CHEMISTRY NOTES - IX

IS MATTER AROUND US PURE?

We know that matter is made up of particles which are arranged in a certain way. Gases particles are well
separated and can freely move about, solids, on the other hand, have particles that are tightly packed, usually
with no scope to move around.
Purity

Pure substances

 Pure substances are elements or compounds.

 They are made up of only one kind of entity.

 They cannot be broken down into simpler entities by chemical or physical methods.

 They have a fixed composition.

 Example: Diamond, carbon dioxide.

Mixtures

 Mixtures are formed by just mixing two or more pure substances (components) such that each
substance retains its own chemical identity.

Types:

1. Homogeneous mixture

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A mixture which has a uniform composition throughout is called a homogeneous mixture or solution.

 Examples: sugar in water, salt in water.

Heterogeneous mixture

A mixture which contains physically distinct parts and has a non-uniform composition is called
a heterogeneous mixture.

 Examples: Mixture of salt and iron filings, sand and sugar.

Physical vs Chemical Changes

Physical and chemical changes

 A substance is said to undergo a physical change when only the physical properties such as the
shape, size, colour or state of the substance change. No new substance is formed.

 Example: Melting of ice, boiling water.

 A substance is said to undergo a chemical change when a new substance with completely new
properties (physical and chemical) is formed.

 Example: Burning of wood or paper, souring of milk.

Solutions

Solutions and their properties

 A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.

Properties:

 Its particles are too tiny and have a diameter less than 1 nm.

 The particles are not visible to naked eyes.

 Particles do not scatter a beam of light passing through it and hence do not show the Tyndall effect.

 The solute particles never settle down on keeping undisturbed.

 The components of a solution cannot be separated using filtration.

Alloys

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Alloys are homogeneous mixtures of metals or a mixture of a metal and another element that cannot be
separated into their components by physical methods.
Examples:

 Steel, a combination of iron (metal) and carbon (non-metal).

 Bronze, a combination of copper (metal) and tin (metal).

 Brass, a mixture of copper (metal) and zinc (metal).

Concentration of Solutions

Solubility

 Solubility is the property showing the ability of a given substance, which is the solute, to dissolve in a
solvent.

 It is measured in terms of the maximum amount of solute dissolved in a solvent at equilibrium.

 The resulting solution is called a saturated solution.

 Factors Affecting Solubility:

 Temperature – Solubility increases with temperature. The situation is different for gases. With the
increase in temperature, they became less soluble in each other and in water, but more soluble in
organic solvents.

 Pressure – For the majority of solid and liquid solutes, pressure does not affect solubility. The solubility
of gas is directly proportional to the pressure of this gas.

Types of solutions based on the concentration of the solution

 Three types of solutions exist based on the concentration of the solution:

Dilute

Concentrated

Saturated solution

Ways of representing the concentration of a solution

The concentration of a solution can be represented in many ways

(i) Mass by the mass percentage of a solution = (Mass of solute / Mass of solution) × 100

(ii) Mass by volume percentage of a solution = (Mass of solute/ volume of solution) × 100

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Suspensions

Suspension and its properties

A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which the solute particles do not dissolve but remain suspended
throughout the bulk of the medium.

 The solute particles settle down when a suspension is left undisturbed.

 They can be separated from the mixture by filtration.

Colloids

Types of mixtures based on particle size

Classified into:

 Solution

 Suspension.

 Colloidal solution.

Colloidal Solutions

A colloidal solution is a mixture in which the substances are regularly suspended in a fluid.

 Classified into: Foam, Emulsion, Sol

Tyndall Effect

Tyndall effect is the scattering of light by particles in a colloid or else particles in a very fine suspension.

 e.g., It can be observed when sunlight passes through the canopy of a dense forest.

Dispersed phase

The solute-like component of the dispersed particles in a colloid form the dispersed phase.

Dispersion medium

The component in which the dispersed phase is suspended is known as the dispersing medium.

Aerosol

A colloidal solution with dispersed phase solid/liquid and dispersing medium gas is called Aerosol. e.g. clouds

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Foam

A colloidal solution with dispersed phase gas and dispersing medium solid/liquid is called Foam. e.g.Shaving
cream.

Sols

A colloidal solution with dispersed phase solid and dispersing medium liquid is called Sol. e.g. Milk of
magnesia, mud.

Gels and emulsions

 A colloidal solution with dispersed phase liquid and dispersing medium solid is called Gel.

 A colloidal solution with dispersed phase liquid and dispersing medium liquid is called Emulsion.

Evaporation

The process of conversion of water into water vapour is known as evaporation.

 It can be used to separate the volatile component (solvent) from its non-volatile solute.

Elements

 Elements are species of atoms which have the same number of protons in their atomic nuclei.

 Elements are represented by symbols e.g., Hydrogen (H), Boron (B), Carbon (C), Silicon (Si) etc.

Metals

 Metal is a solid material which is typically hard, shiny, malleable, fusible, and ductile, with good
electrical and thermal conductivity.

 Examples: Aluminium, Copper, Iron, Tin, Gold

Metalloids

 Metalloids exhibit some properties of metals as well as of non-metals.

 Examples: Boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, and tellurium

Compounds

Nonmetals

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 Non-metals are brittle and are not malleable or ductile.

 They are poor conductors of heat and electricity.

 Examples: Carbon, Boron etc.

Compounds

Compounds are the substances consisting of two or more different types of elements in a fixed ratio of its
atoms.

Difference between mixtures and compounds

 Mixtures are constituted by more than one kind of pure form of matter, known as a substance.

 Types: Homogeneous Mixtures, Heterogeneous Mixtures

 When two or more elements chemically combine in a fixed ratio by mass, the obtained product is
known as a compound.

ATOMS AND MOLECULES

Law of Chemical Combination

Given by Lavoisier and Joseph L. Proust as follows:
1. Law of conservation of mass: Mass can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.

e.g., A + B → C + D

Reactants → Products

Mass of reactants = Mass of products

2. Law of constant proportion: In a chemical substance the elements are always present in definite
proportions by mass.
E.g., in water, the ratio of the mass of hydrogen to the mass of oxygen is always 1 : 8 respectively.
These laws lacked explanation. Hence, John Dalton gave his theory about the matter. He said that the
smallest particle of matter is called ‘atom’.

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

 Every matter is made up of very small or tiny particles called atoms.

 Atoms are not divisible and cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction.

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 All atoms of a given element are same in size, mass and chemical properties.
 Atoms of different elements are different in size, mass and chemical properties.
 Atoms combine in the ratio of a small whole number to form compounds.
 The relative number and kinds of atoms are constant in a given compound.

Atom
Atoms are the smallest particles of an element which can take part in a chemical reaction.
Size of an atom: Atomic radius is measured in nanometres.

Symbols of atoms:
(a) Symbols for some elements as proposed by Dalton:

(b) Symbols of some common elements:

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Molecule
It is the smallest particle of an element or a compound which can exist independently.

 Molecules of an element constitute the same type of atoms.

 Molecules may be monoatomic, diatomic or polyatomic.
 Molecules of compounds join together in definite proportions and constitute a different type of atoms.

Atomicity
The number of atoms constituting a Molecule is known as its atomicity.

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Ions
The charged particles (atoms) are called ions, they are formed by attaining positive charge or negative charge
on it.
Negatively charged ion is called anion (Cl–).
Positively charged ion is called cation (Na+).

Valency
The combining capacity of an element is known as its valency. Valency is used to find out how the atom of
an element will combine with the atom of another element to form a chemical compound.
(Every atom wants to become stable, to do so it may lose, gain or share electrons.)

 If an atom consists of 1, 2 or 3 electrons in its valence shell then its valency is 1, 2 or 3 respectively,
 If an atom consists of 5, 6 or 7 electrons in the outermost shell, then it will gain 3, 2 or 1 electron
respectively and its valency will be 3, 2 or 1 respectively.
 If an atom has 4 electrons in the outermost shell than it will share this electron and hence its valency
will be 4.
 If an atom has 8 electrons in the outermost electron and hence its valency will be 0.

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Some elements show more than one valency,hence termed as variable valency.

Chemical Formulae
Rules: (i) The valencies or charges on the ion must balance.
(ii) Metal and non-metal compound should show the name or symbol of the
metal first.
e.g., Na+ Cl– NaCl
→

(ii) If a compound consists of polyatomic ions. The ion is enclosed in a bracket before writing the number to
indicate the ratio.
e.g., [SO4]2- polyatomic radical
→

1+
H SO42- H2SO4
→

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Molecular Mass
It is the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in a molecule of the substance. It is expressed in atomic
mass unit (u).

Formula Unit Mass

It is the sum of the atomic masses of all atoms in a formula unit of a compound. The constituent particles
are ions.

Mole Concept
Definition of mole: It is defined as one mole of any species (atoms, molecules, ions or particles) is that
quantity in number having a mass equal to its atomic or molecular mass in grams.
1 mole = 6.022 x 1023 in number
Molar mass = mass of 1 mole is always expressed in grams and is also known as gram atomic mass.
→

lu of hydrogen has 1 atom of hydrogen 1g of hydrogen has 1 mole of hydrogen

→ →

23
= 6.022 x 10 atoms of hydrogen

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STRUCTURE OF ATOM

Essentially, the structure of an atom comprises protons, neutrons and electrons. These basic components
provide the mass and charge of the atoms. The nucleus comprises proton and neutron, with the electron
orbiting around that.

Introduction to Structure of an Atom

Atoms

Atoms are the building blocks of matter. It is the smallest unit of matter that is composed of three sub-atomic
particles: the proton, the neutron and the electron.

Electrons

 Electrons are the negatively charged sub-atomic particles of an atom.

 The mass of an electron is considered to be negligible, and its charge is -1.

 The symbol for an electron is e–

 Electrons are extremely small.

 They are found outside the nucleus.

Thomson’s model of an atom

 According to Thomson,(i) An atom consists of a positively charged sphere and the electrons are
embedded in it. (ii) The negative and positive charges are equal in magnitude. So, the atom as a
whole is electrically neutral

 The first model of an atom to be put forward and taken into consideration.

 He proposed a model of the atom be similar to that of a Christmas pudding/watermelon.

 The red edible part of the watermelon is compared with the positive charge in the atom.

 The black seeds in the watermelon are compared with the electrons which are embedded on it.

Rutherford Model

Rutherford’s experiment and observations

In this experiment, fast-moving alpha (α)-particles were made to fall on a thin gold foil. His observations were:

 A major fraction of the α-particles bombarded towards the gold sheet passed through it without any
deflection, and hence most of the space in an atom is empty.

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 Some of the α-particles were deflected by the gold sheet by very small angles, and hence the positive
charge in an atom is not uniformly distributed.

 The positive charge in an atom is concentrated in a very small volume.

 Very few of the α-particles were deflected back, that is only a few α-particles had nearly 180o angle
of deflection. So the volume occupied by the positively charged particles in an atom is very small
as compared to the total volume of an atom.

Rutherford’s model of an atom

Rutherford concluded the model of the atom from the α-particle scattering experiment as:

(i) There is a positively charged centre in an atom called the nucleus. Nearly all the mass of an atom resides
in the nucleus.

(ii) The electrons revolve around the nucleus in well-defined orbits.

(iii) The size of the nucleus is very small as compared to the size of the atom.

Drawbacks of Rutherford’s model

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 He explained that the electrons in an atom revolve around the nucleus in well-defined orbits. Particles
in a circular orbit would experience acceleration.

 Thus, the revolving electron would lose energy and finally fall into the nucleus.

 But this cannot take place as the atom would be unstable and matter would not exist in the form we
know.

Neil Bohr Model

Properties of electrons, protons and neutrons

Bohr’s Model of an atom

Bohr came up with these postulates to overcome the objections raised against Rutherford’s model:

 Electrons revolve around the nucleus in stable orbits without emission of radiant energy. Each orbit
has a definite energy and is called an energy shell or energy level.

 An orbit or energy level is designated as K, L, M, N shells. When the electron is in the lowest energy
level, it is said to be in the ground state.

 An electron emits or absorbs energy when it jumps from one orbit or energy level to another.

 When it jumps from a higher energy level to lower energy level, it emits energy while it absorbs
energy when it jumps from lower energy level to higher energy level.

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Orbits

Orbits are energy shells surrounding the nucleus in which electrons revolve.

Electron distribution in different orbits

The distribution was suggested by Bohr and Bury;

 The maximum number of electrons present in a shell is given by the formula 2n2, where ‘n’ is the
orbit number or energy level index, 1,2,3,….

 The maximum number of electrons in different shells are as follows: the first orbit will have 2*1 2=2,
the second orbit will have 2*22 = 8, the third orbit will have 2*32=18, fourth orbit 2*42=32 and so on.

 The shells are always filled in a step-wise manner from the lower to higher energy levels. Electrons
are not filled in the next shell unless previous shells are filled.

Valency

 The electrons present in the outermost shell of an atom are known as the valence electrons.

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 The combining capacity of the atoms or their tendency to react and form molecules with atoms of the
same or different elements is known as valency of the atom.

 Atoms of elements, having a completely filled outermost shell show little chemical activity.

 Their combining capacity or valency is zero.

 For example, we know that the number of electrons in the outermost shell of hydrogen is 1, and in
magnesium, it is 2.

 Therefore, the valency of hydrogen is 1 as it can easily lose 1 electron and become stable.

 On the other hand, that of magnesium is 2 as it can lose 2 electrons easily and also attain stability.

Atomic Number

The number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom is termed as the atomic number. It is denoted by the
letter ‘Z’.

Mass number and representation of an atom

Protons and neutrons are present in the nucleus, so the mass number is the total of these protons and
neutrons.

To know more about Atomic Number and Mass number, visit here.

Isotopes and Isobars

Isotopes are defined as the atoms of the same element, having the same atomic number (number of protons
) but different mass numbers ( number of protons+neutrons ).
For example: In the case of Hydrogen we have:

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Atoms of different elements with different atomic numbers, which have the same mass number, are known as
isobars.
For example, Calcium and Argon: both have the same mass number – 40
40 40
20Ca and 18Ar

Calculation of mass number for isotopic elements

When an element has an isotope, the mass number can be calculated by the different proportions it exists in.

For example take 98% Carbon-12u and 2% Carbon-13u

This does not mean that any Carbon atoms exist with the mass number of 12.02u. If you take a certain
amount of Carbon, it will contain both isotopes of Carbon, and the average mass is 12.02 u.

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