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Dedication
I dedicate all my efforts to my reader who gives me an urge and inspiration
to work more.
Muhammad Sharif
Author
Database Systems Handbook
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to numerous individuals who contributed
Classifcation of Data
We can classify data as structured, unstructured, or semi-structured data.
1. Structured data is generally quantitative data, it usually consists of hard numbers or things that can be
counted.
2. Unstructured data is generally categorized as qualitative data, and cannot be analyzed and processed
using conventional tools and methods.
3. Semi-structured data refers to data that is not captured or formatted in conventional ways. Semi-
structured data does not follow the format of a tabular data model or relational databases because it does
not have a fixed schema. XML, JSON are semi-structured example.
Properties
Structured data is generally stored in data warehouses.
Unstructured data is stored in data lakes.
Structured data requires less storage space while Unstructured data requires more storage space.
Examples:
Structured data (Table, tabular format, or Excel spreadsheets.csv)
Unstructured data (Email and Volume, weather data)
Semi-structured data (Webpages, Resume documents, XML)
Categories of Data
Implicit data is information that is not provided intentionally but gathered from available data streams, either
directly or through analysis of explicit data.
Explicit data is information that is provided intentionally, for example through surveys and membership
registration forms. Explicit data is data that is provided intentionally and taken at face value rather than analyzed
or interpreted.
Data hacking Method
A data breach is a cyber attack in which sensitive, confidential or otherwise protected data has been accessed or
disclosed.
What is a data item?
The basic component of a file in a file system is a data item.
What are records?
A group of related data items treated as a single unit by an application is called a record.
What is the file?
A file is a collection of records of a single type. A simple file processing system refers to the first computer-based
approach to handling commercial or business applications.
Mapping from file system to Relational Database
In a relational database, a data item is called a column or attribute; a record is called a row or tuple, and a file is
called a table.
Major challenges from file system to database movements
1. Data validatin
2. Data integrity
3. Data security
4. Data sharing
Details will be written later where needed.
What is information?
When we organized data that has some meaning, we called information.
Example Metadata for Relation Class Roster catalogs (Attr_Cat(attr_name, rel_name, type, position like 1,2,3,
access rights on objects, what is the position of attribute in the relation). Simple definition is data about data.
2-tier architecture (basic client-server APIs like ODBC, JDBC, and ORDS are used), Client and disk are connected by
APIs called network.
3-tier architecture (Used for web applications, it uses a web server to connect with a database server).
There are 3 types of buses used in uniform While in non-uniform Memory Access, There are
1 Memory Access which are: Single, Multiple 2 types of buses used which are: Tree and
and Crossbar. hierarchical.
Advantages of NUMA
Improves the scalability of the system.
Memory bottleneck (shortage of memory) problem is minimized in this architecture.
NUMA machines provide a linear address space, allowing all processors to directly address all memory.
Distributed Databases
Distributed database system (DDBS) = Database Systems + Communication
A set of databases in a distributed system that can appear to applications as a single data source.
A distributed DBMS (DDBMS) can have the actual database and DBMS software distributed over many sites,
connected by a computer network.
Distributed DBMS architectures
Three alternative approaches are used to separate functionality across different DBMS-related processes. These
alternative distributed architectures are called
1. Client-server,
2. Collaborating server or multi-Server
3. Middleware or Peer-to-Peer
Client-server: Client can send query to server to execute. There may be multiple server process. The two
different client-server architecture models are:
1. Single Server Multiple Client
2. Multiple Server Multiple Client
Client Server architecture layers
1. Presentation layer
2. Logic layer
3. Data layer
Presentation layer
The basic work of this layer provides a user interface. The interface is a graphical user interface. The graphical user
interface is an interface that consists of menus, buttons, icons, etc. The presentation tier presents information
related to such work as browsing, sales purchasing, and shopping cart contents. It attaches with other tiers by
computing results to the browser/client tier and all other tiers in the network. Its other name is external layer.
Logic layer
The logical tier is also known as the data access tier and middle tier. It lies between the presentation tier and the
data tier. it controls the application’s functions by performing processing. The components that build this layer exist
on the server and assist the resource sharing these components also define the business rules like different
government legal rules, data rules, and different business algorithms which are designed to keep data structure
consistent. This is also known as conceptual layer.
Data layer
The 3-Data layer is the physical database tier where data is stored or manipulated. It is internal layer of database
management system where data stored.
Collaborative/Multi server: This is an integrated database system formed by a collection of two or more
autonomous database systems. Multi-DBMS can be expressed through six levels of schema:
1. Multi-database View Level − Depicts multiple user views comprising subsets of the integrated distributed
database.
2. Multi-database Conceptual Level − Depicts integrated multi-database that comprises global logical multi-
database structure definitions.
3. Multi-database Internal Level − Depicts the data distribution across different sites and multi-database to
local data mapping.
4. Local database View Level − Depicts a public view of local data.
5. Local database Conceptual Level − Depicts local data organization at each site.
6. Local database Internal Level − Depicts physical data organization at each site.
Non-autonomous − Data is distributed across the homogeneous nodes and a central or master DBMS coordinates
data updates across the sites.
Autonomous databases
1. Autonomous Transaction Processing - Serverless
2. Autonomous Transaction Processing - Dedicated
3. Autonomous data warehourse processing - Analytics
Serverless is a simple and elastic deployment choice. Oracle autonomously operates all aspects of the database
lifecycle from database placement to backup and updates.
Dedicated is a private cloud in public cloud deployment choice. A completely dedicated compute, storage, network,
and database service for only a single tenant.
Note: The Semi Join and Bloom Join are two techniques/data fetching method in distributed databases.
Some Popular databases and respective data models
Native XML Databases
We were not surprised that the number of start-up companies as well as some established data management
companies determined that XML data would be best managed by a DBMS that was designed specifically to deal with
semi-structured data — that is, a native XML database.
Conceptual Database
This step is related to the modeling in the Entity-Relationship (E/R) Model to specify sets of data called entities,
relations among them called relationships and cardinality restrictions identified by letters N and M, in this case, the
many-many relationships stand out.
Conventional Database
This step includes Relational Modeling where a mapping from MER to relations using rules of mapping is carried
out. The posterior implementation is done in Structured Query Language (SQL).
Non-Conventional database
This step involves Object-Relational Modeling which is done by the specification in Structured Query Language. In
this case, the modeling is related to the objects and their relationships with the Relational Model.
Traditional database
Temporal database
Conventional Databases
NewSQL Database
Autonomous database
Cloud database
Spatiotemporal
Enterprise Database Management System
Google Cloud Firestore
Couchbase
Memcached, Coherence (key-value store)
HBase, Big Table, Accumulo (Tabular)
MongoDB, CouchDB, Cloudant, JSON-like (Document-based)
Neo4j (Graph Database)
Redis (Data model: Key value)
The term NewSQL categorizes databases that are the combination of relational models with the advancement in
scalability, and flexibility with types of data. These databases focus on the features which are not present in NoSQL,
which offers a strong consistency guarantee. This covers two layers of data one relational one and a key-value store.
Use Cases: Big Data, Social Network Use Cases: E-Commerce, Telecom industry, and
8. Applications, and IoT. Gaming.
If max_string_size = extended Number having precision p and scale s. The precision p can range from 1
32767 bytes or characters to 38. The scale s can range from -84 to 127. Both precision and scale
If max_string_size = standard are in decimal digits. A number value requires from 1 to 22 bytes.
Number(p,s) data type 4000
bytes or characters
The character data types represent alphanumeric text. PL/SQL uses the
SQL character data types such as CHAR, VARCHAR2, LONG, RAW, LONG
Character data types RAW, ROWID, and UROWID.
CHAR(n) is a fixed-length character type whose length is from 1 to
32,767 bytes.
VARCHAR2(n) is varying length character data from 1 to 32,767 bytes.
Exact Numeric: bit, Tinyint, Smallint, Int, Bigint, Numeric, Decimal, SmallMoney, Money.
Approximate Numeric: float, real
Data and Time: DateTime, Smalldatatime, date, time, Datetimeoffset, Datetime2
Character Strings: char, varchar, text
Unicode Character strings: Nchar, Nvarchar, Ntext
Binary strings: binary, Varbinary, image
Other Data types: sql_variant, timestamp, Uniqueidentifier, XML
CLR data types: hierarchyid
Spatial data types: geometry, geography
Abstract Data Types in OracleOne of the shortcomings of the Oracle 7 database was the limited number of
intrinsic data types.
Database Key A key is a field of a table that identifies the tuple in that table.
Super key
An attribute or a set of attributes that uniquely identifies a tuple within a relation.
Candidate key
A super key such that no proper subset is a super key within the relation. Contains no unique subset (irreducibility).
Possibly many candidate keys (specified using UNIQUE), one of which is chosen as the primary key. PRIMARY KEY
(sid), UNIQUE (id, grade)) A candidate can be unique but its value can be changed.
Surrogate key
SURROGATE KEYS is An artificial key that aims to uniquely identify each record and is called a surrogate key. This
kind of partial key in DBMS is unique because it is created when you don’t have any natural primary key. You can't
insert values of the surrogate key. Its value comes from the system automatically.
No business logic in key so no changes based on business requirements
Surrogate keys reduce the complexity of the composite key.
Surrogate keys integrate the extract, transform, and load in DBs.
Compound Key
COMPOUND KEY has two or more attributes that allow you to uniquely recognize a specific record. It is possible that
each column may not be unique by itself within the database.
Operators
SQL UNION clause is used to select distinct values from the tables.
SQL UNION ALL clause used to select all values including duplicates from the tables
The UNION operator is used to combine the result-set of two or more SELECT statements.
Every SELECT statement within UNION must have the same number of columns
IN operator allows you to specify multiple values in a WHERE clause. The IN operator is a shorthand for multiple OR
conditions.
ANY operator
Returns a Boolean value as a result Returns true if any of the subquery values meet the condition . ANY means that
the condition will be true if the operation is true for any of the values in the range.
NOT IN can also take literal values whereas not existing need a query to compare the results.
SELECT CAT_ID FROM CATEGORY_A WHERE CAT_ID NOT IN (SELECT CAT_ID FROM CATEGORY_B)
NOT EXISTS
SELECT A.CAT_ID FROM CATEGORY_A A WHERE NOT EXISTS (SELECT B.CAT_ID FROM CATEGORY_B B WHERE
B.CAT_ID = A.CAT_ID)
NOT EXISTS could be good to use because it can join with the outer query & can lead to usage of the index if the
criteria use an indexed column.
EXISTS AND NOT EXISTS are typically used in conjuntion with a correlated nested query. The result of EXISTS is a
boolean value, TRUE if the nested query ressult contains at least one tuple, or FALSE if the nested query result
contains no tuples
Supporting operators in different DBMS environments:
Keyword Database System
TOP SQL Server, MS Access
LIMIT MySQL, PostgreSQL, SQLite
FETCH FIRST Oracle
But 10g onward TOP Clause no longer supported replace with ROWNUM clause.
SQL FUNCTIONS
Subquery Concept
END
Data abstraction Process of hiding (suppressing) unnecessary details so that the high-level concept can be made
more visible. A data model is a relatively simple representation, usually graphical, of more complex real-world data
structures.
Database Instance is the data which is stored in the database at a particular moment is called an instance of
the database. Also called database state (or occurrence or snapshot). The content of the database, instance is also
called an extension.
The term instance is also applied to individual database components,
E.g., record instance, table instance, entity instance
Types of Instances
Initial Database Instance: Refers to the database instance that is initially loaded into the system.
Valid Database Instance: An instance that satisfies the structure and constraints of the database.
The database instance changes every time the database is updated.
Database Schema is the overall design or skeleton structure of the database. It represents the logical view, visual
diagram having relationals of objects of the entire database.
A database schema can be represented by using a visual diagram. That diagram shows the database objects and
their relationship with each other. A schema contains schema objects like table, foreign key, primary key, views,
columns, data types, stored procedure, etc.
A database schema is designed by the database designers to help programmers whose software will interact with
the database. The process of database creation is called data modeling.
Relational Schema definition
Relational schema refers to the meta-data that describes the structure of data within a certain domain . It is the
blueprint of a database that outlines the way any database will have some number of constraints that must be
applied to ensure correct data (valid states).
Database Schema definition
A relational schema may also refer to as a database schema. A database schema is the collection of relation schemas
for a whole database. A relational or Database schema is a collection of meta-data. Database schema describes the
structure and constraints of data represented in a particular domain . A Relational schema can be described as a
blueprint of a database that outlines the way data is organized into tables. This blueprint will not contain any type
of data. In a relational schema, each tuple is divided into fields called Domain.
Other definitions: The overall design of the database.Structure of database, Schema is also called intension.
Types of Schemas w.r.t Database
DBMS Schemas: Logical/Conceptual/physical schema/external schema
Data warehouse/multi-dimensional schemas: Snowflake/star
OLAP Schemas: Fact constellation schema/galaxy
ANSI-SPARC schema architecture
External Level: View level, user level, external schema, Client level.
Conceptual Level: Community view, ERD Model, conceptual schema, server level, Conceptual (high-level,
semantic) data models, entity-based or object-based data models, what data is stored .and relationships, it’s deal
Logical data independence (External/conceptual mapping)
logical schema: It is sometimes called conceptual schema too (server level), Implementation (representational)
data models. Specific DBMS level modeling.
Internal Level: Physical representation, Internal schema, Database level, Low level. It deals with how data is stored
in the database and Physical data independence (Conceptual/internal mapping)
Physical data level: Physical storage, physical schema, some-time deals with internal schema. It is detailed in
administration manuals.
Data independence
IT is the ability to make changes in either the logical or physical structure of the database without requiring
reprogramming of application programs.
External/Conceptual Mapping
The external/Conceptual Mapping lies between the external level and the Conceptual level. Its role is to define the
correspondence between a particular external and conceptual view.
Detail description
When a schema at a lower level is changed, only the mappings.
between this schema and higher-level schemas need to be changed in a DBMS that fully supports data
independence.
The higher-level schemas themselves are unchanged.
Hence, the application programs need not be changed since they refer to the external schemas.
For example, the internal schema may be changed when certain file structures are reorganized or new indexes are
created to improve database performance.
Data abstraction
Data abstraction makes complex systems more user-friendly by removing the specifics of the system mechanics.
The conceptual data model has been most successful as a tool for communication between the designer and the
end user during the requirements analysis and logical design phases. Its success is because the model, using either
ER or UML, is easy to understand and convenient to represent. Another reason for its effectiveness is that it is a top-
down approach using the concept of abstraction. In addition, abstraction techniques such as generalization provide
useful tools for integrating end user views to define a global conceptual schema.
These differences show up in conceptual data models as different levels of abstraction; connectivity of relationships
(one-to-many, many-to-many, and so on); or as the same concept being modeled as an entity, attribute, or
relationship, depending on the user’s perspective.
Techniques used for view integration include abstraction, such as generalization and aggregation to create new
supertypes or subtypes, or even the introduction of new relationships. The higher-level abstraction, the entity
cluster, must maintain the same relationships between entities inside and outside the entity cluster as those that
occur between the same entities in the lower-level diagram.
ERD, EER terminology is not only used in conceptual data modeling but also in artificial intelligence literature when
discussing knowledge representation (KR).
The goal of KR techniques is to develop concepts for accurately modeling some domain of knowledge by creating an
ontology.
Ontology is the fundamental part of Semantic Web. The goal of World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) is to bring the
web into (its full potential) a semantic web with reusing previous systems and artifacts. Most legacy systems have
been documented in structural analysis and structured design (SASD), especially in simple or Extended ER Diagram
(ERD). Such systems need up-gradation to become the part of semantic web. In this paper, we present ERD to OWL-
DL ontology transformation rules at concrete level. These rules facilitate an easy and understandable transformation
from ERD to OWL. Ontology engineering is an important aspect of semantic web vision to attain the meaningful
representation of data. Although various techniques exist for the creation of ontology, most of the methods involve
the number of complex phases, scenario-dependent ontology development, and poor validation of ontology. This
research work presents a lightweight approach to build domain ontology using Entity Relationship (ER) model.
We now discuss four abstraction concepts that are used in semantic data models, such as the EER model as well as
in KR schemes: (1) classification and instantiation, (2) identification, (3) specialization and generalization, and (4)
aggregation and association.
One ongoing project that is attempting to allow information exchange among computers on the Web is called the
Semantic Web, which attempts to create knowledge representation models that are quite general in order to allow
meaningful information exchange and search among machines.
One commonly used definition of ontology is a specification of a conceptualization. In this definition, a
conceptualization is the set of concepts that are used to represent the part of reality or knowledge that is of interest
to a community of users.
Types of Abstractions
Classification: A is a member of class B
Aggregation: B, C, D Are Aggregated Into A, A Is Made Of/Composed Of B, C, D, Is-Made-Of, Is-
Associated-With, Is-Part-Of, Is-Component-Of. Aggregation is an abstraction through which relationships are
treated as higher-level entities.
Generalization: B,C,D can be generalized into a, b is-a/is-an a, is-as-like, is-kind-of.
Category or Union: A category represents a single superclass or subclass relationship with more than one
superclass.
Specialization: A can be specialized into B, C, DB, C, or D (special cases of A) Has-a, Has-A, Has An, Has-An
approach is used in the specialization
Composition: IS-MADE-OF (like aggregation)
Identification: IS-IDENTIFIED-BY
UML Diagrams Notations
UML stands for Unified Modeling Language. ERD stands for Entity Relationship Diagram. UML is a popular and
standardized modeling language that is primarily used for object-oriented software. Entity-Relationship diagrams
are used in structured analysis and conceptual modeling.
Object-oriented data models are typically depicted using Unified Modeling Language (UML) class diagrams. Unified
Modeling Language (UML) is a language based on OO concepts that describes a set of diagrams and symbols that
can be used to graphically model a system. UML class diagrams are used to represent data and their relationships
within the larger UML object-oriented system’s modeling language.
Associations
UML uses Boolean attributes instead of unary relationships but allows relationships of all other entities. Optionally,
each association may be given at most one name. Association names normally start with a capital letter. Binary
associations are depicted as lines between classes. Association lines may include elbows to assist with layout or
when needed (e.g., for ring relationships).
ER Diagram and Class Diagram Synchronization Sample
Supporting the synchronization between ERD and Class Diagram. You can transform the system design from the
data model to the Class model and vice versa, without losing its persistent logic.
Conversions of Terminology of UML and ERD
Types of Attributes-
In ER diagram, attributes associated with an entity set may be of the following types-
1. Simple attributes/atomic attributes/Static attributes
2. Key attribute
3. Unique attributes
4. Stored attributes
5. Prime attributes
6. Derived attributes (DOB, AGE, Oval is a derived attribute)
7. Composite attribute (Address (street, door#, city, town, country))
8. The multivalued attribute (double ellipse (Phone#, Hobby, Degrees))
9. Dynamic Attributes
10. Boolean attributes
The fundamental new idea in the MOST model is the so-called dynamic attributes. Each attribute of an object class
is classified to be either static or dynamic. A static attribute is as usual. A dynamic attribute changes its value with
time automatically.
Attributes of the database tables which are candidate keys of the database tables are called prime attributes.
Symbols of Attributes:
The Entity
The entity is the basic building block of the E-R data model. The term entity is used in three different meanings or
for three different terms and are:
Entity type
Entity instance
Entity set
Context diagrams are the most basic data flow diagrams. They provide a broad view that is easily digestible but
offers little detail. They always consist of a single process and describe a single system. The only process displayed
in the CDFDs is the process/system being analyzed. The name of the CDFDs is generally a Noun Phrase.
N-ary
N-ary (many entities involved in the relationship)
An N-ary relationship exists when there are n types of entities. There is one limitation of the N-ary any entities so it
is very hard to convert into an entity, a rational table.
A relationship between more than two entities is called an n-ary relationship.
Examples of relationships R between two entities E and F
Normalize the ERD and remove FD from Entities to enter the final steps
Transformation Rule 1. Each entity in an ER diagram is mapped to a single table in a relational database;
Transformation Rule 2. A key attribute of the entity type is represented by the primary key.
All single-valued attribute becomes a column for the table
Transformation Rule 3. Given an entity E with primary identify, a multivalued attributed attached to E in
an ER diagram is mapped to a table of its own;
database design. The table contains columns for all attributes in the primary keys of both tables
transformed from entities E and F, and this set of columns form the primary key for table T.
Table T also contains columns for all attributes attached to the relationship. Relationship occurrences are
represented by rows of the table, with the related entity instances uniquely identified by their primary
key values as rows.
Case 1: Binary Relationship with 1:1 cardinality with the total participation of an entity
Total participation, i.e. min occur is 1 with double lines in total.
A person has 0 or 1 passport number and the Passport is always owned by 1 person. So it is 1:1 cardinality
with full participation constraint from Passport. First Convert each entity and relationship to tables.
Case 2: Binary Relationship with 1:1 cardinality and partial participation of both entities
A male marries 0 or 1 female and vice versa as well. So it is a 1:1 cardinality with partial participation
constraint from both. First Convert each entity and relationship to tables. Male table corresponds to Male
Entity with key as M-Id. Similarly, the Female table corresponds to Female Entity with the key as F-Id.
Marry Table represents the relationship between Male and Female (Which Male marries which female).
So it will take attribute M-Id from Male and F-Id from Female.
Case 3: Binary Relationship with n: 1 cardinality
Case 4: Binary Relationship with m: n cardinality
Case 5: Binary Relationship with weak entity
In this scenario, an employee can have many dependents and one dependent can depend on one
employee. A dependent does not have any existence without an employee (e.g; you as a child can be
dependent on your father in his company). So it will be a weak entity and its participation will always be
total.
Generalization
Reverse processes of defining subclasses (bottom-up approach). Bring together common attributes in entities (ISA,
IS-A, IS AN, IS-AN)
Union
Models a class/subclass with more than one superclass of distinct entity types. Attribute inheritance is selective.
It expresses some entity occurrences associated with one occurrence of the related entity=>The specific.
The cardinality of a relationship is the number of instances of entity B that can be associated with entity A. There is
a minimum cardinality and a maximum cardinality for each relationship, with an unspecified maximum cardinality
being shown as N. Cardinality limits are usually derived from the organization's policies or external constraints.
For Example:
At the University, each Teacher can teach an unspecified maximum number of subjects as long as his/her weekly
hours do not exceed 24 (this is an external constraint set by an industrial award). Teachers may teach 0 subjects if
they are involved in non-teaching projects. Therefore, the cardinality limits for TEACHER are (O, N).
The University's policies state that each Subject is taught by only one teacher, but it is possible to have Subjects that
have not yet been assigned a teacher. Therefore, the cardinality limits for SUBJECT are (0,1). Teacher and subject
have M: N relationship connectivity. And they are binary (two) ternary too if we break this relationship. Such
situations are modeled using a composite entity (or gerund)
Cardinality Constraint: Quantification of the relationship between two concepts or classes (a constraint on
aggregation)
Remember cardinality is always a relationship to another thing.
Max Cardinality(Cardinality) Always 1 or Many. Class A has a relationship to Package B with a cardinality of one,
which means at most there can be one occurrence of this class in the package. The opposite could be a Package
that has a Max Cardinality of N, which would mean there can be N number of classes
Min Cardinality(Optionality) Simply means "required." Its always 0 or 1. 0 would mean 0 or more, 1 or more
The three types of cardinality you can define for a relationship are as follows:
Minimum Cardinality. Governs whether or not selecting items from this relationship is optional or required. If you
set the minimum cardinality to 0, selecting items is optional. If you set the minimum cardinality to greater than 0,
the user must select that number of items from the relationship.
Optional to Mandatory, Optional to Optional, Mandatory to Optional, Mandatory to Mandatory
Summary Of ER Diagram Symbols
Maximum Cardinality. Sets the maximum number of items that the user can select from a relationship. If you set the
minimum cardinality to greater than 0, you must set the maximum cardinality to a number at least as large If you do
not enter a maximum cardinality, the default is 999.
Type of Max Cardinality: 1 to 1, 1 to many, many to many, many to 1
Default Cardinality. Specifies what quantity of the default product is automatically added to the initial solution that
the user sees. Default cardinality must be equal to or greater than the minimum cardinality and must be less than
or equal to the maximum cardinality.
Replaces cardinality ratio numerals and single/double line notation
Associate a pair of integer numbers (min, max) with each participant of an entity type E in a relationship type R,
where 0 ≤ min ≤ max and max ≥ 1 max=N => finite, but unbounded
Relationship types can also have attributes
Attributes of 1:1 or 1:N relationship types can be migrated to one of the participating entity types
For a 1:N relationship type, the relationship attribute can be migrated only to the entity type on the N-side of the
relationship
Attributes on M: N relationship types must be specified as relationship attributes
In the case of Data Modelling, Cardinality defines the number of attributes in one entity set, which can be associated
with the number of attributes of other sets via a relationship set. In simple words, it refers to the relationship one
table can have with the other table. They can be One-to-one, One-to-many, Many-to-one, or Many-to-many. And
third may be the number of tuples in a relation.
In the case of SQL, Cardinality refers to a number. It gives the number of unique values that appear in the table for
a particular column. For eg: you have a table called Person with the column Gender. Gender column can have values
either 'Male' or 'Female''.
cardinality is the number of tuples in a relation (number of rows).
The Multiplicity of an association indicates how many objects the opposing class of an object can be instantiated.
When this number is variable then the.
Multiplicity Cardinality + Participation dictionary definition of cardinality is the number of elements in a particular
set or other.
Multiplicity can be set for attribute operations and associations in a UML class diagram (Equivalent to ERD) and
associations in a use case diagram.
A cardinality is how many elements are in a set. Thus, a multiplicity tells you the minimum and maximum allowed
members of the set. They are not synonymous.
1 or more
1 and only 1 (exactly 1)
Multiplicity = Cardinality + Participation
Cardinality: Denotes the maximum number of possible relationship occurrences in which a certain entity can
participate (in simple terms: at most).
Note: Connectivity and Modality/ multiplicity/ Cardinality and Relationship are same terms.
Participation: Denotes if all or only some entity occurrences participate in a relationship (in simple terms: at least).
BASIS FOR
CARDINALITY MODALITY
COMPARISON
Generalization is like a bottom-up approach in which two or more entities of lower levels combine to form a
higher level entity if they have some attributes in common.
Generalization is more like a subclass and superclass system, but the only difference is the approach.
Generalization uses the bottom-up approach. Like subclasses are combined to make a superclass. IS-A, ISA, IS A, IS
AN, IS-AN Approach is used in generalization
Generalization is the result of taking the union of two or more (lower level) entity types to produce a higher level
entity type.
Generalization is the same as UNION. Specialization is the same as ISA.
A specialization is a top-down approach, and it is the opposite of Generalization. In specialization, one higher-level
entity can be broken down into two lower-level entities. Specialization is the result of taking a subset of a higher-
level entity type to form a lower-level entity type.
Normally, the superclass is defined first, the subclass and its related attributes are defined next, and the
relationship set is then added. HASA, HAS-A, HAS AN, HAS-AN.
UML to EER specialization or generalization comes in the form of hierarchical entity set:
Mapping Process
1. Create tables for all higher-level entities.
2. Create tables for lower-level entities.
3. Add primary keys of higher-level entities in the table of lower-level entities.
4. In lower-level tables, add all other attributes of lower-level entities.
5. Declare the primary key of the higher-level table and the primary key of the lower-level table.
6. Declare foreign key constraints.
This section presents the concept of entity clustering, which abstracts the ER schema to such a degree that the
entire schema can appear on a single sheet of paper or a single computer screen.
END
2. Null Constraints
Comparisons Involving NULL and Three-Valued Logic:
SQL has various rules for dealing with NULL values. Recall from Section 3.1.2 that NULL is used to represent a missing
value, but that it usually has one of three different interpretations—value unknown (exists but is not known), value
not available (exists but is purposely withheld), or value not applicable (the attribute is undefined for this tuple).
Consider the following examples to illustrate each of the meanings of NULL.
1. Unknownalue. A person’s date of birth is not known, so it is represented by NULL in the database.
2. Unavailable or withheld value. A person has a home phone but does not want it to be listed, so it is withheld
and represented as NULL in the database.
3. Not applicable attribute. An attribute Last_College_Degree would be NULL for a person who has no college
degrees because it does not apply to that person.
3. Enterprise Constraints
Enterprise constraints – sometimes referred to as semantic constraints – are additional rules specified by users or
database administrators and can be based on multiple tables.
Here are some examples.
A class can have a maximum of 30 students.
A teacher can teach a maximum of four classes per semester.
An employee cannot take part in more than five projects.
The salary of an employee cannot exceed the salary of the employee’s manager.
4. Key Constraints or Uniqueness Constraints :
These are called uniqueness constraints since it ensures that every tuple in the relation should be unique.
A relation can have multiple keys or candidate keys(minimal superkey), out of which we choose one of the keys as
primary key, we don’t have any restriction on choosing the primary key out of candidate keys, but it is suggested to
go with the candidate key with less number of attributes.
Null values are not allowed in the primary key, hence Not Null constraint is also a part of key constraint.
8. Authorization constraints
We may want to differentiate among the users as far as the type of access they are permitted to various data values
in the database. This differentiation is expressed in terms of Authorization.
The most common being:
Read authorization – which allows reading but not the modification of data;
Insert authorization – which allows the insertion of new data but not the modification of existing data
Update authorization – which allows modification, but not deletion.
The types of constraints we discussed so far may be called state constraints because they define the constraints that
a valid state of the database must satisfy. Another type of constraint, called transition constraints, can be defined
to deal with state changes in the database. An example of a transition constraint is: “the salary of an employee can
only increase.”
What is the use of data constraints?
Constraints are used to:
Avoid bad data being entered into tables.
At the database level, it helps to enforce business logic.
Improves database performance.
Enforces uniqueness and avoid redundant data to the database.
END
SQL version:
1970 – Dr. Edgar F. “Ted” Codd described a relational model for databases.
1974 – Structured Query Language appeared.
1978 – IBM released a product called System/R.
1986 – SQL1 IBM developed the prototype of a relational database, which is standardized by ANSI.
1989- First minor changes but not standards changed
1992 – SQL2 launched with features like triggers, object orientation, etc.
SQL1999 to 2003- SQL3 launched
SQL2006- Support for XML Query Language
SQL2011-improved support for temporal databases
SQL-86 in 1986, the most recent version in 2011 (SQL:2016).
SQL-86
The first SQL standard was SQL-86. It was published in 1986 as ANSI standard and in 1987 as International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) standard. The starting point for the ISO standard was IBM’s SQL standard
implementation. This version of the SQL standard is also known as SQL 1.
SQL-89
The next SQL standard was SQL-89, published in 1989. This was a minor revision of the earlier standard, a superset
of SQL-86 that replaced SQL-86. The size of the standard did not change.
SQL-92
The next revision of the standard was SQL-92 – and it was a major revision. The language introduced by SQL-92 is
sometimes referred to as SQL 2. The standard document grew from 120 to 579 pages. However, much of the growth
was due to more precise specifications of existing features.
The most important new features were:
An explicit JOIN syntax and the introduction of outer joins: LEFT JOIN, RIGHT JOIN, FULL JOIN.
The introduction of NATURAL JOIN and CROSS JOIN
SQL:1999
SQL:1999 (also called SQL 3) was the fourth revision of the SQL standard. Starting with this version, the standard
name used a colon instead of a hyphen to be consistent with the names of other ISO standards. This standard was
published in multiple installments between 1999 and 2002.
In 1993, the ANSI and ISO development committees decided to split future SQL development into a multi-part
standard.
The first installment of 1995 and SQL:1999 had many parts:
Part 1: SQL/Framework (100 pages) defined the fundamental concepts of SQL.
Part 2: SQL/Foundation (1050 pages) defined the fundamental syntax and operations of SQL: types, schemas, tables,
views, query and update statements, expressions, and so forth. This part is the most important for regular SQL users.
Part 3: SQL/CLI (Call Level Interface) (514 pages) defined an application programming interface for SQL.
Part 4: SQL/PSM (Persistent Stored Modules) (193 pages) defined extensions that make SQL procedural.
Part 5: SQL/Bindings (270 pages) defined methods for embedding SQL statements in application programs written
in a standard programming language. SQL/Bindings. The Dynamic SQL and Embedded SQL bindings are taken from
SQL-92. No active new work at this time, although C++ and Java interfaces are under discussion.
Part 6: SQL/XA. An SQL specialization of the popular XA Interface developed by X/Open (see below).
Part 7: SQL/Temporal. A newly approved SQL subproject to develop enhanced facilities for temporal data
management using SQL.
Part 8: SQL Multimedia (SQL/Mm)
A new ISO/IEC international standardization project for the development of an SQL class library for multimedia
applications was approved in early 1993. This new standardization activity, named SQL Multimedia (SQL/MM), will
specify packages of SQL abstract data type (ADT) definitions using the facilities for ADT specification and invocation
provided in the emerging SQL3 specification.
SQL:2006 further specified how to use SQL with XML. It was not a revision of the complete SQL standard, just Part
14, which deals with SQL-XML interoperability.
The current SQL standard is SQL:2019. It added Part 15, which defines multidimensional array support in SQL.
Query-By-Example (QBE)
Query-By-Example (QBE) is the first interactive database query language to exploit such modes of HCI. In QBE, a
query is constructed on an interactive terminal involving two-dimensional ‘drawings’ of one or more relations,
visualized in tabular form, which are filled in selected columns with ‘examples’ of data items to be retrieved (thus
the phrase query-by-example).
It is different from SQL, and from most other database query languages, in having a graphical user interface that
allows users to write queries by creating example tables on the screen.
QBE, like SQL, was developed at IBM and QBE is an IBM trademark, but a number of other companies sell QBE-like
interfaces, including Paradox.
A convenient shorthand notation is that if we want to print all fields in some relation, we can place P. under the
name of the relation. This notation is like the SELECT * convention in SQL. It is equivalent to placing a P. in every
field:
Example of QBE:
III. Physical design. The physical design step involves the selection of indexes (access methods), partitioning, and
clustering of data. The logical design methodology in step II simplifies the approach to designing large relational
databases by reducing the number of data dependencies that need to be analyzed. This is accomplished by inserting
conceptual data modeling and integration steps (II(a) and II(b) of pictures into the traditional relational design
approach.
IV. Database implementation, monitoring, and modification.
Once thedesign is completed, and the database can be created through the implementation of the formal schema
using the data definition language (DDL) of a DBMS.
Attribute Describes some aspect of the entity/object, characteristics of object. An attribute is a data item that
describes a property of an entity or a relationship
Column or field The column represents the set of values for a specific attribute. An attribute is for a model and a
column is for a table, a column is a column in a database table whereas attribute(s) are externally visible
facets of an object.
A relation instance is a finite set of tuples in the RDBMS system. Relation instances never have duplicate tuples.
Relationship Association between entities, connected entities are called participants, Connectivity describes the
relationship (1-1, 1-M, M-N)
The degree of a relationship refers to the=> number of entities
Following the relation in above image consist degree=4, 5=cardinality, data values/cells = 20.
Characteristics of relation
1. Distinct Relation/table name
2. Relations are unordered
3. Cells contain exactly one atomic (Single) value means Each cell (field) must contain a single value
4. No repeating groups
5. Distinct attributes name
6. Value of attribute comes from the same domain
7. Order of attribute has no significant
8. The attributes in R(A1, ...,An) and the values in t = <V1,V2, ..... , Vn> are ordered.
9. Each tuple is a distinct
10. order of tuples that has no significance.
11. tuples may be stored and retrieved in an arbitrary order
12. Tables manage attributes. This means they store information in form of attributes only
13. Tables contain rows. Each row is one record only
14. All rows in a table have the same columns. Columns are also called fields
15. Each field has a data type and a name
16. A relation must contain at least one attribute (column) that identifies each tuple (row) uniquely
There are Magic Tables (virtual tables) in SQL Server that hold the temporal information of recently inserted and
recently deleted data in the virtual table.
The INSERTED magic table stores the before version of the row, and the DELETED table stores the after version of
the row for any INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE operations.
A record is a collection of data objects that are kept in fields, each having its name and datatype. A Record can be
thought of as a variable that can store a table row or a set of columns from a table row. Table columns relate to the
fields.
External Tables
An external table is a read-only table whose metadata is stored in the database but whose data is
stored outside the database.
Horizontal partitioning divides a table into multiple tables that contain the same number of columns, but fewer rows.
Table partitioning vertically (Table columns)
Vertical partitioning splits a table into two or more tables containing different columns.
Collections Records
All items are of the same data type All items are different data types
Same data type items are called elements Different data type items are called fields
For creating a collection variable you can use %TYPE For creating a record variable you can use %ROWTYPE or
%TYPE
Lists and arrays are examples Tables and columns are examples
By default, tables are heap-organized. This means the database is free to store rows wherever there is space. You
can add the "organization heap" clause if you want to be explicit.
We can once again be faced with possible ambiguity among attribute names if attributes of the same name exist—
one in a relation in the FROM clause of the outer query, and another in a relation in the FROM clause of the nested
query. The rule is that a reference to an unqualified attribute refers to the relation declared in the innermost nested
query.
On the other hand, when we TRUNCATE a table, the table structure remains the same, so you will not face any of
the above problems.
In general, ANSI SQL permits the use of ON DELETE and ON UPDATE clauses to cover
CASCADE, SET NULL, or SET DEFAULT.
MS Access, SQL Server, and Oracle support ON DELETE CASCADE.
MS Access and SQL Server support ON UPDATE CASCADE.
Oracle does not support ON UPDATE CASCADE.
Oracle supports SET NULL.
MS Access and SQL Server do not support SET NULL.
Refer to your product manuals for additional information on referential constraints.
While MS Access does not support ON DELETE CASCADE or ON UPDATE CASCADE at the SQL command-line level,
A view is a virtual relation or one that does not exist but is dynamically derived it can be constructed by performing
operations (i.e., select, project, join, etc.) on values of existing base relation (a named relation that is designed in a
conceptual schema whose tuples are physically stored in the database). Views are viewable in the external
schema.
Types of View
1. User-defined view
a. Simple view (Single table view)
b. Complex View (Multiple tables having joins, group by, and functions)
c. Inline View (Based on a subquery in from clause to create a temp table and form a complex
query)
d. Materialized View (It stores physical data, definitions of tables)
e. Dynamic view
f. Static view
2. Database View
3. System Defined Views
4. Information Schema View
5. Catalog View
6. Dynamic Management View
7. Server-scoped Dynamic Management View
8. Sources of Data Dictionary Information View
a. General Views
b. Transaction Service Views
c. SQL Service Views
Advantages of View:
Provide security
Hide specific parts of the database from certain users
Customize base relations based on their needs
It supports the external model
Provide logical independence
Views don't store data in a physical location.
Views can provide Access Restriction, since data insertion, update, and deletion is not possible with the
view.
We can DML on view if it is derived from a single base relation, and contains the primary key or a
candidate key
When can a view be updated?
1. The view is defined based on one and only one table.
2. The view must include the PRIMARY KEY of the table based upon which the view has been created.
3. The view should not have any field made out of aggregate functions.
4. The view must not have any DISTINCT clause in its definition.
5. The view must not have any GROUP BY or HAVING clause in its definition.
6. The view must not have any SUBQUERIES in its definitions.
7. If the view you want to update is based upon another view, the latter should be updatable.
8. Any of the selected output fields (of the view) must not use constants, strings, or value expressions.
END
In most cases, if you can place your relations in the third normal form (3NF), then you will have avoided most of
the problems common to bad relational designs. Boyce-Codd (BCNF) and the fourth normal form (4NF) handle
special situations that arise only occasionally.
Denormalization in Databases
Denormalization is a database optimization technique in which we add redundant data to one or more tables. This
can help us avoid costly joins in a relational database. Note that denormalization does not mean not doing
normalization. It is an optimization technique that is applied after normalization.
Types of Denormalization
The two most common types of denormalization are two entities in a one-to-one relationship and two entities in a
one-to-many relationship.
Pros of Denormalization: -
Retrieving data is faster since we do fewer joins Queries to retrieve can be simpler (and therefore less likely to
have bugs), since we need to look at fewer tables.
Cons of Denormalization: -
Updates and inserts are more expensive. Denormalization can make an update and insert code harder to write.
Data may be inconsistent. Which is the “correct” value for a piece of data?
Data redundancy necessities more storage.
Relational Decomposition
Decomposition is used to eliminate some of the problems of bad design like anomalies, inconsistencies, and
redundancy.
When a relation in the relational model is not inappropriate normal form then the decomposition of a relationship
is required. In a database, it breaks the table into multiple tables.
Types of Decomposition
1 Lossless Decomposition
If the information is not lost from the relation that is decomposed, then the decomposition will be lossless. The
process of normalization depends on being able to factor or decompose a table into two or smaller tables, in such a
way that we can recapture the precise content of the original table by joining the decomposed parts.
2 Lossy Decomposition
Data will be lost for more decomposition of the table.
END
Armstrong’s Axioms
The inclusion rule is one rule of implication by which FDs can be generated that are guaranteed to hold for all possible
tables. It turns out that from a small set of basic rules of implication, we can derive all others. We list here three
basic rules that we call Armstrong’s Axioms
Armstrong’s Axioms property was developed by William Armstrong in 1974 to reason about functional
dependencies.
The property suggests rules that hold true if the following are satisfied:
1. Transitivity
If A->B and B->C, then A->C i.e. a transitive relation.
2. Reflexivity
A-> B, if B is a subset of A.
If the information stored in a table can uniquely determine another information in the same table, then it is called
Functional Dependency. Consider it as an association between two attributes of the same relation.
Major type are Trivial, non-trival, complete functional, multivalued, transitive dependency
Partial Dependency
Partial Dependency occurs when a nonprime attribute is functionally dependent on part of a candidate key.
Multivalued Dependency
When the existence of one or more rows in a table implies one or more other rows in the same table, then the
Multi-valued dependencies occur.
Multivalued dependency occurs when two attributes in a table are independent of each other but, both depend on
a third attribute.
A multivalued dependency consists of at least two attributes that are dependent on a third attribute that's why it
always requires at least three attributes.
Join Dependency
Join decomposition is a further generalization of Multivalued dependencies.
If the join of R1 and R2 over C is equal to relation R, then we can say that a join dependency (JD) exists.
Inclusion Dependency
Multivalued dependency and join dependency can be used to guide database design although they both are less
common than functional dependencies. The inclusion dependency is a statement in which some columns of a
relation are contained in other columns.
Transitive Dependency
When an indirect relationship causes functional dependency it is called Transitive Dependency.
Fully-functionally Dependency
An attribute is fully functional dependent on another attribute if it is Functionally Dependent on that attribute and
not on any of its proper subset
Trivial functional dependency
A → B has trivial functional dependency if B is a subset of A.
The following dependencies are also trivial: A → A, B → B
{ DeptId, DeptName } -> Dept Id
Non-trivial functional dependency
A → B has a non-trivial functional dependency if B is not a subset of A.
Trivial − If a functional dependency (FD) X → Y holds, where Y is a subset of X, then it is called a trivial FD. It occurs
when B is not a subset of A in −
A ->B
DeptId -> DeptName
Non-trivial − If an FD X → Y holds, where Y is not a subset of X, then it is called a non-trivial FD.
Completely non-trivial − If an FD X → Y holds, where x intersects Y = Φ, it is said to be a completely non-trivial FD.
When A intersection B is NULL, then A → B is called a complete non-trivial. A ->B Intersaction is empty.
Multivalued Dependency and its types
1. Join Dependency
2. Join decomposition is a further generalization of Multivalued dependencies.
3. Inclusion Dependency
Example of Dependency diagrams and flow
Dependency Preserving
If a relation R is decomposed into relations R1 and R2, then the dependencies of R either must be a part of R1 or
R2 or must be derivable from the combination of functional dependencies of R1 and R2.
For example, suppose there is a relation R (A, B, C, D) with a functional dependency set (A->BC). The relational R is
decomposed into R1(ABC) and R2(AD) which is dependency preserving because FD A->BC is a part of relation
R1(ABC)
Find the canonical cover?
Solution: Given FD = { B → A, AD → BC, C → ABD }, now decompose the FD using decomposition rule( Armstrong
Axiom ).
B→A
AD → B ( using decomposition inference rule on AD → BC)
AD → C ( using decomposition inference rule on AD → BC)
C → A ( using decomposition inference rule on C → ABD)
C → B ( using decomposition inference rule on C → ABD)
C → D ( using decomposition inference rule on C → ABD)
Now set of FD = { B → A, AD → B, AD → C, C → A, C → B, C → D }
Canonical Cover/ irreducible
A canonical cover or irreducible set of functional dependencies FD is a simplified set of FD that has a similar closure
as the original set FD.
Extraneous attributes
An attribute of an FD is said to be extraneous if we can remove it without changing the closure of the set of FD.
The five concurrency problems that can occur in the database are:
1. Temporary Update Problem
2. Incorrect Summary Problem
3. Lost Update Problem
4. Unrepeatable Read Problem
5. Phantom Read Problem
Dirty Read – A Dirty read is a situation when a transaction reads data that has not yet been committed. For
example, Let’s say transaction 1 updates a row and leaves it uncommitted, meanwhile, Transaction 2 reads the
updated row. If transaction 1 rolls back the change, transaction 2 will have read data that is considered never to
have existed. (Dirty Read Problems (W-R Conflict))
Lost Updates occur when multiple transactions select the same row and update the row based on the value
selected (Lost Update Problems (W - W Conflict))
Non Repeatable read – Non Repeatable read occurs when a transaction reads the same row twice and gets a
different value each time. For example, suppose transaction T1 reads data. Due to concurrency, another
transaction T2 updates the same data and commits, Now if transaction T1 rereads the same data, it will retrieve a
different value. (Unrepeatable Read Problem (W-R Conflict))
Phantom Read – Phantom Read occurs when two same queries are executed, but the rows retrieved by the two,
are different. For example, suppose transaction T1 retrieves a set of rows that satisfy some search criteria. Now,
Transaction T2 generates some new rows that match the search criteria for transaction T1. If transaction T1 re-
executes the statement that reads the rows, it gets a different set of rows this time.
Based on these phenomena, the SQL standard defines four isolation levels :
Read Uncommitted – Read Uncommitted is the lowest isolation level. In this level, one transaction may read
not yet committed changes made by another transaction, thereby allowing dirty reads. At this level, transactions
are not isolated from each other.
Read Committed – This isolation level guarantees that any data read is committed at the moment it is read.
Thus it does not allows dirty reading. The transaction holds a read or write lock on the current row, and thus
prevents other transactions from reading, updating, or deleting it.
Repeatable Read – This is the most restrictive isolation level. The transaction holds read locks on all rows it
references and writes locks on all rows it inserts, updates, or deletes. Since other transactions cannot read, update
or delete these rows, consequently it avoids non-repeatable read.
Serializable – This is the highest isolation level. A serializable execution is guaranteed to be serializable.
Serializable execution is defined to be an execution of operations in which concurrently executing transactions
appear to be serially executing.
Durability: Durability ensures the permanency of something. In DBMS, the term durability ensures that the data
after the successful execution of the operation becomes permanent in the database. If a transaction is committed,
it will remain even error, power loss, etc.
ACID Example:
States of Transaction
Begin, active, partially committed, failed, committed, end, aborted
Aborted details are necessary
If any of the checks fail and the transaction has reached a failed state then the database recovery system will make
sure that the database is in its previous consistent state. If not then it will abort or roll back the transaction to bring
the database into a consistent state.
If the transaction fails in the middle of the transaction then before executing the transaction, all the executed
transactions are rolled back to their consistent state. After aborting the transaction, the database recovery module
will select one of the two operations: 1) Re-start the transaction 2) Kill the transaction
The concurrency control protocols ensure the atomicity, consistency, isolation, durability and serializability of the
concurrent execution of the database transactions.
Therefore, these protocols are categorized as:
1. Lock Based Concurrency Control Protocol
2. Time Stamp Concurrency Control Protocol
3. Validation Based Concurrency Control Protocol
The scheduler
A module that schedules the transaction’s actions, ensuring serializability
Two main approaches
1. Pessimistic: locks
2. Optimistic: time stamps, MV, validation
Scheduling
A schedule is responsible for maintaining jobs/transactions if many jobs are entered at the
same time(by multiple users) to execute state and read/write operations performed at that jobs.
A schedule is a sequence of interleaved actions from all transactions. Execution of several Facts while preserving
the order of R(A) and W(A) of any 1 Xact.
Note: Two schedules are equivalent if:
Two Schedules are equivalent if they have the same dependencies.
They contain the same transactions and operations
They order all conflicting operations of non-aborting transactions in the same way
A schedule is serializable if it is equivalent to a serial schedule
Process Scheduling handles the selection of a process for the processor on the basis of a
scheduling algorithm and also the removal of a process from the processor. It is an important
part of multiprogramming in operating system.
Process scheduling involves short-term scheduling, medium-term scheduling and long-term
scheduling.
The major differences between long term, medium term and short term scheduler are as follows
–
Long term scheduler is a job Medium term is a process of Short term scheduler is
scheduler. swapping schedulers. called a CPU scheduler.
The speed of long term is lesser The speed of medium term is The speed of short term is
than the short term. in between short and long term fastest among the other two.
scheduler.
Long term controls the degree Medium term reduces the The short term provides
of multiprogramming. degree of multiprogramming. lesser control over the
degree of
multiprogramming.
The long term is almost nil or The medium term is a part of Short term is also a minimal
minimal in the time sharing the time sharing system. time sharing system.
system.
The long term selects the Medium term can reintroduce Short term selects those
processes from the pool and the process into memory and processes that are ready to
loads them into memory for execution can be continued. execute.
execution.
Serial Schedule
The serial schedule is a type of schedule where one transaction is executed completely before starting another
transaction.
Example of Serial Schedule
Example of Serializable
A serializable schedule always leaves the database in a consistent state. A serial schedule is always a
serializable schedule because, in a serial schedule, a transaction only starts when the other transaction finished
execution. However, a non-serial schedule needs to be checked for Serializability.
A non-serial schedule of n number of transactions is said to be a serializable schedule if it is equivalent to the serial
schedule of those n transactions. A serial schedule doesn’t allow concurrency, only one transaction executes at a
time, and the other stars when the already running transaction is finished.
Linearizability: a guarantee about single operations on single objects Once the write completes, all later reads
(by wall clock) should reflect that write.
Types of Serializability
There are two types of Serializability.
1. Conflict Serializability
2. View Serializability
Conflict Serializable A schedule is conflict serializable if it is equivalent to some serial schedule
Non-conflicting operations can be reordered to get a serial schedule.
In general, a schedule is conflict-serializable if and only if its precedence graph is acyclic
A precedence graph is used for Testing for Conflict-Serializability
View serializability/view equivalence is a concept that is used to compute whether schedules are View-
Serializable or not. A schedule is said to be View-Serializable if it is view equivalent to a Serial Schedule (where no
interleaving of transactions is possible).
The non-serializable schedule is divided into two types, Recoverable and Non-recoverable Schedules.
1. Recoverable Schedule(Cascading Schedule, cascades Schedule, strict Schedule). In a recoverable schedule, if a
transaction T commits, then any other transaction that T read from must also have committed.
A schedule is recoverable if:
It is conflict-serializable, and
Whenever a transaction T commits, all transactions that have written elements read by T have already been
committed.
2. Non-Recoverable Schedule
The relation between various types of schedules can be depicted as:
Here if you look at the diagram above, data read by transaction T1 before and after T2 commits is different.
What is Write-Write (WW) conflict?
Here Transaction T2 is writing data that is already written by other transaction T1. T2 overwrites the data written
by T1. It is also called a blind write operation.
Data written by T1 has vanished. So it is data update loss.
Phase Commit (PC)
One-phase commit
The Single Phase Commit protocol is more efficient at run time because all updates are done without any explicit
coordination.
BEGIN
INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)
VALUES (1, 'Ramesh', 32, 'Ahmedabad', 2000.00 );
INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)
VALUES (2, 'Khilan', 25, 'Delhi', 1500.00 );
COMMIT;
Two-Phase Commit (2PC)
The most commonly used atomic commit protocol is a two-phase commit. You may notice that is very similar to
the protocol that we used for total order multicast. Whereas the multicast protocol used a two-phase approach to
allow the coordinator to select a commit time based on information from the participants, a two-phase commit
lets the coordinator select whether or not a transaction will be committed or aborted based on information from
the participants.
Three-phase Commit
Another real-world atomic commit protocol is a three-phase commit (3PC). This protocol can reduce the amount of
blocking and provide for more flexible recovery in the event of failure. Although it is a better choice in unusually
failure-prone environments, its complexity makes 2PC the more popular choice.
Transaction atomicity using a two-phase commit
Transaction serializability using distributed locking.
DBMS Deadlock Types or techniques
All lock requests are made to the concurrency-control manager. Transactions proceed only once the lock request is
granted. A lock is a variable, associated with the data item, which controls the access of that data item. Locking is
the most widely used form of concurrency control.
Deadlock Example:
1. Binary Locks: A Binary lock on a data item can either be locked or unlocked states.
2. Shared/exclusive: This type of locking mechanism separates the locks in DBMS based on their uses. If a
lock is acquired on a data item to perform a write operation, it is called an exclusive lock.
3. Simplistic Lock Protocol: This type of lock-based protocol allows transactions to obtain a lock on every
object before beginning operation. Transactions may unlock the data item after finishing the ‘write’
operation.
4. Pre-claiming Locking: Two-Phase locking protocol which is also known as a 2PL protocol needs a
transaction should acquire a lock after it releases one of its locks. It has 2 phases growing and shrinking.
5. Shared lock: These locks are referred to as read locks, and denoted by 'S'.
If a transaction T has obtained Shared-lock on data item X, then T can read X, but cannot write X. Multiple Shared
locks can be placed simultaneously on a data item.
A deadlock is an unwanted situation in which two or more transactions are waiting indefinitely for one another to
give up locks.
Hold and wait -- there must exist a process that is holding at least one resource and is waiting to acquire
additional resources that are currently being held by other processes.
No preemption -- resources cannot be preempted; a resource can be released only voluntarily by the
process holding it.
Circular wait – one waits for others, others wait for one.
The Bakery algorithm is one of the simplest known solutions to the mutual exclusion problem for the general case
of the N process. The bakery Algorithm is a critical section solution for N processes. The algorithm preserves the first
come first serve the property.
Before entering its critical section, the process receives a number. The holder of the smallest number enters the
critical section.
Deadlock detection
This technique allows deadlock to occur, but then, it detects it and solves it. Here, a database is periodically checked
for deadlocks. If a deadlock is detected, one of the transactions, involved in the deadlock cycle, is aborted. Other
transactions continue their execution. An aborted transaction is rolled back and restarted.
When a transaction waits more than a specific amount of time to obtain a lock (called the deadlock timeout),
Derby can detect whether the transaction is involved in a deadlock.
If deadlocks occur frequently in your multi-user system with a particular application, you might need to do some
debugging.
A deadlock where two transactions are waiting for one another to give up locks.
Deadlock detection and removal schemes
Wait-for-graph
This scheme allows the older transaction to wait but kills the younger one.
Phantom deadlock detection is the condition where the deadlock does not exist but due to a delay in propagating
local information, deadlock detection algorithms identify the locks that have been already acquired.
There are three alternatives for deadlock detection in a distributed system, namely.
Centralized Deadlock Detector − One site is designated as the central deadlock detector.
Hierarchical Deadlock Detector − Some deadlock detectors are arranged in a hierarchy.
Distributed Deadlock Detector − All the sites participate in detecting deadlocks and removing them.
The deadlock detection algorithm uses 3 data structures –
Available
Vector of length m Indicates the number of available resources of each type.
Allocation
Matrix of size n*m A[i,j] indicates the number of j the resource type allocated to I the process.
Request
Matrix of size n*m Indicates the request of each process.
Request[i,j] tells the number of instances Pi process is the request of jth resource type.
Deadlock Avoidance
Deadlock avoidance
Acquire locks in a pre-defined order
Acquire all locks at once before starting transactions
Aborting a transaction is not always a practical approach. Instead, deadlock avoidance mechanisms can be used to
detect any deadlock situation in advance.
The deadlock prevention technique avoids the conditions that lead to deadlocking. It requires that every
transaction lock all data items it needs in advance. If any of the items cannot be obtained, none of the items are
locked.
The transaction is then rescheduled for execution. The deadlock prevention technique is used in two-phase
locking.
To prevent any deadlock situation in the system, the DBMS aggressively inspects all the operations, where
transactions are about to execute. If it finds that a deadlock situation might occur, then that transaction is never
allowed to be executed.
Deadlock Prevention Algo
1. Wait-Die scheme
2. Wound wait scheme
Resource Preemption:
To eliminate deadlocks using resource preemption, we preempt some resources from processes and give those
resources to other processes. This method will raise three issues –
(a) Selecting a victim:
We must determine which resources and which processes are to be preempted and also order to minimize the
cost.
(b) Rollback:
We must determine what should be done with the process from which resources are preempted. One simple idea
is total rollback. That means aborting the process and restarting it.
(c) Starvation:
In a system, the same process may be always picked as a victim. As a result, that process will never complete its
designated task. This situation is called Starvation and must be avoided. One solution is that a process must be
picked as a victim only a finite number of times.
Concurrent executions are done for Better transaction throughput, response time Done via better utilization of
resources
What is Concurrency Control?
Concurrent access is quite easy if all users are just reading data. There is no way they can interfere with one another.
Though for any practical Database, it would have a mix of READ and WRITE operations, and hence the concurrency
is a challenge. DBMS Concurrency Control is used to address such conflicts, which mostly occur with a multi-user
system.
Two Phase Locking Protocol is also known as 2PL protocol is a method of concurrency control in DBMS that
ensures serializability by applying a lock to the transaction data which blocks other transactions to access the same
data simultaneously. Two Phase Locking protocol helps to eliminate the concurrency problem in DBMS. Every 2PL
schedule is serializable.
Theorem: 2PL ensures/enforce conflict serializability schedule
But does not enforce recoverable schedules
2PL rule: Once a transaction has released a lock it is not allowed to obtain any other locks
This locking protocol divides the execution phase of a transaction into three different parts.
In the first phase, when the transaction begins to execute, it requires permission for the locks it needs.
The second part is where the transaction obtains all the locks. When a transaction releases its first lock, the third
phase starts.
In this third phase, the transaction cannot demand any new locks. Instead, it only releases the acquired locks.
The Two-Phase Locking protocol allows each transaction to make a lock or unlock request Growing Phase and
Shrinking Phase.
2PL has the following two phases:
A growing phase, in which a transaction acquires all the required locks without unlocking any data. Once all locks
have been acquired, the transaction is in its locked
point.
A shrinking phase, in which a transaction releases all locks and cannot obtain any new lock.
In practice:
– Growing phase is the entire transaction
– Shrinking phase is during the commit
The 2PL protocol indeed offers serializability. However, it does not ensure that deadlocks do not happen.
In the above-given diagram, you can see that local and global deadlock detectors are searching for deadlocks and
solving them by resuming transactions to their initial states.
Strict Two-Phase Locking Method
Strict-Two phase locking system is almost like 2PL. The only difference is that Strict-2PL never releases a lock after
using it. It holds all the locks until the commit point and releases all the locks at one go when the process is over.
Strict 2PL: All locks held by a transaction are released when the transaction is completed. Strict 2PL guarantees
conflict serializability, but not serializability.
Centralized 2PL
In Centralized 2PL, a single site is responsible for the lock management process. It has only one lock manager for
the entire DBMS.
Primary copy 2PL
Primary copy 2PL mechanism, many lock managers are distributed to different sites. After that, a particular lock
manager is responsible for managing the lock for a set of data items. When the primary copy has been updated,
the change is propagated to the slaves.
Distributed 2PL
In this kind of two-phase locking mechanism, Lock managers are distributed to all sites. They are responsible for
managing locks for data at that site. If no data is replicated, it is equivalent to primary copy 2PL. Communication
costs of Distributed 2PL are quite higher than primary copy 2PL
Time-Stamp Methods for Concurrency control:
The timestamp is a unique identifier created by the DBMS to identify the relative starting time of a transaction.
Typically, timestamp values are assigned in the order in which the transactions are submitted to the system. So, a
timestamp can be thought of as the transaction start time. Therefore, time stamping is a method of concurrency
control in which each transaction is assigned a transaction timestamp.
Timestamps must have two properties namely
Uniqueness: The uniqueness property assures that no equal timestamp values can exist.
Monotonicity: monotonicity assures that timestamp values always increase.
Timestamps are divided into further fields:
Granule Timestamps
Timestamp Ordering
Conflict Resolution in Timestamps
Timestamp-based Protocol in DBMS is an algorithm that uses the System Time or Logical Counter as a timestamp
to serialize the execution of concurrent transactions. The Timestamp-based protocol ensures that every conflicting
read and write operation is executed in timestamp order.
The timestamp-based algorithm uses a timestamp to serialize the execution of concurrent transactions. The
protocol uses the System Time or Logical Count as a Timestamp.
Conflict Resolution in Timestamps:
To deal with conflicts in timestamp algorithms, some transactions involved in conflicts are made to wait and abort
others.
Following are the main strategies of conflict resolution in timestamps:
Wait-die:
The older transaction waits for the younger if the younger has accessed the granule first.
The younger transaction is aborted (dies) and restarted if it tries to access a granule after an older concurrent
transaction.
Wound-wait:
The older transaction pre-empts the younger by suspending (wounding) it if the younger transaction tries to access
a granule after an older concurrent transaction.
An older transaction will wait for a younger one to commit if the younger has accessed a granule that both want.
Timestamp Ordering:
Following are the three basic variants of timestamp-based methods of concurrency control:
1. Total timestamp ordering
2. Partial timestamp ordering
Multiversion timestamp ordering
Multi-version concurrency control
Multiversion Concurrency Control (MVCC) enables snapshot isolation. Snapshot isolation means that whenever a
transaction would take a read lock on a page, it makes a copy of the page instead, and then performs its
operations on that copied page. This frees other writers from blocking due to read lock held by other transactions.
Maintain multiple versions of objects, each with its timestamp. Allocate the correct version to reads. Multiversion
schemes keep old versions of data items to increase concurrency.
The main difference between MVCC and standard locking:
read locks do not conflict with write locks ⇒ reading never blocks writing, writing blocks reading
Advantage of MVCC
locking needed for serializability considerably reduced
Disadvantages of MVCC
visibility-check overhead (on every tuple read/write)
Validation-Based Protocols
Validation-based Protocol in DBMS also known as Optimistic Concurrency Control Technique is a method to avoid
concurrency in transactions. In this protocol, the local copies of the transaction data are updated rather than the
data itself, which results in less interference while the execution of the transaction.
Optimistic Methods of Concurrency Control:
The optimistic method of concurrency control is based on the assumption that conflicts in database operations are
rare and that it is better to let transactions run to completion and only check for conflicts before they commit.
The Validation based Protocol is performed in the following three phases:
Read Phase
Validation Phase
Write Phase
Read Phase
In the Read Phase, the data values from the database can be read by a transaction but the write operation or
updates are only applied to the local data copies, not the actual database.
Validation Phase
In the Validation Phase, the data is checked to ensure that there is no violation of serializability while applying the
transaction updates to the database.
Write Phase
In the Write Phase, the updates are applied to the database if the validation is successful, else; the updates are not
applied, and the transaction is rolled back.
Laws of concurrency control
1. First Law of Concurrency Control
Concurrent execution should not cause application programs to malfunction.
2. Second Law of Concurrency Control
Concurrent execution should not have lower throughput or much higher response times than serial
execution.
Lock Thrashing is the point where system performance(throughput) decreases with increasing load
(adding more active transactions). It happens due to the contention of locks. Transactions waste time on lock waits.
In our example:
– T1: reads the list of products
– T2: inserts a new product
– T1: re-reads: a new product appears!
Dealing With Phantoms
Lock the entire table, or
Lock the index entry for ‘blue’
– If the index is available
Or use predicate locks
– A lock on an arbitrary predicate
Dealing with phantoms is expensive
END
Select(σ) The SELECT operation is used for selecting a subset of the tuples according
to a given selection condition (Unary operator)
Projection(π) The projection eliminates all attributes of the input relation but those
mentioned in the projection list. (Unary operator)/ Projection operator has
to eliminate duplicates!
Union Operation(∪) UNION is symbolized by the symbol. It includes all tuples that are in tables
A or B.
Set Difference(-) - Symbol denotes it. The result of A - B, is a relation that includes all tuples
that are in A but not in B.
Intersection(∩) Intersection defines a relation consisting of a set of all tuples that are in
both A and B.
Cartesian Product(X) Cartesian operation is helpful to merge columns from two relations.
Inner Join Inner join includes only those tuples that satisfy the matching criteria.
Theta Join(θ) The general case of the JOIN operation is called a Theta join. It is denoted
by the symbol θ.
EQUI Join When a theta join uses only an equivalence condition, it becomes an equi
join.
Natural Join(⋈) Natural join can only be performed if there is a common attribute (column)
between the relations.
Outer Join In an outer join, along with tuples that satisfy the matching criteria.
Left Outer Join( ) In the left outer join, the operation allows keeping all tuples in the left
relation.
Right Outer join( ) In the right outer join, the operation allows keeping all tuples in the right
relation.
Full Outer Join( ) In a full outer join, all tuples from both relations are included in the result
irrespective of the matching condition.
Select Operation
Notation: ⴋp(r) p is called the selection predicate
Project Operation
Notation: πA1,..., Ak (r)
The result is defined as the relation of k columns obtained by deleting the columns that are not listed
Union Operation
Notation: r Us
Relational Calculus
There is an alternate way of formulating queries known as Relational Calculus. Relational calculus is a non-procedural
query language. In the non-procedural query language, the user is concerned with the details of how to obtain the
results. The relational calculus tells what to do but never explains how to do it. Most commercial relational languages
are based on aspects of relational calculus including SQL-QBE and QUEL.
It is based on Predicate calculus, a name derived from a branch of symbolic language. A predicate is a truth-valued
function with arguments.
Notations of RC
Differences in RA and RC
Sr. No. Key Relational Algebra Relational Calculus
Relational Algebra targets how to obtain the Relational Calculus targets what result
2 Objective
result. to obtain.
In TRS, the variables represent the tuples In DRS, the variables represent the value drawn from the
from specified relations. specified domain.
A tuple is a single element of relation. In A domain is equivalent to column data type and any
database terms, it is a row. constraints on the value of data.
Notation : Notation :
{T | P (T)} or {T | Condition (T)} { a1, a2, a3, …, an | P (a1, a2, a3, …, an)}
Example : Example :
{T | EMPLOYEE (T) AND T.DEPT_ID = 10} { | < EMPLOYEE > DEPT_ID = 10 }
Examples of RC:
Query Block in RA
SQL, Relational Algebra, Tuple Calculus, and domain calculus examples: Comparisons
Select Operation
R = (A, B)
Relational Algebra: σB=17 (r)
Tuple Calculus: {t | t ∈ r ∧ B = 17}
Domain Calculus: {<a, b> | <a, b> ∈ r ∧ b = 17}
Project Operation
R = (A, B)
Relational Algebra: ΠA(r)
Tuple Calculus: {t | ∃ p ∈ r (t[A] = p[A])}
Domain Calculus: {<a> | ∃ b ( <a, b> ∈ r )}
Combining Operations
R = (A, B)
Relational Algebra: ΠA(σB=17 (r))
Tuple Calculus: {t | ∃ p ∈ r (t[A] = p[A] ∧ p[B] = 17)}
Domain Calculus: {<a> | ∃ b ( <a, b> ∈ r ∧ b = 17)}
Natural Join
R = (A, B, C, D) S = (B, D, E)
Relational Algebra: r ⋈ s
Πr.A,r.B,r.C,r.D,s.E(σr.B=s.B ∧ r.D=s.D (r × s))
Tuple Calculus: {t | ∃ p ∈ r ∃ q ∈ s (t[A] = p[A] ∧ t[B] = p[B] ∧
t[C] = p[C] ∧ t[D] = p[D] ∧ t[E] = q[E] ∧
p[B] = q[B] ∧ p[D] = q[D])}
Domain Calculus: {<a, b, c, d, e> | <a, b, c, d> ∈ r ∧ <b, d, e> ∈ s}
Thus, to make the system understand the user query, it needs to be translated in the form of relational algebra.
We can bring this query in the relational algebra form as:
σsalary>10000 (πsalary (Employee))
πsalary (σsalary>10000 (Employee))
After translating the given query, we can execute each relational algebra operation by using different algorithms.
So, in this way, query processing begins its working.
Query processor
Key components:
Right from the moment the query is written and submitted by the user, to the point of its execution and the
eventual return of the results, there are several steps involved. These steps are outlined below in the following
diagram.
The parsing of a query is performed within the database using the Optimizer component. Taking all of these inputs
into consideration, the Optimizer decides the best possible way to execute the query. This information is stored
within the SGA in the Library Cache – a sub-pool within the Shared Pool.
The memory area within the Library Cache in which the information about a query’s processing is kept is called the
Cursor. Thus, if a reusable cursor is found within the library cache, it’s just a matter of picking it up and using it to
execute the statement. This is called Soft Parsing. If it’s not possible to find a reusable cursor or if the query has
never been executed before, query optimization is required. This is called Hard Parsing.
Hard parsing means that either the cursor was not found in the library cache or it was found but was invalidated for
some reason. For whatever reason, Hard Parsing would mean that work needs to be done by the optimizer to ensure
the most optimal execution plan for the query.
Before the process of finding the best plan is started for the query, some tasks are completed. These tasks are
repeatedly executed even if the same query executes in the same session for N number of times:
1. Syntax Check
2. Semantics Check
3. Hashing the query text and generating a hash key-value pair
Various phases of query executation in system. First query go from client process to server process and in PGA SQL
area then following
phases start:
1 Parsing (Parse query tree, (syntax check, semantic check, shared pool check) used for soft parse
2 Transformation (Binding)
3 Estimation/query optimization
4 Plan generation, row source generation
5 Query Execution & plan
6 Query result
Query Evaluation
The logic applied to the evaluation of SELECT statements, as described here, does not precisely reflect how the
DBMS Server evaluates your query to determine the most efficient way to return results. However, by applying this
logic to your queries and data, the results of your queries can be anticipated.
1. Evaluate the FROM clause. Combine all the sources specified in the FROM clause to create a Cartesian product (a
table composed of all the rows and columns of the sources). If joins are specified, evaluate each join to obtain its
results table, and combine it with the other sources in the FROM clause. If SELECT DISTINCT is specified, discard
duplicate rows.
2. Apply the WHERE clause. Discard rows in the result table that do not fulfill the restrictions specified in the
WHERE clause.
3. Apply the GROUP BY clause. Group results according to the columns specified in the GROUP BY clause.
4. Apply the HAVING clause. Discard rows in the result table that do not fulfill the restrictions specified in the HAVING
clause.
5. Evaluate the SELECT clause. Discard columns that are not specified in the SELECT clause. (In case of SELECT FIRST
n… UNION SELECT …, the first n rows of the result from the union are chosen.)
6. Perform any unions. Combine result tables as specified in the UNION clause. (In case of SELECT FIRST n… UNION
SELECT …, the first n rows of the result from the union are chosen.)
7. Apply for the ORDER BY clause. Sort the result rows as specified.
Steps to process a query: parsing, validation, resolution, optimization, plan compilation, execution.
The architecture of query engines:
Query processing algorithms iterate over members of input sets; algorithms are algebra operators. The physical
algebra is the set of operators, data representations, and associated cost functions that the database execution
engine supports, while the logical algebra is more related to the data model and expressible queries of the data
model (e.g. SQL).
Synchronization and transfer between operators are key. Naïve query plan methods include the creation of
temporary files/buffers, using one process per operator, and using IPC. The practical method is to implement all
operators as a set of procedures (open, next, and close), and have operators schedule each other within a single
process via simple function calls. Each time an operator needs another piece of data ("granule"), it calls its data
input operator's next function to produce one. Operators structured in such a manner are called iterators.
Note: Three SQL relational algebra query plans one pushed, nearly fully pushed
Query plans are algebra expressions and can be represented as trees. Left-deep (every right subtree is a leaf),
right-deep (every left-subtree is a leaf), and bushy (arbitrary) are the three common structures. In a left-deep tree,
each operator draws input from one input and an inner loop integrates over the other input.
Cost Estimation
The cost estimation of a query evaluation plan is calculated in terms of various resources that include: Number of
disk accesses. Execution time is taken by the CPU to execute a query.
Query Optimization
Summary of steps of processing an SQL query:
Lexical analysis, parsing, validation, Query Optimizer, Query Code Generator, Runtime Database Processor
The term optimization here has the meaning “choose a reasonably efficient strategy” (not necessarily the best
strategy)
Query optimization: choosing a suitable strategy to execute a particular query more efficiently
An SQL query undergoes several stages: lexical analysis (scanning, LEX), parsing (YACC), validation
Scanning: identify SQL tokens
Parser: check the query syntax according to the SQL grammar
Validation: check that all attributes/relation names are valid in the particular database being queried
Then create the query tree or the query graph (these are internal representations of the query)
Main techniques to implement query optimization
Heuristic rules (to order the execution of operations in a query)
Computing cost estimates of different execution strategies
Process for heuristics optimization
1. The parser of a high-level query generates an initial
internal representation;
2. Apply heuristics rules to optimize the internal
representation.
3. A query execution plan is generated to execute groups of
END
File Organization
File Organization defines how file records are mapped onto disk blocks. We have four types of File Organization to
organize file records −
Sorted Files: Best if records must be retrieved in some order, or only a `range’ of records is needed.
Sequential File Organization
Store records in sequential order based on the value of the search key of each record. Each record organized by
index or key process is called a sequential file organization that would be much faster to find records based on the
key.
Hashing File Organization
A hash function is computed on some attribute of each record; the result specifies in which block of the file the
record is placed. Data structures to organize records via trees or hashing on some key Called a hashing file
organization.
Heap File Organization
A record can be placed anywhere in the file where there is space; there is no ordering in the file. Some records are
organized randomly Called a heap file organization.
Every record can be placed anywhere in the table file, wherever there is space for the record Virtually all databases
provide heap file organization.
Heap file organized table can search through the entire table file, looking for all rows where the value of
account_id is A-591. This is called a file scan.
Clustered file organization is not considered good for large databases. In this mechanism, related records from one
or more relations are kept in the same disk block, that is, the ordering of records is not based on the primary key
or search key.
File Operations
Operations on database files can be broadly classified into two categories −
1. Update Operations
2. Retrieval Operations
Update operations change the data values by insertion, deletion, or update. Retrieval operations, on the other
hand, do not alter the data but retrieve them after optional conditional filtering. In both types of operations,
selection plays a significant role. Other than the creation and deletion of a file, there could be several operations,
which can be done on files.
Open − A file can be opened in one of the two modes, read mode or write mode. In read mode, the operating
system does not allow anyone to alter data. In other words, data is read-only. Files opened in reading mode can be
shared among several entities. Write mode allows data modification. Files opened in write mode can be read but
cannot be shared.
Locate − Every file has a file pointer, which tells the current position where the data is to be read or written. This
pointer can be adjusted accordingly. Using the find (seek) operation, it can be moved forward or backward.
Read − By default, when files are opened in reading mode, the file pointer points to the beginning of the file. There
are options where the user can tell the operating system where to locate the file pointer at the time of opening a
file. The very next data to the file pointer is read.
Write − Users can select to open a file in write mode, which enables them to edit its contents. It can be deletion,
insertion, or modification. The file pointer can be located at the time of opening or can be dynamically changed if
the operating system allows it to do so.
Close − This is the most important operation from the operating system’s point of view. When a request to close a
file is generated, the operating system removes all the locks (if in shared mode).
Tree-Structured Indexing
Indexing
Indexing is a data structure technique to efficiently retrieve records from the database files based on some attributes
on which the indexing has been done. Indexing in database systems is like what we see in books.
Indexing is defined based on its indexing attributes.
4 Non-Clustering The Non-Clustering indexes are used to quickly find all records whose values in a certain
field satisfy some condition. Non-clustering index (different order of data and index). Non-clustering Index
whose search key specifies an order different from the sequential order of the file. Non-clustering indexes
are also called secondary indexes.
Dense Index
In a dense index, there is an index record for every search key value in the database. This makes searching faster
but requires more space to store index records themselves. Index records contain a search key value and a pointer
to the actual record on the disk.
Sparse Index
In a sparse index, index records are not created for every search key. An index record here contains a search key
and an actual pointer to the data on the disk. To search a record, we first proceed by index record and reach the
actual location of the data. If the data we are looking for is not where we directly reach by following the index,
then the system starts a sequential search until the desired data is found.
Multilevel Index
Index records comprise search-key values and data pointers. The multilevel index is stored on the disk along with
the actual database files. As the size of the database grows, so does the size of the indices. There is an immense
need to keep the index records in the main memory to speed up the search operations. If the single-level index is
used, then a large size index cannot be kept in memory which leads to multiple disk accesses.
A multi-level Index helps in breaking down the index into several smaller indices to make the outermost level so
small that it can be saved in a single disk block, which can easily be accommodated anywhere in the main memory.
B+ Tree
A B+ tree is a balanced binary search tree that follows a multi-level index format. The leaf nodes of a B+ tree
denote actual data pointers. B+ tree ensures that all leaf nodes remain at the same height, thus balanced.
Additionally, the leaf nodes are linked using a link list; therefore, a B+ tree can support random access as well as
sequential access.
Structure of B+ Tree
Every leaf node is at an equal distance from the root node. A B+ tree is of the order n where n is fixed for every
B+ tree.
Internal nodes −
Internal (non-leaf) nodes contain at least ⌈n/2⌉ pointers, except the root node.
At most, an internal node can contain n pointers.
Leaf nodes −
Leaf nodes contain at least ⌈n/2⌉ record pointers and ⌈n/2⌉ key values.
At most, a leaf node can contain n record pointers and n key values.
Every leaf node contains one block pointer P to point to the next leaf node and forms a linked list.
Hash Organization
Hashing uses hash functions with search keys as parameters to generate the address of a data record.
Bucket − A hash file stores data in bucket format. The bucket is considered a unit of storage. A bucket typically
stores one complete disk block, which in turn can store one or more records.
Hash Function − A hash function, h, is a mapping function that maps all the set of search keys K to the address
where actual records are placed. It is a function from search keys to bucket addresses.
Types of Hashing Techniques
There are mainly two types of SQL hashing methods/techniques:
1 Static Hashing
2 Dynamic Hashing/Extendible hashing
Static Hashing
In static hashing, when a search-key value is provided, the hash function always computes the same address.
Static hashing is further divided into:
1. Open hashing
2. Close hashing.
Linear Probing − When a hash function generates an address at which data is already stored, the next free bucket
is allocated to it. This mechanism is called Open Hashing.
Data bucket – Data buckets are memory locations where the records are stored. It is also known as a Unit of
storage.
Key: A DBMS key is an attribute or set of an attribute that helps you to identify a row(tuple) in a relation(table).
This allows you to find the relationship between two tables.
Hash function: A hash function, is a mapping function that maps all the set of search keys to the address where
actual records are placed.
Linear Probing – Linear probing is a fixed interval between probes. In this method, the next available data block is
used to enter the new record, instead of overwriting the older record.
Quadratic probing– It helps you to determine the new bucket address. It helps you to add Interval between probes
by adding the consecutive output of quadratic polynomial to starting value given by the original computation.
Hash index – It is an address of the data block. A hash function could be a simple mathematical function to even a
complex mathematical function.
Double Hashing –Double hashing is a computer programming method used in hash tables to resolve the issues of a
collision.
Bucket Overflow: The condition of bucket overflow is called a collision. This is a fatal stage for any static to
function.
Hashing function h(r) Mapping from the index’s search key to a bucket in which the (data entry for) record r
belongs.
What is Collision?
Hash collision is a state when the resultant hashes from two or more data in the data set, wrongly map the same
place in the hash table.
How to deal with Hashing Collision?
There is two technique that you can use to avoid a hash collision:
1. Rehashing: This method, invokes a secondary hash function, which is applied continuously until an empty slot is
found, where a record should be placed.
2. Chaining: The chaining method builds a Linked list of items whose key hashes to the same value. This method
requires an extra link field to each table position.
An index is an on-disk structure associated with a table or view that speeds the retrieval of rows from the table or
view. An index contains keys built from one or more columns in the table or view. Indexes are automatically created
when PRIMARY KEY and UNIQUE constraints are defined on table columns. An index on a file speeds up selections
on the search key fields for the index.
The index is a collection of buckets.
Bucket = primary page plus zero or more overflow pages. Buckets contain data entries.
Types of Indexes
1 Clustered Index
2 Non-Clustered Index
3 Column Store Index
4 Filtered Index
5 Hash-based Index
6 Dense primary index
7 sparse index
8 b or b+ tree index
9 FK index
10 Secondary index
11 File Indexing – B+ Tree
12 Bitmap Indexing
13 Inverted Index
14 Forward Index
15 Function-based index
16 Spatial index
17 Bitmap Join Index
18 Composite index
19 Primary key index If the search key contains a primary key, then it is called a primary index.
20 Unique index: Search key contains a candidate key.
21 Multilevel index(A multilevel index considers the index file, which we will now refer to as the first (or
base) level of a multilevel index, as an ordered file with a distinct value for each K(i))
22 Inner index: The main index file for the data
23 Outer index: A sparse index on the index
END
ACTIVATE A ROLE
SCOTT> set role SHARIF identified by devdb;
TO DISABLING ALL ROLE
SCOTT> set role none;
GRANT A PRIVILEGE
SYS> grant create any table to SHARIF;
REVOKE A PRIVILEGE
SYS> revoke create any table from SHARIF;
SET ALL ROLES ASSIGNED TO scott AS DEFAULT
SYS> alter user scott default role all;
SYS> alter user scott default role SHARIF;
SONY can access user sham.emp table because SELECT PRIVILEGE given to ‘PUBLIC’. So that sham.emp is available
to everyone of the database. SONY has created a view EMP_VIEW based on sham.emp.
Note: If you revoke OBJECT PRIVILEGE from a user, that privilege also revoked to whom it was granted.
Note: If you grant RESOURCE role to the user, this privilege overrides all explicit tablespace quotas. The UNLIMITED
TABLESPACE system privilege lets the user allocate as much space in any tablespaces that make up the database.
Database account locks and unlock
Alter user admin identified by admin account lock;
Select u.username from all_users u where u.username like 'info';
Database security and non-database(non database ) security
END
Kimball’s approach – creating data marts first and then developing a data warehouse database incrementally from
independent data marts.
Type is Denormalized.
Focuses on infrastructure functionality using multidimensional database management systems (MDBMS) like star
schema or snowflake schema
Data Mart
A data mart(s) can be created from an existing data warehouse—the top-down approach—or other sources, such as
internal operational systems or external data. Similar to a data warehouse, it is a relational database that stores
transactional data (time value, numerical order, reference to one or more objects) in columns and rows making it
easy to organize and access.
Data marts and data warehouses are both highly structured repositories where data is stored and managed until it
is needed. Data marts are designed for a specific line of business and DWH is designed for enterprise-wide range
use. The data mart is >100 and DWH is >100 and the Data mart is a single subject but DWH is a multiple subjects
repository. Data marts are independent data marts and dependent data marts.
Data mart contains a subset of organization-wide data. This subset of data is valuable to specific groups of an
organization.
Definition
Types of Dimensions
Conformed Conformed dimensions are the very fact to which it relates. This dimension is used in more
Dimensions than one-star schema or Datamart.
Outrigger A dimension may have a reference to another dimension table. These secondary dimensions
Dimensions are called outrigger dimensions. This kind of Dimension should be used carefully.
Shrunken Rollup Shrunken Rollup dimensions are a subdivision of rows and columns of a base dimension. These
Dimensions kinds of dimensions are useful for developing aggregated fact tables.
Dimension-to-
Dimensions may have references to other dimensions. However, these relationships can be
Dimension Table
modeled with outrigger dimensions.
Joins
Role-Playing A single physical dimension helps to reference multiple times in a fact table as each reference
Dimensions links to a logically distinct role for the dimension.
It is a collection of random transactional codes, flags, or text attributes. It may not logically
Junk Dimensions
belong to any specific dimension.
A degenerate dimension is without a corresponding dimension. It is used in the transaction
Degenerate
and collecting snapshot fact tables. This kind of dimension does not have its dimension as it is
Dimensions
derived from the fact table.
Swappable They are used when the same fact table is paired with different versions of the same
Dimensions dimension.
Characteristics of OLAP
In the FASMI characteristics of OLAP methods, the term derived from the first letters of the characteristics are:
Fast
It defines which system is targeted to deliver the most feedback to the client within about five seconds, with the
elementary analysis taking no more than one second and very few taking more than 20 seconds.
Analysis
It defines which method can cope with any business logic and statistical analysis that is relevant for the function and
the user, and keep it easy enough for the target client. Although some preprogramming may be needed we do not
think it acceptable if all application definitions have to allow the user to define new Adhoc calculations as part of the
analysis and to document the data in any desired method, without having to program so we exclude products (like
Oracle Discoverer) that do not allow the user to define new Adhoc calculation as part of the analysis and to document
on the data in any desired product that do not allow adequate end user-oriented calculation flexibility.
Share
It defines which the system tools all the security requirements for understanding and, if multiple write connection
is needed, concurrent update location at an appropriated level, not all functions need the customer to write data
back, but for the increasing number which does, the system should be able to manage multiple updates in a timely,
secure manner.
Multidimensional
This is the basic requirement. OLAP system must provide a multidimensional conceptual view of the data, including
full support for hierarchies, as this is certainly the most logical method to analyze businesses and organizations.
OLAP Operations
Since OLAP servers are based on a multidimensional view of data, we will discuss OLAP operations in
multidimensional data.
Here is the list of OLAP operations −
1. Roll-up
2. Drill-down
3. Slice and dice
4. Pivot (rotate)
Roll-up
Roll-up performs aggregation on a data cube in any of the following ways −
By climbing up a concept hierarchy for a dimension
By dimension reduction
The following diagram illustrates how roll-up works.
Drill-down is performed by stepping down a concept hierarchy for the dimension time.
Initially, the concept hierarchy was "day < month < quarter < year."
On drilling down, the time dimension descended from the level of the quarter to the level of the month.
When drill-down is performed, one or more dimensions from the data cube are added.
It navigates the data from less detailed data to highly detailed data.
Slice
The slice operation selects one particular dimension from a given cube and provides a new sub-cube. Consider the
following diagram that shows how a slice works.
Here Slice is performed for the dimension "time" using the criterion time = "Q1".
The dice operation on the cube based on the following selection criteria involves three dimensions.
(location = "Toronto" or "Vancouver")
(time = "Q1" or "Q2")
(item =" Mobile" or "Modem")
Pivot
The pivot operation is also known as rotation. It rotates the data axes in view to provide an alternative
presentation of data. Consider the following diagram that shows the pivot operation.
Here data can be made smooth by fitting it to a regression function. The regression used may be linear (having one
independent variable) or multiple (having multiple independent variables).
Regression is a technique that conforms data values to a function. Linear regression involves finding the “best” line
to fit two attributes (or variables) so that one attribute can be used to predict the other.
Outer detection:
This type of data mining technique refers to the observation of data items in the dataset which do not match an
expected pattern or expected behavior. This technique can be used in a variety of domains, such as intrusion,
detection, fraud or fault detection, etc. Outer detection is also called Outlier Analysis or Outlier mining.
Sequential Patterns:
This data mining technique helps to discover or identify similar patterns or trends in transaction data for a certain
period.
Prediction:
Where the end user can predict the most repeated things.
Knowledge Extraction from Business intelligence techniques
Information Retrieval (IR) can be defined as a software program that deals with the organization, storage,
retrieval, and evaluation of information from document repositories, particularly textual information.
An Information Retrieval (IR) model selects and ranks the document that is required by the user or the user has
asked for in the form of a query.
The software program deals with the Data retrieval deals with obtaining data from a database
organization, storage, retrieval, and evaluation management system such as ODBMS. It is A process of
of information from document repositories, identifying and retrieving the data from the database, based
particularly textual information. on the query provided by the user or application.
Small errors are likely to go unnoticed. A single error object means total failure.
END
The BPM lifecycle is considered to have five stages: design, model, execute, monitor, optimize, and Process
reengineering.
The difference between BP and BPMS is defined as BPM is a discipline that uses various methods to discover, model,
analyze, measure, improve, and optimize business processes.
BPM is a method, technique, or way of being/doing and BPMS is a collection of technologies to help build software
systems or applications to automate processes.
BPMS is a software tool used to improve an organization’s business processes through the definition, automation,
and analysis of business processes. It also acts as a valuable automation tool for businesses to generate a competitive
advantage through cost reduction, process excellence, and continuous process improvement. As BPM is a discipline
used by organizations to identify, document, and improve their business processes; BPMS is used to enable aspects
of BPM.
BPMN Task
A logical unit of work that is carried out as a single whole
Resource
A person or a machine that can perform specific tasks
Activity -the performance of a task by a resource
Case
A sequence of activities performed to achieve some goal, an order, an insurance claim, a car assembly
Work item
The combination of a case and a task that is just to be carried out
Process
Describes how a particular category of cases shall be managed
Control flow construct ->sequence, selection, iteration, parallelisation
BPMN concepts
Events
Things that happen instantaneously (e.g. an invoice
Activities
Units of work that have a duration (e.g. an activity to
Process, events, and activities are logically related
Sequence
The most elementary form of relation is Sequence, which implies that one event or activity A is followed by
another event or activity B.
Start event
Circles used with a thin border
End event
Circles used with a thick border
Label
Give a name or label to each activity and event
Token
Once a process instance has been spawned/born, we use a token to identify the progress (or state) of that
instance.
Gateway
There is a gating mechanism that either allows or disallows the passage of tokens through the gateway
Split gateway
A point where the process flow diverges
Have one incoming sequence flow and multiple outgoing sequence flows (representing the branches that diverge)
Join gateway
A point where the process flow converges
Mutually exclusive
Only one of them can be true every time the XOR split is reached by a token
Exclusive (XOR) split
To model the relation between two or more alternative activities, like in the case of the approval or rejection of a
claim.
Exclusive (XOR) join
To merge two or more alternative branches that may have previously been forked with an XOR-split
Indicated with an empty diamond or empty diamond marked with an “X”
Disk Array: Arrangement of several disks that gives abstraction of a single, large disk.
RAID techniques:
Key to lower I/O cost: reduce seek/rotation delays! Hardware vs. software solutions?
2. Data-transfer rate: the rate at which data can be retrieved from or stored on disk (e.g., 25-100 MB/s)
3. Mean time to failure (MTTF): average time the disk is expected to run continuously without any failure
BLOCK vs Page vs Sectors
Block Diagram depicting paging. Page Map Table(PMT) contains pages from page number 0 to 7
Pinned block: Memory block that is not allowed to be written back to disk.
Toss immediate strategy: Frees the space occupied by a block as soon as the final tuple of that block has been
processed
Example: We can say if we have an employee table and have email, name, CNIC... Empid = 12 bytes, name = 59
bytes, CNIC = 15 bytes.... so all employee table columns are 230 bytes. Its means each row in the employee table
have of 230 bytes. So its means we can store around 2 rows in one block. For example, say your hard drive has a
block size of 4K, and you have a 4.5K file. This requires 8K to store on your hard drive (2 whole blocks), but only 4.5K
on a floppy (9 floppy-size blocks).
Example:
Architecture: The buffer manager stages pages from external storage to the main memory buffer pool. File and
index layers make calls to the buffer manager.
What is the steal approach in DBMS? What are the Buffer Manager Policies/Roles? Data
storage on disk?
Note: Buffer manager moves pages between the main memory buffer pool (volatile memory) from the external
storage disk (in non-volatile storage). When execution starts, the file and index layer make the call to the buffer
manager.
The steal approach is used when the buffer manager replaces an existing page in the cache, that has been updated
by a transaction not yet committed, by another page requested by another transaction.
No-force. The force rule means that REDO will never be needed during recovery since any committed transaction
will have all its updates on disk before it is committed.
The deferred update ( NO-UNDO ) recovery scheme a no-steal approach. However, typical database systems employ
a steal/no-force strategy. The advantage of steel is that it avoids the need for very large buffer space.
Steal/No-Steal
Similarly, it would be easy to ensure atomicity with a no-steal policy. The no-steal policy states
that pages cannot be evicted from memory (and thus written to disk) until the transaction commits.
Need support for undo: removing the effects of an uncommitted transaction on the disk
Force/No Force
Durability can be a very simple property to ensure if we use a force policy. The force policy states
when a transaction executes, force all modified data pages to disk before the transaction commits.
Data on a hard disk is stored in microscopic areas called magnetic domains on the magnetic material. Each domain
stores either 1 or 0 values.
When the computer is switched off, then the head is lifted to a safe zone normally termed a safe parking zone to
prevent the head from scratching against the data zone on a platter when the air bearing subsides. This process is
called parking. The basic difference between the magnetic tape and magnetic disk is that magnetic tape is used for
backups whereas, the magnetic disk is used as secondary storage.
Dynamic Storage-Allocation Problem/Algorithms
Memory allocation is a process by which computer programs are assigned memory or space. It is of four types:
First Fit Allocation
The first hole that is big enough is allocated to the program. In this type fit, the partition is allocated, which is the
first sufficient block from the beginning of the main memory.
Best Fit Allocation
The smallest hole that is big enough is allocated to the program. It allocates the process to the partition that is the
first smallest partition among the free partitions.
Worst Fit Allocation
The largest hole that is big enough is allocated to the program. It allocates the process to the partition, which is the
largest sufficient freely available partition in the main memory.
Next Fit allocation: It is mostly similar to the first Fit, but this Fit, searches for the first sufficient partition from the
last allocation point.
Note: First-fit and best-fit better than worst-fit in terms of speed and storage utilization
Static and Dynamic Loading:
To load a process into the main memory is done by a loader. There are two different types of loading :
Static loading:- loading the entire program into a fixed address. It requires more memory space.
Dynamic loading:- The entire program and all data of a process must be in physical memory for the process to
execute. So, the size of a process is limited to the size of physical memory.
Methods Involved in Memory Management
There are various methods and with their help Memory Management can be done intelligently by the Operating
System:
Fragmentation
As processes are loaded and removed from memory, the free memory space is broken into little pieces. It happens
after sometimes that processes cannot be allocated to memory blocks considering their small size and memory
blocks remain unused. This problem is known as Fragmentation.
Fragmentation Category −
1. External fragmentation
Total memory space is enough to satisfy a request or to reside a process in it, but it is not contiguous, so it cannot
be used.
2. Internal fragmentation
The memory block assigned to the process is bigger. Some portion of memory is left unused, as it cannot be used
by another process.
Two types of fragmentation are possible
1. Horizontal fragmentation
2. Vertical Fragmentation
Reconstruction of Hybrid Fragmentation
The original relation in hybrid fragmentation is reconstructed by performing union and full outer join.
3. Hybrid fragmentation can be achieved by performing horizontal and vertical partitions together.
4. Mixed fragmentation is a group of rows and columns in relation.
As shown in the following diagram, the Intel 386 uses segmentation with paging for memory management with a
two-level paging scheme
Swapping
Swapping is a mechanism in which a process can be swapped temporarily out of the main memory (or move) to
secondary storage (disk) and make that memory available to other processes. At some later time, the system
swaps back the process from the secondary storage to the main memory.
Though performance is usually affected by the swapping process it helps in running multiple and big processes in
parallel and that's the reason Swapping is also known as a technique for memory compaction.
Note: Bring a page into memory only when it is needed. The same page may be brought into memory several times
Paging
A page is also a unit of data storage. A page is loaded into the processor from the main memory. A page is made up
of unit blocks or groups of blocks. Pages have fixed sizes, usually 2k or 4k. A page is also called a virtual page or
memory page. When the transfer of pages occurs between main memory and secondary memory it is known as
paging.
Paging is a memory management technique in which process address space is broken into blocks of the same size
called pages (size is the power of 2, between 512 bytes and 8192 bytes). The size of the process is measured in the
number of pages.
Divide logical memory into blocks of the same size called pages.
Similarly, main memory is divided into small fixed-sized blocks of (physical) memory called frames and the size of a
frame is kept the same as that of a page to have optimum utilization of the main memory and to avoid external
fragmentation.
Divide physical memory into fixed-sized blocks called frames (size is the power of 2, between 512 bytes and 8192
bytes)
The basic difference between the magnetic tape and magnetic disk is that magnetic tape is used for backups
whereas, the magnetic disk is used as secondary storage.
Hard disk stores information in the form of magnetic fields. Data is stored digitally in the form of tiny magnetized
regions on the platter where each region represents a bit.
Microsoft SQL Server databases are stored on disk in two files: a data file and a log file
Note: To run a program of size n pages, need to find n free frames and load the program
Implementation of Page Table
The page table is kept in the main memory
Page-table base register (PTBR) points to the page table
Page-table length register (PRLR) indicates the size of the page table
In this scheme, every data/instruction access requires two memory accesses. One for the page table and one for
the data/instruction.
The two memory access problems can be solved by the use of a special fast-lookup hardware cache called
associative memory or translation look-aside buffers (TLBs)
Collection of processes on the disk that are waiting to be brought into memory to run the program.
Binding of Instructions and Data to Memory
Address binding of instructions and data to memory addresses can
happen at three different stages
Compile time: If memory location knew a priori, absolute code can be generated; must recompile code if starting
location changes
Load time: Must generate relocatable code if memory location is not known at compile time
Execution time: Binding delayed until run time if the process can be moved during its execution from one memory
segment to another. Need hardware support for address maps (e.g., base and limit registers). Multistep Processing
of a User Program In memory is as follows:
The concept of a logical address space that is bound to separate physical address space is central to proper
memory management
Logical address – generated by the CPU; also referred to as virtual address
Physical address – address seen by the memory unit
Logical and physical addresses are the same in compile-time and load-time address-binding schemes; logical
(virtual) and physical addresses differ in the execution-time address-binding scheme
The user program deals with logical addresses; it never sees the real physical addresses
The logical address space of a process can be noncontiguous; the process is allocated physical memory whenever
the latter is available
END
Oracle Database creates server processes to handle the requests of user processes connected to an instance. A
server process can be either of the following: A dedicated server process, which services only one user process. A
shared server
process, which can service multiple user processes.
We can see the listener has the default name of "LISTENER" and is listening for TCP connections on port 1521.
The listener process is started when the server is started (or whenever the instance is started). The listener is only
required for connections from other servers, and the DBA performs the creation of the listener process. When a
new connection comes in over the network, the listener passes the connection to Oracle.
for updates, but those updates are discarded before the snapshot standby database is converted back into a physical
standby database. The snapshot standby database is appropriate when you require a temporary, updatable version
of a physical standby
database.
What is Cloning?
Database Cloning is a procedure that can be used to create an identical copy of the existing Oracle database. DBAs
occasionally need to clone databases to test backup and recovery strategies or export a table that was dropped from
the production database and import it back into the production databases. Cloning can be done on a different host
or the same host even if it is different from the standby database.
Database Cloning can be done using the following methods,
Cold Cloning
Hot Cloning
RMAN Cloning
The basic memory structures associated with Oracle Database include:
System global area (SGA)
The SGA is a group of shared memory structures, known as SGA components, that contain data and control
information for one Oracle Database instance. All server and background processes share the SGA. Examples of
data stored in the SGA include cached data blocks and shared SQL areas.
Program global area (PGA)
A PGA is a nonshared memory region that contains data and control information exclusively for use by an Oracle
process. Oracle Database creates the PGA when an Oracle process starts.
One PGA exists for each server process and background process. The collection of individual PGAs is the total
instance PGA or instance PGA. Database initialization parameters set the size of the instance PGA, not individual
PGAs.
Oracle allocates logical database space for all data in a database. The units of database space allocation are data
blocks, extents, and segments.
The Relationships Among Segments, Extents, Data Blocks in the data file, Oracle block, and OS block:
Oracle Block: At the finest level of granularity, Oracle stores data in data blocks (also called logical blocks, Oracle
blocks, or pages). One data block corresponds to a specific number of bytes of physical database space on a disk.
Oracle Extent: The next level of logical database space is an extent. An extent is a specific number of contiguous
data blocks allocated for storing a specific type of information. It can be spared over two tablespaces.
Oracle Segment: The level of logical database storage greater than an extent is called a segment. A segment is a set
of extents, each of which has been allocated for a specific data structure and all of which are stored in the same
tablespace. For example, each table's data is stored in its data segment, while each index's data is stored in its index
segment. If the table or index is partitioned, each partition is stored in its segment.
Data block: Oracle manages the storage space in the data files of a database in units called data blocks. A data
block is the smallest unit of data used by a database.
Oracle block and data block are equal in data storage by logical and physical respectively like table's (logical) data is
stored in its data segment.
The high water mark is the boundary between used and unused space in a segment.
Operating system block: The data consisting of the data block in the data files are stored in operating system
blocks.
OS Page: The smallest unit of storage that can be atomically written to non-volatile storage is called a page
Details of Data storage in Oracle Blocks:
An extent is a set of logically contiguous data blocks allocated for storing a specific type of information. In the
Figure above, the 24 KB extent has 12 data blocks, while the 72 KB extent has 36 data blocks.
A segment is a set of extents allocated for a specific database object, such as a table. For example, the data for the
employee's table is stored in its data segment, whereas each index for employees is stored in its index segment.
Every database object that consumes storage consists of a single segment.
A big file tablespace eases database administration because it consists of only one data file. The
a single data file can be up to 128TB (terabytes) in size if the tablespace block size is 32KB; if you
use the more common 8KB block size, 32TB is the maximum size of a big file tablespace.
Oracle Database must use logical space management to track and allocate the extents in a tablespace. When a
database object requires an extent, the database must have a method of finding and providing it. Similarly, when
an object no longer requires an extent, the database must have a method of making the free extent available.
Oracle Database manages space within a tablespace based on the type that you create.
SGA (System Global Area) is an area of memory (RAM) allocated when an Oracle Instance starts up. The SGA's size
and function are controlled by initialization (INIT.ORA or SPFILE) parameters.
In general, the SGA consists of the following subcomponents, as can be verified by querying the V$SGAINFO:
SELECT FROM v$sgainfo;
The common components are:
Data buffer cache - cache data and index blocks for faster access.
Shared pool - cache parsed SQL and PL/SQL statements.
Dictionary Cache - information about data dictionary objects.
Redo Log Buffer - committed transactions that are not yet written to the redo log files.
JAVA pool - caching parsed Java programs.
Streams pool - cache Oracle Streams objects.
Large pool - used for backups, UGAs, etc.
Automatic Shared Memory Management simplifies the configuration of the SGA and is the recommended
memory configuration. To use Automatic Shared Memory Management, set the SGA_TARGET initialization
parameter to a nonzero value and set the STATISTICS_LEVEL initialization parameter to TYPICAL or ALL. The value
of the SGA_TARGET parameter should be set to the amount of memory that you want to dedicate to the SGA. In
response to the workload on the system, the automatic SGA management distributes the memory appropriately
for the following memory pools:
1. Database buffer cache (default pool)
2. Shared pool
3. Large pool
4. Java pool
5. Streams pool
END
Full—Creates a copy of data that can include parts of a database such as the control file, transaction files (redo logs),
tablespaces, archive files, and data files. Regular cold full physical backups are recommended. The database must
be in archive log mode for a full physical backup.
Incremental—Captures only changes made after the last full physical backup. Incremental backup can be done
with a hot backup.
Cold-full backup - A cold-full backup is when the database is shut down, all of the physical files are backed up, and
the database is started up again.
Cold-partial backup - A cold-partial backup is used when a full backup is not possible due to some physical
constraints.
Hot-full backup - A hot-full backup is one in which the database is not taken off-line during the backup process.
Rather, the tablespace and data files are put into a backup state.
Hot-partial backup - A hot-partial backup is one in which the database is not taken off-line during the backup
process, plus different tablespaces are backed up on different nights.
Consistent and Inconsistent Backups A consistent backup is one in which the files being backed up contain all
changes up to the same system change number (SCN). This means that the files in the backup contain all the data
taken from the same point in time. Unlike an inconsistent backup, a consistent whole database backup does not
require recovery after it is restored.
An inconsistent backup is a backup of one or more database files that you make while the database is open or after
the database has shut down abnormally.
Image Backup/mirror backup
A full image backup, or mirror backup, is a replica of everything on your computer's hard drive, from the operating
system, boot information, apps, and hidden files to your preferences and settings. Imaging software not only
captures individual files but everything you need to get your system running again. Image copies are exact byte-
for-byte copies of files. RMAN prefers to use an image copy over a backup set.
Checkpoint
The checkpoint is like a bookmark. While the execution of the transaction, such checkpoints are marked, and the
transaction is executed then using the steps of the transaction, the log files will be created.
Checkpoint declares a point before which all the logs are stored permanently in the storage disk and are in an
inconsistent state. In the case of crashes, the amount of work and time is saved as the system can restart from the
checkpoint. Checkpointing is a quick way to limit the number of logs to scan on recovery.
Store the LSN of the most recent checkpoint at a master record on a disk
System Catalog
A repository of information describing the data in the database (metadata, data about data)
Data Replication
Replication is the process of copying and maintaining database objects in multiple databases that make up a
distributed database system. Replication can improve the performance and protect the availability of applications
because alternate data access options exist.
Oracle provides its own set of tools to replicate Oracle and integrate it with other databases. In this post, you will
explore the tools provided by Oracle as well as open-source tools that can be used for Oracle database replication
by implementing custom code.
The catalog is needed to keep track of the location of each fragment & replica
Data replication techniques
Synchronous vs. asynchronous
Synchronous: all replicas are up-to-date
Asynchronous: cheaper but delay in synchronization
Regarding the timing of data transfer, there are two types of data replication:
Asynchronous replication is when the data is sent to the model server -- the server where the replicas take data
from the client. Then, the model server pings the client with a confirmation saying the data has been received. From
there, it goes about copying data to the replicas at an unspecified or monitored pace.
Synchronous replication is when data is copied from the client-server to the model server and then replicated to
all the replica servers before the client is notified that data has been replicated. This takes longer to verify than the
asynchronous method, but it presents the advantage of knowing that all data was copied before proceeding.
Asynchronous database replication offers flexibility and ease of use, as replications happen in the background.
Methods to Setup Oracle Database Replication
You can easily set up the Oracle Database Replication using the following methods:
Method 1: Oracle Database Replication Using Hevo Data
Method 2: Oracle Database Replication Using A Full Backup And Load Approach
Method 3: Oracle Database Replication Using a Trigger-Based Approach
Method 4: Oracle Database Replication Using Oracle Golden Gate CDC
Method 5: Oracle Database Replication Using Custom Script-Based on Binary Log
Oracle types of data replication and integration in OLAP
Three main architectures:
Consolidation database: All data is moved into a single database and managed from a central location. Oracle Real
Application Clusters (Oracle RAC), Grid computing, and Virtual Private Database (VPD) can help you consolidate
information into a single database that is highly available, scalable, and secure.
Federation: Data appears to be integrated into a single virtual database while remaining in its current distributed
locations. Distributed queries, distributed SQL, and Oracle Database Gateway can help you create a federated
database.
Sharing Mediation: Multiple copies of the same information are maintained in multiple databases and application
data stores. Data replication and messaging can help you share information at multiple databases.
END
Requirement Value
Virtual memory (swap) If physical memory is between 2 GB and 16 GB, then set
virtual memory to 1 times the size of the RAM
If physical memory is more than 16 GB, then set virtual
memory to 16 GB
* Refers to the contents of the admin, cfgtoollogs, flash_recovery_area, and oradata directories in the ORACLE_BASE
directory.
Memory Requirements for Installing Oracle Fusion Middleware
Operating System Minimum Physical Memory Required Minimum Available Memory Required
Linux 4 GB 8 GB
UNIX 4 GB 8 GB
Windows 4 GB 8 GB
Type Size
Maximum possible file size with 16 K sized 64 Gigabytes (GB) (4,194,304 * 16,384) = 64 gigabytes (GB)
blocks
2 KB 20,000
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In this section, you will be installing the Oracle Database and creating an Oracle Home User account.
Here OUI is used to install Oracle Software
1. Expand the database folder that you extracted in the previous section. Double-click setup.
2. Click Yes in the User Account Control window to continue with the installation.
3. The Configure Security Updates window appears. Enter your email address and My Oracle Support password to
receive security issue notifications via email. If you do not wish to receive notifications via email, deselect.
Select "Skip software updates" if do not want to apply any updates.
Accept the default and click Next.
4. The Select Installation Option window appears with the following options:
Select "Create and configure a database" to install the database, create database instance and configure the
database.
Select "Install database software only" to only install the database software.
Select "Upgrade an existing database" to upgrade the database that is already installed.
In this OBE, we create and configure the database. Select the Create and configure a database option and click
Next.
5. The System Class window appears. Select Desktop Class or Server Class depending on the type of system you are
using. In this OBE, we will perform the installation on a desktop/laptop. Select Desktop class and click Next.
6. The Oracle Home User Selection window appears. Starting with Oracle Database 12c Release 1 (12.1), Oracle
Database on Microsoft Windows supports the use of an Oracle Home User, specified at the time of installation. This
Oracle Home User is used to run the Windows services for a Oracle Home, and is similar to the Oracle User on Oracle
Database on Linux. This user is associated with an Oracle Home and cannot be changed to a different user post
installation.
Note: Different Oracle homes on a system can share the same Oracle Home User or use different Oracle Home Users.
The Oracle Home User is different from an Oracle Installation User. The Oracle Installation User is the user who
requires administrative privileges to install Oracle products. The Oracle Home User is used to run the Windows
services for the Oracle Home.
The window provides the following options:
1. If you select "Use Existing Windows User", the user credentials provided must be a standard Windows
user account (not an administrator).
2. If this is a single instance database installation, the user can be a local user, a domain user, or a managed
services account.
3. If this is an Oracle RAC database installation, the existing user must be a Windows domain user. The
Oracle installer will display an error if this user has administrator privileges.
4. If you select "Create New Windows User", the Oracle installer will create a new standard Windows user
account. This user will be assigned as the Oracle Home User. Please note that this user will not have login
privileges. This option is not available for an Oracle RAC Database installation.
5. If you select "Use Windows Built-in Account", the system uses the Windows Built-in account as the Oracle
Home User.
Select the Create New Windows User option. Enter the user name as OracleHomeUser1 and password as
Welcome1. Click Next.
Note: Remember the Windows User password. It will be required later to administer or manage database services.
7. The Typical Install Configuration window appears. Click on a text field and then the balloon icon ( )to know more
about the field. Note that by default, the installer creates a container database along with a pluggable database
called "pdborcl". The pluggable database contains the sample HR schema.
8. Change the Global database name to orcl. Enter the “Administrative password” as Oracle_1. This password will
be used later to log into administrator accounts such as SYS and SYSTEM. Click Next.
9. The prerequisite checks are performed and a Summary window appears. Review the settings and click Install.
Note: Depending on your firewall settings, you may need to grant permissions to allow java to access the network.
11. The Database Configuration Assistant started and creates your the database.
12. After the Database Configuration Assistant creates the database, you can navigate to https://localhost:5500/em
as a SYS user to manage the database using Enterprise Manager Database Express. You can click “Password
Management…” to unlock accounts. Click OK to continue.
13. The Finish window appears. Click Close to exit the Oracle Universal Installer.
14. To verify the installation Navigate to C:\Windows\system32 using Windows Explorer. Double-click services. The
Services window appears, displaying a list of services.
There is no need to spend time on the GUI at the very beginning. Thus, the developer can directly start with
implementing the business logic.
This is the reason why Oracle APEX is feasible to create rapid GUI-Prototypes without logic. Thus, prospective
customers can get an idea of how their future application will look.
And the cool thing is, it’s going to get even better with time. Oracle’s roadmap for the technology is extensive and
mentions things such as:
As you can see, there’s a lot of things that are worth waiting for. Oracle APEX is going to get a lot more powerful,
and that’s even more of a reason to get to know it and start using it.
Apex history
APEX is a very powerful development tool, which is used to create web-based database-centric applications. The
tool itself consists of a schema in the database with a lot of tables, views, and PL/SQL code. It’s available for every
edition of the database. The techniques that are used with this tool are PL/SQL, HTML, CSS, and JavaScript.
Before APEX there was WebDB, which was based on the same techniques. WebDB became part of Oracle Portal and
disappeared in silence. The difference between APEX and WebDB is that WebDB generates packages that generate
the HTML pages, while APEX generates the HTML pages at runtime from the repository. Despite this approach APEX
is amazingly fast.
APEX became available to the public in 2004 and then it was part of version 10g of the database. At that time it was
called HTMLDB and the first version was 1.5. Before HTMLDB, it was called Oracle Flows, Oracle Platform, and Project
Marvel.
Note: Starting with Oracle Database 12c Release 2 (12.2), Oracle Application Express is included in the Oracle
Home on disk and is no longer installed by default in the database.
Oracle Application Express is included with the following Oracle Database releases:
Oracle Database 19c – Oracle Application Express Release 18.1.
Oracle Database 18c – Oracle Application Express Release 5.1.
Oracle Database 12c Release 2 (12.2)- Oracle Application Express Release 5.0.
Oracle Database 12c Release 1 (12.1) – Oracle Application Express Release 4.2.
Oracle Database 11g Release 2 (11.2) – Oracle Application Express Release 3.2.
Oracle Database 11g Release 1 (11.1) – Oracle Application Express Release 3.0.
The Oracle Database releases less frequently than Oracle Application Express. Therefore, Oracle recommends
updating to the latest Oracle Application Express release available on Oracle Technology Network.
Within each application, you can also specify a Compatibility Mode in the Application Definition. The Compatibility
Mode attribute controls the compatibility mode of the Application Express runtime engine. Compatibility
Mode options include Pre 4.1, 4.1, 4.2, 5.0, 5.1/18.1, 18.2, 19.1, and 19.2. or upper versions.
Version 22
This release of Oracle APEX introduces Approvals and the Unified Task List, Simplified Create Page wizards,
Readable Application Export formats, and Data Generator. APEX 22.1 also brings several enhancements existing
components, such as tokenized row search, an easy way to sort regions, improvements to faceted search,
additional customization of the PWA service worker, a more streamlined developer experience, and much more!
Version 21
This release of Oracle APEX introduces Smart Filters, Progressive Web Apps, and REST Service Catalogs. APEX 21.2
also brings greater UI flexibility with Universal Theme, new and updated page components, numerous
improvements to the developer experience, and a whole lot more!
Especially now Oracle has pointed out APEX as one of the important tools for building applications in their Oracle
Database Cloud Service, this interest will only grow. APEX shared a lot of the characteristics of cloud computing,
even before cloud computing became popular.
Elasticity
Browser-based development and runtime
RESTful web services (REST stands for Representational State Transfer)
Because the database is doing all the hard work, the architecture is fairly simple. We only have to add a web server.
We can choose one of the following web servers:
Oracle APEX has a strong history, starting with version 1.5, which came out in 2004 – it was known as HTML DB then
(before it also had other names, like Flows and Project Marvel).
Oracle APEX is a part of the Oracle RAD architecture and technology stack. What does it mean?
“R” stands for REST, or rather ORDS – Oracle REST Data Services. ORDS is responsible for asking the database for the
page and rendering it back to the client;
“A” stands for APEX, Oracle Application Express, the topic of this article;
“D” stands for Database, which is the place an APEX application resides in.
Other methodologies that work well with Oracle Application Express include:
Spiral - This approach is actually a series of short waterfall cycles. Each waterfall cycle yields new requirements and
enables the development team to create a robust series of prototypes.
Rapid application development (RAD) life cycle - This approach has a heavy emphasis on creating a prototype that
closely resembles the final product. The prototype is an essential part of the requirements phase. One disadvantage
of this model is that the emphasis on creating the prototype can cause scope creep; developers can lose sight of
their initial goals in the attempt to create the perfect application.
These include Oauth client, APEX User, Database Schema User, and OS User. While it is important to ensure your
ORDS web services are secured, you also need to consider what a client has access to once authenticate. As a quick
reminder, authentication confirms your identity and allows you into the system, authorization decides what you can
do once you are in.
Oracle REST Data Services is a Java EE-based alternative for Oracle HTTP Server and mod_plsql.
The Java EE implementation offers increased functionality including a command-line based configuration, enhanced
security, file caching, and RESTful web services.
Oracle REST Data Services also provides increased flexibility by supporting deployments using Oracle WebLogic
Server, GlassFish Server, Apache Tomcat, and a standalone mode.
The Oracle Application Express architecture requires some form of the webserver to proxy requests between a web
browser and the Oracle Application Express engine. Oracle REST Data Services satisfies this need but its use goes
beyond that of Oracle Application Express configurations.
Oracle REST Data Services simplifies the deployment process because there is no Oracle home required, as
connectivity is provided using an embedded JDBC driver.
Oracle REST Data Services is a Java Enterprise Edition (Java EE) based data service that provides enhanced security,
file caching features, and RESTful Web Services. Oracle REST Data Services also increases flexibility through support
for deployment in standalone mode, as well as using servers like Oracle WebLogic Server and Apache Tomcat.
ORDS
ORDS, a Java-based application, enables developers with SQL and database skills to develop REST APIs for Oracle
Database. You can deploy ORDS on web and application servers, including WebLogic®, Tomcat®, and Glassfish®, as
shown in the following image:
ORDS is our middle tier JAVA application that allows you to access your Oracle Database resources via REST APIs.
Use standard HTTP(s) calls (GET|POST|PUT|DELETE) via URIs that ORDS makes available
(/ords/database123/user3/module5/something/)
ORDS will route your request to the appropriate database, and call the appropriate query or PL/SQL anonymous
block), and return the output and HTTP codes.
For most calls, that’s going to be the results of a SQL statement – paginated and formatted as JSON.
Oracle Cloud
You can run APEX in an Autonomous Database (ADB) – an elastic database that you can scale up. It’s self-driving,
self-healing, and can repair and upgrade itself. It comes in two flavours:
1. Autonomous Transaction Processing (ATP) – basically transaction processing, it’s where APEX sees most use;
2. Autonomous Data Warehouse (ADW) – for more query-driven APEX applications. Reporting data is also a
common use of Oracle APEX.
You can also use the new Database Cloud Service (DCS) – an APEX-only solution. For a fee, you can have a
commercial application running on a database cloud service.
Workspace utility
Application Components
Supporting objects
Utility components
Remote development
Oracle Express Free Edition – you can also run a free version, which is called Oracle Express Free Edition, on-
premise, but in this case, there’s a limit on how much data you can store there.
Fan-made and official containers – there are also various fan-made and official containers with APEX installed
available on the Internet.
When Oracle Application Express installs, the Instance administrator does not have the ability to assign Oracle
default schemas to workspaces. Default schemas such as SYS, SYSTEM, and RMAN are reserved by Oracle for various
product features and for internal use. Access to a default schema can be a very powerful privilege. For example, a
workspace with access to the default schema SYSTEM can run applications that parse as the SYSTEM user.
In order for an Instance administrator to have the ability to assign most Oracle default schemas to workspaces, the
DBA must explicitly grant the privilege using SQL*Plus to run a procedure within
the APEX_INSTANCE_ADMIN package.
DBAs can grant an Instance administrator the ability to assign Oracle schemas to workspaces.
A DBA grants an Instance administrator the ability to assign Oracle schemas to workspaces by using SQL*Plus to run
the APEX_INSTANCE_ADMIN.UNRESTRICT_SCHEMA procedure from within the Application Express engine schema.
For example:
COMMIT;
A DBA revokes the privilege to assign default schemas using SQL*Plus to run the
APEX_INSTANCE_ADMIN.RESTRICT_SCHEMA procedure from within the Application Express engine schema. For
example:
COMMIT;
This example would prevent the Instance administrator from assigning the RMAN schema to any workspace. It does
not, however, prevent workspaces that have already had the RMAN schema assigned to them from using the RMAN
schema.
The DBA can grant an Oracle Application Express administrator the ability to assign Oracle default schemas to
workspaces by using SQL*Plus to run the APEX_SITE_ADMIN_PRIVS.UNRESTRICT_SCHEMA procedure from within
the Application Express engine schema. For example:
COMMIT;
This example would enable the Oracle Application Express administrator to assign the SYSTEM schema to any
workspace.
The DBA can revoke this privilege using SQL*Plus to run the APEX_SITE_ADMIN_PRIVS.RESTRICT_SCHEMA procedure
from within the Application Express engine schema. For example:
COMMIT;
This example would display the text of a query that dumps the tables that defines the schema and workspace
restrictions.
Oracle APEX
Identifies Application
APEX_APPLICATION_COMPUTATIONS Computations which can run for APEX_APPLICATIONS
every page or on login
Identifies attributes of an
APEX_APPLICATION_PAGE_IR APEX_APPLICATION_PAGE_REGIONS
interactive report
Developer comments of an
APEX_APPL_DEVELOPER_COMMENTS APEX_APPLICATIONS
application
Identifies a collection of
APEX_APPL_LOAD_TABLE_RULES transformation rules that are to APEX_APPLICATIONS
be used on the load tables.
This article presents how to install and configure Apex 21.2 with standalone ORDS 21.2
In previous versions an upgrade was required when a release affected the first two numbers of the version (4.2 to
5.0 or 5.1 to 18.1), but if the first two numbers of the version were not affected (5.1.3 to 5.1.4) you had to
download and apply a patch, rather than do the full installation. This is no longer the case.
Steps
Setup (Download both software having equal version and paste unzip files at same location in directory)
Installation
Network ACLs
Step One
Create a new tablespace to act as the default tablespace for APEX.
-- For non-OMF.
CREATE TABLESPACE apex DATAFILE ‘/path/to/datafiles/apex01.dbf’ SIZE 100M AUTOEXTEND ON NEXT 1M;
Tablespaces allocate space in extents. Tablespaces can use two different methods to keep track of their free and
used space:
When you create a tablespace, you choose one of these methods of space management. Later, you can change the
management method with the DBMS_SPACE_ADMIN PL/SQL package.
Step two
Installation
$ cd /home/oracle/apex
Step three
IF: Connect to SQL*Plus as the SYS user and run the "apexins.sql" script, specifying the relevant tablespace names
and image URL.
Or Else
Logon to database as SYSDBA and switch to pluggable database orclpdb1 and run installation script. You can install
apex on dedicated tablespaces if required.
sqlplus / as sysdba
Step four
If you want to add the user silently, you could run the following code, specifying the required password and email.
BEGIN
APEX_UTIL.set_security_group_id( 10 );
APEX_UTIL.create_user(
APEX_UTIL.set_security_group_id( null );
COMMIT;
END;
Note:
http://host:port/ords/apex_admin
http://host:port/ords
Or
When Oracle Application Express installs, it creates three new database accounts all with status LOCKED in
database:
APEX_210200– The account that owns the Oracle Application Express schema and metadata.
FLOWS_FILES – The account that owns the Oracle Application Express uploaded files.
APEX_PUBLIC_USER – The minimally privileged account is used for Oracle Application Express configuration with
ORDS.
Create and change password for ADMIN account. When prompted enter a password for the ADMIN account.
sqlplus / as sysdba
@apxchpwd.sql
output
SQL> @apxchpwd.sql
instance administrator. If the user does not yet exist, a user record will be
created.
Step Five
Create the APEX_LISTENER and APEX_REST_PUBLIC_USER users by running the "apex_rest_config.sql" script.
SQL> @apex_rest_config.sql
Configure RESTful Services. When prompted enter a password for the APEX_LISTENER, APEX_REST_PUBLIC_USER
account.
sqlplus / as sysdba
@apex_rest_config.sql
output
SQL> @apex_rest_config.sql
...set_appun.sql
For this post, I chose the first option, which Oracle recommends: Install APEX and ORDS and configure ORDS.
Step Six
Now you need to decide which gateway to use to access APEX. The Oracle recommendation is ORDS.
Note: Oracle REST Data Services (ORDS), formerly known as the APEX Listener, allows APEX applications to be
deployed without the use of Oracle HTTP Server (OHS) and mod_plsql or the Embedded PL/SQL Gateway. ORDS
version 3.0 onward also includes JSON API support to work in conjunction with the JSON support in the database.
ORDS can be deployed on WebLogic, Tomcat or run in standalone mode. This article describes the installation of
ORDS on Tomcat 8 and 9.
For Lone-PDB installations (a CDB with one PDB), or for CDBs with small numbers of PDBs, ORDS can be installed
directly into the PDB.
If you are using many PDBs per CDB, you may prefer to install ORDS into the CDB to allow all PDBs to share the
same connection pool.
mkdir /home/oracle/ords
cp ords-21.4.2.062.1806.zip /home/oracle/ords
cd /home/oracle/ords
unzip ords-21.4.2.062.1806.zip
mkdir /home/oracle/ords/conf
password for SYS AS SYSDBA: !!! you must know it from your DBA !!!
This Oracle REST Data Services instance has not yet been configured.
Confirm password:
Requires to login with administrator privileges to verify Oracle REST Data Services schema.
Confirm password:
Retrieving information.
If using Oracle Application Express or migrating from mod_plsql then you must enter 1 [1]:
Confirm password:
Confirm password:
Confirm password:
[5] None
Choose [1]:1
Completed installation for Oracle REST Data Services version 21.4.2.r0621806. Elapsed time: 00:00:12.611
Choose [1]:1
As a result ORDS will be running in standalone mode and configured so you can try to logon to apex.
cd /home/oracle/ords
Administration page
http://hostname:port/ords
In this case
http://oel8.dbaora.com:8080/ords
OR
If you want to use the Embedded PL/SQL Gateway (EPG) to front APEX, you can follow the instructions here. This is
used for both the first installation and upgrades.
Run the "apex_epg_config.sql" script, passing in the base directory of the installation software as a parameter.
OR
If you want to use Oracle HTTP Server (OHS) to front APEX, you can follow the instructions here.
Change the password and unlock the APEX_PUBLIC_USER account. This will be used for any Database Access
Descriptors (DADs).
Step Seven
Unlock the ANONYMOUS account.
DECLARE
l_passwd VARCHAR2(40);
BEGIN
EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'ALTER USER anonymous IDENTIFIED BY ' || l_passwd || ' ACCOUNT UNLOCK
CONTAINER=ALL';
END;
GETHTTPPORT
-----------
1 row selected.
SQL>
If it is set to "0", you will need to set it to a non-zero value to enable it.
ORDS is started or stopped by starting or stopping the Tomcat instance it is deployed to. Assuming you have the
CATALINA_HOME environment variable set correctly, the following commands should be used.
Oracle now supports Oracle REST Data Services (ORDS) running in standalone mode using the built-in Jetty web
server, so you no longer need to worry about installing WebLogic, Glassfish or Tomcat unless you have a
compelling reason to do so. Removing this extra layer means one less layer to learn and one less layer to patch.
ORDS can run as a standalone app with a built in webserver. This is perfect for local development purposes but in
the real world you will want a decent java application server (Tomcat, Glassfish or Weblogic) with a webserver in
front of it (Apache or Nginx).
$ $CATALINA_HOME/bin/startup.sh
$ $CATALINA_HOME/bin/shutdown.sh
ORDS Validate
You can validate/fix the current ORDS installation using the validate option.
Confirm password:
Retrieving information.
Completed validating Oracle REST Data Services version 18.2.0.r1831332. Elapsed time: 00:00:06.898
In recent versions you can use the following command to uninstall ORDS and provide the information when
prompted.
# su - tomcat
$ cd /u01/ords
Enter 1 to specify the database service name, or 2 to specify the database SID [1]:
Confirm password:
Retrieving information
Completed uninstall for Oracle REST Data Services. Elapsed time: 00:00:10.876
In older versions of ORDS you had to extract scripts to perform the uninstall in the following way.
su - tomcat
cd /u01/ords
Perform the uninstall from the "oracle" user using the following commands.
su -oracle
cd /tmp/scripts/uninstall/core/
@ords_manual_uninstall /tmp/scripts/logs
In Oracle Application Express, users sign in to a shared work area called a workspace. A workspace enables
multiple users to work within the same Oracle Application Express installation while keeping their objects, data
and applications private. This flexible architecture enables a single database instance to manage thousands of
applications.
Within a workspace, End users can only run existing database or Websheet application. Developers can create and
edit applications, monitor workspace activity, and view dashboards. Oracle Application Express includes two
administrator roles:
1. Workspace administrators are users who perform administrator tasks specific to a workspace.
2. Instance administrators are superusers that manage an entire hosted Oracle Application Express instance
which may contain multiple workspaces.
Workspace administrators can reset passwords, view product and environment information, manage the Export
repository, manage saved interactive reports, view the workspace summary report, and manage Websheet
database objects. Additionally, workspace administrators manage service requests, configure workspace
preferences, manage user accounts, monitor workspace activity, and view log files.
Oracle APEX is a full spectrum technology. It can be used by so-called citizen developers, who can use the wizard to
create some simple applications to get going. However, these people can team up with a technical developer to
create a more complex application together, and in such a case it also goes full spectrum – code by code, line by
line, back-end development, front-end development, database development. If you get a perfect mix of front-end
and back-end developers, then you can create a truly great APEX application.
Our methodology is composed of different elements related to all aspects of an APEX development project.
This methodology is referred to as a waterfall because the output from one stage is the input for the next stage. A
primary problem with this approach is that it is assumed that all requirements can be established in advance.
Unfortunately, requirements often change and evolve during the development process.
The Oracle Application Express development environment enables developers to take a more iterative approach to
development. Unlike many other development environments, creating prototypes is easy. With Oracle Application
Express, developers can:
For features, I select an About Page, Configuration Options, Activity Reporting, and Theme Style Selection.
I leave the rest of the fields blank for now and instead, I just click Create Application. As you’ll see when you check
it out for yourselves, creating a basic app is very quick. Of course, I could’ve added more pages there, ticked more
options – but that’s what we need for now.
Apex Development
Use a different workspace and same schema. Export and then import the application into a different workspace.
This is an effective way to prevent a production application from being modified by developers.
Use a different workspace and different schema. Export and then import the application into a different workspace
and install it so that it uses a different schema. This new schema needs to have the database objects required by
your application. See "Using the Database Object Dependencies Report".
Use a different database with all its variations. Export and then import the application into a different Oracle
Application Express instance and install it using a different workspace, schema, and database.
Migration of Applications
7. Click Next.
8. Click Upload Another File if you have more XML files, otherwise click Create.
Now let's review each component in the upload forms to determine proper regions to use in the APEX Application.
Also, let's review the Triggers and Program Units in order to identify the business logic in your Forms Application
and determine if it will need to be replicated or not.
Oracle Forms applications still play a vital role, but many are looking for ways to modernize their
applications. Modernize your Oracle Forms applications by migrating them to Oracle Application Express (Oracle
APEX) in the cloud.
Your stored procedures and PL/SQL packages work natively in Oracle APEX, making it the clear platform of choice
for easily transitioning Oracle Forms applications to modern web applications with more capabilities, less
complexity, and lower development and maintenance costs.
Oracle APEX is a low-code development platform that enables you to build scalable, secure enterprise apps, with
world-class features, that you can deploy anywhere. You can quickly develop and deploy compelling apps that
solve real problems and provide immediate value. You won't need to be an expert in a vast array of technologies to
deliver sophisticated solutions.
Architecture
This architecture shows the process of migrating on-premises Oracle Forms applications to Oracle Application
Express (APEX) applications with the help of an XML converter, and then moving them to the cloud.The following
diagram illustrates this reference architecture.
VCN
When you create a VCN, determine how many IP addresses your cloud resources in each subnet require. Using
Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) notation, specify a subnet mask and a network address range large enough
for the required IP addresses. Use CIDR blocks that are within the standard private IP address space.
After you create a VCN, you can change, add, and remove its CIDR blocks.
When you design the subnets, consider functionality and security requirements. All compute instances within the
same tier or role should go into the same subnet.
Security lists
Use security lists to define ingress and egress rules that apply to the entire subnet.
Cloud Guard
Clone and customize the default recipes provided by Oracle to create custom detector and responder recipes. These
recipes enable you to specify what type of security violations generate a warning and what actions are allowed to
be performed on them. For example, you might want to detect Object Storage buckets that have visibility set to
public.
Apply Cloud Guard at the tenancy level to cover the broadest scope and to reduce the administrative burden of
maintaining multiple configurations.
You can also use the Managed List feature to apply certain configurations to detectors.
Security Zones
For resources that require maximum security, Oracle recommends that you use security zones. A security zone is a
compartment associated with an Oracle-defined recipe of security policies that are based on best practices. For
example, the resources in a security zone must not be accessible from the public internet and they must be
encrypted using customer-managed keys. When you create and update resources in a security zone, Oracle Cloud
Infrastructure validates the operations against the policies in the security-zone recipe, and denies operations that
violate any of the policies.
Schema
Retain the database structure that Oracle Forms was built on, as is, and use that as the schema for Oracle APEX.
Business Logic
Most of the business logic for Oracle Forms is in triggers, program units, and events. Before starting the migration
of Oracle Forms to Oracle APEX, migrate the business logic to stored procedures, functions, and packages in the
database.
Considerations
Consider the following key items when migrating Oracle Forms Object navigator components to Oracle Application
Express (APEX):
Data Blocks
A data block from Oracle Forms relates to Oracle APEX with each page broken up into several regions and
components. Review the Oracle APEX Component Templates available in the Universal Theme.
Triggers
In Oracle Forms, triggers control almost everything. In Oracle APEX, control is based on flexible conditions that are
activated when a page is submitted and are managed by validations, computations, dynamic actions, and processes.
Alerts
Most messages in Oracle APEX are generated when you submit a page.
Attached Libraries
Oracle APEX takes care of the JavaScript and CSS libraries that support the Universal Theme, which supports all of
the components that you need for flexible, dynamic applications. You can include your own JavaScript and CSS in
several ways, mostly through page attributes. You can choose to add inline code as reference files that exist either
in the database as a BLOB (#APP_IMAGES#) or sit on the middle tier, typically served by Oracle REST Data Services
(ORDS). When a reference file is on an Oracle WebLogic Server, the file location is prefixed with #IMAGE_PREFIX#.
Editors
Oracle APEX has a text area and a rich text editor, which is equivalent to Editors in Oracle Forms.
In APEX, the LOV is coupled with the Item type. A radio group works well with a small handful of values. Select Lists
for middle-sized sets, and select Popup LOV for large data sets. You can use the queries from Record Group in Oracle
Forms for the LOV query in Oracle APEX. LOV's in Oracle APEX can be dynamically driven by a SQL query, or be
statically defined. A static definition allows a variety of conditions to be applied to each entry. These LOVs can then
be associated with Items such as Radio Groups & Select Lists, or with a column in a report, to translate a code to a
label.
Parameters
Page Items in Oracle APEX are populated between pages to pass information to the next page, such as the selected
record in a report. Larger forms with a number of items are generally submitted as a whole, where the page process
handles the data, and branches to the next page. These values can be protected from URL tampering by session state
security, at item, page, and application levels, often by default.
Popup Menus
Popup Menus are not available out of the box in Oracle APEX, but you can build them by using Lists and associating
a button with the menu.
Program Units
Migrate the Stored procedures and functions defined in program units in Oracle Forms into Database Stored
Procedures/Functions and use Database Stored procedures/functions in Oracle APEX
processes/validations/computations.
Property Classes
Property Classes in Oracle Forms allow the developer to utilize common attributes among each instance of a
component. In APEX you can define User Interface Defaults in the data dictionary, so that each time items or reports
are created for specific tables or columns, the same features are applied by default. As for the style of the application,
you can apply classes to components that carry a particular look and feel. The Universal Theme has a default skin
that you can reconfigure declaratively.
Record Groups
Use queries in Record Groups to define the Dynamic LOV in Oracle APEX.
Reports
Interactive Reports in Oracle APEX come with a number of runtime manipulation options that give users the power
to customize and manipulate the reports. Classic Reports are simple reports that don't provide runtime manipulation
options, but are based on SQL.
Menus
Oracle Forms have specific menu files, controlled by database roles. Updating the .mmx file required that there be
no active users. The menu in Oracle APEX can either be across the top, or down the left side. These menus can be
statically defined, or dynamically driven. Static navigation entries can be controlled by authorization schemes, or
custom conditions. Dynamic menus can have security tables integrated within the SQL.
Properties
The Page Designer introduced in Oracle APEX is similar to Oracle Forms, particularly with regard to the ability to edit
multiple components at once, only intersecting attributes.
The Application Express engine uses two logs to track user activity. At any given time, one log is designated as
current. For each rendered page view, the Application Express engine inserts one row into the log file. A log switch
occurs at the interval listed on the Page View Activity Logs page. At that point, the Application Express engine
removes all entries in the noncurrent log and designates it as current.
Delete SQL Workshop log entries. The SQL Workshop maintains a history of SQL statements run in the SQL
Commands.
Workspace administrators are users who perform administrator tasks specific to a workspace and have the access
to various types of activity reports.
Instance administrators are superusers that manage an entire hosted instance using the Application Express
Administration Services application.
RMAN Backup/Restore
If lost the APEX tablespace but your database is currently functioning. If this is the case, and assuming your APEX
tablespace does not span multiple datafiles, you can attempt to swap out the datafile. Please force a backup in rman
before trying any of this.
There are a few different options here. All you really need are the following
Datafile
Control file
Archive / redologs (if you want to move forward or backward in time)
Then run rman target / from bash terminal. In rman run the following.
RESTORE CONTROLFILE FROM '/tmp/oradata/your_ctrl_file_dir'
ALTER TABLESPACE apex OFFLINE IMMEDIATE';
SET NEWNAME FOR DATAFILE '/tmp/oradata/apex01.dbf' TO
RESTORE TABLESPACE apex;
SWITCH DATAFILE ALL;
RECOVER TABLESPACE apex;
Oracle 148 MiB All except 21c This version includes patch 32006852:
APEX PSE BUNDLE FOR APEX 20.2,
version PATCH_VERSION 2020.11.12. You can
20.2.v1 see the patch number and date by
running the following query:
SELECT PATCH_VERSION,
PATCH_NUMBER
FROM APEX_PATCHES;
Oracle 173 MiB All except 21c This version includes patch 30990551:
APEX PSE BUNDLE FOR APEX 20.1,
version PATCH_VERSION 2020.07.15.
20.1.v1
Custom Authentication
Creating a Custom Authentication scheme from scratch to have complete control over your
authentication interface.
Database Accounts
Database Account Credentials authentication utilizes database schema accounts to authenticate users.
LDAP Directory
Authenticate a user and password with an authentication request to a LDAP server.
SAML Sign-In
Delegates authentication to the Security Assertion Markup Language (SAML) Sign In authentication
scheme.
Social Sign-In
Social Sign-In supports authentication with Google, Facebook, and other social network that
supports OpenID Connect or OAuth2 standards.
When you create an authorization scheme you select an authorization scheme type. The authorization scheme
type determines how an authorization scheme is applied. Developers can create new authorization type plug-ins to
extend this list.
Exists SQL Query Enter a query that causes the authorization scheme to pass if it returns
at least one row and causes the scheme to fail if it returns no rows
NOT Exists SQL Query Enter a query that causes the authorization scheme to pass if it returns
no rows and causes the scheme to fail if it returns one or more rows
PL/SQL Function Returning Boolean Enter a function body. If the function returns true, the authorization
succeeds.
Item in Expression 1 is NULL Enter an item name. If the item is null, the authorization succeeds.
Item in Expression1 is NOT NULL Enter an item name. If the item is not null, the authorization succeeds.
Value of Item in Expression 1 Equals Enter and item name and value.The authorization succeeds if the item's
Expression 2 value equals the authorization value.
Value of Item in Expression 1 Does Enter an item name and a value. The authorization succeeds if the
NOT Equal Expression 2 item's value is not equal to the authorization value.
Value of Preference in Expression 1 Enter an preference name and a value. The authorization succeeds if the
Does NOT Equal Expression 2 preference's value is not equal to the authorization value.
Value of Preference in Expression 1 Enter an preference name and a value. The authorization succeeds if the
Equals Expression 2 preference's value equal the authorization value.
Is In Group Enter a group name. The authorization succeeds if the group is enabled
as a dynamic group for the session.
Is Not In Group Enter a group name. The authorization succeeds if the group is not
enabled as a dynamic group for the session.
Run the APEX installation script against the target database. The same script is used for new installations
and upgrades. The script automatically senses whether there is a version of APEX present and automatically
takes the appropriate action.
Update the existing version of the /i/ virtual directory with the images, javascript, css, etc. with the current
versions APEX installation medium.
For the standard HTTP Server installations, this is just a simple copy command.
For the Embedded PL/SQL Gateway (EPG), the script apxldimg.sql is used to load the images into the
database.
For the APEX Listener / Oracle REST Data Services (ORDS), recreate the i.jar file that contains the references
to the images, javascript, css, etc. from the APEX installation media OR copy the new versions of the files to
the existing location referenced by the current APEX Listener / ORDS / web server.
For APEX (HTML DB) versions 1.5 - 3.1, the schema name is: FLOWS_XXXXXX.
For example: FLOWS_010500 for HTML DB version 1.5.x
For APEX (HTML DB) versions 3.2.x and above, the schema name is: APEX_XXXXXX.
For example: APEX_210100 for APEX version 21.1.
If the query returns 0, it is a runtime only installation, and apxrtins.sql should be used for the upgrade. If
the query returns 1, this is a development install and apexins.sql should be used
The full download is needed if the first two digits of the APEX version are different. For example, the full
Application Express download is needed to go from 20.0 to 21.1. See <Note 752705.1> ORA-1435: User Does not
Exist" When Upgrading APEX Using apxpatch.sql: for more information. The patch is needed if only the third digit
of the version changes. So when upgrading from from 21.1.0 patch to upgrade to 21.1.2.
END
History of WebLogic
WebLogic server was the first J2EE application server.
1995: WebLogic, Inc. founded.
1997: First release of WebLogic Tengah.
1998: WebLogic, Inc., acquired by BEA Systems.
2008: BEA Systems acquired by Oracle.
2020: WebLogic Server version 14 released.
WebLogic is an Application Server that runs on a middle tier, between back-end databases and related applications
and browser-based thin clients. WebLogic Server mediates the exchange of requests from the client tier with
responses from the back-end tier.
WebLogic Server is based on Java Platform, Enterprise Edition (Java EE) (formerly known as Java 2 Platform,
Enterprise Edition or J2EE), the standard platform used to create Java-based multi-tier enterprise applications.
Oracle WebLogic Server vs. Apache Tomcat
The Apache Tomcat web server is often compared with WebLogic Server. The Tomcat web server serves static
content and dynamic content in web applications delivered in Java servlets and JavaServer Pages.
Programming Models
WebLogic Server provides complete support for the Java EE 6.0.
Web Applications provide the basic Java EE mechanism for deployment of dynamic Web pages based on the Java
EE standards of servlets and JavaServer Pages (JSP). Web applications are also used to serve static Web content
such as HTML pages and image files.
Web Services provide a shared set of functions that are available to other systems on a network and can be used
as a component of distributed Web-based applications.
XML capabilities include data exchange, and a means to store content independent of its presentation, and more.
Java Messaging Service (JMS) enables applications to communicate with one another through the exchange of
messages. A message is a request, report, and/or event that contains information needed to coordinate
communication between different applications.
Java Database Connectivity (JDBC) provides pooled access to DBMS resources.
Resource Adapters provide connectivity to Enterprise Information Systems (EISes).
Enterprise JavaBeans (EJB) provide Java objects to encapsulate data and business logic.
Remote Method Invocation (RMI) is the Java standard for distributed object computing, allowing applications to
invoke methods on a remote object locally.
Security APIs allow you to integrate authentication and authorization into your Java EE applications. You can also
use the Security Provider APIs to create your own custom security providers.
WebLogic Tuxedo Connectivity (WTC) provides interoperability between WebLogic Server applications and Tuxedo
services. WTC allows WebLogic Server clients to invoke Tuxedo services and Tuxedo clients to invoke EJBs in
response to a service request.
Oracle offers three distinct products as part of the Oracle WebLogic Server 11g application family:
Oracle WebLogic Server Standard Edition (SE)
Oracle WebLogic Server Enterprise Edition (EE)
Oracle WebLogic Suite
Oracle WebLogic 11g Server Standard Edition
The WebLogic Server Standard Edition (SE) is a full-featured server, but is mainly intended for
developers to develop enterprise applications quickly. WebLogic Server SE implements all the
Java EE standards and offers management capabilities through the Administration Console.
J2EE Platform
WebLogic Server contains Java 2 Platform, Enterprise Edition (J2EE) technologies. J2EE is the standard platform for
developing multitier enterprise applications based on the Java programming language. The technologies that make
up J2EE were developed collaboratively by Sun Microsystems and other software vendors, including BEA Systems.
J2EE applications are based on standardized, modular components. WebLogic Server provides a complete set of
services for those components and handles many details of application behavior automatically, without requiring
programming.
J2EE Platform and WebLogic Server
WebLogic Server implements Java 2 Platform, Enterprise Edition (J2EE) version 1.3 technologies. J2EE is the standard
platform for developing multi-tier Enterprise applications based on the Java programming language. The
technologies that make up J2EE were developed collaboratively by Sun Microsystems and other software vendors,
including BEA Systems.
WebLogic Server J2EE applications are based on standardized, modular components. WebLogic Server provides a
complete set of services for those modules and handles many details of application behavior automatically, without
requiring programming.
Note: Because J2EE is backward compatible, you can still run J2EE 1.3 applications on WebLogic Server versions 7.x
and later.
What Are WebLogic Server J2EE Applications and Modules?
A BEA WebLogic ServerTM J2EE application consists of one of the following modules or applications running on
WebLogic Server:
Web application modules—HTML pages, servlets, JavaServer Pages, and related files. See Web Application Modules.
Enterprise Java Beans (EJB) modules—entity beans, session beans, and message-driven beans. See Enterprise
JavaBean Modules.
Connector modules—resource adapters. See Connector Modules.
Enterprise applications—Web application modules, EJB modules, and resource adapters packaged into an
application. See Enterprise Applications.
Web Application Modules
A Web application on WebLogic Server includes the following files:
At least one servlet or JSP, along with any helper classes.
A web.xml deployment descriptor, a J2EE standard XML document that describes the contents of a WAR file.
Optionally, a weblogic.xml deployment descriptor, an XML document containing WebLogic Server-specific
elements for Web applications.
A Web application can also include HTML and XML pages with supporting files such as images and multimedia files.
Servlets
Servlets are Java classes that execute in WebLogic Server, accept a request from a client, process it, and optionally
return a response to the client. An HttpServlet is most often used to generate dynamic Web pages in response to
Web browser requests.
JavaServer Pages
JavaServer Pages (JSPs) are Web pages coded with an extended HTML that makes it possible to embed Java code in
a Web page. JSPs can call custom Java classes, known as tag libraries, using HTML-like tags. The appc compiler
compiles JSPs and translates them into servlets. WebLogic Server automatically compiles JSPs if the servlet class file
is not present or is older than the JSP source file. See Using Ant Tasks to Create Compile Scripts.
You can also precompile JSPs and package the servlet class in a Web archive (WAR) file to avoid compiling in the
server. Servlets and JSPs may require additional helper classes that must also be deployed with the Web application.
Overview of WebLogic Resource Types
WebLogic resources are hierarchical. Therefore, the level at which you define security roles and security policies is
up to you. For example, you can define security roles and security policies for an entire Enterprise Application (EAR),
an Enterprise JavaBean (EJB) JAR containing multiple EJBs, a particular EJB within that JAR, or a single method within
that EJB.
Administrative Resources
An Administrative resource is a type of WebLogic resource that allows users to perform administrative tasks.
Examples of Administrative resources include the WebLogic Server Administration Console, the weblogic.Admin
tool, and MBean APIs.
Administrative resources are limited in scope. Currently, you can only secure the User Lockout operation on an
Administrative resource using the WebLogic Server Administration Console. This operation provides compatibility
with WebLogic Server 6.x., and allows users who meet the security requirements to unlock users who have been
locked out of their accounts. For more information about user lockout, see Protecting User Accounts in Managing
WebLogic Security.
Application Resources
An Application resource is a type of WebLogic resource that represents an Enterprise Application, packaged as an
EAR (Enterprise Application aRchive) file. Unlike the other types of WebLogic resources, the hierarchy of an
Application resource is a mechanism for containment, rather than a type hierarchy. You secure an Application
resource when you want to protect multiple WebLogic resources that constitute the Enterprise Application (for
example, EJB resources, URL resources, and Web Service resources). In other words, securing an Enterprise
Application will cause all the WebLogic resources within that application to inherit its security configuration.
You can also secure, on an individual basis, the WebLogic resources that constitute an Enterprise Application (EAR).
Securing a resource by both means causes the individual security configuration to override the security configuration
inherited from the Enterprise Application for that WebLogic resource.
COM Resources
WebLogic jCOM is a software bridge that allows bidirectional access between Java/J2EE objects deployed in
WebLogic Server, and Microsoft ActiveX components available within the Microsoft Office family of products, Visual
Basic and C++ objects, and other Component Object Model/Distributed Component Object Model (COM/DCOM)
environments.
A COM resource is a specific type of WebLogic resource that is designed as a program component object according
to Microsoft's framework. To secure COM components accessed through BEA's bi-directional COM-Java (jCOM)
bridging tool, you create security policies and security roles for packages containing multiple COM classes, or for
individual COM classes.
Information about securing COM resources can be found both in this document and in the Configuring Access Control
section of Programming WebLogic jCOM.
Send—Required to send a message to a queue or a topic. This includes calls to the MessageProducer.send(),
QueueSender.send(), and TopicPublisher.publish() methods, as well as the Messaging Bridge.
receive—Required to create a consumer on a queue or a topic. This includes calls to the Session.createConsumer(),
Session.createDurableSubscriber(), QueueSession.createReceiver(), TopicSession.createSubscriber(),
TopicSession.createDurableSubscriber(), Connection.createConnectionConsumer(),
Connection.createDurableConnectionConsumer(), QueueConnection.createConnectionConsumer(),
TopicConnection.createConnectionConsumer(), and TopicConnection.createDurableConnectionConsumer()
methods, as well as the Messaging Bridge and message-driven beans.
Browse—Required to view the messages on a queue using the QueueBrowser interface.
Java Naming and Directory Interface (JNDI) Resources
JNDI provides a common-denominator interface to many existing naming services, such as Lightweight Directory
Access Protocol (LDAP) and Domain Name System (DNS). These naming services maintain a set of bindings, which
relate names to objects and provide the ability to look up objects by name. JNDI allows the components in distributed
applications to locate each other.
===========================END=========================