Module 1

MATTER AND MEASUREMENT

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT Commonly Used Conversion Factors of Length

Length Mass Volume
Measurement is the determination of the dimensions, capacity, quantity, or extend of 1 km = 0.62137 mi 1 kg. = 2.2046 lb. 1L = 10-3 m3
something. In chemical laboratories, the most common type of measurements are those of 1 mi = 5,280 ft. = 1 dm3
mass, volume, length, time, temperature, pressure and concentration. = 1.6093 km. = 103 cm3
1 m. = 1.0936 yd = 1.0567 qt
= 453.59 g.
Two system of Measurement: 1 in. = 2.54 cm 1 lb. 1 gal = 4 qt
= 16 oz.
English System of Units: common measurements of commerce, such as those used in a = 3.7854 L
1 cm. = 0.39370 in 1 cm3 = 1 mL
grocery store, are made in the English system. The units of this system include the inch, foot,
1 in3 = 16.4 cm3
pound, quart, and gallon.
Metric System of Units: used in scientific work. The units of this system include the gram,
Sample Problem.
meter and liter.
Capillaries, the microscopic vessels that carry blood from small arteries to small veins, are on
the average only 1 mm long. What is the average length of a capillary in inches?
International System - SI System (7 Units)
Conversion factors: 1 mm = 0.1 cm; 1 in. = 2.54 cm.
Physical Quantity Name of Unit Abbreviation
Formula:
Mass Kilogram Kg 0.1 𝑐𝑚. 1 𝑖𝑛.
Length Meter M 1 mm x x = 4 x 10-2 in.
1 𝑚𝑚. 2.54 𝑐𝑚.
Time Second S
Temperature Kelvin K SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Amount of Substance Mole Mol
Electric Current Ampere A Reliability of Measurement
Luminous Intensity Candela cd Precision refers to the degree of agreement among several measurements of the same
quantity.
Metric System Prefixes Accuracy refers to the agreement of a particular value with the true value.
Prefix Symbol Meaning Exponential Notation
exa E 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 1018
peta P 1,000,000,000,000,000 1015
tera T 1,000,000,000,000 1012
giga G 1,000,000,000 109
mega M 1,000,000 106
kilo k 1,000 103
Rules for Counting Significant Figures:
Hector h 100 102
• Nonzero integers. Nonzero integers always count as significant figures.
Deka da 10 101
• Zeros. There are three classes of zeros:
1 100
▪ Leading Zeros are zeros that precede all the nonzero digits. These do not count as
deci d 0.1 10-1
centi c 0.01 10-2 significant figures. (ex. 0.0025)
milli m 0.001 10-3 ▪ Captive Zeros are zeros between nonzero digits. These always count as significant
micro  0.000001 10-6 figures. (ex. 1.008)
nano n 0.000000001 10-9 ▪ Trailing Zeros are zeros at the right end of the number. They are significant only if the
pico p 0.000000000001 10-12 number contains a decimal point. (100.)
femto f 0.000000000000001 10-15 • Exact Numbers is a number whose value has no uncertainty associated with it – that is, it
atto a 0.000000000000000001 10-18 is known exactly. (ex. 10 experiments, 3 apples, 1 dozen)
Rules for Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations
• Multiplication and Division Module 2
Significant figures of the answer = Significant figures of the fewest significant figures. ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND THE PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS.
Ex. 1.342 × 5.5 = 7.381 or 7.4
• Addition and Subtraction
Significant figures of the answer = Significant figure of the fewest decimal places. CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
Ex. 23.445
Matter
+ 7.83 anything that occupies space and has mass.
31.275 or 31.28
Pure Substances Mixtures
fixed composition; cannot be further purified. a combination of two or more pure substances.
Rules for Rounding Off Numbers << Physically separable into <<

• Carry the extra digits through to the final results, then round off. Elements
Compounds
Homogeneous Heterogeneous
cannot be subdivided Matter Matter
elements united in
• If the digit to be removed is: <5 preceding digits stays the same. by chemical or
fixed ratios.
uniform composition non-uniform
≥5 preceding digits increased by 1. physical means. throughout composition
>> Combine chemically to form >>

SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Scientific Notation or Exponential Notation expresses a number as N x10n, a convenient

John Dalton (1766-1844)
method for representing a very large or very small number and for easily indicating the
All matter is composed of very tiny particles, which Dalton called atoms.
number of significant figures.
Atoms of the same element have the same chemical properties.
N = bet. 1 and 10
Atoms of different elements have different chemical properties.
n (exponent) = integer, if positive (+), decimal point in N should be moved n places to the right.
If negative (-), decimal point in N should be moved n places to the left.
Law of Conservation of Mass
Matter can neither be created nor destroyed.
Dimensional Analysis is a method of problem solving in which units are carried through all
calculations.
Monatomic Elements consist of single atoms. helium (He) and neon (Ne).
Diatomic Elements consist of two atoms. H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, and I2
Conversion Factor is a ratio that specifies how one unit of measurement is related to another
Polyatomic Elements consist of three or more atoms per molecule. O3, P4, S8
unit of measurement.
Ex.
Subatomic Particle:
Proton (+1) found in the nucleus
Electron (-1) found outside the nucleus
Neutron (0) found in the nucleus
TEMPERATURE
amu (atomic mass units) the given unit of mass.
Temperature is a measure of the hotness or coldness of an object. Indeed, temperature is a Mass Number the sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
physical property that determines the direction of heat flow. Atomic Number the number of protons in the nucleus.
Scales: Kelvin (K), Celsius (°C), Fahrenheit (°F)
Isotopes atoms with same number of protons but different number of neutrons.
Formulas: Atomic Weight
K = °C + 273.15 the weighted average of the masses (amu) of the naturally occurring isotopes of an element.
°C = ( °F - 32 )x 5 abundance A abundance B
9 ( x isotopic weight A) + ( x isotopic weight B) =total proportional contribution
9 100 100
°F = ( x °C )+32
5 Finding percentage of abundance, with isotopic weight and average atomic weight:
average atomic weight = (isotopic weight A)(x) + (isotopic weight B)(1-x)
Dmitri Mendeleyev (1834-1907) Lewis Dot Structure Chemical symbol of an element surrounded by dots equal to the
arranged elements in Periodic Table according to increasing atomic number from Hydrogen. number of valence electrons present in atoms of the element.
Symbol of an Element represents the nucleus and the filled shells.
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS Lone Pairs pairs of non-bonding electrons
Ionization Energy the energy required to remove the most loosely held electron from an
Metals atom in the gaseous state
Are solids at room temperature (except for Hg, which is a liquid), shiny, conduct electricity, and
are ductile and malleable. Module 3
Non-Metals CHEMICAL BONDING AND NOMENCLATURE
Except for hydrogen (H), they lie on the right side of the Periodic Table.
Except for graphite, do not conduct electricity. VALENCE ELECTRONS AND THE LEWIS ELECTRON DOT STRUCTURES
In chemical reactions, they tend to accept electrons.
Metalloids (6) Chemical Bonds Attractive force that holds two atoms together in a more complex unit.
They are shiny like metals but, unlike metals, do not conduct electricity, although Silicon Form as a result of interactions between electrons found in the combining atoms.
becomes a conductor at higher voltages.
Two Types:
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION • Ionic Bond Chemical bond formed through the transfer of one or more electrons from one
atom or group of atoms to another atom or group of atoms.
Electron Configuration The arrangement of electrons in the extranuclear space. (between Metals and Non-metals)
The energy of electrons in an atom is quantized, which means that an electron in an atom can Ionic Compound A compound in which ionic bonds are present.
have only certain allowed energies. • Covalent Bond Chemical bond formed through the sharing of one or more pairs of
electrons between two atoms.
Distribution of Electrons in Shells (between Two Non-metals)
Shell 1 2 3 4 Molecular Compound (Covalent Compound) A compound in which atoms are joined
Electrons held 2 8 18 32 through covalent bonds.
Single shares one pair. Double shares two pairs. Triple shares three pairs.
Order:
s 2e- Ex. 1s2 2s2 3s2 4s2 5s2 6s2 Valence Electrons electrons that participate in bonding and they are the electrons in the
p 6e-
Rn
2p6 3p6 4p6 5p6 6p6 outermost shell of a representative element or noble-gas element. Found in either s or p
d 10e- Radon
3d10 4d10 5d10 subshells. Same group = Same No. of Valence Electrons
f 14e- 86 4f14

Electronegativity The ability of an atom in a molecule to attract shared electrons to itself.

2
3 (energy level) s (orbital) (no. of electrons) Increases through periods. Decreases down a group.

Non-Polar Covalent Bond A covalent bond in which there is equal sharing of electrons
Base Noble Gases: [He]2, [Ne]10, [Ar]18, [Kr]36, [Xe]54, [Rn]86
between two atoms.
Polar Covalent Bond A covalent bond in which there is unequal sharing of electrons between
Valence Shell the outermost incomplete shell.
two atoms.
Valence Electron an electron in the valence shell.
Relationship: Electronegativity Polarity of the Bond

Atomic Size decrease Ionization increase Bond Type Electronegativity Difference

increase decrease Nonpolar Covalent 0.4 or less
Greater than 0.4 to 1.5
Polar Covalent
Between 1.5 and 2.0 (between nonmetals)
Between 1.5 and 2.0 (metal and nonmetal)
Ionic
Greater than 2.0
 Valences of Common Elements and Radicals
A.Cations
Aluminum, Al3+ Iron (II) or Ferrous, Fe2+
Ammonium, NH4+ Iron (III) or Ferric, Fe3+
Antimony (III) or Antimonous, Sb3+ Lead(II) or Plumbous, Pb2+
Antimony (V), Sb5+ Lead (IV) or Plumbic, Pb4+
Arsenic (III) or Arsenous, As3+ Manganese (II) or Manganous, Mn2+
Arsenic (V), As5+ Mercury (I) or Mercurous, Hg22+
Chromium (II) or Chromous, Cr2+ Mercury (II) or Mercuric, Hg2+
Chromium (III) or Chromic, Cr3+ Nickel (II) or Nickelous, Ni2+
Cobalt (II) or Cobaltous, Co2+ Nickel (III) or Nickelic, Ni3+
Cobalt (III) or Cobaltic, Co3+ Platinum (II) or Platinous, Pb2+
Copper (I) or Cuprous, Cu+ Platinum (IV) or Platinic, Pt4+
Copper (II) or Cupric, Cu2+ Silver, Ag+
Gold (I) or Aurous, Au+ Tin (II) or Stannous, Sn2+
Gold (III) or Auric, Au3+ Tin (IV) or Stannic, Sn4+
Zinc, Zn2+

B.Anions amd Polyatomic ions

Acetate, CH3COO- or C2H2O2- Sulfide, S2-
Bromide, Br- Selenide, Se2-
Borate, BO33- Silicate, SiO32-
Carbonate, CO32- Telluride, Te2-
Chlorite, ClO2- Nitrate, NO3-
Chlorate, ClO3- Fluoride, F-
Ferricyanide, Fe(CN)63- Ferrocyanide, Fe(CN)64-
Carbide, C4- or C22- Iodide, I-
Chloride, Cl- Chromate, CrO42-
Nitride, N3- Cyanide, CN-
Oxide, O2- Dichromate, Cr2O72-
Peroxide, O- Dihydrogen phosphate, H2PO4-
Phosphide, P3- Hydride, H-
Silicide, Si4- Hydrogen carbonate or bicarbonate, HCO3-
Hydrogen phosphate, HPO42- Hydrogen sulfite or bisulfite, HSO32-
Hydroxide, OH- Hydrogen sulfate or bisulfate, HSO42-
Hypochlorite, ClO- Nitride, N3-
Nitrite, NO2- Oxalate, C2O42-
Perchlorate, ClO4 Permanganate, MnO4-
Sulfite, SO32- Sulfate, SO42-
Thiocyanate, SCN- Thiosulfate, S2O32-
Phosphite, PO43- Phosphate, PO44-