S T E A M T U R B I N E F A M I L I A R I Z A T I O N

Steam Turbine Familiarization

S T E A M T U R B I N E F A M I L I A R I Z A T I O N

Turbine Nomenclature
S T E A M T U R B I N E F A M I L I A R I Z A T I O N
S T E A M T U R B I N E F A M I L I A R I Z A T I O N

Base plate (Bedplate)
A base plate is a fabricated or cast continuous structure having
machined pads for mounting of the turbine and for grouting to the
foundation.
Bearing Bracket
A bearing bracket contains and supports a bearing assembly, and is
equipped with seals to prevent leakage of oil and the entrance of
moisture, dust and foreign materials.
The stationary passage of an impulse turbine consists of one or more
stationary nozzles. The nozzle expands steam of comparatively low
velocity and high static pressure to a lower static pressure with a
considerable increase in velocity. The nozzle is so positioned as to
direct the flow of steam into the rotor flow passages.
Rotor Assembly (Shaft, Spindle)
The rotor assembly is the rotating element of the turbine, which
includes all parts attached to the shaft, excluding the coupling.

Journal Bearings (Radial Bearings) Shroud

Journal bearings are bearings that support the rotating element. They
are of the sleeve, tilting pad or anti friction type.
Thrust Bearings
Thrust bearings maintain the axial position of the rotor assembly in the
casing
Blades (Buckets)
Blades are curved vane elements attached to the wheel
A shroud is that part of the blade assembly, which prevents steam from
spilling out radially and increases rigidity of the blade group. There are
three types of shroud design:
Integral - shroud forms an integral part of the blade
Loose - shroud is riveted to the tip of the blade
Combination of Integral and Loose shrouds - loose shroud
is riveted on t op of integral shroud.

Casing Shaft Seals, Labyrinth Packing, Carbon Rings Sole plate

Casing shaft seals minimize the leakage of steam out of the casing A sole plate is a machined flat steel plate or casting for mounting of
along the shaft. the turbine supports and for grouting to the foundation.

For condensing turbines, seals are arranged to prevent the entrance of
air into the casing along the shaft. They are arranged for the admission
of steam at a constant low pressure.
Diaphragm
A diaphragm is the stationary element of a stage containing nozzles to
expand the steam and direct it against the rotating blades.
Turbine Casing (Shell, Cylinder)
A turbine casing is the enclosure that surrounds the rotating element of
the turbine and supports the stationary steam parts. Casings are axially
split, radially split, or a combination thereof.
Wheel (Disc)
The moving blades are attached directly to the wheel, which in turn is
an integral part of the shaft or keyed to or shrunk on the shaft.

Emergency Trip Mechanism

An over speed trip mechanism is usually provided to shut off the
supply of steam to the turbine. The trip mechanism may also be
actuated by loss of lubricating oil pressure, condenser vacuum, or
other emergency signals required by the contract.

Exhaust Hood
The exhaust hood is that portion of the casing that collects and directs
the exhaust steam to the exhaust pipe or condenser.

Governor
A governor is a device for controlling the speed of the turbine.

Guide Bucket Ring (Guide Blades, Reversing Blades)

Guide bucket ring is the element located between the two rows of
rotating blades on the same wheel (Curtis Stage). Its function is to
redirect the steam to the following row.

Interstage Shaft Seals, Labyrinth Packing

Interstage shaft seals minimize the leakage of steam along the shaft
between stages in a multistage turbine, and are mounted in the
diaphragms.

Nozzle Control Valve(s)

A nozzle control valve is a valve that controls steam flow to a group of
nozzles to permit efficient operation at reduced power

Nozzle Ring (Block)

The nozzle ring is the element containing nozzles, which is bolted to
the steam chest.

Nozzles
S T E A M T U R B I N E F A M I L I A R I Z A T I O N

Turbine Construction Basics

S T E A M T U R B I N E F A M I L I A R I Z A T I O N

Steam Turbine Components

The Basic Steam Turbine consists of:

1. Rotor
2. Rotating Blades
3. Stationary Blades
4. Casing
5. Nozzles

We will take these one at a time and cover the basics of construction and their function within the
turbine.
Turbine Rotor
Turbine Rotors
Turbine Rotors can be stacked or integral.

Stacked
Are made up of discs assembled onto a shaft with an
interference fit between the bore of the disc and the shaft

Pros – The ability to use sleeves between discs allows

materials to be selected that can reduce damage. Allows for
the replacement if damage occurs.

Components are easy to inspect and replace

Balancing is easier and more accurate. Component parts can

be individually balanced.

Integral
Machined from a large single forging with blade carrying
discs being part of the shaft

Cons – Critical speeds are much lower than the Integral

rotors.

Must operate at lower speeds due to the loss of interference

fit on the discs

Quick starts may cause the shifting of discs due to large

thermal differences in the discs and shaft.
Turbine Shafts
The shaft is the main component of the rotor and construction materials are based on the operating conditions of the rotor

Machining Tolerances

The first stage (control stage) is the datum for machining the axial dimensions on the shaft.

All the axial wheel spacing must be held to a tolerance of +0.002”/-0.000.

The above picture shows a typical shaft end detail.

The TIR’s are extremely critical for a smooth running rotor.

The above picture shows a typical shaft end detail.

The TIR’s are extremely critical for a smooth running rotor. In most cases they are required to be held within 0.001” (.02mm)
concentric with the appropriate journal.
There are two styles of shaft end geometry, Flanged and
Tapered.
Concentricity to the journals is critical.

Not used on newer designs.
Concentricity with the journals critical.
Perpendicularity of the contact surface to the journal is
critical.
The contact surface requires a blue contact of 80% to
90% when checked with the appropriate plug gage.
Flange face must be perpendicular to the journals
within 0.0005”.
Coupling bolt holes are drilled slightly undersized
and reamed with the coupling adapter at final
assembly.
Balance Holes on Impulse Turbine Rotor Discs

Steam equalizing holes balance the pressure on the disk and

reduce the thrust force caused by steam loading.

There is usually a uniform spaced set of 4 or 5 equalizing

holes drilled in a disk.

These holes are drilled continuously from disk to disk, and

may or may not be on every stage.

They always begin with the first row which has the highest
pressure drop. The number of rows is dependent upon total
thrust load and rotor geometry.

Shaft Journals

The shaft journals are the key reference point for all other
TIR requirements on the shaft.

The journal diameters must be held to a +0.000”/-0.001”

tolerance and require a ground 32 finish.
Rotor Blade Fasteners (Roots)

There are two basic types of fasteners, radial and axial.

The radial fasteners are the T-Slot and Radial Fir Tree.

The axial fasteners include the Axial Fir Tree and Ball &
Shank.

Each of these styles has a number of variations which will

be discussed in a later section on Blades.

Since the Radial Fir is used so infrequently, we will

generically discuss the machining of the T-Slot, Ball &
Shank, and Axial Fir.

Axial Fir Tree

This is the most common of axial fasteners.

These shapes are normally cut with a formed milling cutter.

Attention must be paid to cutter wear.

Ball and Shank

Another style of axial entry fastening.

This style is milled using a series ball type cutters.

The critical dimensions here are the width of the slot, the
depth of the slot, and the diameter of the ball.

T-Slot

The critical horizontal dimensions in this design are the

wheel width, the horn width, the outer width of the horns,
and the the distance from the outer edge of the horn to the
edge of the disk.

In the vertical direction the key dimension is from the top of

the lower slot to the top of the horn.

The top of the lower slot must be in line and parallel within
0.001” this is the surface that the blade locks on.
Rotor Balance Provisions

There are three ways of adding or removing weight for

balancing rotors.

These include adding balance slots to the disk, provisions

for adding weights in the shaft, and grinding on the disk.

The first two are the preferred methods, grinding is only

done on older designs

Minimum
0.50”
Shaft Weights

Shaft weights are used when the rotor design will not
accommodate the balance slots on the disks.

They are either drilled into a large overhang in the lower

portion of a disk or drilled directly into the shaft.

The holes must be equally spaced when drilled into the

rotor.

The holes are to be drilled and tapped and the bottom of the
hole is to be balled milled to remove drill point and achieve
a smooth radius.
Blading
Turbine Blading
Blade Fasteners

All blade fastener geometry falls into two categories, axial Radial Entry fasteners include the radial fir and the straddle
entry or radial entry. T-slot.

The name describes how the blade is assembled to the shaft.

The axial entry blades include fir trees and bulb & shank.

RADIAL FIR TREE

AXIAL FIR TREE FASTENER

STRADDLE T- SLOT

BULB & SHANK FASTENER

When working on older units there are some fasteners which you may see that are not used on new applications. However, there
are many instances when we need to replace existing blades.

PIN DOVETAIL STRAIGHT SHANK T-SLOT

Blade Shroud Design

The shroud configuration is selected by the engineer to

support the tip of the airfoil, provide adequate rigidity and
control the blade’s frequency.

There are various designs that utilize loose bands as well as

a variety of integral shrouds.

Riveted Shroud

The oldest and most fundamental design is using just

riveted bands. This design is used predominantly on INTEGRAL SHROUD PLUS
relatively short, low stressed blades, in the intermediate
rows of the rotor.
RIVETED BANDS

This design requires good contact on the integral shrouds.

A key factor to good assembly with this design is insuring

there is a smooth diameter on top of the integral shrouds.
(No steps between blades)

The forming and assembly rules as described with the

riveted design apply here to the loose shrouds with one
exception.

When two or more loose spacers are used the spacer

between the integral shroud and the top spacer does not get
chamfered on the top.
RIVETED SHROUD ONLY
The riveted shroud design is the oldest and most
fundamental.

Key factor to proper assembly is fitting the spacers properly.

The spacers must be pre-drilled and rolled or formed to fit
the contour.
The holes must be chamfered at the top and radiused at the
bottom.

Riveted Integral Shroud

This configuration is normally found on control stages. This

combination insures that all the blades are acting together as
a 360º group.

The riveted shrouds may vary from one to a series of thin

bands (laminated) depending on the analysis.
Plain Integral Shrouds Integral Shrouds with Tie Wires

The plain integral shroud was used on short blades to Integral shrouds with tie wires are used on both short
achieve 360º grouping; today it is replaced by the integral intermediate blades and some taller taper twisted LP End
with tie wire design. blades.

It is still used when short titanium blades are required on The wire provides additional insurance that the blades are
intermediate rows for 360º shrouding. acting as a 360º group.

PLAIN INTEGRAL SHROUDS INTEGRAL SHROUD WITH TIE WIRE

Tongue and Groove
The tongue and groove as well as the Z lock
design are used for LP End blades.
The tongue and groove shrouded blades can be
assembled one at a time and make contact with
each other on the two surfaces adjacent to the
tongue.
It can be used on both steel and titanium taper
twisted blades.
This style shroud must be assembled as a 360
degree ring.
The rotor is set up in a vertical position and
fixturing is assembled around the disk.

The blades are then set up as a 360 degree ring

with the fasteners sitting on the slots.

TONGUE AND GROOVE

DESIGN

Z lock blades must be assembled as a 360º group.

These blades are typically designed with a pre
twist and contact each other on the small flat
surface in the center.

The Z lock design, unlike the tongue and groove,

can be used on titanium as well as steel blades.

Z LOCK DESIGN
Z Lock is the ultimate in shroud designs for Low
Pressure Ends.
Once all the blades and shrouds have been inspected, the remaining portions of the rotor are checked.
Electrical and Mechanical run-outs are measured and recorded at both journals and all burnish areas as
specified on the Rotor Assembly Drawing.

The allowable run-out values are a function of turbine speed.

Thrust collar run-out is another area of concern.

Another critical area is the journals. The maximum allowable run-out for the journals is not to exceed
0.0002”.

The magnetic flux density or gauss level of a rotor is critical. Excessive gauss levels will raise the
electrical run-out portion of the total allowable run-out levels. This reading is taken at the burnished
areas (probe areas) on each end of the shaft.

Acceptable gauss levels on a new rotor are 2 gauss outboard of the disks and 3 gauss between the disks.
Turbine Casing
Turbine Cases

Turbine cases include:

• Primary Steam Chests

• Secondary Steam Chests
• Barrel Sections
• Exhaust Cases
• Inner Steam Chests
• Inner Barrels
• High Pressure Inserts

Casing Machining
Starting from the inlet end of the turbine, one of the first
critical areas is the flange surface of the case where it is
secured to the bearing bracket.

This surface must be perpendicular to the horizontal

joint and parallel to the inner case slot within 0.002”.

In addition the feet of the casting that rests on the

supports is required to be parallel to the horizontal joint
within 0.002”.

On many machines, located below the bracket bolting

surface is a slot for a sliding key, to allow for thermal
growth of the unit while maintaining axial alignment.

In order for this key to function properly the width of the

slot is held to a +0.002”/-0.000”.

This slot must also be held perpendicular to the

horizontal joint and must be symmetrical within 0.002”.

The next area of concern is the bores in the HP packing

area.

The tolerance on these bore diameters vary from The

Diaphragm Slots

On turbines without an inner steam chest assembly, the

nozzle face is the datum surface for the diaphragm slots.

The bore for the nozzle is held to a +0.002”/-0.000”.

The datum surface, which is where the nozzle block

contacts the steam chest, requires a 63 finish.

In most applications, the nozzle block is only in the

upper half .This 63 finish is only required where the
nozzle block contacts the case.

On turbines with inner steam chests the locating slot for

the inner steam chest becomes the datum for the
diaphragm slots.

When using the internal chest the width and finish of the
datum slot is not as critical.

The slot and the hole for the guide pin must be
perpendicular to the joint and symmetrical to the
packing bore within 0.002”.

When a secondary inner steam chest is used, the locating

slot must be perpendicular to the horizontal joint and
parallel to the datum service within 0.002”.
Maintaining the diaphragms slots axially to within
+0.000”/-0.003” from the datum surface is necessary for
a good assembly.
The width of these slots must also be held to +0.002”/-
0.000”.
The slot width and axial location of the slots set the axial
running clearances in the unit.
Like in the packing box a 63 finish is required on the
seal side of the slot while the non-sealing side only
requires a 125 finish.
In addition guide pins are inserted in the centerline of
the lower half of the case. These pin holes must be
perpendicular to the joint and symmetric to the packing
bore within 0.002”.
LP Packing Areas
The LP packing section is another area with critical
dimensions.
The critical diameters in the area are the bearing and seal
bore diameters. These bores must be held to a +0.001”/-
0.000” to assure good bearing and seal fits.
For the oil seals to function efficiently the width of the
slots is to be held to a +0.002”/-0.000” tolerance.
The slots for the oil seals require a 125 finish on the
sides, since the top is not as critical the finish on this
surface can be a 250.

A maximum of 0.005” misalignment is allowed between

the upper and lower half of the case in either axial
direction.

STEAM FLOW

SEAL SIDE
OF SLOT
Steam Chest Contact Areas

On any steam chest the upper surface that joins with the
cover is to have a 63 finish, and be parallel to the
horizontal joint within 0.002”.

These surfaces are to have a scrape fit for metal to metal

contact (95 to 100%). No through voids are permitted in
the contact area.

The main horizontal joint also requires a 63 finish with

the same contact requirements.
Horizontal Steam Chest

Most inner steam chests are 360° donuts with no

horizontal joint.

When inner steam chests are used as a secondary or

extraction chest, a horizontal joint is necessary.

Nozzle Areas

Accurate machining of the tongue and nozzle block is

crucial in obtaining a good fit at assembly.

Since axial clearances are set off the nozzle face, this
becomes the datum.
Seals

Due to space limitations, when root or tip seals are used

in an inner steam chest they are the staked type.

With tip seals the slot width is held to a tolerance

+0.002”/-0.000”to insure a tight fit.

When the seal is staked in position the inner diameter of

the seal is machined to obtain the proper radial
clearance. This diameter must be concentric to the bore
within 0.002” TIR.

The root seals are not quite as critical. However the

diameters specified are toleranced such that the slot
width is maintained to a +0.002”/-0.000” and must be
concentric with the bore.
TIP SEAL

ROOT SEAL
Hydrostatic Testing

Hydrostatic testing is done to prove the integrity of the casting or fabrication.

The basic rule is to prove out the part at 1.5 times the maximum allowable working pressure.

In most cases the equipment being tested operates at temperatures where the material strength drops below its strength at
room temperature.

To compensate for this difference an additional factor is used to compensate for the reduced strength at operating
temperature.

Hydro pressure = 1.5 x max allow. Working pressure x temperature correction

A hydrostatic test is considered acceptable when neither leaks or seepage through the casing or main joints is observed for
a minimum of 30 minutes.

When doing a hydrostatic test, the case is broken down into chambers.

It is important not to overpressure a hydro test plate when pressurizing each section.

Each chamber is tested at the maximum pressure and temperature requirements seen by that section.
Casing Bolts
Casing Bolts

Provide a tight joint that remains reliably sealed over the life of the equipment.

To achieve a reliable joint without overloading the case or the bolting components.

Design for reasonably easy assembly and disassembly without the use of highly specialized or expensive tooling.

Maintain accuracy and predictability when tightening and loosening the fasteners.

Manufacturing Bolts and Studs

There are two basic methods of manufacturing threads.

Machined threads which cuts through the metal fiber.

Cold -Rolled threads which form the thread by metal deformation without cutting through the metal fibers.

Advantages of Cold Rolled Threads

The work hardened surface with the undamaged fibers result in the following:

1. Improved mechanical properties. The shear strength is improved and the tensile strength is increased by approximately
10%.
2. Increases surface hardness similar to shot-peening.
3. Provides an excellent surface finish of 32 or better.
4. Greatly increases wear characteristics.
5. Increases the anti-galling properties.
6. Decreases the friction in the threads.

Methods of Bolt Tightening

There are 3 basic methods of bolting: mechanical torque, thermal, mechanical stretching.
The most common is the mechanical torque method.

In this method stud or bolt stretch is achieved by physically turning the nut mechanically.

This turning is done with tools such as a socket or torque wrench, hammer wrenches, air drivers, or hydraulic drivers.

Thermal Bolting requires special studs designed for using heaters.

The elongation is achieved by inserting a special heater into the center of the stud.

The heating allows the stud to grow and the nut is tightened while the stud is hot, as the stud cools it shrinks increasing the
tension in the stud.

STUD HEATER ASSEMBLY

PIPE
CAP NUT
WASHER

STEAM CHEST UPPER

JOINT FACE

STUD
STEAM CHEST LOWER

The method for wrenching the nuts when using heated studs is a two part procedure.

PROCEDURE #1

Wrench nut to 200 FT/LBS

per inch of diameter and
scribe mark #1 on nut and
horizontal flange.

PROCEDURE #2

Scribe mark 2 on the

horizontal flange at required
degree of turn. After “B” DEGREE OF TURN
procedure #1 heat stud until
nut is able to be wrenched to
scribe mark #2.
Mechanical stretching provides the stud elongation by pulling it along the centerline.

There are two predominant styles: Hydraulic bolting such as the Hytorc/Centec clamp extension tensioner, and Superbolt
which is a multi-jackbolt tensioner.

HYTORC CLAMP NUT

 STRETCHING STUD
STRETCHING NUT

PISTON
SEALING RING

HYDRAULIC TENSIONER
ASSEMBLY
HIGH PRESSURE OIL
SUPPORTING SLEEVE

Case spot face

deformation can TIGHTENING ROD
present a problem.
(Ensure faces mate UNIT ROUND NUT
well before applying
pressure UNIT STUD

CASE FLANGE

Special Hydraulic Bolting System

 Superbolts

Tapered jackbolt thread reduces the friction factor by

distributing the load more evenly over the thread
engagement. This reduces torque requirements and
greatly reduces removal effort. Threads are precision
rolled for improved toughness and hardness.

Rounded jackbolt tip reduces friction and leaves only

minor marking of the washer. This also results in
reduced torque requirements and easier removal.

Larger hex is cold worked and cold forged. In

combination with the lower torque requirements, socket
breakage is nearly eliminated.

Completely Stainless materials This product features SUPERNUTS:

the ideal combination of materials: nickel super alloy
Inconel 718 jackbolts with an AISI 316L body. The Rc
45 rolled jackbolt thread exhibits consistently easy
breakaway performance when mated with the softer nut
body thread, even after the lubrication has burnt off.
Accuracy of Various Methods of Tightening Bolts
• Require some special tools
(inexpensive).
• User must follow a specified assembly
procedure.
• Good accuracy (up to +/- 10% of the
required clamping force).
• Can provide time and labor savings.

Mechanical Torquening:
Requires huge torque.
Typical Torque Pattern
Leads to damaged threads (galling).

Not accurate (up to +/- 50% of the required clamping

force)

Thermal and Hydraulic:

Requires special tools (can be expensive)

Thermal torque is not safe in hazardous environments.

Difficult for upside down bolting.

Time consuming

Not Accurate (up to +/- 30% of the required clamping

force)
Typical Torque Pattern
Diaphragms
Diaphragms

A diaphragm is the stationary element of a stage

containing nozzles to expand the steam and direct it
against the rotating blades.

Diaphragms and Nozzle Blocks are critical turbine

components.

Approximately 70 to 90% of the available enthalpy drop

throughout the turbine is utilized by these components.

They properly guide and direct the steam flow to the

rotating elements to achieve optimal performance.

All the stage seals (tip, root, and shaft) are mounted in
these components.

As a general rule, it can be said that the stage efficiency

and mechanical integrity are highly dependent upon the
diaphragms and nozzle rings.

Diaphragms and Nozzle rings are the most controversial

components of a Steam turbine:

Strict quality requirements are invoked on the accuracy

of the throat area dimensions and surface finishes.

While holding these requirements, they are constructed

mostly by welding which inevitably causes significant
thermal deformation.

This contradiction between high quality and a crude

assembly process can be compared to building a Swiss
watch with a sledge hammer.

It is because of these quality requirements and the

construction method that there are so many inspections
and dimensional checks required during the
manufacturing process.
NOZZLE RINGS
The most common design is the bolted on type.
Welded into inner steam chest (used mostly on 360º
design for high pressure and high temperature This is used on all conventional steam chests as well as
applications) some with a loose inner chest.

180º Bolted to the steam chest

180º Bolted and wedged to the steam chest

Two Rows of One Row of Bolting Welded in

Bolting and an Outer Wedge High Pressure
Steam Chest

1. Nozzle rings are significantly shorter in the radial

direction and usually wider in the axial direction. Diaphragms

2. Nozzle rings are rigidly attached to the steam chest Directly installed in the case bore on radial crush spots.
and require almost 100% contact at the nozzle ring to (Weld spots or pins)
steam chest joint.
AXIAL CRUSH PIN
AXIAL CRUSH PIN
3. Nozzle rings are attached rigidly to the steam chest by RADIAL CRUSH PIN
one of the following methods:
RADIAL CRUSH PIN

Suspended at the horizontal joint and keyed at the 6:00

Two Rows of One Row of Bolting Welded in High o'clock position.
Bolting and an Outer Wedge Pressure Steam
Chest
DIAPHRAGM
ADJUSTING SCREW

There are two basic styles of nozzle rings, welded and DIAPHRAGM
DIAPHRAGM

bolted. CASE GUIDE KEY CENTERING

KEY
CASE

The welded style is used only on high pressure

applications with separate inner steam chests.
Installing Diaphragms This method of support minimizes the thermal
deformation effects. It is suspended from the joint and
Diaphragms are installed in the case in machined slots the centering key allows for a minimum 3/32” clearance
with centering keys located bottom dead center in the between the case bore and diaphragm OD.
case.
It is good practice to individually match mark each
diaphragm guide key.
HORIZONTAL JOINT

Before beginning the installation of the diaphragms, a

DIAPHRAGM SLOTS
CENTERING KEYS
blue check should be done between the seal side of the
• • • • • • STEAM FLOW
diaphragm tongue and the case.
MACHINED COUNTERBORES
FOR CENTERLINE SUPPORT
SCREWS
Once good contact is determined and the axial
clearances have been set, place the lower half of the
diaphragm in the case.

Since the function of the diaphragm is to accurately Most diaphragms will sit slightly below the horizontal
direct the steam flow into the rotating blades and act as a joint and should be centered on each side of the shaft.
holder for all the stage seals, accurate positioning is
critical.
CRUSH SEAL SIDE
There are two methods used to support the diaphragm PIN
concentrically to the shaft.

On older turbines a set of radial weld spots or crush pins

are located on the outer ring OD.
STEAM
This older design has one main drawback. The FLOW
diaphragm is lying directly in the case bore. The
diaphragm is now subject to any thermal deformations
of the case during operation.

AXIAL CRUSH AXIAL

RADIAL CRUSH BUTTON CRUSH
BUTTON BUTTON
RADIAL CRUSH
BUTTON

On newer units most diaphragms are centerline With the upper half of the case inverted, install the upper
supported at the horizontal joint and have centering keys halves of the diaphragms.
at the bottom dead center of the case.
These are held in place with locking screws.
DIAPHRAGM
ADJUSTING SCREW

DIAPHRAGM
CASE DIAPHRAGM
GUIDE KEY
CENTERING
KEY
CASE

CENTERLINE SUPPORT CENTERING KEY

JOINT DETAIL
 KEYS
ADJUSTING SCREW

ALIGNING PIN

LIFTING HOLE LOWER HALF VIEW

With diaphragm in case check to insure that keys and

aligning pin are installed.
Seals
Leakage Control Devices

The leakage control devices we will be discussing here are:

1) Turbine shaft end packings

2) Packings, or seals, limiting the flow around and through the stage components.

Figure 1 shows a typical HP turbine shaft seal.

In addition to flowing downstream through the stage blading, steam is leaking radially inward
and then out of the HP shell between the shaft and the stationary casing. To limit this flow there
are stationary (and sometimes rotating) teeth that provide resistance to this leakage flow by
introducing a series of pressure drops. Also there are occasional leakoffs where some of the
leakage steam is diverted to an extraction line or to a “steam seal header” maintained at a
pressure a little above atmospheric. A last leakoff is connected to a “gland exhauster header”
which is maintained at a pressure slightly below atmospheric and prevents steam from leaking
into the turbine room.
Figure 2 shows the leakage paths through a typical wheel and diaphragm (impulse) type stage
and Figure 3 through a typical drum type rotor (reaction) design stage.

In each case, in addition to flowing downstream as desired, steam is leaking between the
stationary blading and the rotor body and between the tip of the rotating blading and the
stationary diaphragm or blade carrier. As with the shaft end packings, there are seals provided
which provide one or more restrictions to minimize these leakage flows

Obviously, the smaller the clearance between the tips of the various types of seals in Figure 4,
and the adjacent rotating or stationary part, the less is the undesirable leakage.
It should be noted here that the tips of the teeth in these seals are initially quite sharp. This is
because a sharp tooth tip produces a greater resistance to flow than a broad one, and what is even
worse from a flow minimization standpoint, is to rub a tooth tip, which produces a mushroomed
and rounded surface that greatly reduces the flow restricting capability. To minimize the rubbing
and resultant rounding of the teeth tips, the turbine designer establishes some minimum, or
design, clearance that is used when new seals are installed.
These seal teeth are rather delicate, and so they do get rubbed and mushroomed to some degree,
eroded, damaged by foreign objects, or otherwise have the clearance available for leakage flow
increased while the unit is in service.
Seal Functions Labyrinth seals can be either straight or stepped.

The primary purpose of any seal whether it be an

interstage labyrinth, part of the HP or LP packing, a tip
seal, or a root seal is to reduce steam leakage and
improve the efficiency of the turbine.

To accomplish the task of reducing steam leakage the

seals create a difficult leakage path and throttles the
steam thereby increasing the pressure drop across it. STRAIGHT
STEPPED
TIP SEALS
HP PACKING
ROOT SEALS

LP PACKING OIL GUARD Straight seals are used when the thermal expansion is
OIL GUARDS
excessive, the pressure drop is very low, or in situations
where the seal needs to be slid over the shaft.
INTERSTAGE LABYRINTH
Stepped seals are the preferred design whenever
possible since they create a much more difficult path of
Labyrinth Seals resistance, in turn being more efficient.

There are two distinct styles of labyrinth seals; Tip and Root Seals
conventional spring-backed and retractable.
Anytime steam can be stopped from going around the
flow path an improvement in efficiency can be had.

Blade tip and root seals limit the amount of steam that
can leak around the flow path.

These seals can be spring-backed or staked.

CONVENTIONAL RETRACTABLE

The conventional style is referred to as spring-backed

simply because there is a series of small springs located
in the back of the seal that holds it in the running
position. SPRING-BACKED
Labyrinth seals have three configurations of hook
TIP SEAL
design.

Steam flow

SINGLE HOOK REVERSE SINGLE HOOK DOUBLE HOOK

STAKED
• The hook configuration is determined by the
designer based on the overall size of the seal ROOT SEAL
and the available area for machining the mating
configuration.
• The retractable packing is available in the same
configurations.
Spring-backed are similar to the labyrinth seals in that They are not segmented into multiple pieces; the guards
they have a machined hook configuration and springs are made as 360 rings and split for assembly.
holding them in place. There are no variable hook configurations.

The staked seals are much more rigid; basically they are
fitted into a machined slot and staked to hold them in.

Butt Gaps

Labyrinth seals, as well as the tip and root seals are

segmented. Typically they are made up in 360-degree
rings and cut into segments which are match marked.
There are some designs that are segmented prior to
turning.

This cut or the space between the segments is called the

butt gap.

The purpose for the gaps is to allow for thermal

expansion of the rings during operation.

These gaps are calculated based on the diameter of the

rings, temperature, the number of segments, and the
application. Typically the labyrinth seals will have 4 OIL GUARD CROSSECTION
gaps and the tip seals will have 8. LOWER HALF
For most applications up to 850 degrees the seals are
They have holes drilled between the teeth on the lower
made of a leaded nickel brass material.
half through the bottom of the seal and into a hole that is
drilled axially from the oil side of the seal. This is to
When temperatures exceed this level a ductile ni-resist
allow any oil that accumulates in the seal to drain back
iron is used. The only exception to this is on the staked
into the oil pocket.
seals, in applications above 850 degrees a 416 stainless
material (material code 0610) is used since ni-resist does
not stake well.

These materials are chosen for seals essentially because

they are softer than the blade or rotor materials. In the
event of a rub during operation the seal will wear rather
than the shaft or blade.

Oil Guards

Oil guards are used to keep bearing oil from traveling up

the shaft either toward the flow path or out to the
environment.

Oil guards look very similar to labyrinth rings but are

very different since they are always used in low
temperature areas.
Bearing Brackets
Bearing brackets on most turbines are made of cast
carbon steel.

On some older units these were made of cast iron.

These brackets house the journal and thrust bearings.

They provide the flow passage for the lubricating oil to

the bearings.

Much of the turbine instrumentation is attached to or

located in the bearing brackets.
Bearings
HYDRODYNAMIC
BEARINGS
Bearings transmit the rotating shaft’s loads to the
foundation or machine support. Hydrodynamic
bearings transmit (float) the load on a self renewing
film of lubricant. Thrust bearings support
the axial loads. Radial loads are supported
by journal bearings. The machine and bearing
can be classified as horizontal or vertical depending
on the orientation of the shaft. The bearings
may be solid for assembly over the end of the
shaft, or split for assembly around the shaft.

HYDRODYNAMIC
PRINCIPLE
JOURNAL BEARINGS
Based on his theoretical investigation of cylindrical
journal bearings, Professor Os b o r n e
Reynolds showed that oil, because of its adhesion
to the journal and its resistance to flow (viscosity),
is dragged by the rotation of the journal so as to form a
wedge-shaped film between the journal and journal
bearing (Fig. 4). This action sets up the pressure in the
oil film which thereby supports the load (Fig. 5).

This wedge-shaped film was shown by Reynolds PIVOTED SHOE

to be the absolutely essential feature of effective
journal lubrication. Reynolds also showed that
“if an extensive flat surface is rubbed over a
slightly inclined surface, oil being present, there
would be a pressure distribution with a maximum
somewhere beyond the center in the direction
of motion.”
Applied to hydrodynamic pivoted shoe thrust
bearings (Fig. 6) Albert Kingsbury stated: “If a
block were supported from below on a pivot, at
about the theoretical center of pressure, the oil
p re s s u res would automatically take the theoretical
form, with a resulting small bearing friction
and absence of wear of the metal parts. In this
way a thrust bearing could be made with several
such blocks set around in a circle and with proper
arrangements for lubrication.” The same concept
applies to the pivoted shoe journal bearing.

As with the plain cylindrical bearing, the pivoted

shoe thrust and journal bearings rely on
adhesion of the lubricant to provide the film
with a self-renewing supply of oil.
BASIC PIVOTED SHOE THRUST
(& JOURNAL) PARTS (See Fig. 7)
This section discusses the associated thrust
bearing parts, with corresponding journal bearing
information in parenthesis.
ROTATING COLLAR (JOURNAL)
The collar transmits the thrust load from the
rotating shaft to the thrust shoes through the
lubricant film. It can be a separate part and
attached to the shaft by a key and nut or shrink
fit or it may be an integral part of the shaft.
The collar is called a runner in vertical
machines. (In the radial direction, the shaft
journal transmits the radial loads to the journal
shoes through the lubricant film.) In hydrodynamic
bearings, the fluid film is on the order of
.025 mm (.001”) thick. With this and the
information from HYDRODYNAMIC PRINCIPLE,
two points can be realized:
1. The stack-up of tolerances and misalignment
in hydrodynamic bearings has to be conservatively
less than .025 mm (.001”), or some
means of adjustment has to be incorporated.
2. The collar surfaces must be flat and smooth
(and journal surface cylindrical and smooth) in
comparison to the film thickness, but not so
smooth as to inhibit the adhesion of the lubricant
to the surface.
THRUST SHOE (JOURNAL SHOE) ASSEMBLY
The shoe (also called a pad, segment, or block)
is loosely constrained so it is free to pivot. The
shoe has three basic features - the babbitt, body,
and pivot, and so is usually referred to as an
assembly.
BABBITT - The babbitt is a high-tin material,
metallurgically bonded to the body. As with
the collar, the babbitt surface must be smooth
and flat in comparison to the film thickness.
The babbitt is a soft material (compared to the
shaft) which serves two functions: It traps and
imbeds contaminants so that these particles do
not heavily score or damage the shaft. It also
protects the shaft from extensive damage should
external conditions result in interruption of the
film and the parts come in contact.
BODY - The shoe body is the supporting structure
which holds the babbitt and allows freedom
to pivot. The material is typically steel.
Bronze is sometimes used (with or without babbitt)
depending on the application. Chrome
copper is used to reduce babbitt temperature.
PIVOT - The pivot allows the shoe to rotate and
form a wedge. It may be integral with the shoe
b o d y, or be a separate insert. The pivot surface is
spherical to allow 360° rolling freedom.
BASE RING (ALIGNING RING)
The base ring loosely holds and constrains the
shoes against rotating so as to allow freedom to
p i vot. It may have passages for the supply of lubricant,
and contain features to adapt for misalignment
and tolerance in the parts. The base ring
(aligning ring) is keyed or doweled to the housing
to pre vent rotation of the bearing assembly.
LEVELING PLATES
The leveling plates (not applicable to journal
bearings) are a series of levers designed to compensate
for manufacturing tolerances by distributing
the load more evenly between thrust
shoes. The leveling plates also compensate for
minor housing deflections or misalignment between the
collar and the housing’s supporting wall. A
description is given later under the section
on misalignment.
LUBRICANT
The lubricant is another important “element”
of the bearing (See Fig 8-1). The loads are transmitted
from the shaft to the bearing through the lubricant which
separates the parts and prevents metal to metal contact.
The lubricant also serves to carry heat caused by friction
out of the bearing.
RELATED PARAMETERS
TOLERANCE, ALIGNMENT AND
EQUALIZATION
In a machine, alignment and load distribution
are not perfect because of manufacturing tolerances
in the housing, shaft and bearing elements.
There are three areas of concern:
1. The squareness of the collar (and parallelism
of the journal) to the axis of the shaft which is
assembled to, or machined on the shaft.

2. The alignment of shaft with the bearing and

housing, which is a manufacturing tolerance
stack-up of the bearing parts and the housing
bores and faces.

3. The alignment of shafts between machines

which are aligned and coupled together on site.
Misalignment of the shaft to the bearing and
housing, and between machines is considered static
misalignment and can be adjusted at assembly
if proper design features are incorporated. Other
sources of misalignment termed dynamic are due to
operating or changing conditions such as: thermal
housing distortion, shaft deflection from imposed loads,
movement caused by thermal expansion, movement
caused by settling of foundations, pipe strain, etc.

In pivoted shoe thrust bearings, static misalignment

and manufacturing tolerances in the shoe height are
accommodated by the leveling plates.

Referring to Figure 8-2, the load transmitted by

the rotating collar to any thrust shoe forces the
shoe against the upper leveling plate behind it.
If one shoe were slightly thicker than the others,
the resulting higher film force bears the shoe
down against the upper leveling plate. Each
upper leveling plate is supported on one radial
edge of each of two adjacent lower leveling
plates. The lower leveling plates rock very
slightly and raise the shoes on either side and so
on around the ring. This feature also compensates
for minor housing deflections or misalignment
between the housing’s supporting wall and
the collar face.

END PLAY AND RADIAL CLEARANCE
End play is the axial thrust bearing clearance
which is the distance the shaft can move
between opposing thrust bearings. For journal
bearings, the radial clearance is half the difference
of the journal bearing bore and journal
diameter. End play and radial clearance are
required to allow for misalignment, shoe movement,
and thermal expansion of the parts. If set
too tight, power is wasted. If too loose, the
unloaded side shoes are too far from the shaft to
develop a film pressure and can flutter causing
damage to the unloaded shoes. Filler plates and
shim packs provide a means for setting end play
and axial positioning of the rotating elements.
Adjusting screws are also used to accomplish
this function.
PRELOAD
Preload pertains mostly to journal bearings and
is a measure of the curvature of the shoe to the
clearance in the bearing. The shoe curvature is
another parameter which effects the hydrodynamic
film, allowing design variations in bearing
stiffness and damping to control the
dynamics of the machine.
Definition of Bearing Preload
Pivoted Shoe Journal bearings are designed with a
preload. Preload describes the relationship of the bearing
bore to the shaft diameter and bearing clearance. The
calculation shown below defines this relationship.
Preload = 1 - (Bearing Dia. - Shaft Dia.)
(Shoe Dia. - Shaft
Dia.)
The figure shown below (Figure 1) displays how
changes in the shoe bore diameter affects the preload
value. If the bearing clearance and shaft diameter are
held at fixed values, changing the shoe diameter will
change the preload value. From this figure you can see
that a shoe diameter larger than the shaft diameter
provides larger preload value. As the shoe diameter
approaches the same diameter as the shaft, the preload
value approaches zero.
Preload values can range from 0 to .6. Changes in
preload value affect the oil film thickness and
horsepower loss values of a bearing. Modifying the
preload value can also change the dynamic
characteristics or stiffness and damping coefficients of a
bearing. Adjusting the preload is one way that
equipment manufacturers improve the rotor dynamic
stability of their machines.
LUBRICATION
For hydrodynamic bearings to operate safely
and efficiently, a suitable lubricant must always
be present at the collar and journal surfaces.
The lubricant needs to be cooled to remove the
heat generated from oil shear, before re-entering
the bearing. It must also be warm enough to
flow freely, and filtered so that the average particle
size is less than the minimum film thickness.
Various methods are applied to provide lubricant
to the bearing surfaces. The bearing cavities
can be flooded with oil such as vertical bearings
which sit in an oil bath. The bearings can
also be provided with pressurized oil from an
external lubricating system. The flow path of a
horizontal, flooded pivoted shoe thrust bearing
is shown in Figure 10.
For high speed bearings, the frictional losses
from oil shear and other parasitic losses begin to
increase exponentially as the surface speed
enters a turbulent regime. The amount of
lubricant required increases proportionately.
Industry trends for faster, larger machines
necessitated the design of lower loss bearings.
This has been incorporated by the introduction
of other methods of lubrication.
Journal Bearings

There are two basic styles of journal bearings used in the

majority of equipment.

TILT PAD SLEEVE Early history had proven that hydrodynamic pivoted
shoe bearings provided considerable benefits. They were
Sleeve types are found mainly on older designs; they are smaller, less expensive, required less maintenance,
not common on new units. lasted longer, and were more efficient. The oil film also
provided additional benefits in regard to shock
Tilt pad bearings offer the best rotor stability absorbing capability, and allowed damping as
characteristics and are more tolerant of impurities in the A design parameter to control vibration. These
oil. considerable benefits allowed the d e s i g n to be used in
a wide variety of applications. Indeed, the invention
Sleeve Bearings made it possible to build the high-tech machines and
The cylindrical hydrodynamic journal bearing is the ships of today.
most basic hydrodynamic bearing. It has a cylindrical
bore, typically with two axial grooves for lubrication.
This bearing has a high load capacity, and the simple
design is compact, birotational, and easy to manufacture.
However, as the design speeds of machines increased, it
was found this bearing had limitations due to oil whirl.
Oil whirl is very undesirable because of high vibration
amplitudes, forces, and cyclic stresses that are imposed
on the shaft, bearings and machine.

Efforts to suppress and eliminate oil whirl have resulted

in a variety of fixed geometry bearings which are
modifications to the profile of the bearing bore.
Variations are the lemon bore, pressure dam, lobed, and
other fixed profile bearings. The pivoted shoe concept
was first applied to journal bearings approximate l y
seventy - five years ago. Extensive tests and applications
have proved the pivoted shoe journal bearing to be most
effective in eliminating oil whirl.
Tilt Pad Bearings OIL DRAINS

The main bearings support the rotor assembly The most

common today are of the babbitt-lined, multiple tilting
pad type The four equally spaced bearing pads are fitted
into in a two piece bearing housing and are secured by
special pins. The bearing housing fits in a bore in the
bearing support. The bearing housing its prevented from
moving by a pin projecting into a slot in the bearing
support. The halves of the horizontally split bearing
supports are bolted and doweled together and are kept
from rotating by a pin. A groove in the bearing support
fits over a tongue formed in the bearing bracket.
OIL
Flooded lubrication method is employed. Lubrication is SUPPLY
supplied to a groove in the bearing retaining ring or
customer housing. Inlet orifices control lubricant flow LOAD BETWEEN PAD (LBP)
from the groove between the shaft and journal shoe,
assuring adequate lubrication and temperature control From a design stand point the two configurations
for specific load and speed conditions. Circumferential produce quite different operating characteristics.
grooves within the bearing provide additional cooling
through circulation of lubricant around the individual From the assembly side the pad orientation is the only
shoes. Seals that float with shaft displacement maintain difference.
the flooded condition and minimize leakage. The
bearing cavity is flooded and the hot lubricant is allowed A LOP bearing usually has two oil feeds, while the LPD
to exit at the top of the bearing through discharge holes. has three.
The bottom shoe of each bearing is fitted with resistance
temperature detectors (RTDs) to monitor the There are many design variations in the tilt pad bearing;
temperature of the bearings. these variations include pivot design, housing
configuration, and instrumentation.
There are two configurations of tilt pad bearings, load
on pad and load between pads. The most prominent distinction is pivot design.

OLD DELAVAL ORION TURBOCARE

ROCKER SELF ALLIGNING SPHERICAL TILT PAD
PIVOT PIVOT

LOAD ON PAD (LOP)

Housings

There are three distinct variations in housing design.

SPHERICAL FLANGED STRAIGHT

 From an assembly viewpoint, the main difference in
Thrust Bearings these two types is how the oil flows.
The thrust bearing is provided to locate the rotor in the
casing and to absorb axial thrust in either direction n. OIL FEED OIL FEED

Construction of the bearing is described below.

The thrust bearing consists of a rotating collar and a

stationary thrust element on each side of the collar. The STANDARD LEG

thrust bearing and the thrust bearing shims are retained

in the horizontally split thrust bearing housing by the
thrust bearing rings. The thrust bearing shims determine In both cases oil is fed from the bracket to a groove in
the thrust bearing end play and the rotor running the back of the bearing.
position. The thrust bearing fits into a bore in the thrust
bearing housing, is located by a tongue, and is prevented The difference is in the discharge orientation.
from rotating by a pin. Special thrust bearing elements
are used on both sides of the thrust collar. These On the LEG the oil is fed through the slots located on
elements are of the multiple shoe, self-aligning, the ends of the pads, putting the oil directly on the pad.
equalizing design. They each consist of a set of
stationary, pivoted, babbitt-faced segments called thrust With the standard bearing oil is fed between the pads.
shoes, and a load equalizing mounting for the set This method usually requires that the bearing run
of shoes consisting of upper (closer to the thrust shoes) flooded.
and lower (closer to the base ring) leveling plates. Two
shoes in each element are fitted with temperature Since the LEG feeds the pads directly it is not required
sensors to monitor the bearing performance. Each of the to run flooded which results in larger drain holes to
thrust shoes fits into notches in the base ring. The evacuate the oil.
leveling
plates are pinned to the base ring. The horizontally split There are two thrust bearing configurations straddle and
base rings are prevented from rotating by keys and are overhung.
positioned axially by horizontally split shims.
The straddle configuration is used to minimize bearing
The thrust shoes and leveling plates in each thrust span. With this design the journal bearing is situated
bearing are designed and mounted so that the shoes between the active and inactive thrust bearing.
automatically tilt in any direction. This design also
permits the bearing to adjust to any misalignment,
thereby assuring even load distribution among all thrust
shoes under any condition.

Oil for the lubrication of the thrust bearing comes

directly from the lube oil system through passages in the
bearing bracket and in the bearing housing and through STRADDLE OVERHUNG
orifices in the bearing housing. The oil flows around the
base rings into an inlet oil pocket with hydraulic feed
piston, which supplies cool oil to each pad. Once oil Like the journal bearing there are various pad
circulates through the bearing surfaces and fills configurations available.
the bearing housing it is discharged through a hole at the
top of the housing. Floating oil guards mounted in the These configurations include variations in the pivot
thrust bearing retaining rings provide oil for a flooded location, type of pivot and materials.
design.
Pads are available with center pivot and offset pivot
Like the journal bearing, Self Leveling thrust bearings (standard on LEG designs) for increased loads.
come in two basic types, LEG and Standard Flooded.
OFFSET PIVOT CENTER PIVOT
Turbine Trip Valves or Emergency Shutdown Valves (ESV)
Trip Valves
 Turbine Construction Quiz

1. Name the 2 types of Steam

Turbine rotor construction.

2. Name the 2 basic types of

Journal/Radial Bearings.

3. What is the purpose of the Journal

/ Radial Bearing?

4. What is the Purpose of a Thrust

Bearing?

5. Name the Parts of the Rotor.