Drinking Water Treatment & Water Chemistry

HCWW
Drinking Water Treatment & Water

Chemistry
Dr. Ali M. Abdullah

HEAD of TSM, HCWW
tsm.hcww@gmail.com, 01227708039
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Importance of water
Looking at water, you might think that it's the most

simple thing around.
Pure water is colorless, odorless, and tasteless.
But it's not at all simple and plain and it is vital for
all life on Earth.
Where there is water there is life, and where water

is scarce, life has to struggle or just "throw in the
towel."
“Water is life”
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SO WHAT IS IT ABOUT WATER THAT MAKES IT SO IMPORTANT TO US?
Water is of major importance to all living things.
Up to 60 percent of the human body is Water.
Therefore the quality of Water we drink is very

important.
The Drinking Water should be totally clean, pure

and free of any disease causing MICROBES, and
that’s why it should be properly Treated and
DISINFECTED before using it for drinking purpose.
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Where does the water come from?
surface waters (lakes, rivers, and reservoirs)
groundwater (wells).
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The Water Cycle
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Drinking water in U.S.
The United States
has one of the safest
water supplies in the
world.
In recent years, microbial contamination of the

water supply has led to highly publicized
outbreaks of disease, causing illness and even
death.
How safe is our water?
Where do these infectious microbes come from?
How is water treated now and what’s being done

to make it even safer?
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Surface Water Treatment Plant
Coagulant, pH Adjustment
Pre-Cl2 Disinfectant (Cl2, NaOCl)
Raw Water Mixing Flocculation Filtration

Storage Sedimentation
Clear Well
Distribution
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Water Treatment
Water treatment transforms raw surface and
groundwater into safe drinking water.
Water treatment involves two major processes:

physical removal of solids and chemical disinfection.
COAGULATION:
Coagulation removes dirt and other particles suspended in water. WATER

alum and other chemicals are added to water to form tiny sticky TOWARDS
particles called “floc” which attract the dirt particles. The combined SEDIMENTATION
weight of the dirt and the alums (floc) becomes heavy enough to sink
to the bottom during sedimentation.
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Water Treatment
WATER
FROM
SEDIMENTATION: COAGULATION
Coagulated particles fall, by gravity, through water in

a settling tank and accumulate at the bottom of the
tank, clearing the water of much of the solid debris
WATER
and clear water moves to filtration.
TOWARDS
FILTRATION
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Water Treatment
FILTRATION, DISINFECTION & STORAGE:
STORAGE: Water is placed in a
closed tank or reservoir
DISINFECTION: A small amount of chlorine for disinfection to take
is added or some other disinfection pace. The water then
method is used to kill microorganisms flows through pipes to
WATER
FROM
that may be in the water. home and business in the
SEDIMENTATION community
FILTRATION: The water passes through filters, some

made of layers of sand, and charcoal that help
remove smaller particles.
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Water Disinfection
Purpose of disinfection:
To make Drinking water free of any disease causing

bacteria and microbes.
Methods of disinfection:
There are 3 mainly used disinfection methods at

large scale.
CHLORINATION
OZONATION
ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION
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CHLORINATION
Chlorine is the most common cost-effective means
of disinfecting water in the U.S.
The addition of a small amount of chlorine is highly

effective against most bacteria, viruses, and
protozoa.
But cysts (durable seed-like stages) formed by

parasitic protozoa such as Cryptosporidium and
Giardia can survive chlorine.
Chlorine is applied to water in one of three forms:

elemental chlorine (chlorine gas), hypochlorite
solution (bleach), or dry calcium hypochlorite. All
three forms produce free chlorine in water
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COMPLETE CYCLE HCWW
OF WATER TREATMENT: COAGULATION
STORAGE
SEDIMENTATION
DISINFECTION
FILTRATION
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Design of a Chlorination Process
• Based on exposing a microorganism for an

amount of time with a minimum amount of
disinfectant
• Rough calculation of the amount of time spent in a

reactor is based on the reactor volume and the
flow rate:
• Time = volume/flow rate

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Water Treatment Process
• Absolutely pure water is rarely, if ever, found in nature. The impurities
occur in three progressively finer states - suspended, colloidal and
dissolved matter. Different methods of treatment are required for their
removal or reduction to acceptable limits.
• Failure or inadequacy in any of the stages will have adverse effects on
the subsequent stages and may result in the production of water with
excessive turbidity and other undesirable qualities. Thus, chemical
dosing which is not optimal means that the conditions for coagulation
are not the optimum; the floc formed may be unsuitable for the method
of clarification in use, is not removed efficiently and passes on to the
filters where it may break through to appear as turbidity in the final
water or seriously reduce the length of filter run.
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Water Pollution
• Particulate and dissolved impurities in water result from
land erosion, pickup of minerals, the decay of plant
material with additional impurities from airborne
contamination, sewage and industrial discharges, and from
animal wastes.
• Thus, surface water sources, polluted by man and nature,
are likely to contain suspended and dissolved organic
(plant or animal origin) and inorganic (mineral) material,
and biological forms such as bacteria, spores, cysts and
plankton
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Water Pollution
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Coagulation and Flocculation
• The purpose of coagulation and flocculation is to condition
impurities, especially non-settleable solids and colour, for
removal from the water being treated.
• Coagulating chemicals cause nonsettleable particles to
clump together to form floc.
• In the coagulation process, chemicals are added which will
initially cause the colloidal particles to become destabilised
and clump together.
• The particles gather together to form larger particles in the
flocculation process.
• When pieces of floc clump together, they may form larger,
heavier flocs which settle out and are removed as sludge.
In other cases flocs are removed from the water by
flotation.
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Factors Affecting on Coagulation & Flocculation
1. Water Temperature
2. Water pH
3. Water Alkalinity
4. Algal load
5. Organic matter
6. Coagulant type (alum, ferric chloride, ferric sulphate,
PAC, Sodium alginate,…..etc)
7. Coagulant dose (g/m3)
8. Over load
9. G value
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Jar Tests
❑ The jar test – a laboratory procedure to determine the optimum pH
and the optimum coagulant dose
❑ A jar test simulates the coagulation and flocculation processes
Determination of optimum pH
❑ Fill the jars with raw water sample
(500 or 1000 mL) – usually 6 jars
❑ Adjust pH of the jars while mixing
using H2SO4 or NaOH/lime
(pH: 5.0; 5.5; 6.0; 6.5; 7.0; 7.5)
❑ Add same dose of the selected
coagulant (alum or iron) to each jar
(Coagulant dose: 5 or 40 mg/L)
Jar Test
water treatment 33
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Jar Tests – optimum pH
Optimum pH: 6.3
water treatment 34
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Optimum coagulant dose
❑ Turn off the mixers and allow flocs to settle for 30 to 45 mins
❑ Then measure the final residual turbidity in each jar

❑ Plot residual turbidity
against coagulant dose Optimum coagulant dose: 12.5 mg/L
The coagulant dose with

the lowest residual
turbidity will be the
optimum coagulant dose
water treatment Coagulant Dose35mg/L

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Why coagulation and Flocculation is needed?
Various sizes of particles in raw water
Particle diameter Type Settling velocity
mm
GravIty settlIng
10 Pebble 0.73 m/s
1 Course sand 0.23 m/s
0.1 Fine sand 0.6 m/min
0.01 Silt 8.6 m/d
0.0001 (10 micron) Large colloids 0.3 m/yr
0.000001 (1 nano) Small colloids 3 m/million yr
✓ Colloids - Impart color and turbidity to water – Aesthetically not acceptable
✓Colloids – so small- gravity settling not possible

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Colloids
• Tyndall effect: ability of a Colloid to scatter light. The beam of light can be
seen through the colloid.
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Characteristics
1. Solids dispersed in liquid, which will not
settle by the force of gravity. When a solid
colloid stays in suspension and does not settle
in the system is in a stable condition
2. Large specific surface area: large surface
area per unit volume of the particles. It makes
colloids can adsorb materials such as water
molecular and ions. It opposes electrostatic
comparing to water.
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Colloids
3. Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Colloids
• Focus on colloids in water.
• “Water loving” colloids: hydrophilic.
• “Water hating” colloids: hydrophobic.
• Molecules arrange themselves so that hydrophobic
portions are oriented towards each other.
• If a large hydrophobic macromolecule (giant molecule)
needs to exist in water (e.g. in a cell), hydrophobic
molecules embed themselves into the macromolecule
leaving the hydrophilic ends to interact with water.
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Colloids
Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Colloids
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Hydrophilic Colloids
• Colloidal solid surface has water-soluble group,
such as amino , carboxyl, sulfonic , hydroxyl.
These water-soluble groups can promote water of
hydration of colloidal particles.
• Hydrophilic colloids are general organic colloids,
such as proteins and their degradation products.
Hydrophobic Colloids
• Hydrophobic : There is not obvious water of
hydration. Hydrophilic colloids are general
inorganic colloids, such as clay.
Colloid Stability HCWW
✓ Colloids have a net negative surface charge

✓ Electrostatic force prevents them from agglomeration Colloid
✓ Brownian motion keeps the colloids in suspension H2 O
✓ Impossible to remove colloids by gravity

settling -
-- --
Colloid - A
Repulsion
-
-- --
Colloid - B
Electrostatic force
➢ The ionization of surface group.
- -
➢ The adsorption of ions from the surrounding solution.
➢ The ion deficit within the mineral lattice. → for colloidal mineral
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4 qd
=
D
The stability of colloidal particles in water is dependence on the electrostatic force
and van der waals force.
•electrostatic force and van der waals force can be represented by Zeta potential :
q = charge per unit area
d = thickness of the layer surrounding the shear surface through which the charge is effective
D = dielectric constant of the liquid
ζ, colloidal particles repulsion ,

colloidal particles more stable
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Colloid Destabilization
✓ By charge neutralization, colloids can be destabilized:
✓ Positively charges ions (Na+, Mg2+, Al3+, Fe3+ etc.) neutralize the
colloidal negative charges and thus destabilize them.
✓ With destalization, colloids aggregate in size and start to settle

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Theory
➢ Reducing zeta potential to vander waal force level:
When coagulant adding to water, it will hydrolysis to form positively
charged hydroxo-metallic ion complexe, These positive charges hydroxo-metallic
will adsorped on the negative charge of the colloids surface, to reduce the zeta
potential to destabilization point, these destabilized colloids and hydroxo-metallic
complex by van der waals force adsorption and flocculation. These process can be
speeded by agitation.
➢Particle bridge:
➢enmeshment of particles:
coagulant complex can be polymerized. As concentration is larger than Ksp, it will
settle down.
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What is Coagulation?
❑ Coagulation is the destabilization of colloids by addition of
chemicals that neutralizes the negative charges
❑ The chemicals are known as coagulants, usually higher valence
cationic salt (Al3+, Fe3+ etc.)
❑ Coagulation is essentially a chemical process
Rapid mixing is required

to disperse the coagulant
throughout the liquid -- --
-
-- - - -
-- - -
-- --
C h e m ic a l
-
-- - - -
f e e d in g
-- - -
I n f lo w
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Coagulation has three forms:

▪ electrokinetic: zeta potential reduction
▪ perikinetic : Brownian movement to make interparticle contact
▪ orthokinetic : agitation to make interparticle contact
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Coagulant ❑Relative coagulating power:

•Aluminum sulfate (Al 2(SO4)3) Na+ = 1; Mg2+ = 30
•Ferrous sulfate (FeSO4) Al3+ > 1000; Fe3+ > 1000
•Ferric sulfate (Fe2(SO4)3)
•Ferric chloride (FeCl3)
•Polyaluminium Chloride (PAC): Al2(OH)3Cl3
•Lime
Coagulant aids : to produce a quick forming, dense, rapid settling floc and to
insure optimum coagulation.
Three different kinds of coagulant aids:
•Alkalinity addition : CaO, Ca(OH)2, Na2CO3
•Polyelectrolytes :
anionic : negative charge
cationic : positive charge
polyampholites: both negative and positive charge
•Turbidity addition : Clay
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What is Flocculation?
❑ Flocculation is the agglomeration of destabilized particles into

a large size particles known as flocs which can be effectively removed
by sedimentation or floatation. The addition of another reagent called
flocculant or a flocculant aid may promote the formation of the floc
Thus, flocculation is essentially a physical process that describes

the transport of destabilized particles.
Rapid Mixing (Coagulation) HCWW
Objective
To uniformly mix the coagulant with colloidal matters present
in raw water so as to bring about colloidal destabilization
How to achieve rapid mixing? L
• Horizontal baffled tank
The water flows in horizontal W
direction. The baffle walls help
to create turbulence when the water Plan view (horizontal flow)
hit the surface and thus facilitate mixing
• Vertical baffled tank
The water flows in vertical direction. H
The baffle walls help to create
turbulence when the water hit the
surface and thus facilitate mixing L
Isometric View (vertical flow)
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• Hydraulic Jump: Hydraulic Jump creates turbulence and
thus help better mixing.
Coagulant
• In-line flash mixing
• Mechanical mixing
Back mix impeller flat-blade impeller
Inflow
Chemical
feeding
Chemical
feeding Inflow
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Design of Flocculator (Slow & Gentle mixing)
Flocculator is designed mainly to provide enough interparticle

contacts to achieve particles agglomeration so that they can be
effectively removed by sedimentation or floatation
Transport Mechanisms
• Brownian motion: for relatively small particles

which follow random motion and collides with
other particles (Perikinetic motion)
• Differential settling: Particles with different

settling velocity in the vertical alignment collides
when one overtakes the other (Orthokinetic motion)
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• Mechanical mixing: Using different types of mechanical mixers
to promote particles contacts and thus their agglomeration
(Orthokinetic motion)
L
Cross flow Flocculator (sectional view)
Plan (top view)

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Mixing and Power HCWW
➢ The degree of mixing is measured by Velocity Gradient (G)
➢ Higher the G value, the intense the mixing and vice versa
Velocity Gradient is the relative velocity of the two fluid particles at

a given distance
G = dv/dy = 1.0/0.1 = 10 S-1
In mixer design, the following equation is more useful:
0.1 m
1 m/s
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G Value
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G Value
➢ G value for coagulation: 700 to 1000 S-1; 3000 to 5000 SHCWW
-1 for
Mixing time: 30 to 60 S in-line blender; 1-2 sec

➢ G value for flocculation: 20 to 80 S-1;
Mixing time: 20 to 60 min
In the flocculator design, Gt (also known Camp No.); a product
of G and t is commonly used as a design parameter
Typical Gt for flocculation is 2 x 104 - 105
Large G and small T gives small but dense floc

Small G and large T gives big but light flocs
We need big as well as dense flocs

which can be obtained by designing G1:40
1 G2:30
2 G3:20
3
flocculator with different G values

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CLARIFIERS
Clarifiers
Sedimentation Basins
Settling Tanks
Provide Quiescent Area

Separation of Solids
Settleable
Floatable
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Clarifiers
Efficiency of Solids Removal Related To:
1. Characteristics of the Solids
2. Characteristics of the Water
3. Characteristics of the Clarifier

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Stoke’s Law
2(p - po)g 2
VF = (d/2)
9n
VF = Fall Velocity
(p - po) = Density difference between
particle and water
n = viscosity of water
g = gravitational acceleration constant
d = diameter of the particle
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Stoke’s Law
Forget the Formula
Remember the Removal
Efficiency Depends on Several
Factors
VF = Fall Velocity
(p - po) = Density difference between
particle and water
n = viscosity of water
g = gravitational acceleration constant
d = diameter of the particle
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Particle Size versus Settling Time
Particle Size
Order of Size Time to Settle
mm
1.0 Coarse Sand 3 Seconds
0.1 Fine Sand 38 Seconds
0.01 Silt 33 Minutes
0.001 Bacteria 55 Hours
0.0001 Colloidal 230 Days
0.00001 Colloidal 6.3 Years
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Clarifiers

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Settling Rate
Cold Water Warm Water
More Dense Less Dense
More Viscous Less Viscous
Solids Settle More Readily in Warm Water

Than in Cold Water
Warm Water - Greater Efficiency of Clarification
Cool Water- Less Efficiency of Clarification

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Clarifiers

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Clarifiers
Surface Area
Depth
Hydraulic Loading
Solids Loading
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Clarifiers
Surface Area
Depth
Hydraulic Loading
Solids Loading
Design
Operation
Maintenance
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Clarifiers
Flow Characteristics in the Clarifier
Flow Must be Dispersed Evenly Throughout

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Clarifier Short Circuiting
Higher Flow (Horizontal Velocity) in One Part of Tank
Density Currents
Currents Within the Tank Carry Solids Through the Tank.
Not the Same as Excessive Hydraulic Load

(Detention Time vs. Fall Velocity)
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Causes
Missing or poor influent baffling

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Causes

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Causes

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Causes
Uneven effluent weirs
Plant growth or thrash in effluent weirs
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Causes
Temperature stratification between
influent & clarifier water temperatures.
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Monitoring for Short Circuiting
Visual Observation
Flow Over Weir
Solids Over Weir
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Dye Testing
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Higher Flow (Horizontal Velocity) in One Part of Tank
Density Currents
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Causes
• Missing or poor influent baffling
• Uneven effluent weirs
• Plant growth or thrash in effluent weirs
• Temperature stratification between

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Clarifiers

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Clarifiers
Types of Clarifiers
Inclined Plate
(Lamella)
Rectangular
Circular
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Inclined Plate
(Lamella)
Types of Clarifiers – Inclined Plate (Lamella) HCWW
Distribution Orifice Discharge Flumes

Feed Box
Overflow Box Flocculation Tank
Flash
Mix Tank
Coagulant
Clarifier Feed
Effluent
Clarifier
Influent
Inclined Plates
Sludge Sludge Discharge

Hopper
Increased settling
efficiency due to
increased surface area
Smaller Area Needed for

Installation
Increased settling
efficiency due to
increased surface area
Smaller Area Needed for

Installation
Seldom Used With Organic Wastes

Biological Growths Reduce Efficiency
Mostly Industrial Applications
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Rectangular
Clarifiers
Types of Clarifiers – Rectangular HCWW
Effluent
Drive Weir
Inlet
Unit Scum Effluent
Baffle Flights
Inlet Trough Launder
Drive
Gear
Idler
Sprockets
Sludge Drive
Trough Chain
Sludge
Withdrawal
Pipe
Inlet
Baffle
Inlet
Influent baffling
Settleable
Floatable
Effluent
Weir
Effluent
Launder
Effluent
Settleable
Floatable
Solids Removal Mechanism
Rails
Drive
Unit
Drive
Gear
Idler
Sprockets
Drive
Chain
Flights
Flights
Rails
Wear Shoes Rails

Wear Shoes Rails
Prevent Wear on the Flights Where They Contact the Rails
Transfer Wear to the Shoe Instead of the Flights

Flights
Sludg
e
Sludge
Trough
Sludge
Withdrawal
Pipe
Scum Removal
Scum
Flights
Trough
Scum
Scum Removal
Scum Removal
Effluent
Weir
Effluent
Launder
Effluent
Effluent Weir – “V Notch”
Flow = Velocity X Area

Flow = Velocity X Area
As Flow Increases, Area Increases

And As Area Increases, Velocity Decreases
Helps Keep Velocity Constant
Reduces Solids Build-up Behind Weir

Effluent Weirs
Single Weir
Finger Weirs
Effluent Weirs
Effluent
Drive Weir
Inlet
Unit Scum Effluent
Baffle Flights
Inlet Trough Launder
Drive
Gear
Idler
Sprockets
Sludge Drive
Trough Chain
Sludge
Withdrawal
Pipe
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Secondary Rectangular Clarifiers – Most Important
Monitor for Short Circuiting

Visual Observation
Flow Over Weir
Solids Over Weir
Dye Testing
Consider Baffles
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Circular
Clarifiers
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Circular Clarifier
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Circular Clarifier
Influent typically enters the basin from the center rather
than from one end.
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Circular Clarifier
Influent typically enters the basin from the center rather
than from one end.
Influent
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Circular Clarifier
A Circular Baffle Directs Flow
Center Baffle
Influent
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Circular Clarifier
A Circular Baffle Directs Flow
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Circular Clarifier
Solids Settle
Scraped to Sump
Removed by Pumping
Center Baffle
Influent Sludge Plow

Sludge Sump
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Circular Clarifier
Solids Settle
Scraped to Sump
Removed by Pumping
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Circular Clarifier
Solids Settle
Scraped to Sump
Removed by Pumping
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Circular Clarifier
Drive Mechanism Also Drives Skimmer Arm to Remove
Floating Scum
Scum
Baffle
Drive Unit
Skimmer Arm
Influent
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Circular Clarifier
Floating Scum
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Circular Clarifier
Floating Scum
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Circular Clarifier
Floating Scum
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Circular Clarifier
Floating Scum
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Circular Clarifier
The Water Flows to the Effluent Weir Around the
Circumference of the Clarifier
Center Baffle Effluent Weir
Influent Sludge Plow

Sludge Sump
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Scum
Baffle Effluent
Weir
Effluent
Launder
Effluent
Circular Clarifier Outlet

The Launder and Weir May Be HCWW
1 2 3
Outer Inner Suspended
Wall Wall In Clarifier
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Effluent Launder/Weir Inside Clarifier (#2)
Can Create Water Current
• Loss of solids over

weir.
• Baffles used to
redirect & slow
water currents.
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Other Clarifier Baffles
STAMFORD BAFFLE MC KINNEY BAFFLE

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• Missing or poor effluent baffling
• Uneven effluent weirs
• Plant growth or thrash in effluent weirs
• Temperature stratification between

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Clarifier
Variations
Clarifier Variations HCWW
Rectangular Tank
Circular Sludge Collection and Skimming
“Squirqular” Clarifier
Peripheral Feed
Peripheral Discharge
Peripheral
Feed
Center
Discharge
Radial Discharge Peripheral Feed

Tow Bro Clarifier

Spiral Sludge Collector

Telescoping Valves for RAS Return

Many Others
Each Designed to Address Particular Concern

Clarifier Operation HCWW
Routine Inspection & Maintenance
Drive Mechanism
Lubrication (Manufacturers Specs.)
Observe Proper Operation (2/Day)
Sludge Judge Daily (Each Shift)

Rectangular Clarifiers
Sludge Collection System
Operating Smoothly
Floating Sludge
Frequent Shear Pin or Breaker Failure
Circular Clarifiers
Skimmer/Sludge Collector
Operating Smoothly
Scum Trough Plugged
Cleaning
Weirs – Launder - Center Well
The
Hard
Way
The
Easy
Way
Limit Growth ?
Limit Growth ?
Covers Block Sunlight Limits Algae Growth
Limit Growth ?
Covers Block Sunlight Limits Algae Growth
Provides Cold Weather Protection

Visual Observation
Flow Over Weir
Solids Over Weir
Dye Testing
Routine Inspection & Maintenance
Sludge Judge Daily (Each Shift)
Cleaning

Also Includes
Calculating and Monitoring Loading
Detention Time
Surface Overflow Rate
Weir Overflow Rate
Solids Loading Rate
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FILTRATION
• Settling does not remove
all flocs – further
treatment is required
• Filtration provides the
additional opportunity
for separation of small
flocs or particles
• This presentation is an
introduction to filtration
technology concepts
Water filtration 155
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(precoat filtration)
or expanded perlite

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Particle size (micron)

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Filtration Mechanisms
• Important to understand the
mechanisms
• Settling, adsorption and diffusion
• Not much screening

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A B

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Filter Classification by Filtration Rate
2-4 gpm/ft2 18-40 thou 1.6-3.3 ft
1-3 gpm/ft2 0.5-2 thou

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Diagrammatic layout
of sand filters

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Typical multimedia filter

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Construction details of sand filters

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Construction details of sand filter

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Filter operation

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Some examples
of layout and
construction
details

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Multimedia filters

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PRESSURE
FILTERS

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1.Overflow
2.Filter Influent
3.Coarse Media
4.Fine Media
5.Filtrate Nozzles
6.Filtrate Chamber
7.Level Controller
8.Filter Reject
9.Wash box
10.Counter-Current Washer
11.Airlift
12.Central Feed Chamber
13.Actuated Valve

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Slow Sand Filtration

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Slow Sand Filter Cleaning

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Slow Sand Filter Underdrain

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Fresh water microbiology
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Microorganisms in different aquatic zones
1. A variety of microorganisms live in fresh water. The

region of a water body near the shoreline (the littoral
zone) is well lighted, shallow, and warmer than other
regions of the water. Photosynthetic algae and bacteria
that use light as energy thrive in this zone.
2. Further away from the shore is the limnitic zone.

Photosynthetic microbes also live here.
3. As the water deepens, temperatures become colder and

the oxygen concentration and light in the water
decrease. Now, microbes that require oxygen do not
thrive. Instead, purple and green sulfur bacteria, which
can grow without oxygen, dominate.
4. Finally, at the bottom of fresh waters (the benthic zone),

few microbes survive. Bacteria that can survive in the
absence of oxygen and sunlight, such as methane
producing bacteria, thrive.
187
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Saltwater presents a different environment to
microorganisms. The higher salt concentration, higher pH,
and lower nutrients, relative to freshwater, are lethal to
many microorganisms.
But, salt loving (halophilic) bacteria abound near the surface,

and some bacteria that also live in freshwater are plentiful
(i.e., Pseudomonas and Vibrio).
Also, in 2001, researchers demonstrated that the ancient form

of microbial life, known as archaea, is one of the dominant
forms of life in the ocean. The role of archaebacteria in the
ocean food chain is not yet known, but must be of vital
importance.
188
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Water can also be an ideal means of transporting
microorganisms from one place to another. For example,
the water that is carried in the hulls of ships to stabilize the
vessels during their ocean voyages is now known to be a
means of transporting microorganisms around the globe.
One of these organisms, a bacterium called Vibrio cholerae,

causes life threatening diarrhea in humans.
C.Fortelius 2008 189

Biochemistry& Microbiology
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Which microrganisms in water cause
diseases?
Sometimes microrganisms that cause health effects can be found in drinking
water. However, as drinking water is thoroughly disinfected today, disease
caused by microrganisms is rarely caused by drinking water.
People that swim in swimming pools will find that the water they swim in is
disinfected with either chlorine, ozone, UV or chlorine dioxide. But there are
people that swim outside in surface water every year.
There are various bacteria and protozoa that can cause disease when they are
present in surface water.
Bacteria are not only known to cause disease when they enter a human body
through food, surface water may also be an important source of bacterial
infection. In table 1 you can see various bacteria that can be found in surface
water, and the diseases they cause when swallowed in large amounts, along
with the symptoms.
190
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Bacteria Disease/infection Symptoms

Aeromonas Enteritis Very thin, blood- and mucus-
containing diarrhoea
Campylobacter jejuni Campilobacteriose Flue, diarrhoea, head- and
stomachaches, fever, cramps
and nausea
Escherichia coli Urinary tract infections, Watery diarrhoea, headaches,
neonatal meningitis, intestinal fever, homiletic uraemia,
disease kidney damage
Plesiomonas shigelloides Plesiomonas-infection Nausea, stomachaches and
watery diarrhoea, sometimes
fevers, headaches and
vomiting
Vibrio El Tor (Light form of) Cholera Heavy diarrhoea
(freshwater)
Salmonella Typhoid fever Fevers
Salmonellosis Sickness, intestinal cramps,
vomiting, diarrhoea and
sometimes light fevers
Streptococcus (Gastro) intestinal disease Stomachaches,
191 diarrhoea and
fevers, sometimes vomiting
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Protozoa can accumulate in certain body parts, after

they have penetrated a human body. The
accumulations are called cysts.
Because of their parasitic nature, protozoa can cause

various diseases. In table 2 you can see various
protozoa that can be found in surface water, and
the diseases they cause when swallowed in large
amounts, along with the symptoms.
192
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Microrganism Disease Symptoms

Amoeba Amoebic dysentery Severe diarrhoea,
headache, abdominal pain,
chills, fever; if not
treated can cause liver
abscess, bowel
perforation and death
Cryptosporidium parvum Cryptosporidiosis Feeling of sickness,
watery diarrhoea,
vomiting, lack of appetite
Giardia Giardiasis Diarrhoea, abdominal
cramps, flatulence,
belching, fatigue
Toxoplasm gondii Toxoplasmosis Flu, swelling of lymph
glands
With pregnant women
subtle abortion and brain
infections
193
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Drinking water is usually treated to minimize the risk of microbial contamination.

The importance of drinking water treatment has been known for centuries. For
example, in pre-Christian times the storage of drinking water in jugs made of
metal was practiced. Now, the anti-bacterial effect of some metals is known.
Similarly, the boiling of drinking water, as a means of protection of water has
long been known.
An important aspect of water microbiology, particularly for drinking water, is the

testing of the water to ensure that it is safe to drink.
Turbidity gives an indication of the amount of suspended material in the water.

Typically, if material such as soil is present in the water then microorganisms
will also be present. The presence of particles even as small as bacteria and
viruses can decrease the clarity of the water. Turbidity is a quick way of
indicating if water quality is deteriorating, and so if action should be taken to
correct the water problem.
194
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Ancient Water Treatment

The first documented attempts
Because nothing
to treat drinking water are
was known about
recorded in ancient Greek and
microorganisms
Sanskrit writings that date
or chemical
back to 2000 B.C. At this
contaminants,
time, people were aware that
the motive for
boiling water helped to purify
treating water
it and that filtration and
was to make it
straining methods helped to
smell and taste
reduce visible particles and
better.
turbidity in water.
198
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Disinfection of Drinking Water
Disinfection is the final process to which water is subjected

prior to distribution. All other treatment processes such as
sedimentation, flocculation, coagulation, filtration cannot
give guarantee for safe water.
Only the disinfection process can assure that the water is

safe. In the absence of all other processes disinfection
alone can be employed as a single effective treatment
process.
199
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Disinfection is different from sterilization in which complete

destruction of all living organisms occurs and the effect is
permanent. Whereas disinfection primarily inactivates
infectious microorganisms and is effective for a limited
period.
Complete sterilization of a water supply is extremely difficult

to achieve and would not be necessary.
Both chemical and physical methods are used for the

disinfection of water.

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1. Chemical Disinfection
Various chemical agents have been used for the

disinfection of drinking waters. Each agent has its
own advantages and limitations.
The commonly used agents are chlorine, chlorine
compounds like chlorinated lime, oxidants like
ozone and potassium permanganate and halogens.
201
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1.1 Chemical Disinfection by Chlorine
Chlorine and its compounds are the common chemical

disinfectants. Comparatively they are less harmful and
more effective. They are quick in action. In the presence of
moisture chlorine is highly corrosive to all metals except
silver and lead.
The chlorination process may be of two types. In pre-

chlorination method chlorine is applied prior to any other
treatment, usually for controlling algae, taste and odor. In
post-chlorination method chlorine is applied after other
treatment processes, especially after filtration.
202
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The chlorine dosage must be sufficient to leave a residual of

0.2 to 2.0 mg/l free chlorine. Two common methods used
to measure the residual chlorine in water are diethyl para-
phenylene diamine method and ortho toluidine method.
Chlorinated lime
It is commonly known as bleaching powder. Before the
discovery of liquid chlorine, chlorinated lime was widely
used for chlorination. It is a loose combination of slaked
lime and chlorine gas.
When added to water it decomposes to give hypochlorous

acid. Chlorinated lime is unstable and on exposure to air,
light and moisture reduces the chlorine content rapidly.
203
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1.2 Chemical Disinfection by Ozone
It is a powerful oxidising agent and highly unstable. It must

be manufactured on site by passing dry air through a high
voltage high frequency electrical discharge.
It has a more rapid effect than chlorine in destroying viruses

and bacteria including spores. It is also effective in
eliminating compounds that give objectionable taste and
color to water.
204
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The treatment with ozone should leave 1-2 mg/l of residual

ozone. But ozone usually leaves very low level of residuals
and thus there is no protection against new contamination
of the water after disinfection. The high installation and
operation costs further reduce its use as a disinfectant.
205
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1.3 Chemical Disinfection by Potassium
Permanganate
It is also a powerful oxidising agent. It has been found to be

effective against cholera pathogen but not other pathogens.
Since it leaves stains in the container it is not a satisfactory
disinfectant.
206
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1.4 Chemical Disinfection by Halogens
Bromine is used as a disinfectant for swimming pool water

because of its less irritability to the eyes than chlorine.
Fluorine and iodine are also at times used as disinfectants.
207
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http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/publications/synopses/eh19syn.htm
208
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2. Physical Disinfection by UV Radiation
Two important physical disinfection methods are ultraviolet

(UV) radiation and boiling of water.
UV radiation
Electromagnetic radiation of ultraviolet range can be used to
destroy microorganisms. This process is effective in
certain small water supplies where the water is highly
polished i.e., filtered and demineralised.
The process is also used in industries. For example in
breweries, pharmaceutical manufactures, fish hatcheries
and aquariums.
209
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Actually irradiation must strike the organism to kill it. In this

process some of the radiation energy is absorbed by the
organism and other' constituents in the medium
surrounding the organisms. So if sufficient dosage of UV
reach the organisms water can be disinfected.
The germicidal effect of ultraviolet energy is thought to be

associated with its absorption by certain organic
components essential for the functioning of cells.
Dissipation of energy by excitation causes disruption of
unsaturated, bonds, particularly of the purines and
pyrimidines. And this leads to lethal biochemical changes.
210
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UV treatment does not alter the water chemically. Only

energy is added, which produces heat, resulting in a
temperature rise in the treated water.
UV rays can penetrate the cell walls of micro-organisms. So
the only requirement in disinfection by UV radiation is it
must reach the organisms since the UV radiation absorbed
by the organisms alone can kill them.
This is, one of the main disadvantage of the UV process.
Other disadvantages are lack of a field test to readily
establish the efficiency of the process inability of UV
irradiation to provide a residual disinfecting power high
cost of the system.
211
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2.1 Germicidal Efficiency
It has been found out that the germicidal

action of ultraviolet rays is maximal at the
wave length of 250-260nm. There is an
abrupt decrease in the efficiency at 290-
300nm and continues upto the visible range.
212
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At a fixed UV intensity, the contact time required to achieve a 99.9% kill
for certain organisms is given below.
E.coli - 60 sec
Shigella - 47 sec
Streptococcus faecalis - 165 sec
Bacillus subtilis - 240 sec
Bacillus spores - 369 sec B.subtilis spores
UV radiation has also been found to be effective in the inactivation of

viruses. There is no reference to the ability of UV radiation to destroy
cysts. It is the consensus that UV radiation will not kill any organism
which can be seen with naked eye.
213
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214
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Disinfection from the microbial perspective
Using a bacterial cell as an example here, inactivation of microorganisms during
disinfection may be due to:
• Disruption of cell wall  structural deterioration of cell
• Diffusion of oxidant into cell  disruption of vital functions
• Absorption of UV light by cellular constituents (e.g., DNA)
Oxidant
Oxidant
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B. subtilis spore inactivation
Inactivation of B. subtilis ATCC 6633 spores by FAC:
• pH 6, 7, 8; 25 C
• Inactivation rates increase with decreasing pH on account of shift in HOCl/OCl -
equilibrium toward HOCl; HOCl  OCl– + H+; HOCl is a much stronger oxidant
than OCl-
Additional data on
0
inactivation of B.
subtilis spores by
-1
NH2Cl and ClO2 at
Log(N/N0 )
20-25 C is included
-2
in the
accompanying
pH 8 - Dark with [FAC]0 = 4 mg/L
-3
pH 7 - Dark with [FAC]0 = 4 mg/L
articles by Larson
pH 6 - Dark with [FAC]0 = 2 mg/L and Marinas (2003)
-4 and Cho et al.
0 50 100 150 200 250
(2006).
FAC CT Value (mg*min/L)
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Milwaukee (1993) & the advent of the LT2/DDBP rules
**No inactivation of C. parvum within

the drinking water distribution
system.
Relative effectiveness of common disinfectants HCWW
CT values for 99% (2-log)

inactivation
from Crittenden et
al. (MWH), 2005
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Disinfection and the CT concept
• Disinfection efficiency can be measured as % “inactivation”. For example,
at 90%, inactivation, 90 out of 100 microorganisms would be killed, and 10
out of 100 would survive.
• For many microorganisms, the same disinfection efficiency can be achieved
by treating a water with any combination of C (disinfectant concentration, in
mg/L) and T (contact time, in min) that gives the same CT value.
• For example, according to the following table (from the USEPA*), Giardia
cysts would be 99% inactivated at 20 C, whether C = 5.0 mg/L and T = 2.0
min, or C = 2.0 mg/L and T = 5.0 min, as long as CT = 10.0 mg/L*min.
%
Inactivated
90
99
99.9
• Note that disinfection requires higher CTs at lower temperature

*Table adapted from the Disinfection Profiling and Benchmarking Guidance Manual (1999), USEPA
The weaker the disinfectant, the HCWW
higher the CT needed to
The effectiveness
inactivate
Required
CT
a microorganism. Required
IT
of UV Light for
IT values for disinfection can
CT values for
99% 99% be similarly
inactivation inactivation described, but
using IT instead
of CT, where:
• ''I '' stands for

light intensity
(in units of
mW/cm2)
• T is in seconds
• IT therefore
has units of
mJ/cm2
Figures from
Crittenden et al.
(MWH), 2005
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Some treatment processes are more appropriate for
certain pathogens than others
Treatment Microorganisms
Process Viruses Bacteria Protozoans
Free chlorine Very effective Very effective Less effective
Chlorine dioxide Effective Very effective Effective
Iodine Effective Effective Not effective
UV light Effective Very effective Very effective
Natural sunlight Effective Effective Less effective
Boiling Very effective Very effective Very effective

Membrane
Variably effective Very effective Very effective
Filtration
*For more details see: http://www.sodis.ch/methode/forschung/mikrobio/index_EN and
http://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/drinking/travel/backcountry_water_treatment.html
HCWW

Drinking Water Treatment &amp; Water Chemistry

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Drinking Water Treatment & Water

Dr. Ali M. Abdullah

Looking at water, you might think that it's the most

Pure water is colorless, odorless, and tasteless.

Where there is water there is life, and where water

Water is of major importance to all living things.

Up to 60 percent of the human body is Water.

Therefore the quality of Water we drink is very

The Drinking Water should be totally clean, pure

In recent years, microbial contamination of the

Where do these infectious microbes come from?

How is water treated now and what’s being done

Raw Water Mixing Flocculation Filtration

Water treatment involves two major processes:

Coagulation removes dirt and other particles suspended in water. WATER

Coagulated particles fall, by gravity, through water in

FILTRATION: The water passes through filters, some

To make Drinking water free of any disease causing

There are 3 mainly used disinfection methods at

The addition of a small amount of chlorine is highly

But cysts (durable seed-like stages) formed by

Chlorine is applied to water in one of three forms:

• Based on exposing a microorganism for an

• Rough calculation of the amount of time spent in a

• Time = volume/flow rate

❑ A jar test simulates the coagulation and flocculation processes

Optimum pH: 6.3

❑ Then measure the final residual turbidity in each jar

The coagulant dose with

water treatment Coagulant Dose35mg/L

✓ Colloids - Impart color and turbidity to water – Aesthetically not acceptable

✓Colloids – so small- gravity settling not possible

✓ Colloids have a net negative surface charge

✓ Brownian motion keeps the colloids in suspension H2 O

✓ Impossible to remove colloids by gravity

ζ, colloidal particles repulsion ,

✓ By charge neutralization, colloids can be destabilized:

✓ With destalization, colloids aggregate in size and start to settle

Rapid mixing is required

Coagulation has three forms:

Coagulant ❑Relative coagulating power:

❑ Flocculation is the agglomeration of destabilized particles into

Thus, flocculation is essentially a physical process that describes

• In-line flash mixing

Flocculator is designed mainly to provide enough interparticle

• Brownian motion: for relatively small particles

• Differential settling: Particles with different

Cross flow Flocculator (sectional view)

Plan (top view)

Velocity Gradient is the relative velocity of the two fluid particles at

Mixing time: 30 to 60 S in-line blender; 1-2 sec

Large G and small T gives small but dense floc

We need big as well as dense flocs

flocculator with different G values

Provide Quiescent Area

1. Characteristics of the Solids

2. Characteristics of the Water

3. Characteristics of the Clarifier

1. Characteristics of the Solids

2. Characteristics of the Water

3. Characteristics of the Clarifier

Solids Settle More Readily in Warm Water

Drinking Water Treatment & Water Chemistry

Drinking Water Treatment & Water Chemistry