There are many 

branches of chemistry or chemistry disciplines. The five main

branches are considered to be organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, analytical
chemistry, physical chemistry, and biochemistry.

Overview of the 5 Branches of Chemistry

 Organic Chemistry: The study of carbon and its compounds; the study
of the chemistry of life
 Inorganic Chemistry: The study of compounds not covered by organic
chemistry; the study of inorganic compounds, or compounds that don't
contain a C-H bond (many inorganic compounds contain metals)
 Analytical Chemistry: The study of the chemistry of matter and the
development of tools to measure properties of matter
 Physical Chemistry: The branch of chemistry that applies physics to the
study of chemistry, which commonly includes the applications of
thermodynamics and quantum mechanics to chemistry
 Biochemistry: The study of chemical processes that occur inside of living
organisms
 Nuclear Chemistry - Nuclear chemistry is the branch of chemistry
associated with nuclear reactions and isotopes.
 Environmental Chemistry - Environmental chemistry is the chemistry
associated with soil, air, and water and of human impact on natural
systems
 Industrial Chemistry
 The branch of chemistry that deals with the manufacturing of chemical
 compounds on commercial scale, is called industrial chemistry.

There are other ways chemistry can be divided into categories. Other examples of

branches of chemistry might include polymer chemistry and geochemistry.
Chemical engineering might also be considered a chemistry discipline. There is
also overlap between disciplines; biochemistry and organic chemistry, in
particular, share a lot in common.
  Matter is simply defined as anything that has mass and occupies space. Our
bodies as well as all the things around us are examples of matter. In chemistry, we studyall types
of matters that can exist in any of three physical states: solid, liquid or gas

 A piece of matter in pure form is termed as a substance. Every substance has afixed
composition and specific properties or characteristics
 impure matter is called a mixture; which can be homogeneous or heterogeneous in its
composition.
 physical properties We know that every substance has physical as well as chemical
properties. The properties those are associated with the physical state of the substance
are called physical properties (for more see book)
 chemical properties depend upon the composition of the substance. When asubstance
undergoes a chemical change, its composition changes and a new substance are formed
(for more understanding see book )

 element is that it is a substance made up of same type of atoms, having same atomic
number and cannot be decomposed into simple substances by ordinary chemical means
{ It means that each element is made up of unique type of atoms that have very specific
properties} On the basis of their properties, elements are divided into metals, non-metals
and metalloids. About 80 percent of the elements are metals. Elements are represented by
symbols (for more understanding see book )

 In simple covalent compounds, valency is the number of hydrogen atoms which combine
with one atom of that element or the number of bonds formed by one atom of that
element e.g. in the following compounds.The valency of chlorine, oxygen, nitrogen and
carbon is 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively.

 in simple ionic compounds valency is the number of electrons gained or lost by

an atom of an element to complete its octet. Elements having less than four electrons in
their valence shell; prefer to lose the electrons to complete their octet

 A radical is a group of atoms that

have some charge. Valencies of some common elements and radicals are shown in Table1.2.

Compound
Compound is a substance made up of two or more elements chemically combined
together in a fixed ratio by mass. As a result of this combination, elements lose their own
properties and produce new substances (compounds) that have entirely different
properties. Compounds can't be broken down into its constituent elements by simple physical
methods.

Compounds can be classified as ionic or covalent. Ionic compounds do not exist

in independent molecular form. They form a three dimensional crystal lattice, in which
each ion is surrounded by oppositely charged ions. These oppositely charged ions attract each
other very strongly, as a result ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points. These
compounds are represented by formula units e.g. NaCl, KBr, CuSO . 4 The covalent compounds
mostly exist in molecular form. A molecule is a true
representative of the covalent compound and its formula is called molecular formula
e.g. H O, HC1, H SO , Ch . 2 2 4 4

Mixture
When two or more elements or compounds mix up physically without any fixed
ratio, they form a mixture. On mixing up, the component substances retain their own
chemical identities and properties. The mixture can be separated into parent components by
physical methods such as distillation, filtration, evaporation, crystallisation or magnetization.
Mixtures that have uniform composition throughout are called homogeneous mixtures e.g. air,
gasoline, ice cream. Whereas, heterogeneous mixtures are those in which composition is not
uniform throughout e.g. soil, rock and wood

Atomic Number and Mass Number

The atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons present in
the nucleus of its atoms. It is represented by symbol ‘Z’ .

The mass number is the sum of number of protons and neutrons present in the
nucleus of an atom. It is represented by symbol 'A

Relative Atomic Mass and Atomic Mass Unit (see u tube and book and related detail)
How to write a Chemical Formula (check urdu book)
Empirical formula (check urdu book)
Molecular Formula (check urdu book)

Molecular Mass
The sum of atomic masses of all the atoms present in one molecule of a molecular
substance, is its molecular mass (check urdu book )

Formula mass in such cases is the sum of atomic masses of all the
atoms present in one formula unit of a substance. For example, formula mass of sodium
chloride is 58.5 amu and that of CaCO is 100 amu. 3
What is Mixtures?
When two or more elements or compounds mix together, not necessarily in a
definite ratio and do not interact chemically, then the resulting substance is
known as a mixture.
For example a mixture of sand and water. There are two types of mixtures: Homogeneous and
Heterogeneous mixture.

Heterogeneous and Homogeneous Mixtures

Heterogeneous and Homogeneous Definition

What is a Homogeneous Mixture?

These are the types of mixtures in which the components mixed are uniformly distributed throughout
the mixture or in other words “the same throughout”. We can observe only one phase of matter in
a homogeneous mixture. Key points regarding this type of mixtures:

 Particles are distributed uniformly

 We can’t judge a homogeneous mixture by just seeing it
 Homogeneous mixtures are also called as solutions
 Uniform composition
 Example: rainwater, vinegar, etc.

What is Heterogeneous Mixture?

This is a type of mixture in which all the components are completely mixed and all the particles can
be seen under a microscope. We can easily identify the components and more than one phase can
be seen by naked eyes.
Key points regarding this type of mixtures:
  Particles are distributed non uniformly
 We can judge a heterogeneous mixture by just seeing it
 Non-uniform composition
 Example: seawater, pizza, etc.

Difference between Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Mixture

Homogeneous mixture Heterogeneous mixture

It has a uniform composition It has a non-uniform composition

It has only one phase There are two or more phases

It can’t be separated out physically It can be separated out physically

‘homo’ means the same ‘hetero’ means different

Example: a mixture of alcohol and water Example: a mixture of sodium chloride and sand

Example

Soft drink: Homogeneous or Heterogeneous mixture?

In a homogeneous mixture, all the components are uniformly distributed and in the soft drink, we find
components like sweetener, carbon dioxide and water forming a single phase. Therefore, a soft drink
is a homogeneous mixture.

FAQs
1. Which is a heterogeneous mixture?
Ans: A heterogeneous mixture is not any compositionally uniform mixture-it is a non-uniform mixture
with smaller component parts.
2. Which mixture is homogeneous?
Ans: A homogeneous mixture is a mixture throughout the solution in which the composition is
uniform. The saltwater mentioned above is homogeneous due to the even distribution of the
dissolved salt throughout the entire sample of saltwater.
3. What are heterogeneous and homogeneous mixtures examples?
Ans: Through combining two or more substances, a mixture is produced. A homogeneous solution
tends to be identical, no matter how you sample it. Homogeneous mixtures are sources of water,
saline solution, some alloys, and bitumen. Sand, oil and water, and chicken noodle soup are
examples of heterogeneous mixtures.
4. Which best describes a heterogeneous mixture?
Ans: A heterogeneous mixture is a mixture where throughout the solution the composition is not
uniform. Through definition, a single-phase consists of a pure substance or a homogeneous mixture.
There are two or more phases of a heterogeneous mixture.
5. Is air homogeneous or heterogeneous?
Ans: A heterogeneous mixture is a type of mixture that allows the components to be seen as two or
more phases are present. A mixture is an example of water. Water is a homogeneous mixture of
nitrogen, oxygen and smaller amounts of other compounds in the gaseous materials.

Difference Between Ionic and Covalent Compounds

• Categorized under Chemistry,Science | Difference Between Ionic and Covalent

Compounds
 Ionic vs Covalent Compounds

The difference between ionic and covalent compounds can be confusing. A basic

definition of an ionic compound is that they are molecules that consist of charged ions.

These ions have opposite (both negative and positive) charges. On the other hand,

covalent compounds are non-metals which are bound together, and consist of two

electrons that are shared between two atoms.The molecules of an ionic compound are

bonded together by the electrical attraction of the two or more ions. These ions can be of

two types ‘“ cation and anion. Cation refers to the ions with a positive charge, while

anion refers to the ions with a negative charge. Cations are usually metals, while anions

are usually non-metals, or polyatomic. On the other hand, a covalent compound is

usually formed when two non-metals are bonded together. In this type of compound,

the electrons are shared (and not transferred), and this causes the bond between them.

Ionic compounds have a high melting and boiling point, whereas covalent compounds

have a comparatively lower melting and boiling point. The reason for this fact, is that

ionic compounds require a huge amount of energy to break their ionic bonds, and pull

apart the positive and negative charges. Covalent compounds are separated much more

easily, because they are formed from distinct molecules that do not interact with each

other.

The bonds of the ionic compounds are more crystal-like than the bonds of the covalent

compound. Therefore, covalent compounds are softer, and more flexible. Covalent
compounds are also more flammable than ionic compounds, due to the fact that they

often contain Carbon and Hydrogen.

Ionic compounds help to conduct electricity in water, as they are charge carriers.

Covalent compounds do not have this capability, because they do not contain ions. Ionic

compounds are also more soluble in water than covalent compounds. This is because

water dissolves polar substances, which is the consistency of the ionic compound,

whereas covalent compounds are non-polar.

Summary:

1.Ionic compounds are formed by the transfer of electrons that are positively and

negatively charged, whereas, covalent compounds are formed by sharing the electrons.

2.The melting and boiling points of ionic compounds are much higher compared to

those of the covalent compounds.

3.Ionic compounds are hard and crystal-like, while covalent compounds are softer and

more flexible.

4.Covalent compounds are more flammable when compared to ionic compounds.

5.Ionic compounds are more soluble in water than covalent compounds.

 Relative atomic mass
Different atoms have different masses. Atoms have such a small mass it is more convenient to
know their masses compared to each other. Carbon is taken as the standard atom and has
a relative atomic mass (Ar) of 12.

 Atoms with an Ar of less than this have a smaller mass than a carbon atom.
 Atoms with an Ar that is more than this have a larger mass than a carbon atom.

Ar values of elements
The table shows some Ar values:

Element Relative atomic mass

Hydrogen (H) 1

Carbon (C) 12

Oxygen (O) 16

Magnesium (Mg) 24

Chlorine (Cl) 35.5

These values tell you that a magnesium atom has twice the mass of a carbon atom, and 24 times
more mass than a hydrogen atom. They also tell you that hydrogen atoms have 12 times less
mass than a carbon atom. The Ar values also allow you to work out that three oxygen atoms have
the same mass as two magnesium atoms.

Chlorine's Ar of 35.5 is an average of the masses of the different isotopes of chlorine.

Calculating relative atomic mass from isotopic abundance

The relative atomic mass of an element is a weighted average of the masses of the atoms of the
isotopes - because if there is much more of one isotope then that will influence the average mass
much more than the less abundant isotope will.

For example, chlorine has two isotopes: 35Cl and 37Cl. But the relative atomic mass of chlorine is
not 36. In any sample of chlorine, 75 per cent of the atoms are 35Cl and the remaining 25 per cent
are 37Cl.

The relative atomic mass is worked out using the following formula, illustrated for two isotopes,
where the abundances are given in percentage values.
For example, using chlorine:

.
 Structure of the atom

The nuclear model

Atoms contain three sub-atomic particles called protons, neutrons and electrons.

The protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus at the centre of the atom. The nucleus is very
much smaller than the atom as a whole. The electrons are arranged in shells around the nucleus.

Properties of sub-atomic particles

Particle Relative mass Relative charge

Proton 1 +1

Neutron 1 0

Electron -1

The number of electrons in an atom is always the same as the number of protons, so atoms are
electrically neutral overall.

Atoms can lose or gain electrons. When they do, they form charged particles called ions:

 if an atom loses one or more electrons, it becomes a positively charged ion

 if an atom gains one or more electrons, it becomes a negatively charged ion
 Isotopes

Atomic number and mass number

The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called its atomic number:

 the atoms of a particular element all have the same number of protons

 the atoms of different elements have different numbers of protons
The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom is called its mass number.

Chemical symbol of chlorine-35

The proton number is shown below the chemical symbol, and the mass number is shown above.
In this example the atomic number is 17 and the mass number is 35. This means that each of
these atoms has:

17 protons

 17 electrons
 35 - 17 = 18 neutrons
Isotopes are atoms of an element with the normal number of protons and electrons, but different
numbers of neutrons. Isotopes have the same atomic number, but different mass numbers.

Isotopes can either be radioactive or non-radioactive. For example, 14C is used in radiocarbon

dating to determine the age of historical objects and 99Tc is used in medical imaging.
Three isotopes of hydrogen
Most hydrogen atoms consist of just one proton and one electron, but some also have one or two
neutrons.

Electronic configurations

Electronic configuration diagram

The electronic configuration of an atom is a description of how the electrons are arranged. It can

be shown as numbers or as a diagram.
Take lithium for example. The diagram shows each shell as a circle around the nucleus, with
each electron represented by a dot. The electronic configuration for lithium is written as 2.1
(showing that lithium atoms have three electrons, two in the first shell and one in the second
shell).
Electrons and groups

A section of the periodic table

Columns in the periodic table – groups

The vertical columns in the periodic table are called groups. The elements in any one vertical

column are in the same group. The groups are numbered from left to right. Elements in the same
group have similar chemical properties.

The number of electrons in the outer shell of all the elements in a group is the same as the group
number.
Examples

All the Group 1 elements - lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), caesium
(Cs) and francium (Fr) - have one electron in the outer shell.

The Group 7 elements - fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I) and astatine (At) -
have seven electrons in the outer shell.

Group 0 elements - helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe) and radon
(Rn) - have full outer shells. (Group 0 is sometimes called Group 8 – all the elements in the
group have eight electrons in their outer shell, except for helium which only has two).

Rows in the periodic table - periods

Elements in the same horizontal row are in the same period. The periods are numbered from top
to bottom.

The period number is the same as the number of occupied electron shells.

There are several branches of chemistry. Here is a list of the main branches of

chemistry, with an overview of what each branch of chemistry studies.
Types of Chemistry
Agrochemistry - This branch of chemistry may also be called agricultural
chemistry. It deals with the application of chemistry for agricultural production,
food processing, and environmental remediation as a result of agriculture.
Analytical Chemistry - Analytical chemistry is the branch of chemistry
involved with studying the properties of materials or developing tools to analyze
materials.
Astrochemistry - Astrochemistry is the study of the composition and reactions
of the chemical elements and molecules found in the stars and in space and of the
interactions between this matter and radiation.
Biochemistry - Biochemistry is the branch of chemistry concerned with the
chemical reactions that occur inside living organisms.
Chemical Engineering - Chemical engineering involves the practical
application of chemistry to solve problems.
Chemistry History - Chemistry history is the branch of chemistry and history
that traces the evolution over time of chemistry as a science. To some extent,
alchemy is included as a topic of chemistry history.
Cluster Chemistry - This branch of chemistry involves the study of clusters of
bound atoms, intermediate in size between single molecules and bulk solids.
Combinatorial Chemistry - Combinatorial chemistry involves computer
simulation of molecules and reactions between molecules.
Electrochemistry - Electrochemistry is the branch of chemistry that involves
the study of chemical reactions in a solution at the interface between an ionic
conductor and an electrical conductor. Electrochemistry may be considered to be
the study of electron transfer, particularly within an electrolytic solution.
.
Food Chemistry - Food chemistry is the branch of chemistry associated with
the chemical processes of all aspects of food. Many aspects of food chemistry rely
on biochemistry, but it incorporates other disciplines as well.
General Chemistry - General chemistry examines the structure of matter and
the reaction between matter and energy. It is the basis for the other branches of
chemistry.
Geochemistry - Geochemistry is the study of chemical composition and
chemical processes associated with the Earth and other planets.
Green Chemistry - Green chemistry is concerned with processes and products
that eliminate or reduce the use or release of hazardous substances. Remediation
may be considered part of green chemistry.
Inorganic Chemistry - Inorganic chemistry is the branch of chemistry that
deals with the structure and interactions between inorganic compounds, which
are any compounds that aren't based in carbon-hydrogen bonds.
Kinetics - Kinetics examines the rate at which chemical reactions occur and the
factors that affect the rate of chemical processes.
Medicinal Chemistry - Medicinal chemistry is chemistry as it applies to
pharmacology and medicine.
Nanochemistry - Nanochemistry is concerned with the assembly and
properties of nanoscale assemblies of atoms or molecules.
Nuclear Chemistry - Nuclear chemistry is the branch of chemistry associated
with nuclear reactions and isotopes.
Organic Chemistry - This branch of chemistry deals with the chemistry of
carbon and living things.
Photochemistry - Photochemistry is the branch of chemistry concerned with
interactions between light and matter.
Physical Chemistry - Physical chemistry is the branch of chemistry that
applies physics to the study of chemistry. Quantum mechanics and
thermodynamics are examples of physical chemistry disciplines.
Polymer Chemistry - Polymer chemistry or macromolecular chemistry is the
branch of chemistry the examines the structure and properties of
macromolecules and polymers and finds new ways to synthesize these molecules.
Solid State Chemistry - Solid state chemistry is the branch of chemistry that is
focused on the structure, properties, and chemical processes that occur in the
solid phase. Much of solid state chemistry deals with the synthesis and
characterization of new solid state materials.
Spectroscopy - Spectroscopy examines the interactions between matter and
electromagnetic radiation as a function of wavelength. Spectroscopy commonly is
used to detect and identify chemicals based on their spectroscopic signatures.
Thermochemistry - Thermochemistry may be considered a type of Physical
Chemistry. Thermochemistry involves the study of thermal effects of chemical
reactions and the thermal energy exchange between processes.
Theoretical Chemistry - Theoretical chemistry applies chemistry and physics
calculations to explain or make predictions about chemical phenomena.

There is overlap between the different branches of chemistry. For example, a

polymer chemist typically knows a lot of organic chemistry. A scientist
specializing in thermochemistry knows a lot of physical chemistry.