Drawing Handbook

EG1021/2 DRAWING HANDBOOK
2005/6
C.J. MORRISON
H.B. Dong
Drawing Handbook -1-
CONTENTS
1. Introduction to Course EG1021/2

2. BS 8888 Drawing Standard
3. Basic Drawing Constructions
4. Drawing Layouts and Paper Sizes
5. Linetypes
6. Introduction to AutoCAD
7. Layers and Linetypes
8. Co-ordinate System
9. Lines, Splines and Nurbs
10. Working with Blocks
11. Multiview Drawings
12. Sections and Hatching
13. Conventional Symbols in Drawing and AutoCAD
14. Diagrammatic Drawing
15. Information Diagrams
16. Abbreviations for Use on Drawings
17. Dimensioning – datums and parametrics
18. Dimension Lines, Projection Lines and Leaders
19. Dimensioning of Linear and Common Features
20. Toleranced Dimensions
21. Printing / Plotting
22. Using Raster Images
23. Data File Exchange
24. AutoCAD function keys
25. INDEX
Figures
1. Paper sizes
2(a) Types of line
2(b) Use of line types
3. AutoCAD drawing screen
4. Five Layer Drawing
5. Layer Control
6. Four Arc Construction
7. Isoplanes
8. Projection symbol
9. 1st Angle projection symbol
10(a) 1st Angle projection
10(b) 3rd Angle projection
11. 3rd Angle projection symbol
12. 12.3rd Angle projection
13a) Linked 1st Angle projection
13(b) Linked 3rd Angle projection
14. Assembly drawing
15(a) & (b) Exploded drawings.
16. Development of a prism
17(a>c) Symbols
18. Schematic circuit diagram
19(a>r) Dimension examples
Tables:
1. Layer control
2. Tolerances
3. Standards
1. Introduction to EG1021/2 for 2005/2006
1.1 Overview of Course
Drawing is a means of communication in graphical format. EG1021 will attempt to present the
drawing standards which are used in all types of engineering drawing and to use these in pencil
(PAD) and computer aided draughting ( CAD) examples.
1.2 Documentation Format
You are issued with lecture notes in this handbook which covers the features of engineering
drawing together with brief instructions as to how these are implemented in a CAD system
which is mainly AutoCAD. Exercises will be issued at various stages through the course
covering drawing and design.
1.3 Assessments
At various stages of the lectures you will be asked to produce a drawing which will include
topics which have been introduced in the lecture using both PAD and CAD.
The PAD will be submitted on A3 or A4 tracing paper and the CAD completed files should be
copied to the AutoCAD exercise directory for the appropriate exercise.
AutoCAD exercises should be submitted for marking by the end of each session.
The page containing the form to upload work is at: http://www.engg.le.ac.uk/cgi-bin/fileupload.

Look on the student information page at http://www.le.ac.uk/engineering/info/ and there will be
a link there.
Submit files with file names which include the CFS usernames of all the contributing authors.
i.e. abc1def2ghi3.dwg.
Students can only write to this area; they do not have permission to read.
1.4 Syllabus
Available at http://www.le.ac.uk/engineering/info/. The PAD and CAD topics covered are listed
in the contents of this handbook.
1.5 Suggested Books:
1. Manual of Engineering Drawing, Simmons C. & Maguire D., Elsevier, 2004, ISBN 0 7506 5120 2
2. Practical Engineering Drawing, B.Hadley, Longman, 1999, ISBN: 0-582-36983-5
3. Engineering Drawing from First Principles, D.Maguire, Butterworth-Heinemann; ISBN:
0340691980
4. AutoCAD 2002 in easy Steps, Whelan P., Computer Step, 1-84078-193-9, £9.99
5. Introduction to AutoCAD 2002, Yarwood A., Prentice-Hall, ISBN:0-13-044771-4, £22.99
6. Beginning AutoCAD 2002, McFarlane R., Butterworth-Heinmann, ISBN:0-7506-5610-7, £19.99
7. Harnessing AutoCAD 2002, Autodesk Pub., Stellman T., ISBN:0-7668-3846-3, £40
8. Mastering AutoCAD 2002, Omura G., Sybex, ISBN:0-7821-2906-4, £45.99
9. Printed Circuit Board Design Using AutoCAD, Schroeder C., Newnes, ISBN:0-7506-9834-9,£35
2. BS 8888:2000 (BS 308:1943-85) Drawing Standard

Drawings must conform to an acceptable and understandable standard to facilitate
communication. By standard we do not mean quality, although they should be of good quality,
but that the terminology and symbols used are able to be recognised and interpreted with their
original intended meaning by others in the engineering profession not just the author!
Standards can evolve within companies or organisations, but if and when their drawings are
released to the outside world, unless everyone else is familiar with the standards there are going
to be problems. The formation within the UK of the British Standards Organisation (BS) is now
also incorporated in a European Standard (EN – Europaische Norm).
The BS standard BS 8888:2000 covers the complete standardisation of practice within the
drawing office although several other standards relating particularly to symbols have been
produced and these will be introduced.
3. Basic Geometric Constructions

The basic tools of the pencil aided draughtsman are a ruler, a 45 and 60 degree set square, a
compass and the all important rubber.
Using these tools and geometric constructions (most 2D constructions) can be drawn. Typical
simple constructions would be:
x The division ( bisecting) of a line or angle

x Construction of a tangent
x Blending of radii
x Construction of an ellipse
You should have had some experience at undertaking such constructions. Even more advanced
constructions would be:
x Locus of a point like a cycloid

x Development of a helix for say a spring
x Cam follower motions
Constructions are time consuming and require experience if they are to look good. The
development of CAD has meant that such constructions are unnecessary although the use of a
CAD system still takes time and experience. The accuracy and versatility however makes their
use worthwhile.
4. Drawing Layouts and Paper Sizes

There are two major paper sizes in the world. The American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) is based on a standard paper size of 8É x 11 inch designated as A and increasing to 33 x
44 inch as E.
The Metric Standard paper size starts at A4 and is 210 x 297mm. This size is doubled 4 times to
create 5 sizes upto A0 which is a rectangle of one square metre in area, the sides of which are in
the ratio 2: 1. Since the sides of the divided sheets are always in the same 2: 1 ratio drawings
can be enlarged or reduced to fit exactly into any of the other sizes.
There are two orientation formats: landscape and portrait in which the longest side of the sheet
is horizontal or vertical respectively. Traditionally landscape is used for engineering drawing.
Figure 1. Paper sizes
Construction drawings should contain a border or margin frame around the edge of the sheet.
These are created using a thick line with a border gap of Éinch or 10>12mm. Borders are used
if grid references are to be included usually on large format drawings with letters used vertically
and numbers horizontally.
A drawing like a document should have some means of reference for an organisation and
recording. To provide this information a small area of the drawing is defined and in this area is
place a title block.
There is no standard format for the title block but usually a company will have its own block
which is preprinted on the drawing paper or available as a CAD template.
A3 Drawing Template
Text Example for Title Block

The BS recommends that the information that be contained in this title block be at least:
x Draughts person’s name

x Date of issue
x Projection of drawing
x Scale ratio
x Title
x Drawing number
Other information such as name of firm (company logo), signature, copyright, units of
measurement, material specifications, revisions, warnings, tooling and gauging references etc.
may be included. The information can be located wherever the designer requires but is usually
located at the lower right hand corner of the drawing. This location and format should be
maintained throughout a set of drawings to enable ease of use.
4.1 Layout
It is obvious that a drawing should fit within the border frame although the space should be
optimised with the scaling factor noted. Usually the main drawing is located towards the right
and detailed small drawings are located on the left of the page.
In a multiview drawing where views are projected, some careful planning may be required to
ensure that all the views fit together within the confines of the borders.
When several different items are included on one page they should be clearly separated with an
outline and each drawing should have a title block.
Single part drawing should give all detailed information required to enable the component to be
manufactured.
The number of views required will depend on the complexity of the designed shape. The part
will have one part number.
Collective single part drawing will show a single part but dimensions which vary according to
say length will be given differing part numbers which should be tabulated on the drawing.
Assembly drawings are made up of many separate components. A drawing showing all the
components in their correct physical relationship is called an assembly drawing. The view may
be sectioned to show internal components.
Individual components within the assembly will not be dimensioned but referenced by a circled
number ( ballooned) with a leader pointing to the drawn component part and a reference parts list
included containing the number of parts associated with the assembly and the part name.
An exploded drawing assembly shows all the components as separate 3D items in their correct
position for assembly. These are used for assembly and are usually provided with flat-pack
furniture kits and car manuals.
5. Linetypes
Lines are the backbone of construction drawings. Lines are representation of objects but most
commonly they represent only the edges of an object which is not how an object appears. In
reality the edges of an object appear to be lines but they represent only boundaries defining the
difference in tone from one object to another caused by given light conditions. In sketching, the
use of tone can be represented by shading, which gives a more realistic appearance, but line
drawings are a more efficient way to represent objects and to give dimensioned views to allow
manufacture.
Lines can also represent things which cannot be seen such as the path of a door which is shown
as an arc. These are called lines of abstraction. In engineering drawing there are two types of
line which are used:
x Lines which are meant to be seen

x Lines which are not meant to be seen.
The shape and width of the lines are standardised by BS 8888 (Fig 2(a)&(b)) to allow anyone
with knowledge of the meaning of the linetypes to interpret a drawing produced anywhere in the
country (even the world).
Lines which are not meant to be seen but are drawn to establish a basic shape to make sure that
the drawing boundaries are appropriate and to allow details to be constructed are known as
construction lines. The lines are continuous, thin (0.3mm) and usually drawn with 2H or 4H
leads.
Object lines or outlines define what the drafter is trying to depict and are meant to be seen. The
lines are continuous and heavy (0.7mm).
The way in which lines meet is a measure of the accuracy of drawing and this is especially
evident for the object line. Straight lines that are meant to meet should meet or cross slightly.
They should definitely meet. When a curve meets a line (tangent) it is better to draw in the curve
before the line as it is easier to make a perfect join at the end of the curve.
Hidden lines are object lines that cannot be seen, because they are covered by an object or they
faceaway from the viewer. Hidden lines are produced by alternating line segments and spaces
where the lines are about twice the length of the spaces. The line thickness should be 0.3mm.
Centre lines indicate the centre(s) of symmetrical objects. These can occur in more than one
axis on the same page i.e. at the centre of a circle. The lines are constructed using two dashed
segments separated by spaces. The ratio of segment length is about 10:1. At the intersection
point for example a circle two dashes overlay. The lines should project outside the object to
which they refer.
Text lines or lettering should be compatible with the object line density. The text height should
be a minimum of 7mm or 5mm for A3 and A4 sheet drawings for title block and about 3mm for
dimensions. The first step in producing consistant height is to use guidelines. In general upper
case lettering should be used with letters vertical. The width / height ratio should be about 75%.
Dimension and Projection lines are continuous lines 0.35mm thick and placed outside the
outline of a drawing. Projection lines from outlines should not touch the drawing and a small
gap of 2-3mm should be left. The projection line should then extend the same distance beyond
the dimension line.
Dimension lines are headed with arrows which touch the projection lines. Centre lines should not
be used as dimension lines but they can be extended when used in the role of projection lines.
Figure 2(a)
Drawing Handbook - 10 -
Figure 2(b)
6. Introduction to AutoCAD
There are numerous CAD packages available on the market place some of which you may have
used already. The most notable ones are Solid Works, ProEngineer or ProDeskTop, IDEAS,
Ashlar Vellum, Matra Euclid, Micrographics Designer, Microsoft Visio, Visio Technical, Bently
Microstation, Delcam, DesignCAD, Intergraph Imagineer, IntelliCAM, TurboCAD and
CADKEY. The Department of Engineering has copies of some of these but the main teaching
package on the Network is AutoCAD 2002 which is considered as the Industrial standard.
A CAD drawing is made up of objects (elements such as points, arcs, circles and text) positioned
on Cartesian co-ordinate points within a drawing area defined by drawing limits. The monitor
screen is used as a window into the drawing area and areas can be magnified or shrunk by
zooming and different areas can be scanned using panning.
AutoCAD 2002 allows you to work on more than one drawing in a single session. You can
switch between drawings from the Windows menu. You can therefore simply copy and paste
objects between drawings.
AutoCAD commands can be entered from:
x Keyboard into the Command Prompt area.

x The top pull-down menu
x Toolbars
The most convenient way to start AutoCAD 2002 is using the TODAY option which can be
initiated by typing TODAY in the command line. The My Drawings section allows the user to
open a drawing by accessing Open Drawings, Create Drawings or Symbol Libraries.
Open Drawings allows access to previously opened drawings.

Create Drawings allows a new drawing to be created from either a template file, scratch or
wizard.
Symbol Libraries allow the user to start a new drawing and access the library of symbols from
the Design Centre.
Examples in this handbook show the keystroke commands together with the menu options and
icons. The reason for this is because they will work in most AutoCAD versions (including DOS
versions), and in some other CAD programs. The icons work well, but as you will see, icons can
be placed anywhere on the screen and can be difficult to find quickly. The pull-down menus will
access all commands, but are a slower way of doing things.
Example: If you want to draw a line, you can do it a few ways:
x At the command line type: LINE (or) L and press the ENTER key.
x Select the line icon from the DRAW toolbar.
x Select Draw - Line from the pull-down menu.

All three approaches will do the same thing: i.e. prepare AutoCAD to draw a line where you tell
it.
AutoCAD is a popular program because it can be customized to suit an individual's needs. The
toolbars are a good example of this. You can have the toolbars you use most often on the screen
all the time. You can easily make them go away so that you have more drawing space. You can
also customize them so you have the most common commands on one toolbar.
Active Assistance: when you are learning to use AutoCAD it is useful to activate the active
assistance feature in HELP. Call any tool and the dialog shows help in using that tool.
6.1 Basic AutoCAD Terminology

Here are some basic terms that you will need to know to begin using AutoCAD.
Absolute co-ordinates A way of inputting points based on AutoCAD’s origin.
Acad.dwt This is the default template that automatically loads whenever you
start a drawing session. It can be customized.
Associated Dimensions that are associated with specific points will update as
Dimensioning that point is moved.
Backup file AutoCAD can be set to automatically backup your drawing and save
it. This is a safeguard in case your file gets corrupted. It is saved with
a .BAK extension
Block A pre-drawn image you can insert in your drawing to save time and
make your file size smaller.
Crosshairs This is your cursor when it is in the drawing space.
Cursor Your cursor will change depending on where it is in the program.
Dialog box AutoCAD uses a large number of dialog boxes to get information
from you. You must know how to input the information that it asks
for.
Drawing template file This is a file that contains preset values for frequently used settings.
Extents The outer boundaries of the objects you have drawn.
Grid This is pattern of dots displayed on the screen to guide you. It can be
toggled on and off by pressing the “F7” key.
Grips Small 'handles' on objects that allow for quick editing
Layer All objects are drawn on a layer. You can group objects (such as
electrical) on a single layer and organize your drawing.
Limits A setting to impose an 'artificial' boundary on your drawing and scale

your text and dimensions, etc.
Linetype All objects are drawn with a particular linetype. Examples would be
solid, centre, dashed, etc.
Model space The drawing space where you 'model' the objects.
Modify A generic term used for changing your objects
Object Any item that is in the AutoCAD database. Also known as an entity.
Origin The (0,0) point of your current co-ordinate system.
Ortho mode This is a drawing mode that allows you to draw only perpendicular
lines. It is toggled on and off by pressing the * key.
Osnap - Object Snap This is a method of 'snapping' to certain, precise points on an object.
Paper space An optional area used for plotting your drawings.
Pick To select an object by 'left-clicking' on it.
Plot Also known as print. To make a hard copy of your drawing.
Polar co-ordinates A way of inputting points based on distance and angle.
Relative co-ordinates A way of inputting points based on a starting point.
Selection set The current group of objects selected for modifying.
Snap This is a drawing mode that allows you to snap your cursor to precise
points laid out in a grid pattern.
Styles Formatting that defines the look of text, dimensions, etc.
User co-ordinate Modifications made to the World Co-ordinate System (WCS) results
system (UCS) in a User Co-ordinate System (UCS)
View A particular area of your drawing.
Viewport A separate 'window' on your drawing. You may have more than one
viewport visible to see different areas of your drawing at the same
time.
World Co-ordinate This is the common X-Y co-ordinate system that is the default. If it is
System (WCS) modified, it becomes a User co-ordinate System (UCS)
6.2 AutoCAD Preferences
Graphics Window background defaults to black which might not be desirable. To change, go to:
TOOLS>OPTIONS>DISPLAY>Window Elements>Colours. Select the colour desired.
Graphics Window Font: this can be changed to best suit the user.
1
2
3
4
5
8
9
10
11
12
Figure 3. AutoCAD 2002 graphic screen displays the following:
1. The title bar 7. On-screen cursor

2. The menu bar 8. Coordinate system
3. The standard toolbar 9. Model and layout toolbar
4. Properties toolbar 10. Command prompt window area
5. Drawing toolbar 11. Status bar
6. Drawing area 12. Co-ordinate of the cursor
6.3 Commands Unique to AutoCAD
Some commands are unique to CAD as they cannot be used in pencil drawing.
1. BREAK – splits a line, circle or polyline into entities of the same type.
2. CHANGE – allows the location, size, orientation of objects to be changed.
3. ERASE – removes objects from the drawing without a rubber!
4. COPY – copies one or more objects and places them at specified locations.
5. EXTEND – extends an object to meet another object
6. MOVE – moves an object or more than one to a new location.
7. OFFSET – constructs an object parallel to another object.
8. TRIM – used to trim objects within a drawing so that they end precisely at a cutting
edge.
9. UNDO – allows commands to be undone.
10. OOPS – restores all objects erased by the most recent ERASE.
11. MIRROR – makes a mirror image of existing objects.
12. ZOOM – increase or decrease the apparent size of objects.
13. PAN – shows a different part of the drawing to be displayed without change of
magnification.
14. REDRAW – cleans up the display by removing stray pixels.
15. DIVIDE (DRAW>POINT>DIVIDE)– places evenly spaced point objects along the length or
perimeter of an object.
16. ARRAY – allows multiple copies of objects in either rectangular or circular pattern.
Most of these commands can be found in the MODIFY toolbar. Having selected the objects and/or
corners use the RIGHT mouse click to complete the commands.
ZOOM – zoom allows you to change the magnification of your view. There are three icons: (1)
clicking on the +/- icon and dragging up the screen will magnify, dragging down will zoom out.
(2) clicking on the zoom window allows the selection of a box to be magnified. Select a point
and pull the window around the required area. (3) zoom previous icon remembers the previous
level of magnification when you click on the icon. Zoom Extends command or Zoom All will fit
the complete drawing on screen. Right click while in zoom mode gives you all the zoom options.
PAN – (hand icon) pan allows you to move around the drawing area by holding down the
l.h.mouse button and dragging.
Zoom and pan options are presented in the following table.
COMMAND
ICON DESCRIPTION
OPTION
Zoom All This option causes AutoCAD to display the whole drawing as far as its
drawing limits or drawing extents (whichever is the greater of the
two).
Zoom Centre This option requires two things: a point that is to be the centre of the
new display and a value to be its new height in drawing units. The
existing height is the default for the new height to allow for panning
across the drawing. If the new height value is followed by "X" (e.g.
2x), then it is taken as a magnification factor relative to the current
height. If followed by "XP", then it is taken as a scale factor relative to
paper space and can be used for scaling the contents of paper space
viewports.
Zoom Dynamic This is a very useful ZOOM option once it is understood. It permits
very quick movement around the drawing. Once selected, this option
redraws the graphics area of the screen and displays two rectangles.
The larger box shows the extents of the current drawing. The smaller
box shows the current view with an "X" in the middle. This moves
with the mouse. This view box should be positioned so that its lower
left corner is at the lower left corner of the view required. By pressing
the left button on the mouse, the "X" is replaced by an "> " pointing to
the right side of the view box. This allows you to change the
magnification. As the mouse is moved, the view box shrinks and
expands so that the size of the required view can be set. The left mouse
button toggles between PAN "X" and ZOOM "> " mode so that fine
adjustments can be achieved. When the view required has been
selected, press (ENTER) or right click to cause AutoCAD to display it.
Zoom Extents This option will display all the graphics that are contained in the
drawing (referred to as the drawing extents) with the largest image
possible.
Zoom Previous This option restores the displayed view prior to the current one. For the
purpose of this option, up to 10 views are saved so that the last ten
views can be recalled. This option includes every time you use the
scroll bar, which is one reason to avoid the scroll bars for panning a lot
in your drawing.
Zoom Scale This is a ‘hidden’ default option. You do not have to type "S" to
choose this option. It simply requires the entry of a number that
represents a magnification factor. Note that the factor is applied to the
entire drawing (as defined by the drawing’s limits). Numbers less than
1 will reduce the displayed size of the drawing, while numbers greater
than 1 will enlarge it. If "X" is inserted after the number (e.g. 0.8x)
then the factor is applied to the current view. If "XP" is inserted after
the scale factor, then the view is scaled relative to paper space. This is
useful for zooming a view within a paper space viewport to a specific
scale, for example, "1/48XP" will produce a view of model space at a
scale of ¼" = 1’ relative to paper space.
Zoom Window This option (also a ‘hidden’ default) prompts the user to pick two
corners of a box on the existing view in order to enlarge that area to fill
the display.
Zoom Realtime Zoom Realtime provides interactive zooming capability. Pressing
(ENTER) (after entering zoom) on the command line automatically
places you in Realtime mode. Hold the left mouse button down at the
midpoint of the drawing and move the cursor vertically to the top
(positive direction) of the window to zoom in up to 100% (2x
magnification). Hold the left mouse button down at the midpoint of the
drawing and move the cursor vertically to the bottom (negative
direction) of the window to zoom out to100% (.5x magnification). You
cannot zoom out beyond the extents of the current view.
When you release the pick button, zooming stops. You can release the
pick button, move the cursor to another location in the drawing, and
then press the pick button again and continue zooming from that
location. To exit Realtime Zoom mode, press (ENTER) or (ESC).
PAN Panning allows you to quickly move around the drawing area at the
same magnification you currently have set. Type in PAN (or P) and a
hand will appear on the screen. Left click and hold to move around
your drawing.
TRIM - first select the cutting edge which is the line to which the cutting will extend to; RIGHT
click; then select the overlap which is to be trimmed back to the cutting edge.
ARRAY tool opens an array dialogue box:
System variables can be reset using SETVAR. Variables include:

x APERTURE – height of target box for OSNAP
x FILLETRAD – fillet radius
x SNAPUNIT – snap spacing
These can be accessed through the TOOLS menu and DRAWING AIDS.
GRID AND SNAP - The grid is an array of dots placed uniformly on the drawing. It is a
drawing aid and will not print. The size of the grid may be changed at any time by typing GRID
at the command line. The F7 key toggles the grid on and off or in the status line switch box.
Points on the grid can be snapped.
When snap is not active the cursor cross-hair moves smoothly across the drawing area. Snap
causes the cursor to move in jumps defined by the value input into SNAPUNIT. Snap can be
switched on and off using the F9 key or in the status line switch box. Often snap and grid
settings are the same.
SNAPPING ONTO OBJECTS - To accurately reference entities already in a drawing object

snap is used. There is a SNAP menu bar available. Snap tools allow you to lock onto the end of a
line or centre of a circle. Snap and object snap should not be used at the same time. Osnap can
be switched on and off using the status line switch box. In situations where you are constantly
selecting from the snap toolbar it is easier to set up the running object snap so the cursor
automatically selects those snaps as you approach an entity. The cursor shape changes when it
nears a position where the snap matches. The Osnaps settings can be activated by double click
on the OSNAP switch or press F3 key.
ICON SETTING
ENDPOINT
MIDPOINT
CENTER
NODE
QUADRANT
INTERSECTION
INSERTION
PERPENDICULAR
TANGENT
NEAREST
APPARENT
INTERSECTION
QUICK
NONE
OSNAP SETTINGS
ENDPOINT – This snap is used to get to the exact endpoint of a line, arc or other object that has
a definite ending to it. This should be used for joining lines, and dimensioning. In general, you
would want this on as a running Osnap in your drawing. The endpoint Osnap is indicated by a
small square.
MIDPOINT – This is used to find the exact middle of any object that has a beginning and an
end. All lines and arcs have a midpoint. (Circle have a centre, not a midpoint.) This is also a
good Osnap to have in running mode. The midpoint Osnap is indicated by a small triangle.
CENTER – The centre Osnap is used to find the exact centre of circles, arc and ellipses. This is
also a good Osnap to leave in running mode. To pick the centre point, you have to select the
object itself, and not an area in the middle of the object. The centre Osnap is indicated by a small
circle.
NODE – Nodes points in space. They are created using the point command. They are also
created when an object is divided. A node Osnap is indicated by a circle with angled crosshairs
in side.
QUADRANT – Quadrants are the ‘corners’ of circles and ellipses. Arcs can also have quadrants.
The quadrant Osnap is indicated by a diamond.
INTERSECTION – The intersection Osnap appears wherever two objects cross. If you select
one object you’ll see a cross with three dots indicating that you have to select a second object to
find an intersection. Pick on the second object and AutoCAD will find the intersection for you.
This is handy when you have a lot of lines in the same area. An ‘X’ indicates the intersection
Osnap.
INSERTION – The insertion Osnap will snap to the insertion of points of objects such as blocks,
text and attributes. Each object will be different depending on how it was created. The insertion
Osnap is shown as two small, offset squares.
PERPENDICULAR – The perpendicular Osnap is used to draw a line from one point to another
point at a right angle (90degrees) to an object. This Osnap can save you having to trim or extend
afterwards. If you use the perpendicular Osnap for starting a line, you will get the indicator with
3 dots telling you that the next point is needed to establish the starting point. The perpendicular
Osnap is indicated by a square with two extending lines.
TANGENT – Tangent Osnaps are used on circles, arcs, ellipses and splines. A line tangent to an
arc gives you a smooth line off the curve. If you select the tangent Osnap as the first point, your
indicator will have three dots following it. This means that the tangential point can not be
established until the second point is given. The tangent Osnap is shown as a circle with a line
across the top of it.
NEAREST – The nearest Osnap does just as the name implies: it will find the closest point on an
object relative to where you started. This is handy for measuring distance and drawing quick
lines, but can lead to erroneous results when dimensioning or drawing. This Osnap should rarely
be used in running mode, and never for dimensioning. The nearest Osnap is indicated by a
triangular hourglass.
APPARENT INTERSECTION – The Apparent Intersection Osnap is used when two objects
appear to intersect on the screen, but do not truly intersect in 3-D space. It also works when any
two objects do not intersect, but you need to find the point where they would. This Osnap will
also find the true intersection of two crossing objects. This Osnaps has different indicators
depending on which mode is needed at the time.
QUICK – This Osnap is used in conjunction with the other Osnaps that are turned on in running
mode. It will find the closest Osnap in the area where your cursor is. You must have at least one
Osnap turned on for the quick Osnap to work.
NONE – This command is used to turn off any Osnaps that may be on in running mode. You can
also disable your Osnaps by hitting the F3 key, which would be a faster way of doing this.
To use object snap to draw from an existing object:

1. choose the object you wish to draw
2. select the mode of snap required i.e.tangent.
3. move the cursor to the point where you require to locate and a square box will appear at
the snap point.
4. define the new object from this point
If you have a lot of objects in one area, and need a particular Osnap, use the TAB key to cycle
through all available Osnaps in the area. As you hit the TAB key, you will see that the Osnap
location changes and AutoCAD highlights the object you would snap to.
If you want to invoke the Osnap dialog box while in the middle of a command, type in ‘OS at the
command prompt. You can then make your changes and then continue with the command.
If you want to change the appearance of the Osnap indicators, such as size or colour, bring up the
Osnap dialog box and pick on the AutoSnap tab.
6.3 Object Selection Methods
A collection of entities for processing is called a selection set. Objects can be selected when
there is a small box at the cursor point. Several selection methods exist from the command line
such as: W – all visible objects, L – last object.
Grips are little blue boxes that appear on selected objects. The Escape key will remove them.
They appear at specific points such as the ends and middle of an object. Grips can be dragged to
perform actions such as rotation, moving and scaling.
It is difficult to select objects that are close together or lie directly on top of one another. Hold
down CTRL and left click to cycle through the objects local to the mouse point, one after the
other, until the required object is highlighted. Press ESC to turn off cycling. To remove items
from a selection set, hold down SHIFT and select them again.
6.4 Modifying Properties
Editing the properties of objects within a drawing is done using MODIFY>PROPERTIES from
the menu bar, by double clicking on an object or using the tool. The property dialogue box
can be displayed as either the Alphabetic or the Categorised tab selections.
For a line the boxes look like as follows. Items in text that is bold can be edited.
GRIPS – grips offer a limited modifying method with five commands of stretch, move, rotate,
scale and mirror. Grips are turned ON:1 and OFF:0 at the command line.
Moving a circle – click on the circle and grips appear; click on the centre grip and it becomes
solid red. The circle may now be moved. Stretching the circle can be performed using the grips
on the circumference. After selecting use the right click on the mouse before moving the mouse
to the new location or typing the 2nd point of displacement or @distance < angle.
Moving a line or endpoint – click on the line to select; click on the middle or endpoint to grip it
then move to the new position. Stretching a line is performed by selection of either the left or
right end point, right click and moving the mouse to the new location or typing the second point
of displacement.
Selection Windows – objects can be selected by enclosing them in a selection window which is
a rectangular area specified by two corner points at the Select Objects prompt. The order in
which the corner points are specified makes a difference. Window selection is performed by
dragging left to right selecting only objects within the selection area. The window is displayed
by a continuous line. Crossing selection is performed by dragging right to left selecting objects
within and crossing the selection area. The window is displayed as a dashed line.
Stretching an Object – by selecting an appropriate area using crossing window (or

nd
STRETCH>c>), right click, picking a base point (anywhere in the window) and sliding to the 2
point or typing @distance<angle, the object is stretched.
6.5 Text
Text can be added to a drawing from:

DRAW > TEXT > Single / multiple line text or using the command text or mtext, right click.
Before creating multiline text the width of the paragraph must be defined. When text entry is
complete AutoCAD inserts the text within the width limit although the length of the box is
defined by the amount of text and size. The text can be altered after entering from a
Multiline Text Editor dialog box using a left double click.
Text styles can be selected from:

FORMAT > TEXT STYLE > dialog box. (Font name - AutoCAD fonts and Windows True Type
fonts are available shown as callipers and TT respectively).
One of the options Width Factor is useful to allow words to be compressed or expanded. The
default setting is 1. There are other options to allow slanted and vertical text.
Editing text can be done by:
Toolbar MODIFY > PROPERTIES where height, width factor orientation and other parameters
can be defined.
Several alignment features are available with TEXT such as top, middle, baseline, bottom, left
right and centre after the JUSTIFY prompt. Left alignment is the default. Text can also be fitted
into a designated space using FIT by specifying the start and finish points.
Special Text
x %%d degrees i.e.45%%d 45O

x %%p plus/minus i.e.100%%p0.5 100+/-0.5
x %%c diameter i.e.%%c5 5
x %%u underscore
x %%o overscore
7. Layers and Linetypes

In the construction of a drawing the initial outline is defined by construction lines and
centrelines. The detailed form of the component is then drawn using these lines as a basis to
define the interior geometries.
Text may also be added to give details of construction and manufacture.
The final drawing will not necessarily require all this detail hence the use of layers. In
architectural design the use of tracings for levels of a building with electrical, plumbing and
waste services allows the detail for each feature to be viewed without being obscured by the
detail of other features although by adding the other detail interactions can be seen.
In pencil drawing use of tracing paper allows the superposition of the construction and text detail
onto the main outline.
The tracing paper sheets act as layers which can be added or subtracted as required.
7.1 AutoCAD Implementation:

CAD construction allows the formation of a drawing using layers representing each of the
features of construction and services each of which may have differing colours. Figure 4 shows a
5 layer drawing from Yarwood with a table showing the layer name, colour and linetype.
Figure 4
Yarwood suggests that six layers are sufficient and to complete the examples a template file with
these defined should be set up and saved so that it can be loaded before starting a CAD example.
Layers are defined from the FORMAT > LAYER menu bar or icon which will bring up the
layers properties manager dialogue box. Layer 0 is the default layer which is presented when
AutoCAD is loaded. By adding New named layers linetypes with varying colour and form can be
generated. The suggested six names, colours and linetypes are given in table 1.
Name Colour Linetype

0 Black Continuous
Centre Blue Centre2
Construction Green Continuous
Dimension Grey Continuous
Hidden Red Hidden2
Text Magenta Continuous
Table 1
To the left of the layer icon is the layer control icon which controls whether a layer is on, off,
frozen or thawed.
Name: defines the name associated with the layer. On/Off: defines when a construction on the
layer is visible on screen. Lock/Unlock: defines when constructions can be added but existing
objects cannot be modified.
Freeze/Thaw: similar to on/off in that the layer disappears from the drawing but redraw when
unfrozen is faster. Colour: show the colour in which an object will appear. The symbols
associated with layer control are shown in figure 5.
Figure 5
Linetypes
The default linetype in AutoCAD is a continuous line. To draw other types of line access the
linetype library from the OBJECT toolbar by clicking on the linetype icon.
The linetype required can be LOADED from the library list. Linetypes can be scaled to change the
spacing of elements such as dashes and spaces. From the FORMAT menu select LINETYPE and
change the SCALE of the current object from the default value of 1.
Linetype can be associated with layers.
Template
When you have set up a border, title block and set of layers for a particular style of your own, it
should be saved as a template file (*.dwt) you can recall whenever you require to use that style
for a new drawing. Several styles are already available from TODAY>Create
Drawings>Template.
8. Co-Ordinate Systems
A Cartesian co-ordinate system has three axes, X, Y, and Z. When you enter co-ordinate values
you are indicating a point’s distance in units and its direction along the X, Y, and Z axes relative
to the co-ordinate system origin (0, 0, 0).
In AutoCAD the fixed World Co-ordinate System (WCS) is:
x X axis horizontal
x Y axis vertical
x Z axis perpendicular
AutoCAD treats a 2D drawing as though it is 3D but with the co-ordinates of the Z axis kept at 0.
To view the drawing from another angle 3D viewport should be used. This will not give a 3rd
dimension but allows a line offset.
There is also a moveable system called the user co-ordinate system (UCS) which makes it easier
to work especially in 3D.
2D Cartesian co-ordinates are specified by specifying an X and Y co-ordinate representing the

absolute or the relative location of the point.
In the absolute coordinate system points are defined with respect to a single origin point which
normally is 0,0,0. The default location is the bottom left hand corner but the position can be set
anywhere using the Tools>New ULS> Origin.
In the relative co-ordinate system points are defined with respect to the previous point. In
AutoCAD this is done by preceding the next co-ordinate with the @ symbol.
2D Polar co-ordinates systems use a distance and an angle to locate a point. To specify a point
enter the distance unit, an angle bracket (<) followed by the required angle. By default counter
clockwise angles are positive. A line can be drawn from a point at a defined angle to an
undefined point by entering the first point and then the angle alone prefaced by the <. An angle is
positive going anticlockwise from the right hand horizontal and negative going clockwise e.g. -
450 is the same as 3150.
The current cursor location is displayed on the status bar and is updated as the cursor is moved.
The display mode can be cycled through using F6 changing from X, Y, Z (dynamic & static) to
X,T Z when entering a line. Direct distance entering allows a line to be drawn in a desired
direction by entering the first point, moving the cursor to the desired angle but not press ENTER.
Entering the required length in the command line specifies the length of the line and is confirmed
with ENTER.
Distance, angle and co-ordinates between points can be found by using the
Tools>Inquiry>Distance command. Area of an object can also be found with this command.
Origin locations can be relocated in AutoCAD by changing to the UCS using the Tools menu
and specifying a point for the new origin. To restore the WCS select WORLD from the Tools
menu.
9. Lines, Splines and Nurbs

9.1 Lines
A straight line is described by two sets of X and Y co-ordinates or one co-ordinate set, an
angular orientation and a length.
AutoCAD Implementation:
In AutoCAD lines are constructed with the command line and are always straight lines of width
0. LINE requires point to point co-ordinates as separate inputs.
To specify a point enter the distance unit, an angle bracket(<) followed by the required angle. By
default counter clockwise angles are positive.
As in Cartesian co-ordinates relative co-ordinates are preceded with the @ symbol.
An extension of a co-ordinate can be made by inputting the length and followed < character and
angle of the new line.
This procedure can also be undertaken using the line icon and the mouse with the co-ordinate bar
as the indicator for points or angle where F6 allows a toggle between Y and angle.
Points are defined by pressing the right hand mouse button.
Lines can be defined by a direction set from a start point using the cursor to define the direction
and then input the length at the command line. The line will terminate at the end point and a
second line can now be drawn using this point as the new start point with another direction
defined by the cursor. Selection of ORTHO will define angles of 0/90/180 & 270 degrees only
Polar Tracking lets you draw lines and specific point displacements in directions that are
multiples of a specified incremental angle. The increments can be changed from
Tools>Draughting Settings.
Polylines can have varying width and can be formed into arcs. This type of line can be
constructed using the pline command. Input commands are the same as for LINE but with the
addition of ARC.
When an outline is constructed using the command line each part of the outline is a separate
object. When the outline is constructed using the command polyline the whole outline is a single
object.
Lines constructed with the line command have a width 0. Polylines can be of varying width
even with a different start and finish width for lines and arcs.
A line can be converted to a polyline using the MODIFY > OBJECT > POLYLINE toolbar.
Polylines can be also be edited using the Modify menu and choosing Object>Polyline
Xlines are construction lines that extend to infinity in both directions ( DRAW>CONSTRUCTION or
draw toolbar). Construction lines should be drawn using the appropriate layer and are useful in
laying out a drawing and especially when multiple views are being constructed. Xlines do not
change the extent of a drawing and therefore their infinite dimensions have no effect on zooming
and they will move and rotate as objects. Construction lines are usually turned off when printing.
Ray lines (DRAW>RAY) are similar to construction lines but extend to infinity in one direction
from a start point.
Circles and arcs can be defined using the circle and arc commands specifying the centre and
radius or the start point, second point and end point respectively for example.
Points can be drawn with a variety of styles using the point tool. The style can be selected from
the Point Style box using the command DDPTYPE. Any number of points can be drawn until right
clicking ends the sequence.
9.2 Splines and Nurbs
Although a wise designer avoids complex curved shapes for the sake of economy, many
engineering shapes are required to be so in order to be efficient, i.e. a ships hull or gas turbine
engine, where analysis generates the optimal shape required in the form of co-ordinate tables.
To define a curve numerically it is necessary to calculate the co-ordinates of closely spaced
intermediate points along the curves between those specified.
In PAD curves are drawn by joining these points with a French curve or a flexi-curve.
Therefore an approximate mathematical equation for each section of curve is required; these
equations form a spline. The obvious choice of equation for each section is a cubic polynomial
with 4 constants ( y a bx cx 2 dx 3 ). To establish these 4 known values of X and Y must
exist for each section; start, end and two within the section.
There are difficulties with the cubic spline which have been overcome by using a parametric
spline.
A spline therefore is a smooth curve passing through a given set of points. Splines are useful for
creating irregular-shaped curves and surfaces, for example, drawing a contour line for
geographic information, roads, ship profile or automobile body design.
AutoCAD Implementation
AutoCAD uses a particular type of spline known as a Nonuniform rational B-spline (NURBS)
curve. A NURBS curve produces a smooth curve between control points. NURBS are used in
modelling real-life objects in films and entertainment and increasingly for virtual reality
applications.
AutoCAD creates true splines, which are NURBs curves, with the spline command. Splines can
be produced by DRAW>SPLINE and edited using the Modify menu and choosing OBJECT>SPLINE.
9.3 Sketch Mode
x At the command prompt enter sketch.

x At the record increment prompt enter the minimum line segment length of which 1 is the
highest resolution.
x To put the pen down click the left mouse button and when you move the mouse
AutoCAD draws a temporary freehand line coloured green. When you want to stop
sketching clip the LH button. Press ENTER to complete the sketch and the line should
change to a black outline.
x If you want to use Snap or Ortho mode while sketching you must use the keyboard
toggles ( F8 and F9 respec.) as the status bars have no effect.
x To erase enter e and move the cursor to the end of the line you drew last. Move the cursor
back as far along the line as you want to erase. To end the erase session enter p or to
undo the erasure enter e.
10. Working with Blocks

A block is an object or group of objects which are gathered together and given a name.
10.1 AutoCAD Implementation

Part or all of any AutoCAD drawing can be inserted into any other drawing or can be saved as a
block for insertion into another drawing.
A block is a collection of objects that can be associated together to form a single object. Blocks
can be used to build a standard library of frequently used symbols or components instead of
recreating the drawings each time they are required.
Using blocks can help keep your file size down. AutoCAD stores block definitions in its
database. When you insert a block, AutoCAD only stores the name of the block, its location
(insertion point), scale and rotation. This can be very noticeable in large drawings.
If you need to change something, you can redefine a block. For example, you draw a chair and
turn it into a block. Later, you’re told that the size of the chair has changed. Since you used a
block you can redefine the block and all of your chairs are updated automatically. If you had
drawn (or copied) 100 chairs in your drawing, you would have to manually change each one.
When inserting a block the X and Y scale factors can be applied together with a rotation.
Blocks can be defined in three ways:
x BLOCK (icon or b) to group items for use in the current drawing only
x BMAKE to group objects for use in the current drawing
x WBLOCK (w) to group objects in a separate drawing file which can be used as a block
definition for other drawings. AutoCAD considers any drawing inserted into another
drawing to be a block definition.
To define a block:
1. from the DRAW menu choose BLOCK>MAKE
2. enter the name for the block (one continuous word)
3. in the block definition box choose select Point
4. select the insertion base point
To save a block as a separate drawing file:

1. at the command prompt enter wblock
2. enter the drawing file name
3. either enter the block name; if the same as the file name enter an = sign or to reate
a new block definition and save it as a drawing file press ENTER.
The block definition is saved as a drawing file.
It can be inserted using the icon or inset block command. AutoCAD needs two things: a
scale and a rotation angle; press (ENTER) to accept the default X scale factor of <1> Press
(ENTER) again for the Y scale factor then press (ENTER) once more to accept the rotation angle
of <0>
11. Multi-View Drawings

One of the challenges a drafter faces is to perceive and depict three dimensional objects on a two
dimensional medium.
There are two systems of pictorial projection: isometric and oblique projection of which
isometric presents the more natural looking view of an object. These projections are usually used
in sketching and pictorial drawing of an exploded collection of parts.
Most engineering drawings do not attempt to give a 3 dimensional representation in a single

view. Instead they present views in 3 directions at right angles, positioned on the drawing so that
the viewer can visualise the object correctly. This is known as orthographic projection and with
a little experience, reading such a drawing is easy and automatic.
11.1 Isometric Projection
Isometric drawing ignores perspective and lines are made parallel to each other using a tee
square and a set square.
Three isometric axes are inclined at 120 degrees to each other. One axis is vertical and the other
two are therefore at 30 degrees to the horizontal. Dimensions along or parallel to these axes are
true lengths. Strictly speaking natural dimensions are diminished on the axes. Isometric drawing
is best begun by drawing an enclosing box or boxes.
Circles and curves drawn in isometric projection cannot be generated with a compass but need to
be constructed. The four arc method of construction can be used as shown in figure 6.
Figure 6
AutoCAD Implementation:
x To execute a drawing in isometric mode the mode must be made active.
x From the TOOLS menu select DRAFTING SETTINGS.
x Activate the ISOMETRIC/SNAP/GRID by checking ON.
x Select the isoplane you want to work on assuming logically the left, right and top are the
isoplanes. F5 allows planes to be toggled as shown in figure 7.
.
Figure 7.
Isoplanes are associated with an associated pair of axes:
x Left – orientates the snap and grid alignment along the 90 and 150 degree axes.
x Top - orientates the snap and grid alignment along the 30 and 150 degree axes.
x Right - orientates the snap and grid alignment along the 90 and 30 degree axes.
Using TILED VIEWS > LAYOUT > TWO VERTICAL allows two viewports to be defined and saved
(usually left and right) to avoid toggling and speeds up the isometric drawing process.
Creating an isometric line from a point is best performed by first defining a new origin at the
bottom apex of the drawing using TOOLS > UCS > ORIGIN. Select appropriate isoplane and the
LINE DRAW option and the first point using the mouse left click, then move the cursor in the
required direction for the line (30/90/150) and input the required true length. The end point of
the line will now represent the start point for the next line which again is defined by a direction
and a length. Complete the process using ENTER.
Drawing an isocircle requires the isometric mode to be on and using the ellipse command gives
the option of an ISOCIRCLE.
Select the appropriate isoplane and the centre point. The circle should look correct for the
selected isoplane.
Text can be added to an isometric drawing running parallel to the bottom of the isoplane by
defining the rotation angle appropriate to the plane.
o o
FORMAT TEXT STYLE: oblique angle: left face – 30 & right face 30 .
o o
DRAW TEXT: rotation left face 330 & right face 30 .
Isometric drawing is actually 2D giving a realistic appearance of 3D. In a 3D image the Z

component must be present giving the appearance of depth or thickness. This can be achieved in
AutoCAD by giving a 2D component a Z co-ordinate after first selecting a 3D viewpoint >
Select. By selecting the X axis at 45 degrees and the XY plane at 45 degrees and then defining a
thickness, using MODIFY, a 3D model can be generated. By adding the command HIDE the sides,
become opaque and looses their hidden views. Adding FILLETS, to sharp corners, generates
vertical lines called tessellations. RENDER gives a realistic solid model.
11.2 Oblique Projection

Like the isometric drawing, oblique projection attempts to present a view showing 3 faces of an
object. Three axes are used, two at right angles to each other, the third at 45 or 30 degrees and
positioned to the right side. The vertical elevation is usually taken as the front face and the depth
of the object as the inclined face. Full size dimensions on his face tend to make the object
distorted and half depths or three quarters are used to give a proportionate diagram.
Since the front face is drawn in the plane of the paper, any circles on this plane are true circles
making construction easier.
Like isometric drawing, oblique projection is best begun by drawing an enclosing box or boxes.
Trimetric projection is a type of projection that endeavours to lessen the distortion by using
angles greater than 90 degrees. Typical angles are 100, 150 and 110 degrees. Measurements
along the three axes are not equal with each axis requiring a scale.
True isometric projection is an application of orthographic projection and overcomes the

problem of showing more than three sides of an object and circles and curves are seen normal to
the view so are not distorted.
Orthographic projection has two forms:

x First angle which is traditionally used in British industry
x Third angle which is used in the USA and Continental countries.
11.3 First Angle Projection
Figure 8
Figure 8 shows the recommended proportions for the projection symbols.where d is usually
10mm. The symbol for 1st Angle is:
Figure 9
The basis of this projection is a horizontal and a vertical hinge as shown in figure 10.
The viewing plane or eye view is usually the vertical plane (VP). The view on to of this view is
defined by the horizontal plane (HP) which is generated by folding down the object via the
imaginary hinge which links the two planes at the lower edge of the vertical plane. The third
view is the side or end elevation (EP) which is generated by folding back the object via the
imaginary hinge which lies on the vertical right hand or left hand side of the VP.
Figure 10(a) & (b)

11.4 Third Angle Projection
The symbol for 3rd Angle is:
Figure 11
The viewing plane or eye view is usually the vertical plane (VP).
The basis of this projection again is a horizontal and vertical hinge but this time the horizontal
view (HP) is produced by folding up the imaginary hinge which now lies at the top edge of the
vertical plane as shown in figure. The third view is the side or end elevation (EP) generated by
folding forwards either or both the left and right hand imaginary vertical hinges of the VP.
Figure 12
In both cases the front elevation should link horizontally to the end elevations and the plan or
vertical view link to the end elevations by 45 degree lines upwards in the 1st angle and
downwards in the 3rd as shown in figures 13(a) & (b).
Figure 13(a)
Figure 13(b)
In drawings in which there is an inclined surface an additional auxiliary elevation may be used to
clarify a view.
11.5 Assembly Drawings
A detailed drawing is of a single part and shows all the details necessary to make that part.
The assembly of a group of parts to show how they fit together is called an assembly drawing or
a general arrangement as shown in figure 14.
Features of an assembly drawing are:
1. detailed parts dimensions necessary for manufacture are excluded but overall dimensions
can be included.
2. if there are internal assemblies then sectional views should be used
3. each part is given a unique number, indicated on the drawing by a circle with the number
in it and a leader line pointing to the part. The line terminates with an arrow if it finishes
on the edge of a part or a small circle if it lies inside the part.
4. a list of parts showing the part number and reference to part drawing, description,
quantity and material to be used should be included together with the assembly drawing.
Figure 14.
Assembly drawings can be orthographic but are best shown in semi-3D form such as isometric.
Assembly drawings can be exploded where each part is removed just enough to show exactly
how they all fit together.
Figure 15(a).
Often it will be necessary to show a series of exploded drawings which take the reader through
the assembly process. ( figure 15(a) & (b)
These are commonly found on instruction leaflets for flat-packs, toys etc and are usually known
as sequential drawings.
Figure 15(b).
11.6 Development
Objects are not always made from solid material; they can be manufactured from sheet material
which provides the required outer shape with a hollow core such that the manufacturing cost,
total mass and material waste is reduced.
From the projection drawing a development can be produced which is used to cut out the
complete shape of the object on the sheet material which can then be bent or rolled into the final
shape.
If this method is to be used the designer must visualise and draw the final 3D component in an
unfolded 2D form showing the required bends. In practice sheet material has thickness which
must be allowed for at the junctions and bends which cannot be made without the formation of a
small radius.
Figure 16 shows the development of a square prism with an oblique top.
Figure 16.
12. Sections and Hatching

When an object is drawn the number of views should always be kept to a minimum. However in
order that sufficient information to show the internal shape; it is necessary to make a sectional
view.
This view is an imaginary cut through any part or plane of the object in order to explain what is
happening under the external surface which would normally be hidden detail.
The plane on which the cut is made is called the cutting plane.
Cutting planes are shown by long chain lines thickened at the end, thin elsewhere and labelled by
capital letters at the ends. The direction of viewing is shown with arrows resting on the
thickened end lines.
Cutting planes can be located on different planes through the section in which case a thick right
angle is used to illustrate the change of direction
In general sections should be hatched using lines inclined at 45 degrees.
Section lines should be suitably spaced in relation to the area to be covered. A constant line
spacing of 4mm is recommended but should be reduced when the hatching area is small. Where
different parts meet the direction of hatching should be reversed and staggered. If more than 2
different parts are shown then the spacing can be varied and / or the angle.
When a section passes through a rib, bolt, nut, shaft or thin material etc. it is practice to show
them in external view.
The sectioned view should be labelled as SECTION A-A.
Hatching line patterns can be very informative about describing the material of the object if
standardisation exists. This is the case within most CAD systems or at least most materials are
defined.
12.1 Symmetrical parts
It is not always necessary to draw symmetrical parts in full. In such cases the line of symmetry
is defined by two short heavy lines draw at each end of and at right angles to the line of
symmetry which is defined as a centre line(s).
For parts in which only a small asymmetry exists the addition of a note can define the features
which are not common.
12.2 AutoCAD Implementation.
Hatch pattern palettes within AutoCAD cover both ANSI and ISO standards.
There is no sectioning command so sections have to be drawn and hatched by the user.
A 3D solid may be SLICED by cutting the existing solid but the cut faces need then to be hatched.
Hatch tool is called from the DRAW menu> HATCH or use the icon.
Boundary Hatch Dialog Box allows hatch to be defined for a selected object or objects.
13. Conventional Symbols in Drawing and AutoCAD

Conventional representation is adopted for many common features where complete delineation
of the part would involve unnecessary drawing time and space.
There are many symbols covered by British Standards for example:

x BS 3939 Part 1 to 13 covers electrical power, telecommunications and electronics
diagrams.
x BS 2917 Part 1 or ISO 1219-1 covers circuit diagrams for fluid power systems and
pneumatic devices and components.
Some typical examples are presented in the following features:
Figure 17(a)
Figure 17(b)
Figure 17(c)
The AutoCAD Design Centre is basically a drawing management system which has several
powerful features; one of which is a library of symbols which can be viewed and dragged and
dropped into a drawing as blocks. The Design Centre can be loaded from the Standard menu
icon.
AutoCAD libraries of predrawn symbols are available on the Network for electrical and
electronic components, and mechanical fixings and components.
The main menus for the 5 directories of symbol are:
x AutoCAD symbols: Mechanical symbols to ISO and DIM standards. ( symbols are stored
in directories defined numerically).
x AutoCAD symbols: Mechanical symbols according to ANSI and ISO standards.
x AutoCAD symbols: Electronics library.
x AutoCAD symbols: JIC Electrical library.
x AutoCAD symbols: IEC / DIN (European) Electrical Standard symbol library.
The symbol libraries menu should be loaded on top of the AutoCAD page from the
ACADSMB32 program.
Images can be selected, copied, orientated and located within a drawing. Editing requires the
preticking of the “Explode symbol during insertion” box.
The image titles appear in the top line as the cursor is located on the icons; if the symbol is
required, select with the left mouse button to move to the parametric menu.
14. Diagrammatic Drawing

The diagrammatic or schematic approach is probably the most professional and efficient method
of presenting a complete system whether it is mechanical or electrical.
It reduces a drawing to its barest essentials making the fullest use of symbols and conventions. It
is essential for any user to be able to interpret these symbols if he or she is to be able to make
sense of the diagram.
Diagrammatic drawings can be isometric, oblique to convey a 3D picture or orthographic if the

component parts are shown as a functional layout.
The most straightforward use of diagrammatic layouts is a chemical or hydraulic piping system.
Symbols used for pneumatic and hydraulic circuits are given in BS 2917.
Diagrammatic drawings are also used in electrical and electronics for wiring harnesses, printed
circuit boards and integrated circuits. Symbols used for electrical and electronic equipment and
circuits are given in BS 3939.
14.1 Circuit Design
A well drawn schematic makes it easy to understand how a circuit works and aids
troubleshooting.
Rules
x Pins numbers, part values, polarities should be labelled.
x Wires that connect are indicated by a heavy black dot.
x Wires crossing but not connected just cross each other.
x Four wires should not connect at a point i.e. cross and connect.
x Wires and components are aligned horizontally and vertically.
x Do not attempt to bring all wires around to supply rails or a common ground. Use
ground symbols and labels like +Vcc.
Figure 18. A typical schematic circuit is shown

A code method for identification of components is used called a reference designation.

Reference designations were developed as one or two letter symbols and refix a component part
number or value. The code is followed by the component number for the circuit. Examples of
this can be seen in figure 16. Some typical standard codes are:
B fan
C capacitor
CR diode
F fuse
K relay
PS power supply
TR transitor
U integrated circuit
A sequence of steps is followed in the production of a PCB:
1. translation of a general concept into a schematic diagram with components in a logical

order and a list of components and parts.
2. preparation of the board component layout after obtaining the physical size of the
components and their connections. The spacing of components may be significant for
power or high frequency circuits. Connection crossovers need to be avoided
3. board tracking layout and pin connector holes needs to be “drawn” and the resulting
layout used to prepare a circuit board.
14.2 AutoCAD implementation:

AutoCAD does not simulate the operation of a circuit but allows the schematic to be produced.
The design and simulation of a circuit requires a more dedicated program link Orcad. Programs
like LinkCAD allow the importing of AutoCAD diagrams for simulation and PCB layout.
15. Information Diagrams

A overview of a set of instructions or methodology can be best presented in a diagrammatic way.
The type of diagram can vary depending on the nature of the information but typical examples
are: block diagrams, organisational charts and trees (computer systems), flow diagrams, network
diagrams, Time Line diagrams ( Gantt charts), Floor plans, Fishbone diagrams, Mindmaps and
Software design diagrams.
15.1 Block diagrams
A block diagram is a simplified diagram of a system. Labelled geometric figures and

interconnecting lines represent the functional relationship and flow of information between the
units or sections.
Block diagrams are the easiest form of diagram to draw and read which make them ideal for the
conveying of information to people with limited technical knowledge.
Each block represents a stage, substage or unit of the total system as an independent function.
Block diagrams are usually the first step in a design process enabling the designer to describe a
system with all its related units. The function of a system can be more readily understood from a
block diagram.
In electronics, block diagrams are used where it is unimportant to show specific circuit
connections or exact components.
A block diagram is a diagram composed of block objects which are usually square or
rectangular. They may have symbols linked to them. The blocks are labelled and joined by
arrowed lines indicating the direction of flow and inputs to and outputs from the blocks.
Text in the blocks explains what it actually does or what it is.
A typical example of an audio amplifier is shown in the figure:
Tone and
Pre-amplifier Power amplifier
Volume controls
Microphone Loudspeaker
Block diagram for an Audio Amplifier
15.2 Flow Diagrams
Flow charts attempt to show the sequence in an operation or a series of events.
The term functional sequence or relationship determines the flow between units hence there is an
input and an output. Electronic diagrams are usually drawn left to right whereas computer flow
diagrams are draw with a top to bottom flow. Flow diagrams use a variety of shapes such as
diamonds for decisions and circles for processes. Standard symbols are given in BS4058.
Typical symbols are show together with their use:
Enter and Exit -(start / stop) indicates the beginning and ending points. All flow charts have one entry
but there can be several different exits.
Activity or Process step - show activities in the process. There can be more than one arrow coming in
but only one arrow going out.
Decision points - shows decision points in the process. There is one arrow coming in but two going out.
The exit lines are labelled with the answers to the question posed in the diamond i.e. YES or NO.
Input or Output - shows something being added or taken away from the process i.e. input could be
from a keyboard or an output could be to a VDU.
Connection - connects one part of a flow chart with another in a long chart that may extend over several
pages.
Major step - identifies the major steps in the process across the top of the flowchart. Breaking the chart
into major steps simplifies the flowchart and provides a quick overview. Activities will branch off
downwards from the major steps.

An example shows the use of these symbols in a flow chart design:
Process Group and sort Assign symbols Test the Review and
Enter Exit
walk-through the steps and arrows flowchart revise
Identify all of the Perform the job

Group the steps Assign symbols Assign a review
steps in the using the
into major steps to each step date to the chart
process flowchart
Organize the sub-steps Identify missing No Yes Has the

List the steps on Flowchart
into the correct steps / reorganize process
self stick notes. accurate ?
sequence of flow steps changed?
Yes
No
Connect all steps
Use the Yes
with arrows
flowchart
showing the flow
Due for a
review
No
Continue to use
the flowchart
In software design a flowchart identifies the starting and ending points of a process, the second
point the process and the decisions or branching along the way. The flow chart allows a
software program to be designed without knowing anything about programming other than
simple principles.
15.3 Tools
Information diagrams can be constructed using pencil and ruler but if you require something
more flexible and probably quicker then a specialist piece of software should be used with
symbols already predefined. The other properties for a good CAD information diagram
construction are: predrawn shapes, alignment of objects, making the objects the same size,
spacing objects evenly, centering on a page, automatic text resizing within objects, shapes
remain connected when moved, bullet and arrowed lines and inclusion of tables.
The most popular tools are MS Visio and SmartDraw. AutoCAD has the capability to do most
of these functions and some of the common shapes are available from the symbols library.
16. Abreviations for Use on Drawings

To save a vast amount of text on a drawing which may obscure the line details of the drawing
use of standardised symbols is made.
It is important that the standards are used to allow interpretation to be made to others in the
design and manufacturing process.
Some general terms and abbreviations are:
A/F across flats (usually on shafts and bolt heads).

ASSY assembly
CRS centres
CL centre line
CHAM chamfered
CH HD cheese head
CSINK countersink
CSK HD countersunk head
CBORE counterbore
CYL cylinder or cylindrical
(preceding a dimension) diameter
DRG drawing
HEX hexagonal
MATL material
MAX maximum
MIN minimum
NO. number
PCD pitch circle diameter
R (preceding a dimension) radius
SCR screwed
SFACE spot face
UCUT undercut
17. Dimensioning – Datums and Parametrics

A drawing may not be presented in true scaling so it is important that ALL dimensions are given
on the drawing and it is not left to the user to try to estimate a dimension by measuring the
drawing. In saying this it is also important that no more dimensions are presented than are
necessary to define a product.
Dimensions for a particular feature should be placed on a single view rather than several.
Some dimensions are functional and directly affect the function of a product. This may affect the
choice of the datum.
Use of a datum prevents the accumulation of errors associated with a number of serial
dimensions. There is usually a datum associated with the vertical dimensions and the horizontal
dimensions. A datum is usually used by the machine tools operator to define the start point
(origin) for a drilling or machining process so a correctly located datum aids this process.
17.1 Parametrics
The term relates to the maintaining of relationships between elements of a drawing so that when
changes are made the relationships are maintained.
The relationship between variables is constrained by rules which can be geometric and
dimensional
Parametric drawing allows you to create a shape and then specify the exact measurements.
The simplest of applications is in the use of parametric symbols is for a ball bearing that is
available in a range of 300 different sizes. Using non-parametric models a parts library would
require 300 individual files to represent this bearing’s varying sizes. This would require between
3 to 5 MB for just one type of bearing. With parametric design you require only two files, one
parametric CAD model and a database of dimensions, which in the case of this bearing would
take approximately 60KB of room. This represents a saving of more than 95%!
In design where the dimensional parameters of elements within a drawing may require changing
a pencil drawing has only one solution – the rubber. In CAD changing the dimension with a
parametric package will mean that the shape will change to accommodate the new dimension
without affecting the relationships of the other dimensions. In some packages i.e. Ashlar Vellum
it is possible to construct a complete geometry in terms of variables. The actual dimensions can
then be specified in a spreadsheet and the new geometry generated by these dimensions resolved.
Formulae can be associated with these variables.
The process allows the flexibility in design to optimise sizes to suit constraints such as stress
limitations.
18. Dimension Lines, Projection Lines and Leaders

Dimension lines should be thin and continuous and wherever practical placed outside the outline
of an object. They should not cross other lines if possible.
Hidden lines should not be dimensioned if possible.
Dimensions should be headed by solid arrow heads of about 3mm length and 1mm width. The
arrow head should touch the dimension line.
Projection lines are thin continuous lines that project from points, lines or surfaces to enable the
dimensions to be placed outside the outline. A small gap should separate the projection line from
the feature being dimensioned. A short extension should be left beyond the point where the
dimension line touches the projection line.
Leaders are used to show where dimensions or notes apply. They are thin continuous lines
ending in an arrow head which touches and stops on a line. If they extend within the outline of
an object they should terminate with a dot.
Long or intersecting leaders should not be used even if this means repeating dimensions or notes.
Leader line text can be open or bounded by a circle or oblong.

Dimensions can be added to any line or arc using the DIMENSION toolbar.
Parameters for geometry, format and annotation of text can be changed by editing the dimension
styles either from the toolbar or the dimension menu. Select DIMENSION>STYLE>ANNOTATION
(for text size)>RTN>RTN. To update the new dimension style on individual elements use:
DIMENSION>UPDATE>select the elements>RTN.
AutoCAD default is horizontal dimensioning text even for vertical dimensions. To make a
permanent change to align text with the dimension line ( i.e. BS) use DIM>STYLE>TEXT and
clear both tick boxes or use the dimension text edit icon from the toolbar and input a text angle
of 0.
Dimension text can be deleted using MODIFY>OBJECT>TEXT. Select the text to delete and place
in editor; delete the <> and replace with nothing using the space bar; OK.
Projection lines are called extension lines with tip extensions and origin offsets which can be
changed.
Associative dimensioning means that a dimension is associated with an object; if the object size
is changed then so is the actual dimension. Set in TOOLS>OPTIONS>User Preferences
Continual dimensioning allows a series of linear dimensions all positioned at the same level and
in serial mode.
Baseline dimensioning will refer all dimensions back to a datum line. The dimensions are
stacked above each other with the separation distance defined by DIMDLI.
DIMEDIT allows replacement of the dimension text.
19. Dimensioning of Linear and Common Features

There are two kinds of dimensions:
1. size dimensions – how big is a shape

2. location dimension – where is the shape wrt a datum
Dimensions should be presented in the view where the shapes can be seen true size and form.
The units used in dimensioning should be indicated in the title block.
Overall linear dimensions should be placed outside the intermediate dimensions.
Redundant or auxiliary dimensions, such as an overall dimension which may be useful in

manufacture but is not crucial in the acceptance of the product, may be included but should be
bracketed and not toleranced.
For small linear dimensions two leader lines can be placed either side of two projection lines and
the text inserted between the two projection lines or outside on one of the leaders.
Linear dimensional text should be written parallel to the dimension line usually centrally and just
away from the line.
Diametral text should be headed by the symbol. The text should be written parallel to the line
which can be positioned at the left or right hand end of a shaft or as a leader line along the length
of a shaft.
Diametral text for circles can be placed inside the circle or out but if inside should be parallel to
the dimension line. If the text is outside then the text is treated like a leader line which can also
be used and should be parallel to the X axis.
BS 8888 prescribes that the diameter can be indicated both inside and outside the circle but that
the text inside is parallel to the line but in a horizontal plane outside.
These options can be made default in AutoCAD from DIMENSION > STYLE > Dimension Style
Manager.
Tick boxes: User defined, Force line inside, and outside horizontal. Select Text and Arrows.
Radii should be dimensioned by a dimension line which passes through or is in line with the
centre of the arc. The dimension line like a leader should have only one arrowhead that touches
the arc. The abbreviation R is placed in front of the dimension. Radii may need the centre of
their arc showing and dimensioned.
Holes should be dimensioned by giving the co-ordinates of their centres or a centre to centre
distance.
Holes on a circular path should be dimensioned in terms of an angular spacing or position. If a
number of holes have a spacing which is uniform then X HOLES are given the term EQUISPACED
on an X PCD where X defines the diameter.
Counterbores and countersinks are defined dimensionally by the abbreviations CBORE and CSK
together with the relevant diameter x depth and angle for CSK.
Chamfers are defined dimensionally by a linear dimension and an angle.

Screw threads are defined dimensionally by their diameter x pitch. The diametral dimension is
prefixed by the letter M if the thread is metric or suffixed by the type of thread i.e. BSF or NF if
cut to another standard.
For external threads the length is given as a separate linear dimension.
For internal threads the depth is given with the diameter x length.
Specifying units and angles of less than one degree:
x FORMAT > UNITS > ANGLES – select precision: deg/min/sec and decimal
x DIMENSION > STYLE >Dimension Style Manager >MODIFY>primary units > deg/min/sec
Enter as a relative co-ordinate value as a length and angle i.e. @500<45d30’30’’
In AutoCAD, Dimension tools allow Styles to be defined for all types of dimension and text.
Styles can be customised.
Dimension Style Manager
The formatting style of dimensions can be set from a master Style Manager dialogue box:
Arcs and circles can be constructed using either the tools bar or command line defined by a
variety of methods such as 3 points for an arc and centre and radius for a circle.
Chamfer and fillet which link two lines together can be constructed using the MODIFY toolbar.
The size of the chamfer or fillet are required first followed by selection of the lines to be linked.
By input of a zero radius fillet or zero distance chamfer, two lines that do not intersect will do
so after using this command.
Icons can be selected from the dimension toolbar or command line using for example:
dimlinear, dimradius or dim right click, hor or vert and dim right click, ra respectively.
Centre marking – this tool enables the centre of circles and arcs to be marked with a small
cross. This cross can be transformed into a centre line which is associated with the circle by
DIMENSION STYLE>Lines and Arrows>Centre Marks>change type box to “line”. The size defines
the length of one arm of the centre cross of the centre line.
20. Toleranced Dimensions

Since it is impossible to make a part exactly to size, each dimension should have a tolerance
either applied directly or indicated by a note specifying the limits of size which is acceptable if
the component is to be useful after manufacture.
This is particularly a problem in mass production where several parts are manufactured
independently and then brought together to make up a device or system which with the correct
application of tolerances will always function as desired although each component may be
slightly different. The application of fits and tolerances is part of the subject of
interchangeability.
Toleranced dimensions are expressed by specifying directly both limits of size as shown or by
specifying a size with limits of tolerance above and below a size i.e. 42 +/- 0.5. If a drawing has
dimensions to which a general tolerance is applied then this should be indicated in the title block.
Consideration may be given to the control of such characteristics as flatness, roundness,

parallelism, square ness etc. to determine how far they should be permitted to vary from the
perfect geometry.
Tolerance of form and position specify the maximum permissible overall variation in form and
position of a feature and are called geometric tolerances.
Example of toleranced dimension:
The widest application of tolerance is the shaft / hole situation where 3 classes of fit are
considered:
1. clearance – where there is always a space between the shaft and the hole. Example is a
valve in a guide.
2. transition – where the shaft is always very slightly smaller or larger than the hole (a few
micron). Example here is a valve guide in the cylinder head.
3. interference – where the shaft is always bigger than the hole requiring force to assemble
the components. Example here is a shrink fit gear onto a shaft.
The values of shaft and hole diameter together with the range of max. and min. value above and
below the basic dimension are described in BS 4500A and defined as H7>H11 and s6>c11 for
holes and shafts respectively (table 2).
On Engineering drawing these values would appear as two diameter dimensional values or the
basic diameter with the max. and min. variation alongside.
Geometric tolerances such as straightness are defined using leader lines to divided rectangular
boxes containing (1) a symbol of the form tolerance and (2) the tolerance value.
Geometric tolerances are applied over and above normal dimension tolerances when it is
necessary to control more precisely the form or shape of some feature.
Geometric tolerances can be added from the DIMENSION menu using TOLERANCE.
Table 2
21. Printing / Plotting

The method of printing / plotting is restricted to the default Windows printer. Print or plot
depends on the version of AutoCAD.
When the menu item PLOT is clicked in 2002 a Plot dialogue box appears with options for Plot
device and Plot setting. From “setting” the method of selection of area is Limits, Display,
Extends or Window selection where an option to define a box by co-ordinates or pick is
displayed. The full review button will allow a screen display of the print area which can be
confirmed as a printout by using OK.
The PLOT REVIEW option generates a complete preview showing how the drawing will look
when plotted on the selected page size and plot device.
22. Using Raster Images in AutoCAD Drawings

A raster image is made up of a series of dots and is similar to a photograph. Most AutoCAD
drawings are made up of vector images i.e. lines and solids. Being able to use raster images in
AutoCAD drawings means that many different types of image can be included in drawings from
packages such as CorelDraw, Paintbrush and Powerpoint.
Inserting a raster image into a drawing is done by INSERT>RASTER.
After selecting, the image may be modified such as moved, stretched, mirrored or rotated.
Following selection a double click with the left hand mouse on the selection box allows the
brightness and contrast to be adjusted.
23. Data File Exchange
A drawing definition is the closest approximation to a paper drawing that a CAD system will
store.
Files produced by AutoCAD are of the type .dwg. These files cannot be read by some other
packages notably Microsoft Office.
Files can be saved in other formats to allow them to be exported into other systems. The most
useful formats are: .bmp, .dxf, .eps, .stl and .wmf. The .wmf (Windows Metafile) format is used
to export files for input into a Word document. Objects required should be selected using the l.h.
mouse button and, to complete the file write process, press the r.h. mouse button.
In 2D the .dxf and .dwg format files, originating from AutoDesk products, have become the
standards for data transfer. Drawing Interchange Format (DXF) enables the interchange of
drawings between AutoCAD and other programs and contains a complete description of the
AutoCAD drawing and is widely used. However, neither DXFs nor DWGs are parametric
formats.
In 3D solid modelling the problem is more complex. Even though all the various Solid
Modelling platforms work with parametric models, they are also incompatible with each other
and conversion programs are required to go from one platform to another, often resulting in the
loss of parametric features and information. The accepted Initial Graphics Exchange
Specification (IGES) or Standard for the Exchange of Product Model Data (STEP), file formats
are not altogether satisfying. IGES specifies formats for the exchange of geometric data for
curves, surfaces and three-dimensional solids. IGES format covers a restricted range of NURB
definitions. STEP is an emerging international standard covering the use of NURBS to exchange
the complete range of splines and surfaces. This having been said, the main objective of a
mechanical parts library is to save time, meaning that the insertion of components needs to be as
quick as possible. This is not possible using conversion programs and therefore an independent
3D parametric format (compatible with all the main platforms) is required.
BS EN ISO 10303 series of standards for the exchange of product modelling data have been
developed to provide a neutral means of describing product data throughout their life-cycle
independent from any particular CAD software system.
23.1 The Internet
Drawings can be published on the web using the Publish to Web wizard generating a web page
that displays images from one or more drawings. The option is selected from the File menu or
the standard toolbar.
23.2 Email or eTransmit
Drawings can be sent via email or as an attachment in .exe or .zip format. The receiver must
open the extractor.exe to obtain the .dwg file. This can be done either from the File menu or the
standard toolbar.
24.0 AutoCAD Function Keys
F1 Help
F2 Toggling the Graphics and Text windows
F3 Object snaps ON/OFF
F5 Isoplane switch
F6 Co-ordinates ON/OFF, X/Y or X/
F7 Grid ON/OFF
F8 Ortho ON/OFF
F9 Snap ON/OFF
F10 Polar Tracking ON/OFF
F11 Object Snap Tracking ON/OFF
Ctrl+1 Properties dialog box
Ctrl+2 Design Centre
24.1 Enter, Mouse, Up/Down Keys & Spacebar

Spacebar has the same function as ENTER.
Spacebar or ENTER repeats a command that you have just used.
UP/DOWN arrows recall previous information on the current session.
RIGHT CLICK produces a shortcut menu from which you can choose the “repeat last
command”/cut/copy/undo/pan/zoom(real time mouse).
Usually you “select” with a left mouse click and “activate” a command with a right click.
Acknowledgements
Extracts from British Standards have been reproduced by permission of the British
Standards Institution.
Exercises in the Use of Microsoft Excel
Microsoft Excel is called a "spreadsheet". A spreadsheet could be defined as "a program that simulates an
accountant's worksheet on-screen and enables you to embed hidden formulae that perform calculations on
the visible data".
The history of spreadsheet development starts as follows. In 1978 a Harvard Business School
student named Dan Bricklin became tired of adding up columns of numbers and adding them up
all over again after making a few changes, just to assess the effect of a company merger.
Bricklin, who knew a little about computers from summer jobs at Wang and other firms, came
up with the idea of a spreadsheet program running on a personal computer. Bricklin's teachers
thought the idea was nonsense but he and a programmer friend, Bob Frankston, produced
VisiCalc, a program for the Apple II computer, and launched an important new chapter in
microcomputer usage.
A spreadsheet program presents the user with a matrix of rows (usually numbered) and columns (usually
as signed alphabetical letters) that form individual cells. The on-screen display is called a worksheet.
Each cell has a distinctive cell address, such as B4 or D19. Into each cell, you can place a value (a
number), a hidden formula that performs a calculation, or a label (a heading or explanatory text). It is
formulae that make a spreadsheet powerful. A formula can contain simply constants, such as 2 + 2, but
the most useful formulae contain cell references, such as D9 + Dl0. By placing formulae in a
spreadsheet's cells, a user can create a complex network of links among the parts of a spreadsheet. The
formulae are hidden behind the cell, but the values they generate are visible.
VisiCalc was a huge success; more than 700,000 copies of the program eventually were sold, and
VisiCalc was almost single-handedly responsible for the success of the Apple II personal computer.
VisiCalc met stiff competition from Lotus 1-2-3 in the IBM PC environment and by 1984 had
disappeared from the market. Spreadsheets have acquired many new features since VisiCalc's time. Lotus
1-2-3 is an integrated program that combines analytical graphics and database manaQement with what is
clearly a clone of VisiCalc's spreadsheet. Recent trends in spreadsheets include the three-dimensional
spreadsheet programs, such as 1-2-3 Release 3.1, and Microsoft Excel which brings high-quality fonts
and graphics to spreadsheets.
Spreadsheet engineering has its limitations but once you have mastered the techniques of Excel you will
find it is a very convenient and quick way to solve simple problems. These skills will be of value also in
education for preparing teaching packages and demonstrations and in a business environment.
Actually spreadsheets do usually allow some programming so that the user can construct their own
'functions' to add to the list of those like sine, cosine etc. which are already available. User programming
can also be used to automate repetitive worksheet tasks by means of 'procedures'.
1. Using the Excel Spreadsheet
Notation: 'Pull-down' menu items in Excel are indicated here with the following notation for example
(Edit> Copy) indicates the Copy item of the Edit menu.
1.1 Starting Excel
Start the Microsoft Excel application. Choose [File> Save As], with a suitable name, to your allocated
disk space on the server. Future saves of the worksheet can then be done with [File> Save]. You should
do this frequently and certainly before any major changes to the worksheet. It is possible to have a
number of work sheets open (i.e. available on the desktop) at the same time but only one of them will be
the' active' worksheet in which you can enter data etc. into cells. A worksheet contains 'worksheets' which
are accessed by clicking on 'tabs' near the bottom of the screen. An active worksheet can be renamed by
using [Format> Sheet> Rename]. Worksheets are a useful location for already completed work such as
charts (Excel-speak for data plots!) saved as pictures.
1 .2 Getting Help with Excel
Help for the features and operations available in Excel can be found in the online help facility. This is
accessed by [?] (at the top of the screen> Microsoft Excel Help...) and contains various sections which are
opened by clicking on them.
1 .3 Referring to Worksheet Cells
The rows of cells are numbered sequentially and the columns are lettered i.e. A, B, C… Z. AA, AB BA,
BB...etc. so that a cell reference will look like E8.
1.4 Calculating the Worksheet
Before entering anything into a worksheet you should set Excel to calculate values on manual command
only (rather than automatically, as soon as any changes are made, which is the default) by choosing
[Tools> Options...] and then the Calculation “card” in the dialogue box. Set Calculation to Manual and
un-set 'Recalculate before save'. Dismiss the dialogue box by clicking OK or just pressing the Return key.
Then to make Excel calculate all the worksheets in the worksheet at any time use the F9 function key. To
restrict the calculation to the active worksheet use the Calc Sheet' button in the Calculation dialogue box
or simply press the shift key press the F9 key.
A very valuable feature of Excel is that charts that have been made of worksheet data are automatically
updated (i.e. replotted) if the cell contents are changed and the sheet is recalculated.
1 .5 Selecting Cells
It will frequently be necessary for you to be able to select one, or more, cells in the worksheet for
inserting numbers or formulae or for plotting data. The operations required are as follows:
x To select a single cell (becomes the current cell): Place the cross cursor on the cell and click the
mouse. The cell will show it has been selected.
x To select part of a row (horizontal) or column (vertical) of cells: Select the first desired cell and
then select the last desired cell but this time hold down the shift-key while clicking the mouse
(called 'shift-clicking'). The selected cells will highlight.
x To select a two dimensional array of cells: Select the first desired corner cell and then shift-click
the diagonally opposite desired corner cell. The selected cells will highlight. Another way to
achieve 2 and 3 is to “drag” the cursor from the first cell to the last cell with the mouse button
held down.
1 .6 Entering Data into Cells
To enter (or edit) data into a cell select it and type the required entry. The data entry bar near the top of
the screen shows the “cell reference” (column + row) of the cell selected and the data. Pressing Return
when the entry is finished will complete the process. A cell can contain, simultaneously, two types of data
i.e. numbers and formulae. Each time the worksheet is re-calculated the numerical content of all cells are
updated to the value produced by the formulae in those cells. Formulae usually involve the use of
numerical data contained in other cells on the worksheet. Note that a cell which does not contain a
formula will not change numerically on worksheet re-calculation.
To enter a formula into a cell first select the cell and precede the entry with =. For example, if the current
cell is B2 and we wish its contents, on calculation, to be the average of the cells above and below it we
would enter = (Bl + B3)/2.
Selecting a cell and using [Edit > Copy] will copy the entire contents of the cell to the clipboard.
Then, selecting a new cell (or cells) and using [Edit> Paste] will place the contents of the
clipboard into each new cell but with an adjustment to each one such that its formula is
appropriate to the new cell reference i.e. if C3 contains the formula =(Al + B2)/2, and cell C3 is
copied to cell D4 the formula in D4 will be found to be = (B2 + C3) / 2
These formulae employ what is called “relative referencing”. When it is necessary to use the contents of
a particular cell e.g. AA29 in calculations in other cells then “absolute referencing” is required i.e. that
cell should be referred to as $AA$29 in each formula. Using a particular column would require the $ sign
to be before only the first half of the reference. Using a particular row would require it only before the
second half of the reference.
Sometimes it will be necessary to transfer only some of the contents of a cell (or cells) to another cell (or
cells) e.g. only the numerical data and not the formula as well. In this case, after using [Edit> Copy],
select the target cell(s) and then use [Edit> Paste Special]. Choose the contents you wish to be pasted
from the dialogue box.
Examples: Modification Result when formula is copied from Al
=A$l the row remains constant
= $Al the column remains constant
= $A$l the row and the column remain constant
1 .7 Named Values (Absolute Addressing)
When writing formulae into cells it is convenient to be able to refer to a value (e.g. a constant) stored in
another cell by a name rather than by a cell reference e.g. by say, alpha rather than by SAA$29. To set
this up select the cell containing the value and do (Insert> Name> Define). In the dialogue box type the
chosen name and check that the cell reference is correct. You should avoid choosing names which can be
confused with cell references, for example, choose CONl rather than Cl. To keep track of where the
named values actually are it is helpful to write the same name in an adjacent cell (e.g. immediately
above).
1 .8 Conditional IF Statement
The IF function is used when you want a formula to return different values depending on the value of a
condition. Following the comparison values are returned if the condition is true or false. It is used in a
“What-if” situation.
Examples of IF formulae are: IF(ABS) - when the value is absolute, IF(SUM) if the sum of the range is
greater than 0, IF(AND) - if 2 conditions are met, IF(OR) - if the value is either or, IF (NOT) - if a value
is not equal to either condition.
These are written: =IF(AND(test1,test2),true-value,false value)
1.9 Charting Worksheet Data

At any stage the numerical data in cells may be charted (plotted) by:
x Select the first data column (all the numbers and the title) you wish to appear in the final
chart (probably this will eventually be the x-axis) and then the other columns by
'dragging' over the required cells with both the mouse button and the (command) key held
down. This will enable you to select non-adjacent columns for charting.
x Click on the “Chart Wizard” button in the toolbar at the top of the screen.
x If this button is not in the toolbar you will find it if you show the Chart toolbar by using [View
> Toolbars ...] and select Chart and OK
x In an empty part of the worksheet define a box by dragging the mouse diagonally with the button
down. This is where the chart will eventually be placed.
x Inspect carefully the series of dialogue boxes which appear. Type-in appropriate responses as
necessary to get the chart you require. You should generally select a linear XY scatter chart with
a line joining the points. Eventually the finished chart will appear. A chart can be “selected” by
single clicking on it causing 'handles' to appear around it. Use these to resize the chart as
necessary. A selected chart may be removed with the Delete key or moved to a new place on the
worksheet by placing the cursor on the plot and dragging the mouse with the button down.
This procedure produces what is called an “Embedded Chart”. To change the features of the chart (e.g.
the types of symbols plotted, the axis range etc.) activate it by double-clicking (the border will change to
grey) and then double click the feature you wish to change. The resulting dialogue box (some are like file
boxes with tabs to get to the different “cards”) will show the options available. Clicking outside the
activated chart will cause a return to an altered Embedded Chart.
An Embedded Chart will be re-plotted when the data it displays is modified. To prevent this the chart
must be copied as a picture. This is done by first selecting the chart and then, with the shift-key held down,
doing [Edit > Copy Picture]. Select “As shown on screen” in the dialogue box and then OK. The picture
is now on the clipboard and can be pasted into any worksheet.
2 Changing the Appearance of Cells

The appearance of selected worksheet cells can be changed using dialogue boxes which are presented
after choosing the item Cells or Columns or Rows from the Format menu. Whatever the font used for
display in the cells the font used in the data entry bar is always Geneva. This means that unusual
characters in some fonts will display correctly in a cell which has been set-up for that font but may appear
as a 0 in the data entry bar because the Geneva font does not have this character.
3. Using Excel
3.1 Workspace Window
x Title bar shows the file being used -starts as book 1
x Menu bar - used to access commands
x Tools bar a quicker method of accessing commands
x Formula bar entry area where you can see the contents of the current cell
x Name box (LH end) identifies the current cell address
3.2 Columns and Rows
x Left hand side of works pace are rows
x Top line row are columns

x Excel can support 256 columns and 65536 rows
x Cells are the intersection of a row and a column; each cell occupies a specific co-ordinate on a
worksheet referenced by the column then the row i.e. Al.
x Cell is given a reference or a cell address
x The active cell is indicated in the name box ( top LH box)
x Starting Excel automatically generates 3 worksheets 1,2 &3 which can be accessed from the base
of the worksheet or CTRL + page up / down
3.3 Cells
x Click on a cell and it becomes highlighted in bold as do the headings of the row and column that
make up the co-ordinates
x The ENTER key moves the cell selector down one row
x Using the enter button ( the green tick icon) completes data entry of a cell but does not move the
selector
x Use the X cancel button to delete an entry
x Arrow keys allow movement of one cell at a time
x Home key moves you to the 1st cell of a row
x End key moves you to the end of a row
x CTRL + home moves you to the 1st cell i.e. A1
x CTRL + end moves you to the last used cell in the worksheet
x Entered cell address is given in the name box and cells can be entered by entering their address in
the name box
x Selecting 2 or more cells is called a range
x A range can be selected by clicking and holding lh. mouse button whilst dragging over other
cells. Any changes will only be effect these cells
x Deselect a cell by clicking on any blank cell
x F5 allows the selection of a range of cells
x Menu EDIT means GOTO enter the reference line and type a range in the reference box.
x Deselect with the rh. key
x To select a complete column click on the column label
x To select a range of columns click on the first with the lh. mouse button and drag or click on the
first, press SHIFT and then select the last.
x To select individual columns hold the CTRL key then select each column
x To select the whole sheet ( select all) click in the box at the start of the row/column lines
x Formatting changes the manner in which a cell is displayed. Changes to format can be made
using the FORMAT command
x Edit by double clicking or use formula bar or F2 key
3.4. Entering Values & Text

x Can enter text and numbers which will spill over into the next column but are still part of the
original cell
x After entering a value press ENTER or an arrow key
x Format as standard is general; it aligns text to the left and numbers to the right
x Entering fractions - type 0 then SP bar then 1/2 numeric format (formula bar displays decimal
eqiv.)
x FORMAT /CELL /OPTION can provide a whole range of formatting options
x Changing a format only changes what is displayed in the cell not what is actually used by Excel
x Cell width - use COLUMN /WIDTH /FORMAT or use the cursor and double click bar or drag
the bar
x Row height - FORMAT /ROW HEIGHT or cursor on separation bar and double click or drag
3.5. Working with Sheets
x When starting there are 3 sheets available. Others can be added by INSERT - up to 255 sheets
allowed. Also can do by right mouse clicking on a sheet
x Rearrange sheet names by holding left mouse and drag.
x Select sheets by CTRL + sheet name; these can then be deleted
x Rename by highlighting double clicking and typing new name
x Auto-fill enables a sequence of numbers or dates to be entered using the fill handle on the lower
right hand corner of the active cell of an entry and holding the left hand button drag up or across
cells
x Editing a cell by clicking and changing in the formula bar or use F2 with the blinking cursor
x Cell alignment vertically or horizontally - wrap to suit - cell size will automatically change
x Spread text over cells - highlight cells using drag / FORMAT/MERGE & CENTRE
3.6. Formulae
x To copy a formula to a range of cells select the cell, go to EDIT/ A formula always begins with
an = sign
x Operators go in order of precedence of exponent", multiplication and division * /, and addition
and subtraction + -. The order can be overridden by use of parentheses Le.2*(5+6)
x = click in cell to enter it in the equation then, type + or -and click on next cell required in the
formula or enter the cell addresses manually.
x Complete by typing ENTER
x To edit a cell double click the cell then make the necessary changes
x COPY, select the range of cells to be used and PASTE in either vertically or horizontally and
finish with ENTER
x Can use the AUTOFIL handle or COpy - Excel automatically adjusts the cell references as the
equations are pasted in cells
x Functions are on the right of the formula bar
x When entering a formula type = the to display all the functions available use the collapse icon in
the name box to display all the functions available or use the Ix icon to select this option: 6 -
autosum which automatically calculates sums of columns, select a range of columns then click
the autosum icon and the sum equations will be added
x Clear cell information with EDIT / CLEAR or the DEL key
x To show all equations in a sheet for printing or viewing press CTRL and, key ( top left of
keyboard)
3.7. Cell Referencing (addressing)

When writing formulae into cells it is convenient to be able to refer to a value (e.g. a constant)
stored in another cell by a name rather than by a cell reference e.g. by say, alpha rather than by
SAA$29.
Examples: Modification Result when formula is copied from Al
=A$I the row remains constant
=$AI the column remains constant
=$A$I the row and the column remain constant
3.8. Printing
x Use RANGE / PRINT WHAT to print a small range of cells or select the top left and drag to
bottom right cell to define the print area
x Print will print the whole worksheet area
x If the whole sheet does not fit to one page use PAGE SETUP / FIT TO and the font size will be
changed to suit the page size
3.7 Charting
x Use chart wizard icon - covered in more depth in the handout" Exercises using Excel"
x Excel presents a dialog box with sketches of the various types. Line chart is a line with no
markers. XY is shown with markers and no line. XY plots the data in an ordered manner even if
in a disorderly form
x Smoothing charts is set by selecting the data points, select FORMAT DATA SERIES and option
PATTERNS or double click on plotted data.
x Finding the best fit to the data is undertaken using CHART / TREND LINE to which a fit can be
selected. The equation of the fit can be found by selecting FORMAT / SELECTED TREND
LINE / OPTIONS
4. The Exercises
This short range of exercises should give you a grounding in the use of Excel to problem solve.
4.1 Calculation of 4 resistors in parallel.
This example will familiarize you with entering text, numbers and a simple formula.
4.2 Using van de Waals Equation of State to calculate and display the range of pressures for a
gas at various temperatures and volumes.
This example will familiarize you with the use of series filling and absolute addressing together with the
use of an array.
4.3 Use of FUNCTIONS
This exercise is a simple example of the use of the 300+ functions available in Excel.
4.4 Use of the IF Condition Function
This exercise will familiarize you with the use of the IF function to return different values depending on
the condition of a returned value.
4.5 Creating a Chart and Fitting Curves to Data
This exercise will familiarize you with the use of Excel to plot data from a spreadsheet and fit curves to
the plot and derive the equations of the fitted curves.
EXCEL EXERCISE INSTRUCTIONS
* Save you worksheet after completing each exercise in case you loose your work.
1. Resistors in parallel.
x Change the title of sheet 1 to exercise 1

x Type the title on row 1.
x Type in B8 "Re=" and in C2 "I/R"
x Type in RI, R2, R3 & R4 in column A using rows A3to A7.
x Type in a range of values in column B using rows B3 to B7
x Type in the formula "IIB3" in C3
x Copy the formula to C4 to C6
x Type in the formula for the equivalent value to C8
x Calculate Re.
x Change the value of one of the resistors and check that the values change.
2. van der Waals equation of state
RT a
This equation is given by P 2
V b V
Change the title of sheet 2 to exercise 2

Type the title on row 1
Type in B3 "R", in C3 "Gas", in D3 "a" and E3 "b".
The values ofB3, a and b for carbon dioxide (CO2) are 0.08206,3.59 and 0.0427 respectively (for
the subscript: go to edit mode / highlight the "2" / select Format - Cells/ select subscript).
Type in the values in B4 for "R", C4 "gas name", D4 "a" and E4 "b"
Type in A6 to H6 " Pressure in atmospheres at varying Temperature and Volume" and centre the
text
Type in A 7 " Volume"
Type in B7 to H7 "Temperature (degrees K)" and centre the text
Using the autofil utility type in B8 to H8 "250, 260…"
Using the autofil utility type in A9 to AI8 "0.05, 0.1..."
In cell B9 type in the equation for pressure "(B4*B8)/(A9-E4)-D4/(A9* A9)
Click the check mark in the formula bar and B9 should read 1374.21 if you have put everything
in correctly.
Insert the $ symbols to ensure that the references are kept for all the cells using the cell edit
command.
Copy B9 across to cell H18.
Calculate all values of pressure.
Format values of pressure to 1 decimal place
3. Use of functions
x Change the title of sheet 3 to exercise 3

x Type the title on row 1
x Type in a series of random numbers in cells C3 to C12
x Type in AB "Sum"
x Type in A14 " Average of first 5"
x Type in A15 " Average of next 5"
x Type in A16 "Count" where count is the number of cells used.
x Use Autosum and function wizard to calculate the values for AB to15 and display the
results in C13 to 15.
x Format the results to 1 decimal place.
4. Use of condition function for quality control
This exercise will use the IF function to test the pass results of two values p and q using limits of
pmin of 1.25 and qmax 0.5.
x Add another sheet and name it exercise 4

x Type the title on row 1
x Type "pmin" in B2 and "qmax" in B3
x Type the limits in C2 and C3
x Type in A5, B5, C5, D5 and E5 "p, q, p test, q test, go" where go means both tests pass. .
Type the returns for pin A6 to A15 and q in B6 to B15. The values are: p =1.24, 1.36,
1.44, 1.57, 1.09, 1.52, 1.23, 1.65, 1.24 and 1.05 and corresponding values of q = 1.08,
0.50, 0040, 0.54, 0.82, 0.65, 0.75, 0.62, 0.36 and 0.55.
x Type in formula for C5 test, D5 test and E5 result
x Copy equation down to row 15
x Type" %Pass" in B16
x Type formula in C 16 to give % pass for p, D 16 to give % pass for q and E 16 to give %
go.
x Calculate results.
5. Graphs and charts.
This exercise will give you experience with the Chart Wizard in Excel.
x Type in "x" and "y" in cells Al and Bl

x Type in data for x (position) as -2, -1, 0, 1,2. in A2 to A6 . Type in data for y (voltage) as
16, 7,4, 7, 16
x Plot the data as an x vs y plot using Chart Wizard
x Join the data points with a smooth curve
x Add the equation for the line of best fit onto the graph.
x Label the axes of the graph and give it a title.
Hd/Excel exercises/200509

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EG1021/2 DRAWING HANDBOOK

1. Introduction to Course EG1021/2

1. Introduction to EG1021/2 for 2005/2006

1.1 Overview of Course

1.2 Documentation Format

The page containing the form to upload work is at: http://www.engg.le.ac.uk/cgi-bin/fileupload.

1.5 Suggested Books:

2. BS 8888:2000 (BS 308:1943-85) Drawing Standard

3. Basic Geometric Constructions

x The division ( bisecting) of a line or angle

x Locus of a point like a cycloid

4. Drawing Layouts and Paper Sizes

Figure 1. Paper sizes

Text Example for Title Block

x Draughts person’s name

x Lines which are meant to be seen

AutoCAD commands can be entered from:

x Keyboard into the Command Prompt area.

Open Drawings allows access to previously opened drawings.

x Select the line icon from the DRAW toolbar.

x Select Draw - Line from the pull-down menu.

6.1 Basic AutoCAD Terminology

Absolute co-ordinates A way of inputting points based on AutoCAD’s origin.

Crosshairs This is your cursor when it is in the drawing space.

Cursor Your cursor will change depending on where it is in the program.

Extents The outer boundaries of the objects you have drawn.

Grips Small 'handles' on objects that allow for quick editing

Limits A setting to impose an 'artificial' boundary on your drawing and scale

Modify A generic term used for changing your objects

Origin The (0,0) point of your current co-ordinate system.

Paper space An optional area used for plotting your drawings.

Pick To select an object by 'left-clicking' on it.

Plot Also known as print. To make a hard copy of your drawing.

Polar co-ordinates A way of inputting points based on distance and angle.

Relative co-ordinates A way of inputting points based on a starting point.

Selection set The current group of objects selected for modifying.

Styles Formatting that defines the look of text, dimensions, etc.

View A particular area of your drawing.

6.2 AutoCAD Preferences

Figure 3. AutoCAD 2002 graphic screen displays the following:

1. The title bar 7. On-screen cursor

6.3 Commands Unique to AutoCAD

Zoom and pan options are presented in the following table.

ARRAY tool opens an array dialogue box:

System variables can be reset using SETVAR. Variables include:

SNAPPING ONTO OBJECTS - To accurately reference entities already in a drawing object

To use object snap to draw from an existing object:

6.3 Object Selection Methods

6.4 Modifying Properties

Stretching an Object – by selecting an appropriate area using crossing window (or

Text can be added to a drawing from:

Text styles can be selected from:

Editing text can be done by:

x %%d degrees i.e.45%%d 45O

7. Layers and Linetypes

Text may also be added to give details of construction and manufacture.

7.1 AutoCAD Implementation:

Name Colour Linetype

Linetype can be associated with layers.

8.1 AutoCAD Implementation:

In AutoCAD the fixed World Co-ordinate System (WCS) is:

2D Cartesian co-ordinates are specified by specifying an X and Y co-ordinate representing the

9. Lines, Splines and Nurbs