and change in consumption model

(Agamuthu and Khan, 1997). But developing countries have a lower solid waste

generation rate than developed countries due to lower GDP (Shekdar, 2009). In most

countries, urban areas contribute a larger percentage of solid waste in the country

(Agamuthu et al, 2007).

30
Table 2: Solid Waste generation and GDP in selected Asian countries

Country GDP(US$) Waste generation

per capita in (kg/capita/day)
2007
Indonesia 5096 0.8-1
Malaysia 12,702 0.5-0.8
Nepal 1760 0.2-0.5
Thailand 9426 1.10
Philippine 5409 0.3-0.7
India 3794 0.3-0.6
Vietnam 3502 0.55
Source: Shekdar, 2009

Some municipalities in developing countries failed to supply waste collection

services even in urban. Some people who lived in municipalities that received waste

collection services are not familiar with those services. These factors cause increased

the uncollected waste percentage of 20% to 50% (UNEP, 2001). In some areas, there

are community bins in fixed stations to dispose of the waste for residents in that area

(UNEP, 2002). And some areas municipalities practiced door-to-door collection

services. A municipal waste collecter goes with a handcart in each street to collect

household waste. When he rings a bell household put their waste in his cart and once it

full, those waste unload into community bins or transport vehicle (Shekdar, 2009).

Kharagpur municipality in India collects solid waste daily other than Sundays and

holidays. They go door-to-door and used community bins to collect residential and

commercial waste (Kumar and Goel, 2009). In Jakarta, only 70% of waste was collected

through the door-to-door collection service (Pasang et al, 2007). Decomposition of the

biodegradable portion of uncollected mixed solid waste odor and leachate problems

were occurring with the time. In developing countries mechanical equipment is not

sufficient for waste collection so, manual collection is widely practiced for collecting

solid waste (Moghadam et al, 2009).

31
2.5.4 Waste Treatments and Disposal

2.5.4.1 Composting

Prominent of organic waste in collected solid waste in Asian countries,

municipal solid waste can supply nutrients back to the environment due to that it can be

used as a solution to reduce the disposal problems of organic solid waste (Agamuthu et

al, 2007). Composting technology converts the biodegradable portion of municipal solid

waste into organic fertilizer. This reflects both the economic and environmental

viability of efficient waste management (Visvanathan et al, 2004). Least developed

countries in Asia used composting for disposal of collected solid waste than developed

countries in Asia after the open dumping method. But Dhaka in Bangladesh's household

composting can be reduced organic waste generated more successfully than that

produced by municipal compost plant. This is because small-scale compost plants are

easy to operate, low cost of maintenance, proper separation of solid waste, and their

success in selling. (Glaw et al, 2005). In Southeast Asian countries composting

technology was not popularly (less than 15%) used for the management of their solid

waste. Composting projects in some developing countries in Asia failed due to

excessive functional and maintenance costs, poor operational and maintenance facilities,

poor separation of waste at the source level, and mainly high market price compared to

commercial fertilizers (UNEP, 2004). However, Agamuthu et al, (2007) argued that

composting is a suitable technique for Asian developing countries than incineration due

to a greater percentage of organic waste with high moisture content. On the other hand,

compost considered as a less financial resource, and poor enforcement for

environmental regulation in composting can be considered as reasons for the failure of

composting technology in developing Asian countries(Visvanathan and Glawe, 2006).

Among the developing countries, only India able to applied composting (10-12%) as a

32
successful treatment for solid waste management, and Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, and

Sri Lanka like other countries altogether applied below 10% (Khajuria et al, 2010).

Even though theoretically compost has a good position in the market due to soil

conditioning ability in real life compost has low demand. Because most people not

aware of the benefits of compost, lack of experience in usage of compost, high cost of

production, transportation, and limited application. As an example, in Dar es Salaam,

Tanzania they used only a few amounts of compost for pot flowers. The daily selling

amount of compost is 6- 20 kg at 20 Tanzanian shillings. Most vegetable farmers have

no experience with compost (Zurbrugg and Drescher, 2002). Local government

authorities and the Ministry of Agriculture in Bangladesh are supporting to promote

compost technology and usage of compost in the agriculture sector. And also India has

introduced waste separation (organic and non-organic) under the new solid waste

legislation to households and used organic waste for composting or any other suitable

treatment (Zurbrugg, 2003).

2.5.4.3 Waste disposal

Most of the developing countries are used open dumps for disposed of the

collected waste in a more or less uncontrolled manner. Apart from that, they practice

illegal disposal methods such as throw their waste in waterways (rivers, lakes, beaches,

sewerage lines), barren lands, and roadsides (Guerrero et al, 2013). Southeast Asian

countries' most common disposal method (>50%) is an open dumped landfill (UNEP,

2004). In Malayasia open dumped landfill was used for disposal of collected waste and

20% to 30% of waste was dumped or disposed of in the river (Ngoc and Schnitzer,

2009). Indonesia disposed of all the collected municipal solid waste (70%) into open

33
dumped landfills and the remaining 30% was dumped on roadsides, seepage, and rivers

(Manaf et al, 2009). India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and China also used open dumping as

the most common disposal method and the percentage is 90%, 85%, 65%, and 50%

respectively (Visanathan and Trankler,2003). West Bengal in India regularly dumped

their collected municipal waste not only on both sides of the state highway but also in

railway settlement, a highway in the Kharagpur municipality area. In Bengal, some

current disposal sites are very close to residential settlements and some are close to

airports (Kumar and Goel, 2009).

2. 5. 5 Barriers for Organic Solid Waste Management in Developing

Countries

Developing countries contain a large portion of organic waste in collected

municipal waste due to that collection of waste become a difficult challenge. The study

of Rasht city in Iran concluded organic waste may be easily degraded by resulting mal

odor and leachate in storage sites and containers (Moghadam et al, 2009). Organic

waste in Nigeria landfill undergoes aerobic and anaerobic disintegration due to poor

solid waste management and leads to methane and carbon dioxide gas emission. These

are important greenhouse gas which helps to increase global warming and damage to

the ozone layer. And also methane gas creates odor problems (Nkwachukwu et al,

2010). Emission of methane, carbon dioxide, explosive organic composite, unhealthy

air contaminants, and odor composites from organic waste can be negatively affected by

public health and the environment (Hester et al, 2002). Leachate from the organic waste

due to high moisture content penetrate to groundwater system and increase the nutrient

level in drinking water finally resulted in no clear water for consumption (Vidal et al,

2000). Polluted water may be spread bacterial diseases and some other waterborne
34
diseases like typhoid fever which is popular among the people in developing countries.

Organic waste landfills are a proper place for birds, rodents, and insects which can

transfer diseases. Crows and other birds flying on the garbage disposing areas and

spread garbage here and there to find food (Nawarathna and Joyce, 2016). The

disintegration of the organic portion of solid waste in final disposal sites in Banjul in the

Gambia leads to odor problems and this situation becomes verse on rainy days due to

flies and insects. The severe problem in Banjul is water wells are contained coliform

bacteria due to runoff of fecal from waste dumpsites (Ferronato and Torretta, 2019).

Chennai city in India found leaching of heavy metal from solid waste to water which is

seriously affected by human health. Thailand found heavy metal (chromium, cadmium,

nickel, lead, and mercury) concentration in groundwater near to dumpsites are higher

than ten times of recommended level for drinking water implemented by the World

Health Organization (Prechthai et al, 2008).

2.5.6 Barriers for MSW Composting

The absence of proper separation of chemical contaminants in MSW resulted in

poor quality compost and a higher number of rejections. This mainly because people

have less knowledge about the importance of the separation of chemical contaminant

and efficiency of source. And also regulations that acceptable very low level of

contaminant leads to in-depth separation. Success depends on the way of giving

attention to the final compost (Richard, 1992). During storage, poor aeration, and high

moisture content leads to produce some odorous compounds in MSW composting. This

is mostly connected with public opposition than health risks. This becomes the most

prominent reason for the failure of most MSW composting industries recently (Kissel,

1992). MSW compost has some legal barriers for the wholesale market due to some

35
issues such as consists of heavy metal (Nickel, Cadmium, Lead, Chromium, and Zinc),

organic pollutants (polychlorinated dibenzofurans, polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons,

and polychlorinated biphenyls), and sharp glass and plastic particles even after proper

processing (Farrell and Jones, 2009). Some researchers stated that the utilization of

MSW compost directly affects to increment of heavy metal and organic matter

composition in soil (Ramos and López, 2004). Indian MWS composting plant was

failed because of disorganized waste collection service and inadequate citizen

involvement in municipal waste management. Several large scale MSW composting

factories in developing countries failed due to less application of simple scientific

methods for the composting process (Narayana, 2009). Most of the MSW composting

plants failed in the world due to poor maintaining and understanding of biological

conditions, the requirement of high-cost technologies, high cost of production, poor

waste separation practices, and unable to understand the market condition (Hoornweg et

al, 1999).

2. 5. 6 Public Awareness

Enthusiasm to get involve and support effective waste management practices

mainly depends on the awareness and attitude of the public about waste. Continuous

awareness programs make use of to expand the environmental knowledge and health

risks regarding improper waste management of the population in all sectors. As an

example, the Environmental Pioneer Bridge Program in Sri Lanka provided knowledge

on environmental problems, gave the experience to manage problems, and the way of

prevention to children (Zurbrugg, 2003). One of the NGOs in India called Exnora

International engaged in 1988 with municipal solid waste management which tried to

established environmental awareness among residents. And they were able to inspire

36
people and create thousands of community-based organizations that managed waste in

an environmentally friendly way (Esakku et al, 2007). Indonesia also conducted

community-based awareness programs on solid waste management in cities combine

with local leaders and the cooperation of NGOs to improve public awareness. This

program used 3R with source separation and composting successfully. A center for

collecting recyclable waste of community also started and operated after this program

and most of the 3R implementers were women (Dhokhikah and Trihadiningrum, 2012).

Wilson, (2007) argued that behavioral change of public need to implement proper

recycling, reuse, home composting, sustainable consumption, and so on. Unsustainable

behavior of citizens can act as an obstacle to implementing effective solid waste

management. Activities like habits, routines, lack of knowledge, institutional structure,

social belief, and cultural values are some barriers to the sustainable behavior of people

(Jackson, 2005). The public attitude and unsustainable behavior can overcome through

productive communication, a broader awareness level about the use of effective solid

waste management, and the keen cooperation of all the stakeholders (Schubeler, 1996).

Public awareness regarding source reduction is very limited compared to recycling

(Allaway, 1992). Source reduction may need a basic transformation of the attitudes and

behavior of people (Ervin, 1991). The amount of waste generation was reduced by 42%

in Ohio, United State of America through changing shopping patterns and other

behaviors of people after conducting a public awareness program (Allaway, 1992).

People in North Carolina also reduced the generated waste amount by 10% over one

year by providing knowledge about source reduction through a newsletter (City of

Greensboro). Further, Reid et al, (1976) reported that giving gifts and monetary

incentives can motivate people externally and also can encourage the behavior of people

about waste management by supplying containers for recycling.

37
2.6 Summary

Among the seven waste categories in Sri Lanka, this research targeted household

waste, commercial waste, and market waste because only those types are categorized

within the municipal solid waste. Developed countries practiced sanitary landfilling like

advanced methods and developing countries still used open dumping and illegal

disposal methods for disposing of waste.

Developing countries' waste management became a difficult task due to lack of

institution facilities, financial resources, legal and administrative regulation about the

environment, public awareness, and politicians give less priority to solid waste. The

SWM situation of both developed and developing countries is the same because urban

areas contribute a large percentage of solid waste in the country. But uncollected waste

percentage in developing countries can exceed up to 50% because of insufficient service

of the local authority.

Sri Lanka not only has a higher percentage of biodegradable waste (76.4%) but

also has a higher percentage of organic waste including a large amount of paper (10.6%)

and cardboard. The higher organic portion of municipal solid waste in developing

countries becomes a considerable obstacle in waste management due to leachate, odor,

greenhouse gas emission, and insects, birds, and rodents problems. These problems

cause numerous environmental and health-related problems such as air pollution, spread

disease, global warming, and the scarcity of clean water for drinking.

Composting is the widely used waste treatment practice in developing countries

due to the high biodegradable portion. Theoretically, compost is an economically viable

solution but in reality, it has low demand in the market. Composting technology was

failed due to mixed MSW, high installation and maintenance cost, absence of advanced

38
technologies, scarcity of skilled laborers, limited public awareness and involvement,

and lack of government involvement. The availability of heavy metal in composting and

social influenced are other factors for failure.

39
 CHAPTER 03 - SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN SRI

LANKA

3.1 Introduction

Sri Lanka is an island having a tropical climate, located in 5o 55‘ to 9o 51‘

North latitude and 79o 42‘ to 81o 53‘ East longitude. It covers 65,610 square kilometers

of total land area. According to GDP per capita, Sri Lanka belongs to the low-middle

income category and it comprises USD 4,102 (World Bank Group, 2019). The total

population is 20.7 million people in 2012. The annual population growth rate is

0.913%. The country's ethnic makeup is 74. 9% Sinhalese, 17% Tamils, 9% Moors.

Formal languages are Sinhala and Tamil and English consider as a link language. The

religious makeup of the country is 70.1% Buddhists, 12.6% Hindu, 9.7% Muslim, 7.6%

Christians (Department of Census and Statistics, 2012).

Think about the Sri Lankan context of managing the increasing solid waste

become crucial. Waste generation is an uncontrol process due to the rapid population

growth, modification of human lifestyle, fast economic development, and expeditious

urbanization (Guerrero et al, 2013). Lack of collection due to less working staff than the

required level became a crucial challenge in solid waste management. And also, it

becomes serious with the poor health conditions and the higher number of absentees of

working staff (Abeynayaka and Werellagama, 2007). In urban areas, people do not have

enough space to dispose of their waste so people simply through their waste canals,

other water sources, roadsides, abounded lands, forestry, etc. (Halbach et al, 2005). Poor

disposal method is another major concern in the Sri Lankan waste management process

same as other Asian countries. They normally disposed of their collected waste in open

40
areas in a more or less unrestrained way as to open dumping. Excessive water

composition (40%-45%) in municipal waste create leachate problem and emit methane

gas (72kg/t) which can lead to several environmental and public health problems as air

and water pollution, and breeding rodent, insects like mosquitoes, flies, etc.

(Gunawardana et al, 2009).

Rapid industrialization, urbanization, and rapid growth of population reduce the

land availability for landfilling sites, therefore, there is a necessity in Sri Lanka to

introduced effective waste management practices to solve the prevailing solid waste

management problems (Basnayake and Visvanathan, 2014).

3.2 Generation, Collection, and Disposal amount of waste

Daily 7,000 MT of solid waste is generated in Sri Lanka. Among the nine

provinces in Sri Lanka western province (belongs to Colombo, Gampaha, And Kalutara

districts) is responsible for approximately 60% of solid waste of the country due to high

population density compared to other provinces (Status of Waste Management in Sri

Lanka, 2017). The daily average waste generation of each individual was 0.4kg-1kg.

Daily solid waste generation of each person in Municipal Councils (MC), Urban

Councils (UC), Pradeshiya Sabha which is the third level municipalities in Sri Lanka

(PS) was respectively 0.75kg, 0.6kg, 0.4kg. But Colombo Municipal Council (CMC)

alone responsible for 0.8kg per capita per day (Status of Waste Management in Sri

Lanka, 2017). Changing factors of per capita waste generation are a different category

of people, country‘s population, living standards of residents, and income level

(Grossmann et al, 1974; Medina, 1997). Further waste generation depending on social

and economic factors such as habitat of the person, culture, education, and individual

perspective (Grossmann et al, 1974). Due to the behavior and lifestyles of people, socio-

41
economic factors vary from country to country and also it varies from developed

countries to developing countries (Hockett et al, 1995). Sri Lanka introduced an

indicator to measure the waste generation rate called property assessment tax value

which is a connotation of the standard of living of the citizen or income level and

employed number in each house. There is a positive relationship between property

assessment tax value and generation of paper but no clear increment in glass, plastic,

metal waste generation (Bandara et al, 2007). The composition of MSW in Sri Lanka is

66% biodegradable waste, 13% paper, 8% plastics, 3%metal, 2% glass, and 8% other

waste (Status of Waste Management in Sri Lanka, 2017). MSW has 70-80% extremely

high moisture content and 600-1000kcal/kg low average calorific value (Bandara,

2011).

Sri Lanka has 335 LAs to manage the solid waste within their region. The LAs

are separated into three groups depending on the size and number of citizens for

administrative purposes. There are 23 MCs that are relative to the city, 41 UCs which

are relative to the town, and 271 PS which is relative to the village in Sri Lanka

(Karunarathne, 2015). Around half of the generated solid waste is collected by LAs

which is about 3242 MT per day (Hikkaduwa et al, 2015).

Table 3: Daily collection of solid waste by LAs

District Waste (MT/day) Percentage (%)

Western Province 1783 58.5
Eastern Province 278.5 8.5
Central Province 314.8 8
Southern Province 249.5 7
North Western Province 200.9 3
Northern Province 78.5 3.3
Sabaragamuwa Province 153.5 3.2
Uva Province 110.6 3
North Central Province 82.2 2.5
Source: Central Environmental Authority, 2008

42
 There are more than 800 employees in LAs who are engaged in collection

services with 172 special dumping trucks, 618 four-wheel tractors, 205 two-wheel

tractors, 1152 hand carts, and 83 other equipment (Colombo Municipal Council, 2012).

But still, Sri Lanka manages solid waste very poorly.

The common waste disposal method in Sri Lanka is open dumping (Bandara,

2011). Most of the dumping sites are located in wetlands, riverbanks, saltwater inlets,

and gullies and near to residential, commercial, and institutional establishments

(Nawarathna and Joyce, 2016). Mostly open dumping is low lying degraded land owned

by the government and used for flood control. And also, some areas of Sri Lanka used

private land for waste disposal by paying for landowners (Bandara, 2011). Still, some

urbanized areas such as Colombo, Kandy, Dehiwala-Mount Lavinia used open dumps to

dispose of their waste it occupies more than 95% (Nawarathna and Joyce, 2016). There

are 349 final disposal sites are available in Sri Lanka in 2013 and some LAs are

operated several disposal sites (Data Collection Survey on Solid Waste Management,

2016).

Table 4: Number of final disposal sites owned by LAs

District Number of final disposal sites

Western Province 52
Eastern Province 40
Central Province 47
Southern Province 60
North Western Province 45
Northern Province 16
Sabaragamuwa Province 30
Uva Province 24
North Central Province 35
Source: Central Environmental Authority, 2008

43
3.3 Health and environmental problems

At present in Sri Lanka also increase the waste generation level due to the

expansion of consumption pattern and migration of the people from rural areas to urban

centers (Khan and Samadder, 2014). Solid waste in Sri Lanka is collected and disposed

of as mixed waste. To dispose of this mixed waste normally they used open dumping

like roadside, marshy lands, low lying areas, public places, forest and wildlife areas,

wetlands, etc. Karadiyana, Manampitiya, Bloemendhal, and Gohagoda waste dumping

sites are some examples of such open dumping (Karunarathne, 2015). With the rapid

increment of waste generation, LAs are facing big challenges in collecting and

disposing of those waste because they have limited labor force, equipment, and limited

land available for disposing of purposes. Therefore, inefficient collection and disposal is

the main problem related to solid waste management in developing countries like Sri

Lanka (The World Bank, 2012).

High moisture content in MSW causes excessive leachate problems and

emission of methane gas (72kg/t). This further leads to natural disasters like flooding,

erosion (Gunawardana et al, 2009). As an example, for natural disasters due to improper

waste disposal, in 2017 April 14th Meethotamulla garbage dump that was 50 feet in

height and spread in 21 acres area collapsed, reporting more than 30 deaths and

displacing as many as 1800 people (Petley,2017). Municipal solid waste problems are

not only associated with its excessive volume but also its toxicity because of the

presence of toxic materials like batteries, paints, inks, lamps, and fabrics. A higher

percentage of toxic materials in municipal solid waste was reported in past decades due

to extensively manufacturing, consuming, and disposing of synthetic materials (Geiser,

2002). These toxic materials create numerous problems for humans and the

environment because of the omission of precise separation of waste before disposing of

44
(Basnayake et al, 2007). Excessive leachate leads to ground and surface water

pollution, emission of methane leads to air pollution, and global warming, improper

dumping of waste leads to aesthetic pollution (Karunarathne, 2015). Also, these open

dumpsites provide perfect breeding places for flies and mosquitoes. This point was

proven in 2017 with the spread of dengue fever in Sri Lanka. 80,732 dengue patients

were recorded containing 215 deaths from 1st January to 7th July in 2017 (World Health

Organization, 2017).

By interviewing people who lived near the Meethotamulla garbage dump

site Karunarathne, 2015 found the following problems;

 Unbearable odor

 No clean air for breathing due to air pollution

 Houses are cracked due to the huge weight of disposal waste and

emission of gas from rotting waste

 Crows and other birds coming for seeking foods around garbage

dumps

 No clear water for drinking due to contamination with waste leachate

 In small rain also leads flooding houses which near to the canal

 60% of children in those areas are infected from skin disease,

respiratory problems, and viral disease

 Garbage dump sides are providing pace for breeding of rats, crows,

cockroaches, and many other insects and reptiles

45
3.4 Intermediate treatment

In Sri Lanka composting use as a major intermediate treatment for solid waste

by LAs. In 2010 there were only 71 composting plants in Sri Lanka but in 2016 there

are 120 composting plants are available for managing solid waste and the target waste

management capacity reached 656.75 MT/day (Data Collection Survey on Solid Waste

Management, 2016). Among that 94 plant being in operation, even though construction

finished due to problem with electricity, water, and transportation compost production is

not started in 07 plants, 17 plants construction is ongoing, and 02 plants construction is

stopped due to legal matters (Gallenbidunawewa Pradesiya Sabha and Kalawana

Pradesiya Sabha plants) [Fernando,2011].

Table 5: Number of composting plants in Sri Lanka

District No. of compost plant Target waste (MT/day)

Western Province 17 116.75
Eastern Province 06 22
Central Province 10 30
Southern Province 24 94
North Western Province 21 118
Northern Province 03 11
Sabaragamuwa Province 08 36
Uva Province 07 56
North Central Province 16 58.5
Source: Central Environmental Authority, 2008

Small scale composting plants operated by Weligama UC, Hambantota UC, and

Bulathsinghala PS are the examples of successful passive windrow composting plants

because their administrative areas are small, the amount of waste is low, and separation

and management are easy compared to large scale compost plants (Bandara, 2010). In

the passive windrow method mixed organic waste (organic waste + animal waste/

sewage) is formed into long windrows and fixed perforated pipes to permit the air to

access the windrow by natural transmission (Vermeer Cooperation, 2008). The previous

small scale pilot compost project of Weligama UC was failed in 2005 due to poor

46
management and lack of attention by the UC. After that successfully upgraded with the

Community Conservation Support Fund, additional equipment and infrastructural

facilities, efficient management support, and attractive technical support. They also

practiced co-composting with septage which controlled aerobic deterioration of organic

matter using more than one feedstock (Koné et al, 2007) to reduce the composting time,

increase the nutrient value in MSW compost, and provide a satisfactory and low-cost

solution for the solid waste problem in Weligama. Within the UC collected MSW is

separated into biodegradable and recyclable materials. An easily biodegradable portion

of MSW is used for composting and the rest disposed of in open dumps. There is an

available market for Weligama MSW compost but UC failure to produce the demanded

amount of compost. They proved composting is a cost-effective solution for the MSW

problem because they covered all the operating costs from the sales of compost. This

composting plant has no odor problems due to proper management. This is one of the

good examples of a well-operating successful composting plant in Sri Lanka (Ekaratne

and Mahindapala, 2009).

Composting plants in large LAs such as Horana failed due to public objection

regarding the bad odor and contamination of water bodies (AIT,2004). These problems

are mainly associated with an unmanageable amount of mixed waste that needs to

separate before composting may be affected by the management process (Bandara,

2008).

47
3.5 Negombo Municipal Council (NMC)

3.5.1 Introduction

Negombo municipal council is situated in Gampaha District in Western

Province and bounded to Maha Oya by north, to Diya Honda Ela by south, to Roma Ela

by east, and to the lagoon and the Indian Ocean by the west (NMC,2020).

Figure 1: Map of NMC area

48
 Negombo is a coastal city that is recognized as a major practical economic town

in Western Province concerning the properly organized roads and railways systems

together with the Gampaha District which boosts the social, provincial, and residential

interactions (Karunarathana et al, 2019). Negombo city is located 7km beyond the

Bandaranayaka International Airport, Katunayake free trade zone, and have immediate

road networks to Puttalam, Kurunegala, Gampaha, and Ja-Ela. It is popular for the

tourism industry and fisheries industry (City Profile-NMC,2002). Gampaha is the

second largest district in Sri Lanka with a 2,304,833 population. Most of the people

(1,943,418) in this district are living in rural areas compared to urban areas (360,221). It

is a multi-cultural and multi-ethnic district having a 1,719 persons/km2 population

density. Gampaha district cover 30.8km2 area and its population increasing rate from

2001 to 2012 reported as 1.05% (Department of Census and Statistics, 2012). According

to the census of 2014 mention on the NMC official website, the population of the

Negombo municipality area was 159,392 (NMC,2020). There are three administrative

districts called Negombo, Kochchikade, and Thalahena. The population density of the

Negombo municipality changes extensively. Negombo has 52.42 persons/ha average

population density but at the ward level, it increases up to 190 persons/ha due to fishing

societies and houses of low-income people (Karunarathana et al, 2019).

NMC was established in 1949, now it has 29 council wards and 40 grama

niladhari (GN), divisions. There are 38,991 families lived in the NMC area engaging

with fisheries, tourism, commerce, and education and medical like services as their

main livelihood (NMC,2020). NMC has a separate department for solid waste

management called MSW department which consists of 20 handcarts, 26 four-wheel

tractors, 4 compactor trucks, 1 beach cleaning machine, 3 gully bowsers, 1 skid steer

loader, and 2 bulldozers for waste management activities. Maintenance of municipality

49
area NMC has 20 supervisors, 33 drivers, and 340 laborers among them 197 are

permanent and 143 are temporary laborers (Karunarathana et al, 2019). Waste

management operation of the Thalahena zone is maintained by a private company called

Seven Hills Pvt Ltd and the other two zones are maintained by CMC. The private

company is selected through an open tender process for 2-3 years (NMC,2020).

Figure 2: Ward Map of NMC

Source: Ministry of Internal and Home Affairs and Provincial Councils and Local

Government, 2020

50
3.5.2 Generation and Collection amount of waste in Negombo Municipal

Council

The NMC daily waste generation is nearly 157.68 MT/day from different

categories such as residential, commercial, tourist hotels, institutions, industries, pola

and markets, public places, drainage cleaning, and hazardous (Singh et al, 2019).

Among these categories, residential, commercial, and pola and markets are the largest

waste generators in the NMC area and their generation is about 100.77 MT/day, 17.52

MT/day, and 11.89 MT/day respectively (Karunarathana et al, 2019). More than 80 tons

of solid waste is generated by NMC via 21,030 residential, 761 tourist hotels,

restaurants, and bakeries, 09 pola and markets, 30 industries, 21 government

institutions, 01 government hospitals, and 08 private hospitals, and 1,076 various

enterprises (City Profile-NMC,2002). Per capita waste generation of NMC was 0.9764

kg/day (JICA study, 2003). The average waste generation rate of residential was 0.62

kg/ person/ day, the average waste generation rate of the commercial was 9.65 kg/

enterprise/day, and the average waste generation rate of pola and markets was 6.7 kg/

stall/ day (Karunarathana et al, 2019). Collected MSW of NMC consists of 45.6%

kitchen waste, 24.7% grass and wood, 8.9% paper, 3.5% textile, 4% soft plastic, 0.8%

hard plastic, 0.9% leather and rubber, 0.5% metal, 0.8% glass, 8.4% ceramic and stone,

and 2% others. Disposable waste contains nearly 71% of organic waste apart from paper

that may be utilized for composting (JICA, 2003).

The daily waste collection of NMC is about 70 MT, which nearly 45% of total

waste generation (Singh et al, 2019). NMC Health Department has the authority to

waste management under the municipality area. They carry out collection services

through a primary and secondary collection with the help of a private collection service.

NMC charge collection fees from extensive waste generators who disposed of ≤5kg of

51
waste. NMC used a door-to-door collection service for the collection of waste from

households or merchants. For that, they introduced the bell collection in 2003 and

utilized it efficiently. NMC collects waste under three categories such as degradable

waste, non-degradable waste, and recyclable waste. Under the degradable waste, they

collect only left ower kitchen waste and garden waste. This kind of waste separation

system was introduced in mid of 2017. Degradable waste is collected daily and non-

degradable and recyclable waste is collected on Saturday by NMC. But private

collection companies allocate weekdays and Saturdays for degradable waste collection

Sundays for non-degradable and recyclable waste collection. People storage their waste

in grocery bags or shopping bags or black color 20 to 30 liters of garbage bins

(Karunarathana et al, 2019).

Apart from the door-to-door collection Health Department is responsible for the

collection of waste from the market and fisheries harbor, market and daily fair, and

beach in Negombo. Private companies are responsible for the collection of leftover fish

parts and a large amount of garbage from fisheries harbor and two other fish markets.

About 1-2 tons of collected leftover fish parts are carried for the production of animal

feed over the Negombo municipality area. Five daily fairs consist of the Negombo

municipality area and the generation of waste of all individually about half to two

tractor loads. Daily waste collection and cleaning activities of those fairs are done by

laborers of NMC at night or next day morning. The collection of waste on the beach and

beach park in NMC is about 300-500 kg per day. This amount is varied according to the

visited number of tourists. There are enough 50L of garbage bins that are implanted in

those areas to dispose of plastic covering, paper, plastic bottles, and yard waste (Ibid,

2019).

52
3.5.3 Waste treatment and disposal

3.5.3.1 Divert food waste

Private companies sold 1-2MT of collected food waste for piggery farmers as

animal feed every day.

3.5.3.2 Composting

6-8 MT of collected degradable organic waste is sent to the Kurana composting

plant every day which is operating under the supervision of NMC (Karunarathana et al,

2019). With the financial support of the ―Pilisaru‖ project and Waste Management

Authority- Western Province increased the feed capacity up to 10 MT per day (Singh et

al, 2019). This plant produces 13.0±4.7 MT of compost per month using 10 laborers,

one Bobcat, two sieving machine, and one bag sealer. The finished compost is loaded in

bags. Finally prepared 5kg, 20kg, and 50kg of compost bags to be sold in NMC

compost sales outlets with 50 LKR, 160 LKR, and 400 LKR respectively. There are two

outlets for selling compost of NMC which have all sales records of compost.

NMC sold 12.4±4.1 MT of compost per month for small- scale farmers and

residents. Still, 20-25% of collected organic waste is utilized for composting and the

rest is dumped in the final disposal site. Compost production is difficult in the rainy

season due to excessive leachate and odor problems (Samarasinha et al, 2015). The

decision to expand the capacity in Kurana composting plant is withheld because of

limited space and public opposition due to odor and flies. As a solution for public

opposition problems caused by the windrow compost method, which is mostly used for

compost production in Sri Lanka, composting plants used short-term biodegradables

(garden waste, kitchen waste, and leftover fruits and vegetables) than long-term

53
biodegradables (leftover fish parts and meats) and build up a barrier wall at the border

of the composting plant (Karunarathana et al, 2019; Samarasinha et al, 2015).

Figure 3: Waste piles placed at maturation in Kurana composting plant

Figure 4: Compost bag produced in Kurana composting plant

3.5.3.3 Recycling

Under the recycling, NMC continued segregation of high-quality recyclable

materials like paper, cardboard, polythene, plastic, coconut shells, glass, and metal out

of non-degradable waste for selling and all other non-degradable waste including low-

54
quality recyclable materials like pollute paper, plastic, and polythene load into 0.125 m 3

blocks to transport to INSEE cement factory in Puttalam as leftover volatile waste.

Muhandirampitiya recycling center recovered 2.37±3.9 MT of recyclable

materials per month. Before receiving to recycling center some amount of high-quality

recyclable materials are collected by NMC waste collectors during collection. Every

week 10-20 loads of leftover volatile waste are sent to the cement factory. Weight of

each load range from 30 to 50 kg (Karunarathana et al, 2019).

3.5.3.4 Waste Disposal

NMC disposed of their collected waste in an open dump called Ovitiyawatta.

This area is recognized as a wetland and flooding is a common experience during the

rainy period due to water retention. Residents are living 10m away from both the west

and south sites of the disposal site to avoid health problems from flies, landfill gases,

odor, and polluting groundwater by leachate. This disposal site is owned by a private

party which is about 12ha but about 2.5ha is used for garbage disposal by NMC. Now

the height of the garbage mount is about 10-15 m (City Profile-NMC,2002). The

average disposal amount of waste per day is an account for 68±9MT and the average

monthly disposal is equal to 2,040±280 MT. The disposal amount varies with the

festival season (November-December) which is accounts for 2,400 MT/ month and

from February to April is reported the lowest disposal amount which is accounts for

1,500-1,800 MT/month (Karunarathana et al, 2019).

This disposal site is maintained by the private waste collector of NMC and they

appointed a site supervisor to manage the disposal activities. They provided a crawler

excavator machine for site management and 1-2 laborers for support. A private collector

55
is responsible for cover the waste by soil layer (at least 5inches) every day. However,

poor management may cause leachate and greenhouse gas emission problems. And also

this will result in the deterioration of wetland which plays an important role in

balancing the ecosystem (City Profile-NMC,2002).

3.6 Potential Organic waste management practices for Sri Lanka

3.6.1 Composting

Containing a large portion of degradable waste in developing countries is a good

reason for selecting composting as a proper solid waste management practice

(Vishvanathan and Trankler, 2003). According to the study of Pandyaswargo et al,

(2000) to manage the municipal solid waste in developing countries can be used

composting due to high density and excessive water content, and low calorific value.

Because of this composing acts as an energy-efficient and low environmental

influencing technique in integrated waste management practices in developing

countries.

Asian countries widely used composting as a method of disposal of solid waste

which is considered as the second most adopted method (von Einsiedel, 2001). Organic

waste composting becoming more famous worldwide because it supplies organic

manure for the agriculture field which enhances the soil condition (Cooperband, 2000).

Not only composting can lower the waste quantity finally disposing of in open dumps

but also lower the leachate problems associated with open dumping by removing the

organic portion in waste (Vidanaarachchi et al, 2006). Pilapitiya and Ponnambalam,

1998 have conducted research in Sri Lanka to prove Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)

56
of leachate is drastically reduced from 11,000mg/l to 1,600mg/l in waste by removing

an organic portion in waste and sent for composting.

The feasibility of composting as a solid waste management technique depends

on the percentage of organic waste in collected waste (Pokhrel and Viraraghavan,

2005). Composting can be considered as a suitable alternative for the solid waste

management process because it reduces greenhouse gas emission, the attraction of birds

and pests, air and water pollution, and leachate problems like environmental and public

health issues (Hamer, 2003 cited in Pokhrel and Viraraghavan, 2005).

With regards to the study of Premakumara, 2017 implementing composting or

biogas is the most suitable and practical method for present solid waste problems in Sri

Lanka with a higher percentage of organic waste. Small and medium scale composting

plants were established to solve the waste problem in Sri Lanka by municipal councils,

provincial councils, and the Ministry of provincial and local government. And also, in

2008 introduced Pilisaru project which enhances the solid waste management process

by aiming at composting. Under this project, there are 131 compost plants implemented

but only 113 were still in operation by August 2016 (Central Environmental Authority,

2008). Besides, international agencies (JICA, KOICA, ILO, World Bank, UNEP, etc.)

provided funds for implementing compost plants in Sri Lanka to facilitate a good

example for composting (Sinnathamby et al,2016).

Composting produces a soil conditioner with agricultural benefits. It is not only

an attractive and practicable method for managing municipal solid waste but also

financially viable (Gunaruwan and Gunasekara, 2016). The blending of compost by

chemical fertilizer reduces the chemical fertilizer requirements (eg: 2 units of chemical

57
fertilizer = 1 unit of chemical fertilizer + 4 units of compost). Using this method the

government can save money which spends on fertilizer subsidies (Ibid, 2016).

On the other hand Deportes, 1995 found when applying MSW compost for a

period continuously reduces soil quality due to the overloading of heavy metal and other

toxins. Logan et al, 1999 have discovered the existence of biological toxins in MSW

composts, and Muir and Howard, 2006 found these toxins are extremely chlorinated and

continual in the environment.

―Mahinda Chinthana‖ was the ten-year development plan called vision for a new

Sri Lanka induced by the former president Mr. Mahinda Rajapaksha. This plan aimed to

reduce the importation of chemical fertilizer by up to 15% by 2015. Therefore, the

government in Sri Lanka has established several projects to encourage organic farming

to benefit from the reduction of chemical fertilizer usage. All parts of Sri Lanka have

been conducted training programs for farmers to popularize the use of compost in

agriculture (de LW Samarasinha et al,2015).

Vidanaarachchi et al, 2006 found 13% of households in the Southern province in

Sri Lanka now engage in home composting and 34% are interested in starting home

composting. In urban areas not enough space for home composting is the main obstacle.

Now commercial composting is being practiced in small and medium-scale LAs as

proper waste management techniques. But lack of knowledge and experience appears as

the biggest obstacle.

Compost can reduce soil erosion. Sri Lanka has Carbon (C) deficiency soil and

municipal solid compost can supply Carbon to correct this deficiency because it

contains 20% of organic carbon on average from the total carbon (He et al, 1995). Sri

Lanka Tea Board (SLTB) and Tea Research Institute are utilized compost to maintain

58
high-quality tea production. And also most of the private sector companies use compost

in horticulture, landscaping, rice, and coconut production (Halbach and Thomas, 2005).

3.7 Barriers for MSW Composting in Sri Lanka

MSW compost in Sri Lanka does not contain the required level of nutrients,

therefore, it is necessary to add cow dung and other organic manure to increase the

nutrients levels. Due to the lack of nutrients, MSW compost cannot be used as fertilizer,

and utilization and demand are low (Bandara, 2010). Mixed solid waste resulted in low-

quality compost with high production costs. The final compost contains a higher amount

of moisture than the SLS recommendation (<25% moisture by dry basis) due to

exposure to rain (Aheeyar, 2007). Most of the compost projects in Sri Lanka was failed

due to too high a cost of production than revenue, low production capacity, lack of

government involvement, low level of public participation in waste separation, and

success of compost projects highly dependent on political and managerial commitment

(de LW Samarasinha et al, 2015). Residents who lived near compost plants always

struggle with plant owners because of malodor released during compost production.

Due to that, some compost plants in Welimada, Badulla, and Kegalle failed. Insufficient

skilled labor and lack of advanced technology for waste separation are influenced the

effective composting. The availability of toxic matter, glass particles, and heavy metal

increase the hazardous level in MSW compost, and eventually, it reduces the demand

(Bekchanov, 2017). Large-scale farmers like to use chemical fertilizes than organic

compost because they take a long time to give results and require large quantity which

increases transportation, implementation, and labor cost (Bandara et al, 2015). At the

same time, the government reduces the price of chemical fertilizers through fertilizer

59
subsidies and the market price of compost is higher than its real value. The success of

MSW composting depends on all these factors (Wickramasinghe et al, 2010).

3.8 Summary

Consideration of the Sri Lankan context of managing the increasing solid waste

becomes crucial akin to other developing countries due to uncontrollable waste

generation. Sri Lanka generates 7,000 MT of solid waste daily but only 3242 MT are

collected by LAs because of less working staff than the required level. Collected MSW

consists of a range of 66% - 76%of biodegradable waste with high moisture content.

Open dumping is the most common disposal method in Sri Lanka and creates numerous

environmental and human health-related issues such as water pollution, air pollution,

and respiratory problems. Even though composting is a major intermediate treatment

most of the large-scale composting plants failed due to unmanageable amounts of mixed

waste

The daily waste generation of NMC is 157.68 MT and daily collection is 70 MT

under the category of biodegradable, recyclable, and non – biodegradable waste.

Currently, NMC uses divert of food waste, composting, and recycling to treat their

collected waste. NMC waste separation, collection, and intermediate treatment are at

some acceptable level but still need to be improved to tackle the waste problems. NMC

disposed of their collected waste in the Ovitiyawatta disposal site. Even though they

practiced some protective measures for the management of the disposal site still some

problems arise related to the environment and public health. Most scholars stated that

composting is an efficient solid waste management techniques.

60
 Barriers to composting in Sri Lanka also the same as in other developing

countries. Mixed waste and production costs higher than the revenue from compost are

major problems for the failure of large scale composting plants in Sri Lanka. Due to

quick results and subsidies received from the government farmers tend to utilize

chemical fertilizer.

61
 CHAPTER 4- RESEARCH METHODS

4.1 Research Strategy

This study depends on fieldwork that involved a mixed-method approach with a

survey organized in Negombo city from June to September 2020. The purpose of

collecting empirical data was to investigate the current composting capacity within

MSW, the current situation of MSWM, and expansion capacity to help tackle the SWM

problem in NMC. This research includes both qualitative and quantitative research

approaches. Most of the municipal solid waste management studies were used surveys

to collect empirical data is the main reason for using a survey for this study (Fernando,

2019; Kassim and Ali, 2006; Kaseva and Mbuligwe, 2005; Halla and Majani, 1999).

And also, empirical research allows us to investigates existing aspects deeply and in

their real-life situation (Yin, 2009). This strategy was selected due to a lack of survey

data on farmers‘ perspective of MSW compost and limited literature on MSW

composting as waste management treatment. Convenience sampling was used to select

52 farmers as a sample of this study out of 3000 farmers in the NMC area. The purpose

of selecting convenience sampling is easy accessibility, geological continuity, and

relative enthusiasm for cooperation (Dornyei, 2007).

4.2 Data Collection

The survey was conducted from the 5th of June 2020 to the 2nd of September

2020 with 52 farmers in Daluwakotuwa East and Poruthota areas using hand-delivered

questionnaires. These two areas belong to the primary residential zone and almost all

the residents are engaged in home garden activities using planting materials distributed

62
by Sri Lankan government during the pandemic situation are the main reasons for

choosing to conduct the survey. Due to transboundary restriction rules assigned by the

Sri Lankan government to prevent the spread of COVID-19, the author was unable to

conduct the survey by herself. The suitability of an online survey was not the best

answer to this problem because farmers in Sri Lanka are rarely engaged and unfamiliar

with computers and other social media.

Finally, the survey was conducted with the help of two Agriculture Instructors

(AIs). AIs are government officers in the Department of Agriculture, responsible for

field-level activities such as provide information and advice about pesticide usage,

farming systems, etc (Sivayoganathan et al, 1995).

Figure 5: AIs collect data from farmers through the survey

AIs have all the necessary details of farmers in the NMC area, familiar with

farmers, knowledge of data collection, and authority to visit farmers during the

pandemic situation are the reason to chosen AIs for conduct the survey. Also due to less

availability of literature on MSWM in NMC, consumers‘ perspective, and demand for

MSW composting are the driving factors to collect primary data with the help of AIs

during the pandemic situation. Closed questionnaires were organized under three

categories which are farmers‘ details, fertilizing methods, and compost, and printed in

63
the Sinhala language.AIs were distributed among farmers in their administrative areas

along with a brief explanation about the aim of the survey and collected in the next visit

(after one week). In total, the two officers distributed 60 questionnaire papers, but,

received only 52 responses as 8 farmers refused to participate. After the completed

survey they sent those papers through air-mail. First, the data were entered into an Excel

sheet, and then the latest version of the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences

(SPSS) software V27 was used for analysis.

There are some questions regarding the quality and advantages of compost at the

end of the questionnaire paper (annex 1) to get the idea about their knowledge and

perspective on the compost. The farmers were requested to answer by ―yes‖, ―no‖, or

―N.A‖ before deciding the expansion capacity of the Kurana compost plant. These were

the questions mentioned in the survey:

 “Which compost do you think the highest quality?”;

 “Do you know the application of compost reduces the solid waste

problem in your municipal area?";

 “Could the application of compost reduce the environmental

pollution?”;

 “Do you experience that compost can improve the quality and

quantity of your crop?”;

 “Do you think compost is a safe product?”.

Apart from the survey, telephone interviews were conducted from mid-

September 2020 to mid-October 2020 with the PHI in the waste management section of

the Health Department in NMC, a salesperson in the Kurana compost outlet, and the

head of the compost plant. All telephone interviews were included in a mixture of open

64
and closed questionnaires (annexes 2,3 and 4). The focus of the telephone interview for

a salesperson in the Kurana compost outlet was to know the current composting

capacity within MSW in NMC. Interviews for both PHI in the waste management

section of the Health Department in NMC and head of the compost plant were

conducted to get the idea of current waste separation, quality of feedstock received for

composting plant, the current production capacity of MSW compost, and possible

expanded capacity of the existing composting plant.

4.3 Framework for Data Analysis

Figure 6: Framework

Quality of
feedstock Resident

Government
Sector
Supervisor at
compost plant

Financial Expanded capacity of Non- financial

Support composting in Support
Kurana compost
plant Sales person
in outlet

Research Gap

Perspective on
compost
Farmers

65
 This framework implemented using details of solid waste management

literature. Sri Lankan government allocate inadequate budget for SWM than other

municipal activities and limited resources for SWM because that local government face

difficulties in managing of waste within their administrative boundary (Malwana,

2008). Several large scale MSW composting factories in developing countries failed

due to less application of simple scientific methods for the composting process

(Narayana, 2009). Most of the MSW composting plants failed in the world due to poor

maintaining and understanding of biological conditions, the requirement of high-cost

technologies, high cost of production, poor waste separation practices, and unable to

understand the market condition (Hoornweg et al, 1999).

Most of the compost projects in Sri Lanka failed due to too high a cost of

production than revenue, low production capacity, lack of government involvement, low

level of public participation in waste separation, and success of compost projects highly

dependent on political and managerial commitment (de LW Samarasinha et al, 2015).

The previous small scale pilot compost project of Weligama UC was failed in 2005 due

to inadequate management and lack of attention by the UC. After that successfully

upgraded with the Community Conservation Support Fund, additional equipment and

infrastructural facilities, efficient management support, and attractive technical support

(Koné et al, 2007). The odor problem of composting is mainly associated with an

unmanageable amount of mixed waste that needs to separate before composting may

affect to management process (Bandara, 2008). Large-scale farmers like to use

chemical fertilizes than organic compost because they take a long time to give results

and require large quantity which increases transportation, implementation, and labor

cost (Bandara et al, 2015).

66
 According to the framework, four factors influenced the expansion capacity of

the existing composting plant in the Kurana area authorized by NMC. The first factor is

farmers‘ perspective on compost, i.e. are they aware of advantages, quality, compost

usage, and the contribution of SWM of compost that can help to tackle waste problems.

This factor is measured via a survey conducted for farmers in the NMC area and

telephone interviews with the salesperson in the compost outlet. The second factor is the

quality of feedstock received for composting plant, i.e. current waste separation states in

NMC, contains long therm biodegradable waste, and receives at the time to prevent

odor. This factor is measured via telephone interviews with the PHI in the waste

management section of the Health Department in NMC and the head of the composting

plant in NMC. The third factor is financial support by the government, i.e. supply grants

or loans, and budget allocation for SWM in NMC. The final factor is non-financial

support by the government, supervisor at compost plant, and salesperson in the outlet,

i.e. training programs, use word of mouth to increase the demand for MSW compost,

and introduce new technology for composting. These two factors are measured via

telephone interviews with the PHI in the waste management section of the Health

Department in NMC, the salesperson in the compost outlet, and the head of the

composting plant in NMC.

4.4 Limitations and Potential Problems

Convenience sampling is considered a biased sampling technique, because of the

nonrandom way of choosing participants for the study. This reason hinders the skill of

the researcher to assume the target population (Etikan et al, 2016). The existence of

outliers that cause the reliability of the findings is another problem in this sampling

method (Farrokhi and Mahmoudi-Hamidabad, 2012).

67
 The target population of this study was limited to 52 farmers representing 3,000

farmers in the NMC area due to lack of time and the pandemic situation. But finally, the

results of the sample will be taken to provide a conclusion on the whole population.

Negombo is identified as a fishery village, therefore, the farmer community is very

small and almost all farmers have small-scale cultivations. And also there is no

Agrarian Service Center in Negombo to get information about farmers in the NMC area.

The Negombo area is operated under the supervision of Agrarian Service Centers in

Katana Pradeshiya Sabha. Due to the 2020 coronavirus pandemic, a hand-delivered

questionnaire survey was conducted with the help of agriculture officers in the NMC

area and needed to spend more time finding AIs and their response to cooperate with

this study. Farmers in Sri Lanka not much familiar with the online survey is one of the

reasons to choose agriculture officers for this survey.

Another limitation was the reliability and accuracy of the collected data highly

depended on the ability and knowledge of data collection techniques of AIs. Arranging

time for telephone interviews with Deputy Municipal Engineer in the Solid Waste

Management division in NMC, head of the composting plant, and person in compost

sales outlet in Kurana was also problematic due to time difference in Japan and Sri

Lanka, limited usage of online services, and costly.

4.5 Summary

The research depends on fieldwork that involved a mixed-method approach with

a survey organized in Negombo city, telephone interviews with Deputy Municipal

Engineer in the solid waste department in NMC, a salesperson in Kurana compost

outlet, and head of the compost plant. Closed questionnaires were organized in the
68
Sinhala language under three categories which are farmers‘ profile, fertilizing methods,

and compost for the survey. All telephone interviews were included in a mixture of

open and closed questionnaires.

Referring to the literature, the author found four factors that influenced the

expansion capacity of the existing composting plant in the Kurana area authorized by

NMC. Such as farmers‘ perspective on compost, quality of feedstock received for

composting plant, financial support by government, and technical support by the

government.

The existence of outliers and biases are the main limiting factors for

convenience sampling. The reliability and accuracy of the collected data highly

depended on the ability and knowledge of data collection techniques of AIs. Telephone

interviews are costly and difficult to arrange due to time differences.

69
 CHAPTER 5- RESULTS

5.1 Current Composting Capacity

Demand refers to not only consider the desire of people for good and service but

also their motivate to buy. Demand depends on the price, quality, and ambitiousness of

goods and services (Safiullin et al, 2015). Demand for compost mainly bases on the

utilization of compost by the farmers because it‘s the main factor that determines the

production. Income earn from farming using compost, cultivated land size, and type of

cultivated crop have a positive impact, and sand percentage available in compost and

readiness to pay for 1kg of compost have a negative impact on the usage of compost.

Apart from these factors demand highly depends on the quality of compost and season

of cultivation which is Yala season from February to March and Maha season from

July to August (Rashmika and Edirisinghe, 2016).

Table 6: Farmers’ profile

Percentage
Age
<29 3.85
30-39 19.23
40-49 28.85
50-59 30.77
60-69 13.46
>70 3.85
Level of education
Less than grade 11 38.46
Up to grade 11 30.78
Up to Advanced level 21.15
University Degree 9.62
Master degree 0
Higher education than MSc 0
Farming method
Conventional 23.08
Organic 26.92

70
 Integrated 44.23
N.A 5.77
Other, specify 0
Soil type
Very fine 0
Fine 7.69
Medium 53.85
Medium-fine 13.46
Coarse 7.69
N.A 17.31

30.77% of farmers in NMC are between the age of 50 and 59, while 3.85% of

farmers in both the <29 and >70 age group. Respondents with less than 11 years of

school education (38.46%) are more inclined towards farming in NMC and even a small

number of (9.62%) university graduates are interested in farming. Although their level

of education varies, all are school-educated farmers.

The integrated farming method (44.23%) is more popular among farmers in

NMC than conventional (23.08%) and organic (26.92%) farming methods and few

farmers (5.77%) practice farming without an understanding of the farming methods they

used. 53.85% of the farmers in the areas where the survey was conducted have medium

soil type in their farmland so the most common type is the medium soil type. According

to these results, most of the farmers in NMC have a good understanding of the method

of cultivation and the type of soil in their field and few have no understanding of it.

Figure 7: Type of fertilizer use by farmers

71
 According to the survey conducted in June 2020, most farmers (46.15%) used

both chemical fertilizer and compost for their farming activities, while 42.31% used

compost, and only 11.54% used chemical fertilizer (see figure 7). Normally people get

used to applying animal manure, garden waste, household waste compost, and MSW

compost for their cultivation. Among the responses 36.54% used garden waste, 32.69%

used animal manure, 30.77% used MSW compost, and no one used household waste

compost (see figure 8).

Figure 8: Type of compost used by famers

All the responses in NMC are small-scale farmers which owned less than 2 ha of

land for cultivation. Among the 52 farmers, 16 farmers have 40-59 perch size land for

cultivation, 11 have 20-39 perch and both 5-19 and 60-79 perch are used by 10 farmers

respectively (see figure 9). Most of these farmers (37 farmers) cultivated vegetables,

while 9 farmers cultivated fruits, and 5 farmers cultivated cereals (see figure 10).

According to the Department of Agriculture recommendation, brinjal, cassava, Kiri-ala,

sweet potato, okra, cucurbits, diascoreas, and leafy vegetables are the suitable

vegetables for the Negombo area both in Yala (May to August) and Maha (September

to March) seasons. Local vegetables can be cultivated from March to next year in

72
February but recommended fruits are seasonal such as banana, rambutan, pineapple,

cashew, and passion fruit. Therefore, farmers tend to cultivate more vegetables than

fruits.

Figure 9: Cultivated land size in perch

Figure 10: Type of crop cultivated by farmers

73
 Corresponding to the results of the survey, among the farmers who used

compost for their cultivation most of the famers (26.92% ) need an amount of 100-200

kg, while 23.08% need 90-100 kg, and 17.31% need more than 200 kg of compost per

perch per year (see figure 11).

Figure 11: Fertilizer usage by farmers

The age and education level of the user has a significant impact on the buying

ability of compost but it differs among areas, cultivated crop type, and availability of

other fertilizer types (Danso et al, 2006). According to this study, there is no correlation

between age (p=0.67) and education level (p=0.155) with the usage of compost.

Farmers who applied chemical fertilizer spend more money on fertilizer

annually compared to farmers who applied compost. 71% of farmers in NMC spend less

than LKR 1000 per perch annually for compost but most of the farmers using chemical

fertilizer (33%) spend LKR 3000-4000 per pech annually (see figure 12). 90% of the

respondents said the application of compost saves on the cost of chemical fertilizers.

74
Figure 12: Annual expenditure for fertilizer per perch

Annual expenditure for Annual expenditure for

compost chemical fertilizer
2%
0% 0% <1000 15% 0% <1000
12%
1000-2000 19% 1000-2000
15%
2000-3000 20% 2000-3000
71% 33%
3000-4000 3000-4000
4000-5000 13% 4000-5000

According to the telephone interview conducted with the salesperson in the

compost outlet in July 2020, the monthly average compost sale is 24±4.1 MT and the

average revenue is LKR 192,000/ month. Normally they sell 60 bags in 20kg and 25 to

30 bags in 5kg per day. This sales amount changes during the rainy season. One

kilogram of sieved compost is sold at LKR 8 and the unsieved one is LKR 6. Customers

prefer to buy 5kg and 20kg packaged compost bags priced at LKR 50 and LKR 160

respectively. 15 regular customers come to buy compost every two to three weeks and

some order about 50 bags in 20kg. There was no experienced excess of fertilizer but

experienced a shortage in past years and recently we experienced a shortage of compost

because of new home gardeners. The government of Sri Lanka provided planting

materials for the people to encourage them to produce their food during the pandemic

situation. People need to use compost for their home gardens to assure food safety.

75
5.2 Farmers’ Perception

Readiness to pay for compost highly depends on farmers‘ perception, because

farmers who have a better understanding of the advantages of compost willing to use

more (Danso et al, 2006). Among the seven soil improvers (Compost, chemical

fertilizer, crop rotation, green manure, cover crop, crop residues, and on-farm manure)

19 farmers used compost as a soil improver (see figure 13).

Figure 13: Type of soil improver used by farmers

Though they used different types of compost they believed MSW compost has

higher quality compared to garden waste and animal manure. According to figure 14,

most farmers (86.54%) selected MSW compost as higher quality compost, while only

7.69% selected animal manure, and 5.77% selected garden waste.

Figure 14: Type of quality compost selected by farmers

76
 This study revealed that farmers in NMC used compost with a better

understanding of its benefits on the environment and crops. 52.38% of farmers used

compost concerning its environmental friendliness (see figure 15) and most of the

farmers (88.46%) have a higher perception of its safeness, ability to reduce

environmental pollution, improve the quality and quantity of the crop (see figure 16, 17

and 18), and 86% of farmers already know the application of MSW compost can reduce

the solid waste problem in their municipal area (see figure 19).

Figure 15: Reasons to use compost by famers

Figure 16: Farmers’ perception of compost as a safe product

77
Figure 17:Farmers’ perception of compost can reduce environmental pollution

Figure 18: Farmers’ perception of compost improves the quality and quantity of the
crop

Figure 19: Farmers’ perception of MSW compost can reduce the solid waste problem
in their municipal area

50
45
86%
40
35
No of responded

30
25
20
15
10
6% 78 8%
5
0
Yes No NA
 After acknowledging famers through asking questions on the quality and

benefits of compost 96.15% of farmers willing to help to tackle the MSW problem in

NMC by buying MSW compost. Figure 20 shows the variation of annual compost

requirement of farmers before and after arising their perception about compost.

Figure 20: Annual compost requirement (kg/perch/yr) after arising their perception
about compost

According to figure 20, more than 200kg annual fertilizer requirement was

increased 8%, and 54 percent of the total annual compost requirement represents both

100-200kg and more than 200kg requirements after arising their perception. Therefore,

perception has a positive impact on fertilizer requirements.

5.3 Composting Plant

5.3.1 Quality of feedstock

Condition of waste separation at source level and waste collection decides the

quality of MSW. The absence of proper separation of chemical contaminants in MSW

resulted in poor quality compost and a higher number of rejections (Richard, 1992).

Aheeyar, 2007 acknowledges mixed solid waste resulted in low-quality compost with

79
high production costs (Aheeyar, 2007). Delay collection produces some odorous

compounds in MSW due to poor aeration, and high moisture content (Kissel, 1992).

High moisture content in organic matter of MSW creates excessive leachate and

methane gas emission due to the inability to collect MSW on designated days.

(Bekchanov, 2017).

According to the telephone interview conducted with the head of the compost

plant in September 2020, organic waste is collected twice a day by NMC waste

collectors. Only kitchen waste, garden waste, leftover fruits, and vegetables from the

market and pola are transported daily by compactor and four-wheel tractors to the

Kurana composting plant. Even though received organic waste is in the separated form

re-separation is done manually at Kurana composting plant before using those

feedstocks for composting. Re-separation is done to remove non-compostable waste like

plastic straws, polythene bags, plastic-coated milk cartons, cigarette butts, etc available

in small quantities. Feedstocks are received in lower moisture content (40-45%) than the

optimum level (55%) required for composting and hence leachate is low. At present

stop usage of long terms biodegradable feedstock like leftover fish and meat parts due

to odor problems therefore composting process takes three and a half months to produce

compost.

5.3.2 Productivity

According to the interviews conducted with the head of the compost plant and

PHI in the waste management section of the Health Department in NMC in September

2020, out of the 25MT of organic waste collected, 2MT are transported daily to Kurana

composting plant for compost production and rest is dumped at Ovitiyawatta final

80
disposal site. Fifteen laborers are worked at the composting plant and they have done all

the activities related to compost production such as waste separation, making compost

piles, and turned compost piles to boost the oxygen content. Kurana composting plant

produced 2.5- 3MT of compost daily using manpower. They used machinery only for

sieving the compost (two hullers), sealing the compost bag (bag sealer), and loading

compost (Bobcat). Municipal organic waste is composed through the open windrow

method therefore daily production is changed during the rainy season. Average compost

production is 40±4.7MT per month. Normally they produced 120 bags of 20kg and 50-

60 bags of 5kg for the NMC outlet and fertilizer shop near to compost plant. Sixty bags

of 20kg and 25-30 bags of 5kg are supplied daily to both outlets.

5.4 Capacity Expansion

5.4.1 Possibility of capacity expansion on the Kurana composting plant side

According to the interview by the head of the compost plant, they can expand

the production capacity with existing laborers (15) and if they required more after the

expansion it will be easy to recruit more laborers with expert knowledge about the

windrow composting process. Composting plants able to intake more organic waste to

expand the production capacity with existing space, resources, and machinery.

Currently, the compost plant stopped to give extra working hours for laborers because

they can cover all the activities within eight working hours. If NMC received more

organic waste, the compost plant can expand the production by giving this opportunity

again for laborers. This extra cost that needs for salaries and electricity will be covered

by LAs.

81
5.4.2 Possibility of capacity expansion on the Government side

According to the interview by the PHI in the waste management section of the

Health Department in NMC, the government was financed for SWM through the annual

budget of NMC. The NMC allocated 33.56% of the total budget for promoting health

services including SWM in the 2019 budget. From that 53% was allocated for solid

waste collection. And also the government supplied vehicles for waste collection and

necessary machinery for the composting plant to improve the existing SWM. Pilisaru

project and Western Province Waste Management Authority were financially supported

for expanding the Kurana composting plant. After that daily intake capacity increased

up to 10MT.

NMC conducted awareness programs for residents about waste separation and

source reduction to promote and improve the waste separation at the source level.

Annually conducted four training programs on compost production especially for school

children, university students, and residents to acknowledge about benefits of MSW

compost and encourage to usage of MSW compost. NMC was direct employees to local

and foreign training to impart new technical knowledge on compost production. And

also advertising programs and promotional campaigns are conducted to encourage the

use of MSW compost. The previous president Mr. Mahinda Rajapaksha has introduced

a new development policy called ― Mahinda Cinthana‖ to reduce the import of chemical

fertilizer by 15% in 2015 through promoting organic farming. For that previous

government provided essential equipment for LAs where produced compost using

MSW.

82
5.4.3 Possibility of capacity expansion on the sales outlet side

Customers have a good attitude on MSW compost such as they experienced

these compost are good for fruits, vegetables, and floriculture, good in quality, and

reasonable price. As a result, some customers come to buy MSW compost on prior

customer recommendations. This is the only MSW composting plant in the Negombo

municipality area. Some customers purchase compost in large quantities for sale at their

fertilizer shops. Therefore, it is easy to find new customers through existing customers

and it is possible to introduce these compost to near Agrarian Service Centers,

Pradeshiya Sabha, fertilizer shops, and floriculture farms where farmers frequently visit.

5.5 Summary

All the responses in NMC are small-scale farmers, among that sixteen have 40-

59 perch size land for cultivation. Most of them are (37 farmers) vegetable farmers.

Most farmers (46.15%) used both chemical fertilizer and compost, while 42.31% used

compost for farming activities. Normally people get used to applying animal manure

(32.69%), garden waste (36.54%), and MSW compost (30.77%) for cultivation.

Farmers in NMC have a higher perception of compost because they used

compost with a better understanding of its benefits on the environment and crops. Most

of them believed MSW compost has higher quality and farmers already know the

application of MSW compost can reduce the solid waste problem in their municipal

area. Perception has a positive impact on fertilizer requirements because after arising

their perception more than 200kg annual fertilizer requirement was increased from 17%

to 25%, and 54 percent of the total annual compost requirement represents both 100-

200kg and more than 200kg requirements.

83
 2MT of kitchen waste, garden waste, leftover fruits, and vegetables from the

market and pola is transported daily for Kurana composting plant. 2.5-3 MT of compost

are produced daily using an open windrow process with the help of 15 laborers.

Normally the compost outlet sells 60 bags in 20kg and 25 to 30 bags in 5kg per day.

They have 15 regular customers and it is easy to find new customers through existing

customers and introducing MSW compost to near Agrarian Service Centers, Pradeshiya

Sabha, fertilizer shops, and floriculture farms.

NMC allocated sufficient budget, supplied vehicles for waste collection, and

necessary machinery for the composting. And also, conducted community awareness

programs on waste separation, source reduction, and MSW composting. NMC provided

local and foreign training and conducted advertising programs and promotional

campaigns to encourage the use of MSW compost.

84
 CHAPTER 6- DISCUSSION

6.1 Discussion

There is a higher demand for compost among farmers in NMC, results of our

study exhibit 46.15% used both chemical fertilizer and compost, while 42.31% used

compost for farming activities. According to Rashmika and Edirisinghe (2016), the

main reason for the higher demand for compost was the price because the demand for

compost is less when the price goes up. Below are some additional factors that may

affect compost demand such as excessive usage of chemical fertilizers pollutes the

groundwater by leaking some of these fertilizers into the water bodies resulting in

numerous temporary and comprehensive environmental and public health-related

problems for both present and future generations (Samarasinha et al, 2015). Therefore,

people are more inclined to use compost because not only it is an eco-friendly farming

method but also, it secures the safety of human life. According to the study of

Hamarashid et al (2010), compost can enhance the soil structure and texture through

improving carbon storage and playing a major role in nutrient holding and availability.

36.54% of farmers in NMC used garden waste, 32.69% used animal manure,

and 30.77% used MSW compost as organic fertilizer for their farming activities. The

percentage of MSW compost used by farmers in NMC is slightly less than the

percentage of other organic fertilizers. Because composting plants in Western Province

used only one percent of collected organic waste for composting, therefore, it is difficult

to find MSW compost in the market (Samarasinha et al, 2015). And also only Kurana

composting plant is available in the NMC for producing MSW compost. Kurana

composting plant produces 2.5MT to 3MT of MSW compost per day to supply 60 bags

in 20kg and 25 to 30 bags in 5kg for both the compost outlet and fertilizer shop near to

85
composting plant. Some days the amount of fertilizer received from the composting

plant is not enough to meet the compost requirement of all the customers who come.

But these results of our study show that there is a high demand for MSW compost in the

NMC. Because MSW compost can increase the yield through providing essential

nutrients to plant growth by increasing soil organic matter content, soil biological

activity, and storing nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorous as main nutrients in long

term (Qazi et al, 2009; Bekchanov and Mirzabaev, 2018).

Annual compost requirement for farmers in NMC for perch per year = Average

land use × Average compost usage per perch per year× No. of compost use farmers

= 47.69 × 115.38 × 46

= 253.11 MT

Out of 46 farmers that use compost, only 16 used MSW compost for their

farming activities, therefore, there is a demand of 164.58 MT of MSW compost per year

for supply at Kurana compost plant.

Annual supply of MSW compost to farmers at Kurana compost plant = Average

land use × Average compost usage per perch per year× No. of MSW compost use

farmers

= 47.69 × 115.38 × 16

= 88.04 MT

86
 Annual supply of MSW compost at Kurana compost plant = Average daily

supply × No. of working days per year

= 2.4 MT × 240

= 576 MT

Currently, the Kurana compost plant produces about 600 MT of MSW compost

per annum and fulfills the demand of about 576 MT in the NMC with the help of two

compost outlets. Although the current production capacity is not able to meet the

demand of 165.07 MT (253.11- 88.04 MT) of MSW compost for the farmers in NMC,

this plant has the potential to meet that demand by doubling the production capacity

using the existing facilities. According to literature (Hoornweg et al, 1999), the reason

for the failure of most composting plants is the inability to understand the market

situation properly, but the sales data of this study confirms that the Kurana composting

plant is engaged in producing MSW compost with a good understanding of the market.

They have also been able to succeed in the market by finding a local market, creating

demand for their MSW compost through the word of mouth, and on plant demonstration

programs.

After increasing production capacity, website, social media, traditional

advertising, and print materials like advanced marketing tools will have to be used in

addition to the existing marketing strategies to increase the sales by promoting the use

of MSW compost. Consumer interest in purchasing this product can be enhanced by the

use of n attractive label that contains essential details such as nutrients, quantities used,

crops suitable for use, price, quality certificate obtained, and eco-friendliness. Not only

the above information but also the advertisement on television which emphasizes that

the use of MSW compost can help to tackle the solid waste problem can arouse the

87
curiosity of customers in buying this product. Traditional advertising can create a huge

demand in the market because people of all levels of education watch television at least

once a day. But using the website and social media can create demand only among

educated people who can use a computer and smartphones. Create a website for the

Kurana compost plant by incorporating information and pictures of produced MSW

compost and free advertising on Facebook, Twitter, and Youtube to can persuade export

agriculture companies and large-scale farm owners to purchase this product.

And also, by increasing the number of outlets with these advanced marketing

tools, the Kurana compost plant will be able to meet the market demand. Demand can

be increased by increasing market availability by introducing MSW compost to

fertilizer shops, hardware, planting material selling farms, pesticide vendors where

farmers frequent. The introduction of this compost to supermarkets and groceries will

also cater to the demand of not only farmers but also home gardeners who are interested

in organic farming.

Price, the season of cultivation, cultivated crop type, quality of MSW compost,

and famers‘ perception of MSW compost have a significant impact on current

composting demand. Urea, muriate of potash, and triple superphosphate are commonly

used as chemical fertilizers, and the price of a 50 kg bag of all three types is LKR 2,500

each (Ceylon Fertilizer Company, 2020). But 50kg of sieved MSW compost bag cost

LKR 450 and it is very cheap compared to chemical fertilizers. 71% of farmers in NMC

spend less than LKR 1000 per perch annually for compost but most of the farmers using

chemical fertilizer (33%) spend LKR 3000-4000 per pech annually. Therefore, farmers

tend to use MSW compost instead of chemical fertilizers to save money.

88
 Among the cereals, vegetables, and fruits, vegetables are the most widely used

(37 farmers) for cultivation by farmers in NMC. The reason for this depends on the

season of cultivation because recommended vegetables (brinjal, cassava, Kiri-ala, sweet

potato, okra, cucurbits, diascoreas, and leafy vegetables) can be cultivated in both Yala

and Maha seasons but recommended fruits are seasonal such as banana, rambutan,

pineapple, cashew, and passion fruit. Therefore, farmers tend to cultivate more

vegetables than fruits because they can earn an income from both seasons. Normally

vegetables can be harvested within two and a half months to three months of planting,

so the Department of Agriculture recommends fertilizing all types of vegetables with

Basel dressing before planting and the first top dressing in four weeks after planting and

the second top dressing in eight weeks after planting. As mentioned in the cropping

calendar vegetable farmers require MSW compost before the start of the Yala season to

the end of the maha season (see table 6).

Table 7: Cropping Calendar for NMC

Ja Fe M Ap Ma Ju Ju Au Se O No De Ja Fe M Ap
n b ar r y n l g p ct v c n b ar r
Cassava
Sweet
potato
Local
vegetab
les
Innala

Source: Department of Agriculture (2020)

Sales data obtaining from an interview with the compost outlet, MSW compost

sales in February, March, August, and September were higher than in other months

because farmers are getting ready to start their cultivation with the onset of both

seasons. This argument is the same as the argument made by Wijewardane (2005) about

the vegetables can grow in all seasons, most farmers tend to cultivate vegetable because

89
it gives higher income than other crops, vegetable farmers use both chemical fertilizers

and organic fertilizer in large quantities, and they used these fertilizers two to three

times more than the recommendations of the Department of Agriculture.

The results of the Karunarathana et al, 2019 study are similar to the results of

this study, as the average amount of MSW compost produced per month at the Kurana

composting plant is approximately the same as the average amount of MSW compost

sold per month at the NMC outlet. Also, a survey conducted with farmers confirms that

there is a high demand for compost in NMC. Forty-six out of 52 farmers who

participated in the survey used compost, but only 16 farmers used MSW compost. This

is because the Kurana compost plant unable to meet the market demand, which is

evident from the fact that the compost received from this plant on certain days is not

sufficient to meet the demand of all the customers who come to purchase compost, the

salesperson in NMC outlet said in an interview. The reason for this is that, as

Samarasinha et al, 2015 said, a small percentage (8-10%) of the collected organic waste

is used for compost production.

The quality of the MSW compost mainly depends on the quality of the feedstock

used in the production. The MSW compost produced using separated waste shows a

remarkable increment in total nitrogen content, total phosphorous content, and total

organic matter content, and heavy metal content remarkably decreased (Saha et al,

2010). Non-compostable materials in feedstocks should be removed before composting

to assure the persistent quality of produced compost. Moisture content in the feedstock

also important because feedstock with high moisture produced extra leachate than

normal process and resulted in immature compost. This resulted in compost contains

low micro-nutrients and high heavy metal content. pH value, electrical conductivity,

moisture content, organic carbon, total nitrogen content, total potassium content, total

90
phosphorous content, carbon: nitrogen ratio, micro-nutrient content, heavy metal

content in MSW compost are other important parameters that need to determine the

quality of compost (Samarasinha et al, 2015). Sufficient evidence could not be gathered

through this study to reach a definite conclusion about the quality of MSW compost

produced in the Kurana composting plant because the composting plant does not

measure these quality parameters and due to the pandemic situation collecting data via

observing the composting process had to be canceled. Therefore it was not possible to

collect compost samples to calculate these quality parameters via lab experiments.

However, according to the studies of Saha et al (2010) and Samarasinha et al (2015), it

can be argued that the MSW compost produced in Kurana composting plant is of good

quality because non-compostable materials are removed manually in received separated

waste before using the composting process and the moisture content in received raw

materials is within the favorable range for composting. Although customers are not

aware of these quality parameters 86.54% of farmers believe that the quality of MSW

compost is high through the experience. The same customer comes repeatedly to the

compost outlet buy MSW compost, relying on the quality, so several customers come

regularly to the outlet, and several new customers come on the recommendation of

previous customers. The word-of-mouth factor can be used to further increase the

demand for MSW compost in the NMC by introducing a fertilizer subsidy concerning

the number of new customers being brought to the outlet per month.

As mentioned by Karunarathna et al 2019, most of the organic waste collected

by NMC goes to Ovitiyawatta's final disposal site and only a small amount is used for

composting. The literature states that most of the compost plants have failed due to poor

waste separation practices, disorganized waste collection, and use of mixed waste as

feedstock (Hoornweg et al, 1999; Nayana, 2009; Aheeyar, 2007). But the situation in

91
NMC is different because most of the city dwellers practicing waste separation properly

and the NMC collects waste regularly twice a day. Therefore, the feedstock is received

not only in the separated form but also with the moisture content suitable for

composting. Based on these results, it can be assumed that once the production capacity

of the Kurana compost plant is increased, sufficient quality feedstock will be available

for production.

Farmers in NMC willing to use MSW compost instead of other fertilizers and

the farmers who are currently using MSW compost are willing to increase their annual

fertilizer requirement to help to tackle the solid waste problem in their municipality.

Therefore more than 200kg annual fertilizer requirement was increased from 17% to

25%, and 54 percent of the total annual compost requirement represents both 100-200kg

and more than 200kg requirements. The percentage of willingness to use MSW compost

increased mainly depends on the before answering the perception questions about

compost, respondents were acknowledged about the benefits of compost on the

environment and crops. Rashmika and Edirisinghe (2016) found that demand for

compost is declining due to the negative perception of farmers about compost by

conducted a case study in Kurunegala, Sri Lanka And also, Danso et al (2006) found

that farmers who have a sense of the risks and advantages of compost tend to use

compost than other farmers. Based on these findings, it can be argued that the demand

for MSW compost in NMC has a significant impact on the farmers‘ perspective about

compost.

Bandara et al, 2015 stated that there is a negative perception of organic compost

on large-scale farmers due to not only take a long time to give results and require a large

quantity but also increases transportation, implementation, and labor cost. According to

this study, although all the farmers in NMC are small-scale farmers, the main focus in

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compost use is the safety of the environment and they get, not the time it takes to give

results. After asking perception questions about compost, their positive perception of

compost increased further, and farmers willing to use compost instead of chemical

fertilizers. Also, 50 farmers out of 52 willing to purchase their compost requirement at

the NMC outlet.

Although the Pilisaru project has increased the organic waste receiving capacity

up to 10MT per day, the Kurana composting plant currently uses only 2MT per day for

compost production. Even though they have all the resources such as laborers, space,

and machinery required to produce compost using 10MT of feedstock per day, at the

present composting plant functions under capacity. Adequate provision of funds and

vehicles for waste management to the NMC by the government. Directs not only

community awareness programs on waste separation, source reduction, and MSW

composting to tackle the solid waste problem through increasing the usage of MSW

compost but also local and foreign training to impart the new knowledge on waste

management and composting to the employees.

Karunarathna et al, 2019 found that although the capacity of the Kurana compost

plant was expanded to receive 10MT of waste per day through the Pilisaru project, the

actual capacity currently used for waste is 6-8MT per day. They further found that the

people living around the compost plant were opposed to increasing the production

capacity due to odor and flies problems arouse from the waste. But the results of this

study reveal that the actual capacity of the Kurana compost plant is to use 2MT of waste

per day. Further, stop the use of leftover meat and fish successfully solve the opposition

problems of residents living around the plant.

According to a study by de LW Samarasinha et al,2015, too high a cost of

production than revenue, low production capacity, lack of government involvement, low

93
level of public participation in waste separation, and success of compost projects highly

dependent on political and managerial commitment have become a major problem for

MSW compost plants in Sri Lanka. Considering the Kurana compost plant, it has a sales

volume of approximately equal to the quantity of produced compost that runs at a lower

capacity than the actual capacity. The head of the plant said even though the monthly

average revenue from compost is LKR 300,000-320,000, it is a bit difficult to cover all

the expenses of the factory. The government provides adequate financial and non-

financial assistance to the Kurana compost plant. If they want to expand their plant it

will be supported by the LA.

According to the results of this study and findings of Singh, 2019, although the

residents of the NMC followed the waste separation, it still seems that they need to be

made more aware of the waste separation as household waste collected still contains

some recoverable items in small quantities. Although most of the waste collected by the

NMC as well as most of the organic waste comes from household waste, mainly this

reason a small amount is used for composting and most of it is dumped in the

Ovitiyawatta final disposal site Also, if the house. Kitchen waste from restaurants,

garden waste, and leftover fruits and vegetables from pola and markets are increasingly

used to meet the daily feedstock requirement for composting as manual reseparation

using household waste as feedstock is costly and time-consuming. Of the 20-25MT of

organic waste collected, only 2MT per day is used for composting, so the Kurana plant

operates under the capacity and the main reason for this is the low contribution made by

the city dwellers.

The Mayor is elected every five years according to the political party that wins

the election in the country. No matter which party comes to power, not only the Mayor

but also other officials have been generous in their support and commitment to the

94
maintenance of the Kurana compost plant. That is why the production capacity of the

plant was expanded through the Pilisaru project and the composting plant continues to

operate successfully up to now.

According to Samarasinha et al (2015) in 2011, the government of Sri Lanka

spent US $ 243 million on the importation of chemical fertilizers. Therefore, the

government decided to reduce the cost of importing chemical fertilizer by 15% in 2015

through the Mahinda Chinthana policy. Further, they stated, in the hope of encouraging

solid waste management, the Central Environmental Authority was not only provided

financial support but also provided technical guidance through members of the technical

committee with specialized knowledge for compost production to local authorities via

the pilisaru project. Bekchanov and Mirzabaev (2018) found that the promotion of

MSW composting in Sri Lanka could reduce the cost of waste management and usage

of chemical fertilizers by US $ 191 million and directing the sales of these compost

across the provinces could reduce the cost of waste management and usage of chemical

fertilizers by the US $ 357 million.

6.2 Summary

There is a higher demand for compost among farmers in NMC compared to

other MCs in Sri Lanka. Some farmers are accustomed to using both compost and

chemical fertilizers for cultivation and some farmers compost only. Although 30.77% of

farmers use MSW compost, according to the sales data of the outlet, there is a high

demand for MSW compost in the NMC. Price, the season of cultivation, cultivated crop

type, quality of MSW compost, and famers‘ perception of MSW compost have a

95
significant impact on current composting demand. A 50kg MSW compost bag

purchased at LKR 400 can provide nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium if chemical

fertilizers are used, it will cost LKR 7,500. Therefore the use of MSW compost is very

cheap compared to chemical fertilizers. According to this study, vegetable farmers used

more compost in both Yala and Maha seasons. Organic waste used as feedstock for

MSW composting in Kurana compost plant can be considered as high quality as it

receiving low moisture content which is favorable for composting and separated form.

Although it is not possible findings of previous researches it can be said that the

compost produced at the Kurana compost plant is of high quality as they are made using

quality feedstock. The percentage of willingness to use MSW compost increased mainly

depends on the farmers‘ perception about compost, respondents have acknowledged the

benefits of compost on the environment and crops.

Even though all the facilities required for composting using 10MT of organic

waste per day are available, at present the composting plant is functioning under the

capacity of using 2MT of organic waste per day. The government provides adequate

financial and non-financial assistance to the NMC for waste management. The NMC is

conducting training programs and promotional campaigns to increase the use of MSW

compost among the people with the view of utilizing MWS composting as an effective

waste management practice.

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CHAPTER 7- CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

There is a high demand for compost, including MSW compost, among farmers

in NMC but compared to the percentage of other types of compost usage, the MSW

compost does not show such a high percentage of usage either. This is because the only

factory available for the production of MSW compost in the NMC is Kurana

composting plant, so supply cannot meet the demand. No farmer uses homemade

compost everyone is accustomed to buying high-quality compost from the market in the

required quantities when they need it. Therefore, there is a high demand for 5kg and

20kg MSW compost bags in the NMC.

In an interview with the salesperson in the outlet, he said consumers often come

to buy MSW compost in the belief that quality compost is available at a reasonable

price. Therefore, price and quality have an impact on MSW compost in NMC.

Vegetable farmers have a significant impact on compost demand compared to farmers

who cultivate other crops. In addition to the crop being grown, the season in which the

crop can be grown also has an impact on the compost demand, so according to this

study, both the Yala and Maha seasons have a significant impact on compost demand in

NMC. Farmers continue to use the same type of fertilizer because they have a higher

perception of the benefits of the fertilizer to the plant and the safety of its application to

humans. NMC farmers use compost with a higher perception of the benefits to plants as

well as the environment, which has an impact on compost demand.

The findings of previous research can be used to conclude that the Kurana

composting plant is used as a quality feedstock for MSW compost production and to

further confirm the quality of the feedstock, the manual reseparation step of the received

separated organic waste before compost production can be mentioned. Despite the extra

97
time and effort, the NMC essentially takes manual reseparation because the quality of

the compost produced mainly depends on the quality of the feedstock used. Because

residents do not separate waste properly, the composting plant improves the quality of

the feedstock through manual reseparation by removing the non-compostable waste of

the received waste. But this study could not be used to conclude the quality of the MSW

compost produced by the Kurana composting plant, as it was not possible to measure

the quality parameters due to the prevailing situation and unavailability of secondary

data. Therefore, to accurately conclude the quality of these MSW compost as well as the

quality of feedstock used, it is necessary to research in the future.

NMC can tackle the existing SWM problem by expanding the future composting

capacity in Kurana composting plant. Because the Kurana compost plant is a

government institute and is operated by the LA, it receives adequate financial and non-

financial support from the government for waste management, compost plant can

increase the daily production capacity using available resources, and the outlet has the

potential to sell more compost as there is a high demand for MSW compost. Although

MSW composting can be used as a successful waste management method, increasing

the daily production capacity of the Kurana composting plant alone could not tackle the

existing waste problem. This is due to the increase in the current waste receiving

capacity of 2MT/day to 10MT/day of the maximum capacity of the plant, half of the

collected organic waste is unavoidable from going to open dumps which are commonly

used as final disposal in Sri Lanka. In the future, the expansion of MSW production can

be used to tackle the existing SWM problem, and thereby the amount allocated by the

government for the importation of chemical fertilizers through the annual budget is

reduced.

98
 If all the organic waste collected in the NMC is to be used for MSW production,

the government should provide all the necessary facilities to the Pradeshiya Sabhas to

use the organic waste they collected for the production of MSW compost in their

Pradeshiya Sabhas. These produced MSW compost should be made available to the

customers through the introduction to agrarian service centers, fertilizer shops, and

farms in the NMC. Kurana composting plants should pay more attention to the quality

of the MSW compost produced. Monitoring compost quality and obtaining quality

certificate enhances the ability to compete with other compost brands available in the

market. Currently, only SLS 1246:2003 quality certificate issued by Sri Lanka

Standards Institution for MSW compost is available in Sri Lanka. But no composting

plant operated by the MCs in Sri Lanka has not applied for this quality certificate by

assessing the chemical, physical, and biological parameters of the produced compost. In

connection with the private agricultural farm in the NMC for future compost programs,

can be used to tackle the existing SWM problem by filling their fertilizer requirement

through the manufactured MSW compost. Awareness programs on waste separation

should be conducted in schools targeting new generations. The results of this study can

be used as a model for waste management in other districts in Sri Lanka.

99
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 ANNEXES

Annex 1 – Questionnaire paper used in the survey

Farmer’s details
1. Area/ village:

2. Age:

1. <29 2. 30-39 3. 40-49 4. 50-59

5. 60-69 6. >70

3. Level of education

1. Less than grade 11 2.up to grade 11 3. Up to Advanced level

4. University Degree 5. Master degree 6. Higher education than

MSc

4. Cultivated land size in perch

1. <5 2. 5-19 3. 20-39 4. 40-59

5. 60-79 6. 80-100 7. 100-120 8. >120

5. Select ONE crop that they grow most?

1. Cereals 2. Fruits 3. Vegetables 4.

Other

6. What is your farming method?

1. Conventional 2. Organic 3. Integrated 4. N.A

5. Other, specify
7. The soil type of your area

1. Very fine 2. Fine 3. Medium 4.

Medium-fine

5. Coarse 6. N.A

Fertilizing method

8. Do you monitor your soil fertility?

1. Yes 2. No

9. If yes, how do you monitor?

1. Soil analysis 2. Observation of soil 3. Observation of crop health

3. Crop quality testing 4. N.A

10. Do you use any soil improver?

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 1. Yes 2. No

11. If yes, mention the type of soil improver

1. Compost 2. Chemical fertilizer 3. Crop

rotation
4. Green manure 5. Cover crops 6. Crop residues

7. On-farm manure 8. N.A

12. What is the importance of nutrient supply?

1. Nutrient content 2. Microelement content 3. Easiness of

handling

4. Price 5. Amount 6. Environmental safety

7. Food safety 8. Effectiveness

13. Which reasons motivate you to use innovative fertilizer techniques

1. Higher yield 2. Better plant quality

3. Environmental friendliness 4. Easiness of handling

Compost

14. Type of fertilizer do you use

1. Compost 2. Chemical fertilizer 3. Both

15. Amount use (kg/perch/week)

1. <50 2. 50-69 3. 70-89

4. 90-100 5. 100-200 6. >200

16. Do you know how to apply compost?

1. Yes 2. No

16. If yes, what is the reason?

1. Easy accessibility 2. Easiness of handling 3. Lower price

4. Environmental friendly product 5. N.A 6. Other, specify

17. If no, what is the reason?

1. Need large amount 2. Difficulty of finding 3. Time-consuming

4. Show slower results 5. Other, specify

18. Where you buy compost?

1. NMC outlet 2. Local fertilizer dealer 3. Other, specify

19. How much compost do you need for the year (kg/perch)?

1. >100 2. 100-200 3. 200-300

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 4. 300-400 5. 400-500 6. <500

20. Could the application of compost reduce the use of chemical fertilizer?

1. Yes 2. No 3. N.A

21. How much you spend on fertilizer (compost) per perch per year?

1. >LKR 500 2. LKR 500-1000 3. LKR 1000-1500

4. LKR 1500-2000 5. LKR2000-2500 6. >LKR2500

22. How much you spend for fertilizer (chemical fertilizer) per perch per year?

1. <LKR 1000 2. LKR 1000-2000 3. LKR 2000-

3000

4. LKR 3000-4000 5. LKR 4000-5000 6. >LKR 5000

23. Could the application of compost reduce the cost that spends on chemical fertilizer?

1. Yes 2. No 3. N.A

24. Do they fulfill your requirement at the time?

1. Yes 2. No

25. If no, mention the amount (kg/perch/yr)?

1. <30 2. 30-49 3. 50-69

4. 70-89 5. 90-100 6. >100

26. If no, how you manage fertilizer requirements?

1. Add chemical fertilizer 2. Animal manure

3. Buy compost from another area 4. Other

27. Do you aware of the information on the quality and advantages of compost?

1. Yes 2. No 3. N.A

28. What type of compost do you use?

1. MSW compost 2. Garden waste 3. Animal manure

4. Household waste compost 5. N.A

29. Which compost do you think the highest quality?

1. MSW compost 2. Garden waste 3. Animal manure

4. Household waste compost 5. N.A

30. Do you know the application of compost reduces the solid waste problem in your municipal
area?

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 1. Yes 2. No 3. N.A

31. Could the application of compost reduce environmental pollution?

1. Yes 2. No 3. N.A

32. Do you experience that compost can improve the quality and quantity of your crop?

1. Yes 2. No 3. N.A

33. Do you think compost is a safe product?

1. Yes 2. No 3.
N.A

34. After acknowledging the advantages of compost are you willing to apply compost instead of

chemical fertilizer?

1. Yes 2. No 3. N.A

35. If NMC expand compost production are you willing to help to tackle the waste problem through

buying compost?

1. Yes 2. No 3. N.A

36. How much you need for your farm (kg/perch/month)?

1. <50 2. 50-69 3. 70-89

4. 90-100 5. 100-200 6. >200

Annex 2- Some of the filled survey questionnaire papers in the Sinhala Language

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115
Annex 3 – Telephone interview questionnaire for a salesperson in a compost outlet

Detail of the outlet

1. Owner of the outlet:

2. Place of compost received:
3. Opening year:
4. Working days:
5. Opening hours per day:
Sales
6. Average sale (volume) per year:
7. Do you have a peak/very low sale period?
8. If so, mention the quantity:
9. Mention the reason for question no.8:
10. Do you sell packaged compost or unpacked compost?
11. If packaged, what is the size and price of each size?
12. If, unpackaged, price of 1kg:
13. What type is most popular among customers?
14. Reason:
15. The average revenue per year:
16. There is an excess of compost during the year?
17. There is a shortage of compost during the year?
Customers
18. How many customers come to your outlet in a year?
19. All are in the NMC area:
20. How do they know about your outlet?
21. Do you have regular customers?
22. How many?
23. What kind of customers came?
24. Who buys more?
25. What kind of Customer feedback do you get?
Demand
26. Do your sales increase last year?

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 27. Do your customer number increase last year?
28. Does any customer increase their compost order last year?
29. If so give the number and quantity?
30. Does any customer reduce their compost order last year?
31. If so give the number and quantity?
32. If the NMC compost plant expands production, can you take responsibility for selling?
33. How(selling among your regular customers or selling to local dealers)?
34. How can you increase the usage of compost in regular customers?
35. How you find local dealers?
36. They are from NMC or out of the NMC:
37. Based on your experience of the sale date of the past few years, is there any increment in MSW
compost?
38. If yes, what NMC did to increase the demand?
39. ―Expansion of compost plant in NMC is a good decision to tackle the solid waste problem in
NMC‖. Give your opinion:
40. Do you receive any support from the Gov‘t, including financial support (subsidies, etc) or non-
financial support (e.g. training or facilities, etc)?

Annex 4 – Telephone interview questionnaire for the head of the compost plant in

Kurana

Detail of the plant:

1. When you started this plant?
2. Owner of this plant?
3. From where you gained the raw material for composting?
4. Operating capacity:
5. Number of staff
6. Revenue streams
7. No. of plants
Feedstock
8. Do you receive enough raw material for the production of compost? The daily amount of raw
material received for composting:
9. What is the quality of the raw materials? (e.g. separated waste/mixed waste)
10. Do you receive raw materials at the time?
11. Is it contains left off meat and fish parts in raw materials? (Yes leftover meat, wet/dry basis)
12. If so, how change is it affects the duration of composting depending on the wetness and dryness
of raw material?
13. Is the excess moisture content of raw materials affect the final quality of your product?
14. Apart from the left off meet and fish parts, raw material contain any other long term
biodegradable waste:
15. Do you face any difficulties with the received raw material?
16. Do you receive separated waste or not?
17. How you separate the waste to produce compost?

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18. Do you use any machine to waste separation?
19. What method used for composting? (e.g. Windrow composting or In-vessel composting)

Compost Quality:
20. What is the quality of the end product?
21. Is there any quality difference between other composts (e.g mature compost, pruning
waste)traditional compost, and MSW compost?
22. In your opinion which one is better for agriculture practices?
23. Give the reason?
24. Is there any standard to check the quality of your final compost?
25. What is the quality standard available for composting?
26. Do you check for pathogens and pollutants such as heavy metals in the final compost?
27. ―Quality of final compost depends on the quality of raw material.‖ Is it true?
28. If so, what factors of raw material determine the quality of compost?
29. Do you experience such a quality issue in raw materials?
30. If so mention the factors?
31. How you manage low-quality raw material to produce good quality compost?

Production
32. Do you use raw materials daily for composting?
33. If not, what is the feeding period?
34. What is the amount used for composting daily?
35. What is the daily production?
36. What is the average annual production?
37. Is there any increment or decrease in production during last year?
38. Reason for that?
39. What does the production cost of 1kg of compost?
40. How many laborers in your plant?
41. The labor number is enough to run your plant?
42. Do your plant has all the essential types of machinery for compost production?

Expanded Capacity:
43. If NMC decided to increase the composting production, can your plant increase capacity?
44. If yes how?
45. Do you have enough laborers or need more laborers?
46. Do you have enough equipment or need more?

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47. With this space can you expand composting capacity?
48. If not how you expanded your plant?
49. Who will provide the extra expenses for production and plant expansion?
50. Do you think this decision can help to tackle the SWM problem in NMC?

Current Problems:
51. Can you cover all the expenses by the income of this plant?
52. Do you receive any financial support from the government?
53. What are the action taken by the government encourages farmers to utilize organic fertilizer?
54. Do you have any operational constraints? (is it easy to find laborers with technical knowledge?)
55. What are the problems faced in the composting plant?
56. What do you think are the key factors to run a successful composting plant?
57. Why?
58. Do you think your plant can contribute to Negombo‘s growing waste problem?
59. Do you need any modification or resources to face the problem?
60. Are there any public opposition problems?
61. Is there any spreading disease among citizens or laborers?
62. Any pest problems? How to reduce flies, cockroaches, rats, etc?

Annex 5– Telephone interview questionnaire for PHI in NMC

Detail of collecting system

1. How many wards do you cover?

2. How many laborers engaged?
3. What are the vehicles used for?
4. Do you collect separate waste?
5. What is the total collection per day?
6. Can you give the quantity of organic waste per day?
7. Do you follow the timetable for collection?
8. Can you mention the date and time for the collection?
9. Are there any color codes or special bins for waste?
10. Is this a free service?
11. What type of service do you use to collect waste? (eg: door-to-door service, appoint a place for put
their waste)
12. All people can access your service?
13. Reason?

Intermediate treatments

14. Mention the intermediate treatments you followed?

15. What is the most common treatment?
16. How often sent waste for compost plants?

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17. Send only separated waste or not?
18. Are these treatments enough to mitigate the waste problem?
19. Earn income through these treatments?
20. If yes, how do you spend this money?

Solid waste management

21. Do you have enough vehicles and laborers for waste collection?
22. Does the entire resident follow your guidelines? (separation, put their waste at the correct time, cover
their waste bins to protects animals)
23. Is the government allocating a sufficient budget for waste management?
24. Is the government providing other necessary resources for waste management? (i.e. vehicles,
machinery for composting, etc)
25. Do you conduct a training program about composting?
26. If yes, no of programs per yr
27. Is there any training supply for laborers about the new technology of composting?
28. Can you tackle the waste problem using available treatments?
29. If not what modification needs?
30. What is your opinion about public awareness and support for waste management? Sufficient or not?
Need to conduct an awareness program?
31. Are there any actions against the citizen who disobey your waste collection guidelines? (put mixed
waste, illegal disposal, put waste after collection)

Annex 6 – Photos taking while conducting the survey

Date: 2020/06/15

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Date: 2020/06/30

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