Pak-Russia Relations & Its Effects on Regional Politics

(1991-2008)

Session 2016-2019

By
Tohid Anwar
95/IU.PhD/2016

Roll No. 02

Supervisor
Prof. Dr. Aftab Hussain Gilani

A dissertation submitted

In the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy
in

Pakistan Studies

Department of Pakistan Studies

The Islamia University of Bahawalpur

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 AUTHOR’S DECLARATION

I, Touhid Anwar, Ph.D scholar in the Department of Pakistan Studies at The Islamia
University of Bahawalpur do solemnly declare that the thesis entitled, “Pak-Russia
Relations and Its Effects on Regional Politics (1991-2008)” submitted by me in partial
fulfillment of the requirement of Ph.D in the subject of Pakistan Studies is my original
work. It shall also not be submitted to obtain any degree to any other university or
institution.

Touhid Anwar

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 FORWARDING CERTIFICATE

It is hereby certified that the thesis entitled, “Pak-Russia Relations and Its Effects on
Regional Politics (1991-2008)” by Touhid Anwar in the partial fulfillment of the
requirement, for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Pakistan Studies, under my
guidance and supervision, is forwarded for further necessary action.

Dr. Aftab Hussain Gillani

Chairman
Department of Pakistan Studies,
The Islamia University of
Bahawalpur, Pakistan

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 APPROVAL CERTIFICATE

The research entitled “Pak-Russia Relations and Its Effects on Regional Politics
(1991-2008)” written by Tohid Anwar is accepted and approved in partial fulfillment of
the requirement for the degree of Doctorate of Philosophy in Pakistan Studies.

Supervisor:

Dr. Aftab Hussain Gillani ____________________

Chairman
Department of Pakistan Studies,
The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Pakistan

External Examiner-I: ____________________

External Examiner-II: ____________________

Chairman: ____________________

Date: ____________________

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 DEDICATION

“This thesis is dedicated to my Teachers, Parents,

Family and
Friends from whom I learned a great deal”

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
At the completion of my research work, I am thankful to Almighty Allah who urged man for

research. I also thank my parents with the depth of my heart whose prayers and guidance from

the right childhood enabled me to complete my task. I am greatly obliged to my supervisor Prof.

DR. Aftab Hussain Gillani, who not only encouraged but also helped me during this laborious

task and who proved to be a ray of hope in my disappointment.

I owe to Prof. Dr. Khursheed Ahmed, Pakistan Studies Department and other faculty members

specially Dr. Malik Akbar, Pakistan Studies Department and my friend Sajid Hussain and

Muhammad Almas who motivated me a lot during the class work and prepared me to accept the

challenging task of research.

Tohid Anwar

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Abstract

Pakistan Russia relations remained on up and down staircase. Sometimes there was observed the

strongest bond and working together for the welfare of their dwellers. However, history is also

full of mourning memories that describe the awful associations between Russia and Pakistan.

Russia is at upper rank being developed country as well as embellished with the rich energy

resources including gas and oil. On the other hand, Pakistan is also included in the list of blessed

countries due to abundance of natural resources. Nevertheless, Pakistan still needs untiring

efforts to come in competition with the developed countries having stable economic graphs.

Involvement of other countries such as U.S. and India has weakened the positive and strong

associations between Russia and Pakistan just to boost up their personal interests. However, with

the passage of time it has become clear to both countries that these countries are doing nothing

rather just increasing their socio-economic status and can put down the any country even if they

have friendly associations with them. Thus, by realizing the facts about the both countries,

Russia and Pakistan are trying their best to create the positive harmony among themselves.

Furthermore, this study is highly significant for policy makers to devise the policies that are

beneficial for both countries. Along with this fact, this study is also an open window for the

researchers that want to work in this subject.

Keywords: Pak-Russia Relations, Russia-Pak regional policies, Pak-Russian politics, Pak-

Russian Collaborations

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Introduction
Statement of Problem
Pak Russia Relation and Its Effect on Regional Politics (1991-2008)
Ever since collapse of Soviet Union in the year 1991, the Russians are in search of their lost
glory and new role in the world politics. Three types of opinion groups have emerged amongst
Russian elites, advocating various ideas regarding their country’s renewed role in the prevailing
international arena. Fundamentalist Nationalists – believing in the legacy of strong nationalism –
advocate to pursue old Marxism- Leninism trail; Liberal Westernizes suggest initiation of a
renewed relationship of peace and cooperation with the world in general and the west in
particular; Pragmatic Nationalist, however, recommend a balance course of action, aimed at
following the liberal approach, while preserving their national pride.

Since 1991, Russia has chalked out various Foreign Policy, Security and Military doctrines/
concepts which are considered as Russia’s will to participate in the global politics as a key
player. In the Russian quest for resurgence, the leadership of Vladimir Putin has played an
important role. He has not only taken Russia out of the state of distress but given his nation a
new hope and a new identity. His approval of Foreign Policy Concept – 2010 is a step in the
same direction. Apart from extending his cooperation toward the West, Putin has also enhanced
his interest in South Asia merely to safeguard Russia’s long term interests and counter US
influence in the region. In Putin era Pak-Russia relations have also improved to great extent.
Both the nations looking for a bright future ahead are committed in writing a new chapter of their
bilateral relationship.
Research gap:
The above mentioned review of literature clearly reveals that not a single work has sufficiently dealt
with the given topic. There are numerous resources including primary and secondary sources which
historians have not utilized properly while writing history of the relationship between the states in the
modern time. This study aims at researching the multidimensional areas of the relationship of both
Pakistan and Russia.
Hypothetical Questions:

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This work will not only discuss the history of Russia and the Muslims of the Sub- continent but also
their political and social relations in the pre independence scenario of Pakistan and of Russia and
why it became inevitable to have relationship in pre and post second world war. How and why we
were so hesitated since our inceptions shall be highlighted.
1. Why the Development of the political institutions and of foreign relations after 1991 in Pakistan
and Russia became more progressive

2. What was the motivational force between both the states to come on same board on Different
international issues like of Kashmir, Ukraine, Palestinian and Cyprus invasions in Afghanistan?

3. Why it was felt for the development of Economic and Cultural relations between Pakistan and
Russia to organize mutual ties through different regional cooperation organizations?

4. What can be the implications of their relationship for Pakistan, South Asian region and the world?
Significance of the study
There is one fundamental factor in the policy making of both Russia and Pakistan that their relations
remained below par affability due to number of external forces. Both the nations have convergence
of interests in various areas and can contribute significantly in the development, wellbeing and
security of their countries as well the region. Pakistan and Russia are not only two important
countries of the region but also have great role in international politics. At the time of creation of
Pakistan, the decision making mechanism of the country failed to carry out correct cost benefit
analysis and took an irrational decision of ignoring the former Soviet Union.
There was, however, requirement of maintaining equally good relations with both the superpowers as
India did so very successfully. Pakistan made just not an initial incorrect decision but also followed a
flawed course of action in formulating its foreign policy. The basis of bilateral relationship is always
on the principles of trusts and corrects perception. This element too remained missing in Pak-Russia
relations. The history of relations between them can truly be termed as a saga of misunderstandings
and misperceptions as both the nations perceived each other through a third nation’s perspective.
Amongst all odds what both the states have experienced over the past half century, Pakistan and
Russia have now realized each other’s importance. The developments of the last ten years suggest
that both of them have covered a distance of hundred miles in rewriting the history of their relations.
Viewing various aspects of global and internal dynamics one can conclude that if both the countries
work together in the fields of energy, trade and security, they can ensure peace, stability and
prosperity of their nations as well as the world.

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Objectives of the study

• Firstly, since 1993, different concepts doctrines spelling out Russian foreign policy
objectives, military strategies and national security blueprints, have been formulated. Evaluation
of these concepts and doctrines reveals that Russia, though yet not fully capable, does have a
definite will of its resurgence in the international arena.

• Secondly, the history of Pak-Russia relations indicates that both the nations have not built
their relations upon strong pillars of a realist perception.

• Thirdly, both the countries perceived each other’s behavior from the prism of external
forces and not the internal political dynamics and bilateral ties. Until the end of the Cold War in
1991, Pakistan had no independent policy towards Russia.

• Fourthly, Pakistan and Russia despite having no bilateral issues possess numerous
potentials of collaborations. They, however, could not in-cash a number of opportunities of
rewriting their history of relations.

• Fifthly, although the Russia foreign policy in South Asia has been Indian centric, but the
recent international developments especially the post-9/11 scenario has projected Pakistan as a
key regional and international player.
• Sixthly, the recent high level visits and summits between the two countries and the policy
statements indicate that there is an apparent shift in Russia’s South Asia policy towards Pakistan
where India had always been Moscow’s main partner.

• Lastly, Pakistan and Russia – having convergence on their bilateral, regional and
international interests, do possess potentials to collaborate in various fields. Working together in
the fields of energy, trade and security, Pakistan and Russia can ensure regional and global
peace, harmony and social wellbeing.
Scope of study
In pursuit to determine the objectives of this research study research will investigate the political
developments between Pak-Russia relationships. This research work will be limited between the
post-cold war era from 1990 to 2013. Researcher will invest his time and energy to explore the role
of Pak-Russia political relationships on regional politics.

Literature Review

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There are clearly a range of interests, forces and actors at work in determination of foreign policy
options for Russia, to predict outcome of their struggles is, however, extremely difficult, due to
relatively low level of institutionalism in Russian political system. Basing upon the above trends, the
Russian policy makers – mostly the Pragmatic Nationalists – have chalked out certain foreign policy
doctrines and concepts since 1993. These include Foreign Policy Concept – originally presented in
April 1993 and revised in January 2000, Military Doctrine – first articulated in November 1993 and
later revisited in April 2000, and National Security Blueprint – conceived in December 1997 and
further deliberated in 2000. The concepts provide a road-map by which one can chalk out evolution
of Russian thinking about the world and Russia’s future place in it.
They are, however, still miles away from their real strategic goal of resurgence in international arena.
All the leaders emerged after collapse of Soviet Union have remained committed to chase Russia’s
transformed identity and role in international arena. In the post-Soviet Russia, the parallel processes
of formulating national identity and developing national security have generated a domestic
discussion on two central questions: “What is Russia? And what does Russia do? Both the questions
entail a comparison of what Russia had been in the past. Basing on various trends and groups
prevailing in Russian society, a number of doctrines and concepts relating to Russia’s foreign policy
have been articulated since 1993.
The Foreign Policy Concept was first presented in April 1993, and its improved version was
again presented in June 2000. Likewise Military Doctrine encompassing various facets of
military concepts was first prepared in November 1993 and later deliberated in April 2000. On
the similar lines, the National Security Blueprint was initiated in December 1997 and 2000
respectively. All these doctrines and concepts defined Russia’s new role in the changing global
relations and aimed at regaining its status in the post-Cold War era. Vladimir Putin assumed the
office of President of Russia on 7 May 2000 and focused all his energies on the foreign policy of
the country He accorded approval of Foreign Policy Concept on 28 June 2000 which aimed at
the following,
To ensure reliable security of the country. To preserve and strengthen its sovereignty and
territorial integrity. To achieve firm and prestigious position in the world community. To
influence general world processes with the aim of forming a stable, just and democratic world
order. To create favorable external conditions for steady development of Russia. To form a good
neighbor belt along the perimeters of Russia. To uphold the rights and interests of Russian
citizens abroad. To promote positive perception of the Russian Federation in the world.
The Clause-II of the concepts deliberates upon the place of Russia in the Modern World Politics
by virtue of its resources and potentials. It emphasizes on the need for Russians exerting

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influence on formation of new world order based upon multi-polar system. In such a system
Russian federation, having real potentials, is pursuing its independent and constructive foreign
policy. The concept further emphasizes upon Russia’s interests in a stable international system
based on principles of justice, mutual respect and mutually beneficial cooperation where United
Nations must remain center of regulating relations among states.
The evaluation of Russians’ thinking process and available studies conducted after the
disintegration of the Soviet Union revolve around three significant aspects related to Russia’s
foreign policy goals. These include their national identity, economy and security. The enduring
goals pursued by Russia throughout in its foreign policy have placed primary emphasis on
ensuring national security, promoting the economic wellbeing of the country and enhancing
national prestige.
Ever since Vladimir Putin assumed power, Russia set three Foreign Policy Strategic Objectives
to strengthen and control the Russian state and politics, to create economic growth and structure
the Russian economy and to establish Russia as a power and player in international affair. The
close study of these objectives reveals that they are not only closely interlinked but also have
significant effect on each other. Russia’s Foreign Policy towards South Asia In the historic
perspective, Russia’s policy toward South Asia revolved around three factors, its quest for
reaching warm water port, the China factor and countering US interests in the region.
Russia being a land-locked country had an ages-old quest for warm water ports which had been
the major cause of its numerous military conflicts with Turkey, and The Crimean War over
control of the Black sea and the Bosporus-Dardanelles passage into the Mediterranean Sea, and
the Russian-Japanese conflict in 1903. Russia being a land-locked country had an ages-old quest
for warm water ports which had been the major cause of its numerous military conflicts with
Turkey, and The Crimean War over control of the Black sea and the Bosporus-Dardanelles
passage into the Mediterranean Sea, and the Russian-Japanese conflict in 1903.
In pursuit of its long-term objectives in the region, Russian foreign policy both before and after
the fall of Soviet Union, has been India centric. The depth of Soviet-Indian strategic partnership
can be judged from Indo-Soviet Treaty of 1971and Soviet support to India in Indo-Pak War-
1971. The changing dynamics of today’s geopolitical scenario have, however, brought Pakistan
and Russia closer to each other. This partnership will be more meaningful in post-2014 scenario
when the U.S. led NATO forces will leave Afghanistan. Acceptance of this reality has provided
another opportunity to the leadership of both countries to rewrite the chapter of Pak-Russia
bilateral ties rest of the world community as well.

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First, after the 1965 war, Pakistan during Tashkent Conference failed to avail the chance of
resolving the Kashmir issue. At Tashkent, situation was somewhat in Pakistan’s favor, as India
was at a weaker wicket, China was in full support of Pakistan, the U.S. was also interested in
resolving the Kashmir issue, and the Soviet Union while chairing the conference would have
delighted in taking the credit of resolving the long pending Kashmir issue. This would have also
laid the foundation for renewed Pak- USSR relations. Unfortunately, Pakistani leadership did
not play its cards well. Later, in 1974, Prime Minister Zulifqar Ali Bhutto visited Moscow and as
a result USSR established Steel Mill in Pakistan worth billion dollars.
That was the second occasion when Pakistan, could have mustered immense economic gains but
the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan totally changed the scenario and Pakistan as the U.S. frontline
ally, fought a long proxy war with Soviet Union in Afghanistan. Even after the Cold War there
was no breakthrough in Pak- Russia relations due to Pakistan’s support to Taliban regime in
Afghanistan. However, since the 9/11 episode the ice has started melting down but there is still
no enough cordiality in their ties. The Question of Perception. In international relations the
question of perception about each other’s behavior is equally important.
According to some authors friendliness/hostility and strength weakness constitute the building
blocks of image of the other. The history of Pak-Russia relations is an interesting case study of
political psychology. The most tragic part of Pak- Russia relations is the lack of rationality.
Pakistan, as a matter of fact, had no independent policy about Soviet Union till the end of the
Cold War. Furthermore, both the nations have evaluated each other behavior through the prism
of other states’ interests/concerns. Besides others, one major reason of Pakistan’s joining the
American camp in 1947 was its security concerns.
Since India had already forged good bilateral ties with former Soviet Union, Pakistan in order to
maintain balance of power moved closer to western security system. Due to the strong Indian
factor in our foreign policy decision making, Pakistan always considered Russia as friend of
India and the enemy of Pakistan. The rationality factor was again found missing when Pakistan
joined western security system – Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) and South East Asian
Treaty Organization (SEATO), and became frontline state against war on communism.
This shows that the decision making elite of Pakistan has never been “objective” in their views
towards Russia, rather always took the “subjective” vision of the Soviet face i.e. internalizing
communist Russia as an “Evil Empire” as portrayed by the west. Hence, Pakistan always viewed
the former Soviet Union, and even now the Russian Federation, through the Western prism,

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especially American world-view. The prevailing international and regional environment and
Pakistan’s own political dynamics have, however, brought both nations at a converging point of
their mutual relations. It is, hence, imperative to identify the existing areas of interests and
cooperation as well as the possible hurdles which both the nations have to overcome in
achieving their common objectives. Challenges in Pak-Russia Relations The most positive point
in the mutual politics of both the state is that they have no direct bilateral issue.
There are, however, certain external factors which have been affecting adversely both the
nations. These challenges, their implications and possible measures/course of actions to offset
these upshots are discussed in the succeeding paragraphs. The US Factor in Pakistan’s Foreign
Policy the U.S. role in the foreign policy of Pakistan is significantly pronounced. The joining of
the U.S. camp at the time of independence and subsequently signing the West’s security system
(SEATO and CENTO), have never allowed Pakistan’s elite to formulate an independent policy
towards Russia. As discussed above, India is a pre-dominant factor in Russia’s foreign policy
towards South Asia, especially Pakistan. In this context the role of Pakistan leadership has also
been quite non-visionary.
As India was able to enjoy cordial relations with both the superpowers, Pakistan’s political
leadership failed to do so. However, this Indian centralism in Pak-Russia relations has a positive
aspect too. It can be argued that Pakistan had no bad intentions towards the former Soviet Union
(present Russia). Moreover, in the post-cold war and 9/11 scenario, there has been significant
change in the thinking process of leaders on both the sides. Pakistan due to its geostrategic
location and its role in international arena is a significant country and cannot be ignored by great
powers. Hence, the Indian factor in the foreign policy of Russia towards Pakistan is no more
conspicuous. After of the Cold War and in the recent past there have been some positive
indicators of melting ice in Pak-Russia bilateral ties.
The careful analysis of these events helps us in concluding that both the states are serious in
reshaping their foreign policy objectives towards each other. Some glimpses of these upbeats
are discussed in the succeeding paragraphs. In April, 1999, Pakistan Prime Minister Nawaz
Sharif visited Moscow, the first by a Pakistani Prime Minister to Moscow since the late Zulfiquar
Ali Bhutto’s visit in 1976. Later in February 2003, President Pervez Musharraf's visited Russia,
again the first by a Pakistani President in 33 years. Bothe these visits helped in breaking the ice.
Similarly, in April 2007, Russian Premier Mekhail Fredkov reciprocated and became the first
Soviet leader visiting Islamabad in almost four decades.

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Later, a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on exploring prospects in collaborating in oil
sector was also signed during the visit of Pakistan Petroleum Minister to Russia in November,
2007. Pakistan in Shanghai Cooperation Organization In 2005, Pakistan succeeded in getting an
Observer’s status at the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) because Russia had opted not
to veto Islamabad’s presence. Pakistan also reciprocated the gesture by helping Russia to attain
an Observer’s status at the Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC). Putin-Gillani Meeting –
2010 Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin conveyed his warm feelings to his Pakistani
counterpart Syed Yousaf Raza Gilani when the two met on November 25, 2010 on the sidelines
of SCO summit in Dushanbe.
Later on November 8, 2011, the Prime Ministers of both the nations again met at the SCO
summit in St Petersburg. Prime Minister Putin was quoted as saying, “Pakistan today is not only
an important trade and economic partner of Russia, but also the most important Russian partner
in South Asia and in the Islamic world.” The paper further commented, “This Russian shift in
South Asia policy where India had always been Moscow’s main partner is reflection of
apprehensions over New Delhi-Washington relationship turning into a military-political alliance
to block Russia and China’s interests in the region.” Army Chiefs Visits The Chief of Army
Staff, General Ashfaq Pervez Kayani, visited Russia thrice in the past four years i.e. 2009, 2012
and 2013.
Reciprocating the gesture, the Russia Army chief visited twice in last two years: Colonel General
Alexander Postnikov, Commander-in-Chief Russian Ground Forces in May 2011; and Russian
Army Chief Vladimir Chirkin in August 2013. The visits focused on enhancing ties between the
armies of the two countries, and matters pertaining to regional security and common interests
so as to lay the foundation for a bilateral strategic relationship between both the countries.
Quadripartite Summit August-2010 A four nation summit of Russia, Afghanistan, Pakistan and
Tajikistan was held at Sochi in August 2010. Sochi summit was considered as a turning point in
rewriting the history of relations between two nations. The summit also gave the green signal
for an inaugural meeting of the Russian-Pakistani Inter-Governmental Commission on Trade
and Economic and Scientific-Technological Cooperation in Islamabad.
Arms Sales and Supply The only Russian hiatus or reservation in its relation with Pakistan is
related to the sale of weapons. But that too remains an academic argument as its defense
technologies have always trickled to Pakistan forces through a third country. In 1990, Ukraine
supplied its main battle tank (T-80) to Pakistan which is built on Russian technology. In 2009,

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Russia also lifted its objections pertaining to supply of Chinese JF-17 fighter planes (powered by
Russian RD-93 engines) to Pakistan. Previously, Russia had sold over forty MI-17 transport
helicopters to Pakistan. Pakistan is also likely to purchase MI-35 attack helicopters to fight
terrorism.
The above developments show that both Islamabad and Moscow have come miles forward
during the last decade or so to embrace each other and shun differences. There could be no two
opinions that we require energy both for economic growth and industrialization. Abundant and
inexpensive energy serves as bloodline of the modern civilization and is considered as the most
important deman of today. In order to meet its domestic requirement Pakistan imports a huge
quantity of oil mostly from Gulf countries. Pakistan’s gas reserves are also depleting at a faster
pace – making its energy situation even worse.
Fortunately, Pakistan is blessed with two energy corridors which link Russia, Centre Asian
Republics (CARs) and Iran with international market. All these states/republics are rich in
hydrocarbon resources and considered as world future focus of attention. Russia is holding world
largest gas reserves whereas Iran is second in the row. Pakistan in order to meet its energy
demand and to provide an access to these reserves to world market has initiated two pipeline
projects in the region; Iran-Pakistan- India (now only Iran-Pakistan called IP) and Turkmenistan-
Afghanistan-Pakistan-India (TAPI) Gas Pipeline Projects. Both the projects being technically
feasible and economically viable have been subjected to great powers political interests.
IP being most viable both technically and financially has bleak chances of materialization in near
future due to Iranian nuclear standoff. TAPI on the other hand enjoys backing of the U.S. and
Russia both. Russia on the other hand has also shown interest in financing the project. The
materialization of this mega project shall not only help Pakistan in meeting its energy shortfall
but shall also provide access to Russia and CARs to the west. Moreover, Pakistan has also
sought Russia’s assistance in coal mining and generation of coal power plants.
Prime Minister Raja Pervez Ashraf during his meeting with Russian Foreign Minister, Sergey
Lavrov on October 3, 2012, said that Pakistan seeks to increase economic relations and benefit
from the expertise of Russian Federation, especially in the energy sector where Russia has
experience in coal mining and generation of coal power plants. Pakistan and Russia have great
potentials in energy sector and they can boost economies of the both the countries by cooperation
in this particular area. Trade the second area in which the future of both the countries lies is their
cooperation in trade.

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Pakistan and Russia despite having legacy of cool relations have discreetly been engaged in
enhancing their bilateral ties in several fields including trade. It is also a fact that the bilateral
volume of trade between Russia and Pakistan has surged from a paltry $92 million in 2003 to
over $700 million in 2011. It is expected that the cooperation in trade sector shall further
improve in the years to come which would help in further promoting ties between both the
countries. Security academically it is believed that Russian sale of arms to Pakistan is inviolable.
Whereas, there is already presence of both Russian equipment and technology in Pakistan
defense forces in the shape of MI-17 helicopters and T-80 series of Ukrainian battle tanks.
They are now looking for a diversified and expanded relationship in this regard. The recent visits
of both the army chiefs to each other countries are being rated very high in writing new chapter
in question of defense cooperation. The role of both the nations would be even more varied in
post-2014 scenario when the U.S. and NATO troops would leave Afghanistan. It is
recommended that Russia and Pakistan should establish greater ties especially in the field of
counterterrorism. Pro-activism Over the past ten years Pakistan and Russia have covered a long
distance in trying to come closer to each other.
It is recommended this pro-active approach in their bilateral bondage should be further
exploited and regular high level visits be facilitated. There has been a delay in President Putin’s
visit to Pakistan which has raised concerns in various quarters. It is recommended that all prior
homework should be completed evaluating all possible policy alternatives before any such visit.
Postponement of visit of such stature is by no means in the national interest. SCO Pakistan and
Russia can even built stronger ties utilizing the platform of SCO.
In 2005, Pakistan was granted observer status in SCO and in return Pakistan then reciprocated
the gesture by helping the Russians get an Observer’s status at OIC. It is suggested that these
forums should be exploited in building strong pillars of their association.
Research Methodology
Research will apply the descriptive research design in pursuit to probe the problem in better way.
Research will collect data of both the natures primary and secondary according to the need of
study. He will visit federal area Russian Embassy office and will conduct interviews of main
persons who play role in policy making and developers of Pak-Russian political forum as well as
some politicians who will elaborate the Pak-Russian political relationship in regional
perspective. Researcher will also apply qualitative and quantitative techniques for analysis and
interoperation of data accordingly. He will use the outputs of SPSS and graphs of excel to
provide data view of problem.

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Organization of Research

The research is divided into five chapters. Chapter one is about the Strategic Momentousness of
Pakistan. This chapter is about the Rudimentary Reason for pulling back Russia Pakistan
relationships history of Pakistan. In this chapter I also discussed in detail Strategic Significance
of Pakistan for Russia after 9/11.
Chapter two is the introduction and acquaint of Pakistan diplomacy. In this chapter I discussed in

detail the historical ups and down of Pakistan Diplomacy. I also narrated new door of diplomacy

for both Pakistan and Russia. In addition convergence of interests between Pakistan and Russia

are enquired historically in details. In third chapter I as a researcher try to investigate revival in

Pak-Russia dealings circumstances. I also present the details of the historical perspectives

estrangement to institutional engagements. I try to present the economic relation in perspective

of both states. In the fourth chapter I as a research scholar endeavor to inquire the Pak-Russia

Political mutual dealings in various eras. US-India strategic cooperative mutual dealings are also

described in detail. Instability in Afghanistan and its various scenarios are given in details. In

fifth chapter of my research I as a researcher present various aspects and eras of economic

mutual dealings of both states. In this chapter of my research I present facts about and coactions

of both state about eradicating the organized crimes and controlling of drug trafficking. In sixth

and last but foremost chapter of my research I try to investigate as a researcher the effects of

Pak-Russia Relationship on region. I investigate the sakes, goals and policy of Russia in South

Asia. In conclusion I presented my findings and suggestions for future.

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 CONTENTS
Pak-Russia Relations and Its effects on Regional Politics (1991-2008)
Author’s Declaration ………………………………………………………………III
Forwarding Certificate …………………………………………………………….IV
Approval Certificate ………………………………………………………. ………..V
Dedication………… …………………………………………………………………VI
Acknowledgement …………………………………………………………………. VII
Abstract ……………………………………………………………………….…….VIII
Introduction ………………………………………………………………………….IX

CHAPTER 1 Historical Background of Pak-Russia Relations

1.1 Strategic Momentousness of Pakistan ………………………………….…...3
1.2 Rudimentary Reason for pulling back Russia Pakistan Relationships……………6
1.3 Strategic Significance of Pakistan for Russia after 9/11……………………………7
1.4 A Review of Intensive Past…………………………………………………………..10
1.5 Post Cold-War Struggles to Rejuvenate Mutual Dealings………………………..15

1.6 Step-Up of Warm-heartedness……………………………………………………..18

Chapter 2 Pak-Russia Diplomatic Relations

2.1 An Acquaint of Pakistan Diplomacy……………………………………………….23

2.2 Historical Interpretation…………………………………………………………….25
2.3 A Review of Political and Diplomatic Mutual Dealings…………………………..27
2.4 Russia’s Interests in Having Affable Relations with Pakistan…………………...30
2.5 A Compendium of Pak-Russia Diplomacy………………………………………..51

Chapter 3 Revival in Pak-Russia Mutual Dealings

3.1 From Alienation to Pragmatism…………………………………………………..55

3.2 From Estrangement to Institutional Engagement: A Historical Perspective….57

3.3 Significance of ‘Pakistan’ for Moscow………………………………………..….67

3.4 Vital Areas of Pak-Russia Cooperation…………………………………………..69

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3.5 Russia’s Balancing Act in South Asia……………………………………………..77

Chapter 4 Pak-Russia Political Relations

4.1 An Overview of Pak-Russia Political Mutual Dealings 1947-1990……………….82

4.1.1 US-India Strategic Cooperative Mutual Dealings ………………………………84

4.1.2 Instability of Afghanistan……………………………………………………..…..85

4.1.3 CPEC and Significance of Indian Ocean …………………………………………85

4.1.4 North-South Gas Pipeline………………………………………………………..86

4.2 Military relations: considerable feature of Moscow/Islamabad Relations …….….87

Chapter 5 Pak-Russia Economic Relations

5.1 Review of Economic Relations……………………………………………………….88

5.2 Economic Cooperation………………………………………………………………..88

5.3 Coactions’ on Organized Crime and Drug Trafficking…………………………….90

5.4 Evolving Pakistan and Russia Relations…………………………………………….91

5.5Trade and Economic Relations……………………………………………………….93

Chapter 6 Pak-Russia Relations Effects on the Regional Politics

6.1 Sakes, Goals and Foreign Policy of Russia in South Asia………………………….97

6.2 Sakes, Goals and Policy of Pakistan in South Asia…………………………………98

6.3 Pak-Russia Relations and its Effects on Afghanistan……………………………..100

6.4 New Geopolitical Realities and Regional Fragility………………………………...102

6.5 Pak-Russia Mutual Dealings and Its Effects on the Security of Region…………104

6.6 Future Prospect of Evolving Mutual Dealings of Pakistan with Russia, China and other
Central Asian States………………………………………………………………....113
6.7 A Short Glance of Pakistan Mutual Dealings with China and its effects………..114

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………….126
Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………….131

21
Chapter 1 Historical Background of Pak-Russia Relations
1.1 Strategic Momentousness of Pakistan
Every state has an authoritarian mania in developing her foreign policy. Whereas one state
ascribes it a mania, one is not intimating that this is something solely irrational or emotional. It
may be founded on not counterfeit hatreds and fears which have conglomerated in many decades
and which may be winded together with religious and material thoughtfulness. The Islamic
republic of Pakistan is no elision to this fact. Genuinely, a very small numbers of states were
emerged in an ambience so overloaded with extremely sharp mutual hatred, hostility and enmity
as Pakistan was in 1947 as a consequence of the segmentation of the sub-continent.
Approximately each and every activity of Pakistan can be construed as being provided with a
motive of Indian reverence. She kicks that India played off her very establishment and that her
policy of extreme enmity and aggression preserves in its intensity. India, both in corporeal and
manpower and armed forces potency, is immensely greater in number to Pakistan. Earlier India's
border collide with Republic of China, even with the assistance Pakistan was getting from the
United States, her military numbers never transcend more than one-third of India's armed forces.
After near about one and half decade of Pakistan's creation, and even after India's mortifying
frustration in the border skirmish with China, Mr. Nehru explicitly stated that, "Pak-India
confederation remains our utmost end."1 In a similar manner, Islamic Republic of Pakistan
claims that India has been boosting revolutionary action in East Pakistan and that in the special
set of circumstances of an army clash her easy and first reference point to attack would be East
Pakistan. Aid of United States to India has only emphasized Pakistan's dread in the conscious
awareness that a well-armed Indian force intend for China in the North-East Frontier Agency
would be "so correct place as to be capable to wheel round fleetly to assail East Pakistan."2 In the
way indicated in Dawn in an editorial observed: "If the main concern of the Christian West is the
containment of Chinese Communism, the main concern of Muslim Pakistan is the containment
of militarist and militant Hinduism."3 Each and everyone may detect this entire slight
hyperbolized, on the other hand the factuality stay behind that Pakistan articulated the different
defense agreements with the U.S. mainly to shield from danger her sakes contrary to the futurity

1
The Round Table, March 1963, p. 182.
2
Mohammed Ayub Khan, "The Pakistan-American Alliance Stresses and Strains," Foreign Affairs (January 1964), p. 204.
3
Dawn, April 26, 1963.

i
hostile behavior of India. Pakistanis express in words, Communism impersonates a menace to
entire and is certainly not to make Pakistan its single prey in contrast Indians themselves have
constitute it elucidate many occasions that Pakistan is their first one foe.
Every state has an authoritarian mania in developing her foreign policy. Whereas one state
ascribes it a mania, one is not intimating that this is something solely irrational or emotional. It
may be founded on not counterfeit hatreds and fears which have conglomerated in many decades
and which may be winded together with religious and material thoughtfulness. The Islamic
republic of Pakistan is no elision to this fact. Genuinely, a very small numbers of states were
emerged in an ambience so overloaded with extremely sharp mutual hatred, hostility and enmity
as Pakistan was in 1947 as a consequence of the segmentation of the sub-continent.
Approximately each and every activity of Pakistan can be construed as being provided with a
motive of Indian reverence. She kicks that India played off her very establishment and that her
policy of extreme enmity and aggression preserves in its intensity. India, both in corporeal and
manpower and armed forces potency, is immensely greater in number to Pakistan. Earlier India's
border collide with Republic of China, even with the assistance Pakistan was getting from the
United States, her military numbers never transcend more than one-third of India's armed forces.
After near about one and half decade of Pakistan's creation, and even after India's mortifying
frustration in the border skirmish with China, Mr. Nehru explicitly stated that, "Pak-India
confederation remains our utmost end."4 In a similar manner, Islamic Republic of Pakistan
claims that India has been boosting revolutionary action in East Pakistan and that in the special
set of circumstances of an army clash her easy and first reference point to attack would be East
Pakistan. Aid of United States to India has only emphasized Pakistan's dread in the conscious
awareness that a well-armed Indian force intend for China in the North-East Frontier Agency
would be "so correct place as to be capable to wheel round fleetly to assail East Pakistan."5 In the
way indicated in Dawn in an editorial observed: "If the main concern of the Christian West is the
containment of Chinese Communism, the main concern of Muslim Pakistan is the containment
of militarist and militant Hinduism."6 Each and everyone may detect this entire slight
hyperbolized, on the other hand the factuality stay behind that Pakistan articulated the different
defense agreements with the U.S. mainly to shield from danger her sakes contrary to the futurity

4
The Round Table, March 1963, p. 182.
5
Mohammed Ayub Khan, "The Pakistan-American Alliance Stresses and Strains," Foreign Affairs (January 1964), p. 204.
6
Dawn, April 26, 1963.

ii
hostile behavior of India. Pakistanis express in words, Communism impersonates a menace to
entire and is certainly not to make Pakistan its single prey in contrast Indians themselves have
constitute it elucidate many occasions that Pakistan is their first one foe.

Every state prioritizes their regional benefits over the enmity with the other countries. Russia,
being the factually rival of Pakistan, is finding the companionship track on the basis of same
phenomenon.7 Russia is embellished with the veto supremacy coupled with resilient socio-
economic eminence and thus, Pakistan, keeping in view the substantial background of Russia
wants to formulate friendly relations with Russia.8 Similarly, the president of Russia is also
pugnacious for developing the international relations along with political associations on
revitalization and enlivening basis that can be prolific for the accomplishment of Russia.9
Moreover, it is the utmost requirement of Russia to develop positive relations with global world
for the well-being and sustainability of the state.10 While considering the historical relations of
both countries, it comes forward in despondent way that welcoming associations of Russia with
India and Pakistan with U.S had brought both countries (Russia and Pakistan) at opposite poles.11
As India is the notable competitor of Pakistan and U.S is the rudimentary rival of Russia.
Therefore, discrepancy for communal reliance resulted in acrimonious memories between Russia
and Pakistan from 1991 to 2003. After, 2003, Russia struggled hard to smoothen their relations
with Pakistan by preparatory association in the field of military coupled with economy.12
However, Russia is still afraid for abolishing its relation with India by offering friendly hand to
Pakistan due to considering India, Russia’s one of the most economical sharing partner.13 Russia

7
Hanif, M., 2013. Pakistan-Russia relations: Progress, prospects and constraints. IPRI Journal, 13(2), pp.63-86.

8
Alam, M.B., 2019. Contextualizing India–Russia relations: The China factor. World Affairs: The Journal of International Issues, 23(1), pp.48-
59.

9
Dvorking, V., 2019. Preserving strategic stability Amid US-Russian confrontation. Carnegie Moscow Center, Moscow, February, 8.

10
Hussain, N. and Sangay, K.A., 2012. The Russian Resurgence and South Asian Region. IPRI Journal XII, (2), p.22.

11
Kalim, S. and Janjua, F., 2019. # WeareUnited, cyber-nationalism during times of a national crisis: The case of a terrorist attack on a school in
Pakistan. Discourse & Communication, 13(1), pp.68-94.

12
Bhatti, M.N., Waris, M. and Muhammad, S., 2019, Indian Policy to isolate Pakistan at International Forum and the way forward. Review of
Economics and Development Studies, 5(4), pp.703-712.

13
Blank, S., 1995. Energy, economics and security in Central Asia: Russia and its rivals. Central Asian Survey, 14(3), pp.373-406.

iii
established its friendly relations in the very start of the creation of the Pakistan (1 st May 1948)
and it could become the strongest bond between both countries if there would remain the positive
collaborations between the mentioned states.14 However, with the passage of time both countries
created unavoidable concerns between them, later on, that extended up-to many folds and
distortion of Pakistan and Russian relations occurred.15 There remained various ups and downs
for depicting the clear picture of Pakistan and Russia associations.16 In the very start Pakistan
and Russia relished with the benefitting relations and hoped to extend their bond till many
upcoming years.17 However, soon after the involvement of U.S, Russia and Pakistan reached at
opposite poles and it became worst when India sophisticatedly extended their associations with
Russia and acted as the dismaying foe of Pakistan.18 After the conflict of 1965 between Pakistan
and India, Russia rejoined their relishing collaboration with Pakistan.19 After this unforgettable
incident, Russia assured Pakistan for every type of supportive association in every walk of life. 20

1.2 Rudimentary Reason for pulling back Russia Pakistan Relationships

However, just after 5 to 6 years, downfall of Russia and Pakistan relations were observed
again due to Pakistani support towards Taliban with the unrevealing impairing support of U.S
towards Pakistan21. In that era, Pakistan destroyed the socioeconomic set up of Russia by
exploiting the armed helicopters of Russia that were being used against Taliban. 22 Therefore,
many miss-happenings including Russia occupied the Afghanistan, Pakistan imposed sanctions

14
Owais, M., 2007. Pakistan-Russia Relations: Economic and Political Dimensions. Pakistan Horizon, 60(2), pp.125-139.

15
Dvorking, V., 2019. Preserving strategic stability Amid US-Russian confrontation. Carnegie Moscow Center, Moscow, February, 8.
16
Dvorking, 2019; op.cit., p,98.

17
Purushothaman, U., 2015. The Russia-Pakistan Rapprochement: Should India Worry. Retrieved, 5(15), p.2019.

18
Hanif, 2013; ; op.cit., p,98

19
Baloch, M.H., Khowaja, I.A. and Lohana, K., 2019. Effect Of China–Pakistan Economic Relations To The Economic Growth Of Balochistan:
A Case Study Of Gwadar Port. Grassroots, 52(1).

20
Belokrenitsky, V.Y., 1995. Central Asia in the new Eurasian geopolitics: implications for Pakistan and Russia. Pakistan Horizon, 48(3), pp.25-
38.

21
Beck, T. and Underhill, G.R. eds., 2017. Quo Vadis?: Identity, Policy and the Future of the European Union. CEPR Press.
22
Rehan Aqil Khan, “Pakistan– Russia Relations and Future Prospects,” Opinion 2, no. 2 (2014): 14-25 (14-16),
http://www.ndu.edu.pk/afwc/pub/OPINION-Vol.2-No.2.pdf.

iv
over the collaborations with Russia and supported U.S and other linked countries. 23 Ultimately,
misrepresentation of Russia and Pakistan associations endured prevailing for long duration of
time. However, then again turnover was observed in the relations of various countries keeping in
view the national and international concerns of countries.24 Therefore, by realizing the actual
fact, Russia and Pakistan are struggling hard to polish their relations and create harmony in
various fields of life.25
1.3 Strategic Significance of Pakistan for Russia after 9/11
Since a single distinct event of 9/11 and particularly the notable American foray in 2011
that murdered Osama bin Laden and catered the US significant assistance to the nuclear
aspirations of India. Islamabad in a gradual manner generated distance from the Washington,
intensified Pakistan’s mutual dealings with China, and tried to locate reconciliation with Russia.
Meanwhile strategic mutual dealings of Pakistan along with China have been evolving for more
than sixty years, on the other hand mutual dealings of Islamabad with Moscow are initiated
recently, developing for less than two decades. Russia has all the time and every occasion valued
more highly India to Pakistan and quickly throw away from any descriptive persona in hostile
resolution between Pakistan and India. Moreover, Moscow has been lacking self-confidence of
strategic and future direction of Pakistan. In this region of Asia, Russia gives a certain
impression to balance seeks proportionate of Moscow to the advantage of economy and strategic
significance that each state presents. Pakistan is a comparatively little power undergoing
economic and internal perils. It cannot match India’s power potential and offer the same scope of
political, strategic, and economic influence that India wields in its relations with major powers.
Yet, Pakistan is a very important piece in the emerging geopolitical chessboard in Eurasia.
Notwithstanding the handicap of perpetual asymmetry vis- à- vis India, Pakistan leverages its
geophysical location, strong military with advancing nuclear capability, and considerable
influence in the Islamic world in its conduct of international relations. In the past, Pakistan and
Russia could not develop close ties because neither country fully trusted the other. However,
given the mutual benefits to building relations, as discussed in this article, both countries are
trying to move forward past lingering mistrust. For instance, Russia is apprehensive of Pakistan’s
23
EEC, Eurasian Economic Integration: Facts and Figures (Moscow: Eurasian Economic Commission, 2016),
https://bit.ly/2hi6ZBN.
24
Ardeshir Cowasjee, “A Recap of Soviet-Pakistan Relations,” Dawn, March 12, 2011, https://www.dawn.com/news/612610.
25
“Pak-Russia Relations,” Jahangir’s World Times, October 4, 2014, http://jworldtimes.com/jwt2015/magazine-archives/jwt-
2014/october2014/pak-russia-relations/.

v
close alliances with the West, which have been established since early Cold War years, and it is
now observing the nature of Pakistan’s deepening strategic relations with China. Likewise,
Islamabad is concerned of Russia’s strategic relations with India. Over the past decade, with
shifts in the international system (e.g., Russia’s resurgence under Pres. Vladimir Putin and the
deterioration of US relations with Russia and Pakistan) have provided both countries a
Machiavellian common cause by which to reevaluate their mutual relations. Russia is finding
new opportunities in South Asia as the United States contemplates withdrawing from
Afghanistan and simultaneously confronts Iran. Meanwhile, Islamabad is seeking new allies to
compensate for its gradually fraying relations with Washington while Pakistan also faces new
tensions with its archrival India, which is led by a revitalized right- wing Hindu nationalist
government under Prime Minister Narendra Modi. Pakistan is at-tempting to influence its geo-
economic significance, boosted by the fast- developing China–Pakistan Economic Corridor
(CPEC)—touted as a flagship of China’s Belt Road Initiative (BRI). Nascent Russia–Pakistan
relations are developing under these changing geopolitical circumstances in South Asia. For
more than a decade now, the Pakistan military has been in a constant state of war. Since 2001,
the spillover of the Afghan War into Pakistan has given un-precedent rise to homegrown
extremism and terrorism, especially in the western provinces and along the tribal borderlands
with Afghanistan. The Pakistani military and civilians have suffered immensely as has the
country’s economy, which is in dire straits. Though Pakistan has received compensation from the
United States for its role in the war in the form of “coalition support funds,” the combination of
wear and tear of arms and equipment, depletion of strategic re-serves, and general exhaustion
from constant combat have adversely affected the Pakistani military combat potential. Beset by
these adversities, the realization of Pakistan’s need to modernize its military faces significant
challenges. As demands for national security continue to grow, Pakistan’s weak economy,
plagued with structural problems, is unable to meet the Pakistani defense requirements.
Additionally, Pakistan’s defense needs have increased copiously, especially given its constant
compulsion to balance against India, which has much greater resources. During the Cold War,
Pakistan sought alliances with major powers to offset its strategic asymmetry with India. Since
the 1950s, a military alliance with the United States allowed Islamabad to maintain adequate
qualitative and quantitative equilibrium with India for a while, but the gap with India continued
to widen. Lately, as Pakistan’s alliance with Western countries erodes, Islamabad has been

vi
moving toward Moscow and Beijing to reestablish a strategic balance with India. Scholars have
published little open- source literature regarding Russia’s new-found coziness with Pakistan.
Extrapolating from recent media reports, articles, and general discussion in the strategic
community in Pakistan, this article examines the trends in this new relationship and assesses
possible influence Russia might have in shaping future Pakistani security policy and nuclear
doctrines. The first section of this article provides an overview of Russia–Pakistan relations
affected by the historical baggage of the Pakistani alliance with the United States and China in
the Cold War. The second section examines the evolving rapprochement in the past decade.
Russia–Pakistan military relations have been progressing at a time when US–India strategic
partnership is growing, and US–Russian relations are deteriorating along with a downslide in
US–Pakistan relations.1 The third section examines possible convergence between Russian and
Pakistani security outlooks. I analyze the commonalities in Russian and Pakistani strategic
doctrines, including the rationale in nuclear first use policy, transition from strategic deterrence
to battlefield deterrence, and the possible impact/influence of Russia’s “escalate to deescalate”
concept on Pakistani thinking. The fourth section surveys the divergence in Russian and
Pakistani polices and concludes with a prognosis of Russia–Pakistan strategic cooperation.
Russia-Pakistan bilateral relations have witnessed some important transformations in the recent
past. The two countries are now regularly talking to each other on almost all aspects of inter-state
relations including military-to-military contacts. Far from the rhetoric of the past, President Putin
has even remarked that his government views Pakistan as a reliable and very important partner.26
What factors are contributing to this unprecedented change in this relationship, and what
opportunities and constraints shape this process? This article focuses on these questions and aims
at presenting an analysis of evolving warmth in Russia-Pakistan bilateral relationship. It is
divided into four broad sections. The first section deals with the historical evolution of Russia-
Pakistan relations. The second section takes stock of the increasing warmth in their bilateral
relations in the recent years. The next section analyses the changing dynamics of Russia-Pakistan
relations in the recent years. This is then followed by the concluding remarks which particularly
deal with the nature of this growing thaw and its future trajectory.

26
Harsh V. Pant, “Changes in Region Push Pakistan and Russia Together,” National, October 29, 2012,
http://www.thenational.ae/opinion/comment/changes-in-region-push-pakistan-and-russia-together

vii
1.4 A Review of Intensive Past
The partition of the British India into two separate states (India and Pakistan) coincided with the

beginning of Cold War. The newly independent nation-states— emerging from colonialism and fracture

with structural weaknesses— faced the dilemma of choosing an alliance between the two superpowers

(the United States and Soviet Union) in the emerging bipolar international system. India inherited the

colonial political structure of the British Raj, and New Delhi preferred strategic autonomy to military

alliances; however, it also consciously collaborated with the Soviet Union while officially maintaining a

nonaligned policy. As the weaker, more vulnerable, and more economically struggling of the two states,

Pakistan joined the US-led military alliances that lasted until the end of the Cold War. Pakistan benefited

economically and militarily from alliances with the West but not without paying for its choice. For most

of its history, Pakistan suffered from the Soviet Union’s retaliation and antagonism for Islamabad’s pro-

Western choices. Russia-Pakistan relations are heavily influenced by their Cold War past. Soon after

independence, the bipolar global politics forced Pakistan to choose either the United States (US) or the

Soviet Union (Russia’s predecessor) as its ally as it faced an existential security threat from the

neighboring country India. As Pakistan chose, Washington as its preferred partner, its relations with

Moscow naturally ‘got off to a cool start.’27 With the passage of time, Pakistan increasingly got sucked

into the US-led anti-communist alliances namely Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) and South East

Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), and any overtures by its leadership towards Moscow in the

subsequent years, aimed at seeking a normal relationship, remained mostly fruitless.28 There were three

distinct periods during the Cold War wherein Pakistan’s proactive role in pursuance of US strategic

objectives laid the basis of historical distrust between the Soviet Union and Pakistan. First, Islamabad

provided the United States with air bases and intelligence assets on Pakistani soil that facilitated

reconnaissance on and monitoring of the Soviet Union in the pre-satellite era. A major example of when

27
S. M. Burke and Lawrence Ziring, Pakistan’s Foreign Policy: An Historical Analysis ( Karachi: Oxford University
Press, 1990) , 98.
28
For historical overview of Russia-Pakistan relations see, Hafeez Malik, Soviet-Pakistan Relations and Post-Soviet
Dynamics 1947-92 ( London: Macmillan Press, 1994).

viii
the Soviets threatened retaliation was concerning U-2 flights from PAF Camp Badaber, near Peshawar,

especially after the infamous Gary Powers incident in May 1960.29 As a superpower in the Cold War, the

Soviet Union frequently voted against Pakistan’s interests in all international forums, and in particular,

against Pakistan’s position on Kashmir in the United Nations.30

Second, in the 1970s, Pakistan facilitated Pres. Richard Nixon’s geopolitical summit that brought

rapprochement between China and the United States.31 The Soviets retaliated by signing the

India–Soviet Mutual Friendship treaty in August 1971, which provided India with political and

29
In May 1960, Soviet air defenses shot down a U-2 piloted by Gary Powers while on a photographic aerial
reconnaissance deep in Soviet territory. Powers was subsequently captured by the Soviets and sentenced for spying.
He was released in 1962 in exchange for a Soviet spy, Rudolf Abel, captured by the United States.
30
For a brief period in the late 1960s, Islamabad’s attempt to repair relations with Moscow failed to flourish after
Pres. Richard Nixon reset US relations with Pakistan, which had lost its warmth during the Johnson administration.
After the 1965 India-Pakistan War, the Soviet Union mediated peace talks between India and Pakistan at a summit at
Tashkent, Uzbekistan, in January 1966.
31
Pakistan facilitated Henry Kissinger’s famous secret nocturnal visit to Beijing from Islamabad in summer 1971.

ix
strategic support during the 1971 Indo–Pakistan War. Pakistan suffered a humiliating surrender

in East Pakistan that resulted in the birth of Bangladesh.

Pakistani intelligentsia consider the dismemberment of a united Pakistan as the heaviest price

Islamabad paid for Pakistan’s role in facilitating US–China rapprochement. Finally, in the 1980s,

after the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, the United States and Pakistan realigned to wage an

asymmetric war to defeat the Soviets in Afghanistan. Moscow’s involvement in Afghanistan in

the 1980s contributed to the Soviets’ strategic overextension and eventually the dissolution of the

Soviet Union. Arguably, US involvement in Afghanistan the 1980s was American payback for

the US defeat in Vietnam (a proxy war the Soviets supported against United States) and

Pakistan’s revenge for its dismemberment at the hands of Soviet-supported India in the 1971

war. In other words, both Pakistan and the Soviet Union played an indirect role in each other’s

disintegration during the Cold War. This historical baggage casts a shadow, even as Russia and

Pakistan are fostering a new relationship.

This divide was further widened, when New Delhi developed a closer relationship with the

Soviet Union soon after its independence. The Indo-Soviet relationship flourished in the

x
subsequent years, encompassing the economic as well as political dimensions, and soon New

Delhi attained a sort of veto power over Russia’s independent maneuverings in the region. India

emerged as the major buyer of the Soviet arms. For the first time in February 1957, Russia used

its veto power in the UN Security Council (UNSC) in favor of India to bar a resolution on

Kashmir, putting a permanent blockade on any progress on the Kashmir dispute in the UNSC

and, hence, any chances of friendly Soviet-Pakistan relations.

China emerged as another factor in the Russia-Pakistan divergence during the Cold War. This

occurred in the context of development of Sino-Pakistan entente in the wake of deteriorating

Sino-Indian and Sino-Soviet relations during the 1960s. In the wake of the Indo-Pakistan rift,

Beijing naturally viewed Pakistan as a valuable partner, when China’s increasingly troublesome

relations with New Delhi became noisy, during the 1960s, as demonstrated by their border clash

in 1962. On the other hand, Pakistan viewed China as an important counterweight to India and

the situation resulted in a new regional balance, where an Indo-Soviet alliance was facing a Sino-

Pakistani entente. Russia-Pakistan differences over Afghanistan emerged as another factor in

their bilateral divergence since the final major episode of the Cold War unfolded with the Soviet

invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. Pakistan’s decision to support the Afghan resistance against

Soviet occupation while becoming the conduit for the transfer of Chinese and American weapons

to various Mujahideen groups naturally enraged the Soviet leadership. It, thus, added another

chapter of distrust in their bilateral relationship.

The end of the Cold War created genuine hopes that the two countries would now be able to

improve their ties in a less polarized international environment. The departure of Soviet forces

from Afghanistan in 1989, and the subsequent downfall of the Moscow-supported Najibullah

regime in Kabul, in 1992, also removed an important irritant in the bilateral relationship.

xi
A degree of optimism was generated, when soon after the end of the Cold War Russia’s new

government signaled positively regarding its changing outlook towards South Asia. In a gesture

of goodwill towards Islamabad, Russian Vice President, Rutskoi, visited Pakistan towards the

end of December 1991. During his visit, Rutskoi not only supported Pakistan’s proposal of

declaring South Asia ─ a Nuclear Weapon-Free Zone (NWFZ), but also made some important

adjustments in Russia’s Kashmir policy, when he asked both India and Pakistan to show respect

for human rights, causing displeasure in New Delhi.32

This, however, proved to be a temporary thaw and could not be sustained, and the relations again

deteriorated in the coming years. This was highlighted when, during President Boris Yeltsin’s

visit to India in 1993, Russia and India signed a new 20-year Treaty of Friendship and

Cooperation, a reminiscent of the 1971 treaty between the two countries. Russia again endorsed

the Indian position on Kashmir and Yeltsin during his visit to India remarked on Kashmir that

32
Rouben Azizian and Peter Vasilieff, “Russia and Pakistan: The Difficult Path to Rapprochement,” Asian Affairs, 37.

xii
“the truth is on the side of India.”33 During the rest of the1990s, Russia remained tilted towards

its old ally in the region, which was demonstrated on several occasions. For example, Moscow

openly sided with New Delhi during the 1999 Kargil Crisis and expressed its concerns regarding

Pakistan’s moves in the disputed area.34

1.5 Post Cold-War Struggles to Rejuvenate Mutual Dealings

In the mid-1990s, Russia and Pakistan attempted to reset their relations with little success. At the

time, Pakistan was under US nuclear sanctions under the Pressler amendment to US

nonproliferation law, which went into effect in 1990 and banned economic and military

assistance to Pakistan unless the president certified annually that Pakistan did not have nuclear

devices.

LARRY PRESSLER ..

At this time, Pakistan desperately needed to modernize its military. Pakistan felt the United States had

abandoned it as an ally after using Pakistan for US Cold War objectives. This also meant that Pakistan

33
Sanjoy Hazarika, “Despite US, Yeltsin Backs Rocket Deal with India,” New York Times, January 30, 1993,
http://www.nytimes.com/1993/01/30/world/despite-us-yeltsin-backs-rocket-deal-with-india.html
34
Mussarat Javaid Cheema, “International Community on Kargil Conflict,” South Asian Studies, 28, no. 1 (January-
June 2013): 92.

xiii
was left alone to face the fallout of the Afghan War. Also, at that time, Russia was emerging from the

throes of the Soviet Union’s dissolution and undergoing an economic crisis. Thus, Moscow was eager to

sell military weapons and defense equipment. However, Pakistan could not afford the prices Russians

were asking and found the credibility of those negotiating on behalf of Russia to be of dubious nature. 35

Both countries were transitioning in the 1990s into fledgling democracies and experiencing internal

instabilities. The rise of Taliban in Afghanistan exacerbated the situation and created a potential threat to

Russia’s “southern vector.” Additionally, Chechen rebels found refuge in the lawless lands spanning from

Central Asia to the western borderlands of Pakistan’s tribal areas.36 After the September 2001 terrorist

attacks, the United States and Pakistan renewed their alliance. Under Pres. Pervez Musharraf, Pakistan

once again became a central player in a new war in Afghanistan. However, following the December 2001

terror attacks on the Indian parliament in New Delhi, once again

Pakistan and India teetered on the brink of war. Like the rest of world, Russia worried about the military

standoff between the two nuclear-armed countries. As a result, President Putin offered to mediate between

India and Pakistan, which Pakistan welcomed but India dismissed. New Delhi has come to loathe any

outside mediation in the region, which India considers to be its hegemonic space. During the Musharraf

era (1999–2008), Russia maintained cordial relations with Pakistan and generally supported the US-led

war against terrorism in Afghanistan.

The end of President Musharraf’s military rule and Pakistan’s return to democracy coincided with the

fruition of a US–India nuclear deal legislated under the Hyde Act of 2008.

35
Oddly, several Russian delegates negotiating defense deals in Islamabad would never follow up and simply
disappeared. Additionally, many of them were removed or transferred to other posts.
36
Igor Torbakov, “The ‘Southern Vector:’ Russia’s Strategic Interests in Central and South Asia,” in Does South
Asia Exist?: Prospects for Regional Integration, ed. Rafiq Dossani, Daniel C. Sneider, and Vikram Sood (Stanford,
CA: Walter H Shorenstein Asia Pacific Research Center, 2010), 275–93.

xiv
The resulting Nuclear Supplier Group (NSG) gave an exception for India to undertake civil

nuclear trade after a complex and tedious journey leading to the US legislation. This nuclear

exception for India provided Russia with new openings in South Asia, and Moscow took

advantage of the new market to sell nuclear power plants to India. With a long history of military

cooperation and defense sales to India, Russia was more experienced with the Indian working

culture and its rigid bureaucratic system than other countries vying for India’s nuclear market. In

addition, the nuclear deal allowed India to retain its nuclear weapons program, freed up its

domestic uranium capacity for military purposes, and obligated nothing from India regarding

nonproliferation treaty goals (to which both India and Pakistan are outliers). In contrast, Pakistan

encountered international disapproval over the A. Q. Khan nuclear proliferation network that

unraveled in 2004, which has continued until now. Feeling betrayed and alienated by the US

legislation and its fallout, the Pakistanis reached out to Russia and China. Predictably, both were

eager to exploit the Pakistani estrangement with the United States.

xv
Another source of rift between the United States and Pakistan came with the Obama

administration’s policy on South Asia (2009–2016), which focused on further deepening and

expanding relations with India—-dubbed as a “lynchpin” of the US pivot to the Asia-Pacific.

Meanwhile, Pakistan’s significance was relegated to counter terror cooperation in Afghanistan

and concerns on nuclear security issues. From the US standpoint, Pakistan was playing both

ends—hunting with the hounds and running with the hare—as Pakistan was receiving coalition

support money while simultaneously providing safe haven and facilitation to Afghan Taliban,

against whom the US forces were fighting. Furthermore, Islamabad was facilitating China’s

access to Pakistan’s coastline, while the United States was trying to contain China. From the

Pakistani standpoint, Washington was seeking Pakistani cooperation and support for the US war

in Afghanistan but also dismissing Pakistani sacrifices and the collateral losses it was suffering

from the Afghan instability. Worse, from the Pakistani standpoint, the United States was handing

over strategic space to India that it was winning with Pakistani strategic partnership, which

allowed India to use Afghanistan territory for New Delhi’s proxy war against Pakistani interests.

From being the “most allied ally” in the 1960s through the “most sanctioned ally” in the 1990s,

the United States and Pakistan drifted apart as their strategic interests were increasingly more

often in conflict than in congruity. Russia and China saw the emerging schisms, and both began

hedging their bets for an uncertain outcome of US engagement in the region. Russia stepped in

Afghanistan quietly and is currently in contact with some factions among the Afghan Taliban to

keep Russian interests alive.

1.6 Step-Up of Warm-heartedness

Developments in the region following 9/11, however, had a more soothing effect on Russia-

Pakistan discord. Pakistan’s decision to withdraw its support to the Taliban regime in the wake

xvi
of the US invasion of Afghanistan was well-received in Moscow, as it eliminated an important

post-Cold War element of friction in the Russia-Pakistan relationship. Consequently, soon after

9/11, the two countries initiated regular contacts and started a dialogue under Pakistan-Russia

Joint Working Group on Terrorism in 2002, followed by a dialogue on strategic stability in 2003.

President Musharraf also visited Moscow in February 2003, which was the first such visit since

1970, when Zulfikar Ali Bhutto visited Russia. An important turning point in this positive

trajectory, however, came with the visit of Russian Prime Minister, Mikhail Fradkov, to Pakistan

in 2007. He has been the first Russian Prime Minister to visit Pakistan in the post-Soviet era, and

the first in 38 years. Since then there have been sustainable improvements in the bilateral

relationship. For example, the two countries initiated another structured dialogue in 2009, in the

form of annual quadrilateral summits between Afghanistan, Pakistan, Russia and Tajikistan,

which also included bilateral meetings between the Presidents of Russia and Pakistan and first

such meeting was held in Tajikistan in 2009. The bilateral relations further expanded at a similar

summit in Sochi in August 2010. Most important in this regard has been the decision to establish

Russia-Pakistan Inter-Governmental Commission on Trade, Economic, Scientific, Technological

and Cultural Cooperation, which held its first meeting in September 2010.

In further developments, Russia openly supported Pakistan’s bid to join the Shanghai

Cooperation Organization (SCO) in 2011.37

37
“On Heels of Bin Laden Killing, Pakistan President Visits Moscow,” Russia Today, May 12, 2011,
https://www.rt.com/politics/pakistan-russia-meeting-medvedev-kremlin/

xvii
Source: www.defese.pk

Similarly, Russia also condemned the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) cross-border

air attack on the Pakistan Army’s Salala check-post on the Pak-Afghan border in November

2011, which killed 24 Pakistani soldiers. Russia’s Foreign Minister emphasized the

unacceptability of violating the sovereignty of states, including during the planning and carrying

out of counter-terrorist operations.38 Increased conversation between the two countries was

highlighted by the fact that, between 2008 and 2012, Pakistani President, Asif Ali Zardari, met

six times with Russian President, Dmitry Medvedev.

Similarly, the two countries have also initiated a bilateral strategic dialogue at the levels of

foreign secretaries, aimed at seeking a ‘multidimensional relationship’ encompassing defence,

commerce and energy and its first round was held in August 2013. Meanwhile, the Russia-

38
“No NATO excuse to violate Pakistan sovereignty - Russia,” Reuters, November 28, 2011,
http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-russia-nato-pakistan-idUKTRE7AR1LE20111128

xviii
Pakistan dialogue on strategic stability dealing with the issues related to arms control, non-

proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, and building up global and regional security held

ten rounds of talks. In the 10th meeting of the consultative group on strategic stability dialogue,

held in April 2016, both states have called for “the need to create a regional and global

environment that guaranteed equal and undiminished security to all states.”39

The two countries have also been increasing contacts between their defence establishments. For

example, the visit by Pakistan Army Chief General, Ashfaq Parvez Kayani, to Russia in October

2012, has been an important milestone. This has been followed by a reciprocal visit by the

Commander-in-Chief of the Ground Forces of the Russian Federation, Col. Gen. Vladimir V.

Chirkin, to Pakistan in August 2013. The Russian Air Force Chief visited Pakistan in April 2013.

Pakistan Naval Ship (PNS) Aslat made a port call, a fist ever port call made by any Pakistani

Navy ship to Russia, in October 2013, followed by PNS Rahnaward, who made two port calls to

Russia in the same month. A naval unit of the Russian pacific fleet made a port call to Pakistan

in April 2014. Similarly, all three Commanders-In-Chief of Russia’s armed forces visited

Pakistan in 2014. In July 2015, Pakistan’s Chief of Army Staff, General Raheel Sharif, also paid

a visit to Russia.

Russia has also signaled interest in selling its military hardwires to Pakistan. In June 2014,

Moscow lifted its self-imposed and undeclared embargo on arms supplies to Pakistan. Following

that, it has been able to negotiate an agreement with Pakistan to supply four Mi-35 Hind attack

helicopters. On the other hand, Pakistan has also expressed its interest in broad range of Russian

military weaponry including air defense systems, combat aircrafts, particularly the Su-35 and

advanced tanks. Meanwhile, during the period, Russia has also allowed China to transfer JF-17’s

engines to Pakistan. The JF-17 combat aircraft is jointly manufactured by China and Pakistan.
39
Press Release, Embassy of Pakistan (Doha), http://www.mofa.gov.pk/qatar/pr-details.php?prID=3686

xix
Russia has also signed a broader ‘military cooperation’ agreement with Pakistan during the visit

of its Defence Minister, General Sergei Shoigu, to Islamabad in November 2014, which has been

the first such visit since 1969. General Shoigu remarked on the occasion that Russia wanted

‘peaceful solution’ to all problems in the region and that the “world community not only praised

but wanted to do business with Pakistan now.”40 In a concrete development with regard to the

pursuance of the agreement, the two countries have held the first-ever joint military exercise

during September-October 2016. In this joint military exercise, named ‘Friendship 2016,’ around

200 military personnel participated.

Most importantly, the exercises with Russian ground forces went ahead despite strong Indian

objections in the wake of heightened tensions between Pakistan and India following an attack on

the Uri military camp in the India-held Kashmir. New Delhi has even expressed its displeasure

on the development, and the Indian envoy to Pakistan remarked on the occasion that Russia’s

military cooperation with Pakistan was “a wrong approach and it would only create problems.” 41

In a reflection of India’s apparent unhappiness over Russia’s joint military exercise with

Pakistan, Indian Prime Minister invoked a Russian proverb “an old friend is better than two new

friends,” during his remarks at a joint press event with Putin after the BRICS Summit in India, in

October 2016.42 Meanwhile, Russian Defence Ministry has also announced plans to hold a

second round of joint military exercises with Pakistan in 2017.43

40
“Pakistan, Russia sign milestone military co-op pact,” Nation, November 21, 2014,
http://nation.com.pk/national/21-Nov-2014/pakistan-russia-sign-milestone-military-co-op-pact
41
“India Conveys to Moscow its Opposition to Russia-Pakistan Military Exercise,” Indian Express, October 11, 2016,
http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/india-conveys-to-moscow-its-opposition-to-russia-
pakistan-military-exercise-3077204/
42
“‘Old Friend is Better than 2 New Friends’: India, Russia Sign 16 Key Pacts in Goa,” Rediff News, October 16,
2016, http://www.rediff.com/news/report/pix-india-russia-sign-16-key-pacts-in-goa/20161015.htm
43
“Russian Land Forces to Hold Drills with India, Pakistan in 2017,” Russia Beyond the Headlines, December 01,
2016, http://in.rbth.com/news/2016/12/01/russian-land-forces-to-hold-drills-with-india-pakistan-in-2017_652543

xx
Chapter 2 Pak-Russia Diplomatic Relations

2.1 An Acquaint of Pakistan Diplomacy

The diplomatic practices of Pakistan are based on national interest of Pakistan; however in this
chapter of the present research the researcher has narrated historical perspective in which
different phases exists. Pakistan faces lot of problems at time of independence has to be
institutionalized to survive. Very first diplomatic practice of Pakistan was when Iran recognized
Pakistan at very first time. Later practice in 1949, when Pakistan recognized China firstly from
Muslim community. But so far there were various issues such as issue of alignment during the
era of Cold War; Issue of recognition and Pakistan also faced an international issue about
Kashmir War in 1948 that was first use of weapon by Pakistan. Finally the main focus of this
document is on contemporarily and historically determining diplomacy of Pakistan.

On May 1, 1948, the bilateral and diplomatic mutual dealings between Russia and Pakistan were
initially started. The historical events are informant that the mutual dealings between Soviet
Union and Pakistan and after that with Russia are easily noticeable by numbers of alternately
upwards and down wards. Notwithstanding of large numbers of extremely annoying matters that
even for belonging to some prior time separated both the states handled to have the diffusing
warmth and friendliness mutual dealings founded on mutual sakes, benefits and interests. A
consistent with facts diplomatic mutual dealing is always valued more highly also because of
geographical property of being close together, historical and cultural connections and public
growth concerns in the region.

From the initial eighteen years (mid of 1948 – end of 1950s) of Pakistan, the mutual dealings
were responsive and affable nature. Because of some clashing matters the business and social
dealings between both the nations deteriorated and took many u-turns. In 1965, once again by the
numerous efforts of Ayoub Khan mutual dealings stabled. In addition, during the mid of 8 th
decade of 20th century the mutual dealings of Pakistan and Soviet Union groomed in a better way
and Mr. Bhutto motivated the then Soviet regime to founded steel mills in Pakistan. On the base
of these motivations the administration of Soviet committed billion dollars in the task of Steel

xxi
mills. Trade, economic and cultural mutual dealings were promoted vastly between the two
significant nations of this region.

The first nation was Pakistan which acknowledged Russia as successor of the Soviet Union as
result of the annihilation of USSR in too many states. The political as well as economic mutual
dealings were moderately lacking the warmth during 1990s on account of the some internal
matters of both states. Likely, Russia after separation in to components parts was fully engaged
in managing and reshaping its political and economic matters and Pakistan was also undergoing
from large numbers of troubles complications of social, political and economic.

Mr. Nawaz Shrif, the Prime Minister of Pakistan make formal and official tour of Moscow in
1999 which proved beneficial to reshape the diplomatic mutual dealings. The mutual dealings
were foster ameliorate to peak levels and attained widely admirations because of the tour of
Perviz Mushraf, the President of Pakistan to Russia. Since then the both nations are relishing far
suave mutual dealings than earlier.

Reliance of Pakistan on Russia and America’s friendly mutual dealings with India is deemed as a
one of the major impediment in constituting the mutual dealing between the two nations.
Somehow, both the nations disregarded each other for a long duration on the basis of wrong
perceiving. On the other hand the leading persons of both nations make efforts to control
challenges and promote the diplomatic mutual dealings to maintain cooperation and interaction
at entire levels.

Moreover, the present lofty level leadership tours of Russia and Pakistan armed forces heads and
diplomatic officials not merely supported and strengthen the diplomatic mutual dealings but also
the strategic affiliations between the both. In recent past, military chief of Russian armed forces
Col-Gen, Alexander Postnikov toured Pakistan and intended involvements in promoting and
enhancing durable military connections by articulated armed forces practices, shuffling of
trainers and trainees, and purchasing and selling arms and equipments. Moreover, Russia has
also presents involvements in socio-economic grooming and improvement of Pakistan.

Cooperation of Pakistan along with Russia accompanies bulk financial assistances for it
considering as part investments, betterment of infrastructure, and increase in the sector of trade.

xxii
In addition, support of Russia for the expansion, modernization and reconstruction of the steel
mills of Pakistan would also have incontrovertible entailments for Russia and Pakistan.

Meanwhile the coeval international particular environment, alliances made in region are
significant; and for a major mightiness like Russia to have region and world base cordial mutual
dealings and popularity with entire countries of the region is in its significant sakes. Russia is
having better mutual dealings with whole the countries of South Asia like Pakistan, India and
China

Russia and Pakistan are fond to push upward the mutual dealings and hence have demonstrated
overlapping on many matters specifically economic and security matters at international and
regional level. The role of Pakistan and Russia in constituting harmonious relations in
Afghanistan, cooperation in the field of trade and economic and programs of trainings
(specifically for armed forces defense and security), and development of infrastructure and
pipelines etc is significant for both the nations.

2.2 Historical Interpretation

The “Great Game” is engaged between Russia and England earlier to the first Anglo-Afghan war
(1839-1842).44 In October 1918, since the era of Bolshevik Revolution the inhabitants of colonial
British Subcontinent have close interactions with the Soviet Union.45 At lower level Indians
commuted between the new Communist Russia and Colonial Administration in India. A well
known “Peshawar Conspiracy Case” and many other such issues struck consternation England to
the immense of communist percolation in the colonial British administration of subcontinent.
Ideologically the Indian National Congress was also not for distance to ideal of the Soviet Union
the communist.

44
Paul M. Kennedy, The Rise And Fall Of The Great Powers: Economic Change And Military Conflict From 1500 To 2000,(New
York: Random House, 1987), 223.
45
Hafeez Malik, ed., Soviet-American Relations with Pakistan, Iran, and Afghanistan(New York: St. Martin's Press, 1987), 186.

xxiii
www.amazon.com

In 1947, the division of the Subcontinent was deemed with scorn by that time Soviet Union. It
was taken in to account as the imperialism of British “Divide and Rule” action plan going to a
feasible extent terming as a ‘British Tool.’ to the Muslim League. 46 Its sonority can still be
detected in the Pushtoon areas and agents of politics of Khyber Pakhton-Khuwah and border
attached inhabitants are bordering Afghanistan. The leaders of Russia did not make available
particular services upon freedom to Quaid-e-Azam, the new Governor General of Pakistan. In
May 1948, the relations of diplomacy initiated between Soviet Union and Pakistan, on the other
46
Khan Abdul Wali Khan, Facts are Facts: the Untold Story of India's Partition(New Delhi: Vikas Pub. House, 1987), 14

xxiv
hand the first ambassador of Pakistan took charge in so late i.e. at the end of 1948 and the
ambassador of Soviet Union took a charge and held an official meeting with in March 1950.47
Consequently, even the formation of appropriate diplomatic links took a long duration evolve
more than adequately. Despite of this, no limited way of conceiving for future action plans
maker of Pakistan specifically to articulate any particular exclusive group.

2.3 A Review of Political and Diplomatic Mutual Dealings

Pakistan during her early stage of development faced challenges of economic, insufficient
numbers of armed forces and civil assets, problems of developing and framing of constitution
and constrains of human resources and was in desperate requirements of assistance. Pakistan was
carefully consideration making its confederation plausibly in symmetry to a resource presented
for adjudicating its initial complications. Meanwhile this era Pakistan initiated analyzing mutual
dealings with the Soviet Union from beginning to end by the prism of its mutual dealings with
India. As a result of Indian Premier Plan of Nehru to tour the America on May 7, 1949; the
Soviet Union offered a tempting allurement to Liaqat Ali Khan, the Prime Minister of Pakistan.
This could have been the event making a unique historical change of Soviet Union and Pakistan
mutual dealings; despite of this, Liaquat Ali khan on the contrary select to tour the US a rid of
obstructions snub to the Soviet Union. Favorable response of Pakistan to Washington’ preludes
covered with a firm surface the path for finisher Indi-Soviet Union affiliations. Pakistan at
critical time and significant event in an explicit manner connected and linked the Western Bloc
by signing the SEATO (1954) and CENTO (1955) alignments.48 The mutual dealings were
lacking spontaneity at the indefinite period as Soviet Union carefully weighed Pakistan as an
acquaintance its hostile state and as a consequence in an open way favored India on all problems
and matters specifically on the significant issue of Kashmir. Meanwhile this era (1956-57)
Hussain Shaheed Suhrwardy, the Prime Minister of Pakistan, notwithstanding being according to
general belief as designer of the pro-west Pakistan’s foreign policy make effort to better its
mutual dealings with the Soviet Union.49 In spite of this, his endeavors were, dillydally because

47
Hafeez Malik, Soviet-American Relations with Pakistan, Iran, and Afghanistan, 186-187.
48
Hasan Askari Rizvi, The Military and Politics in Pakistan 1947-1997, (Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publishers,
2000), 77
49
Hafeez Malik, Soviet-American Relations with Pakistan, Iran, and Afghanistan, 193-198.

xxv
of Pakistan’s easily perceived bivouac with the Washington meanwhile the stewing Cold War
and his own acceptance of despair in 1957.The known widely and usually unfavorably U-2
United States events of sleuth aircraft flying act of reconnoitering charges from an airbase of
Peshawar, Pakistan over the Soviet airspace was a conspicuously and outrageously reprehensible
example of misestimating of Soviet reaction and its own exposure by Pakistan. The armed forces
of Soviet Union have the capability to shot down the plane named U-2 on May 1, 1960 and
discovered connivance of Pakistan’s to the US plans. Nikita Khurushev, the president of Soviet,
uttered intention of punishment Pakistan as a target of bombing if any more operations
performed or flown any aircraft from the any airbase of Pakistan contrary to the Soviet Union.50
Instead of securing its own national security, interests, sakes and sovereignty Pakistan was
playing in the hands of the Western Alliance and furious super power and the next neighbor.
Mutual dealings of Pakistan meanwhile this era were commonly observed in the scenery of indo-
Pak war of 1965. Meanwhile the Pak-India war of 1965 Pakistan was left alone in the showing
no enthusiasm and Washington did not assist Pakistan notwithstanding Pakistan’s signatory
nation condition in SEATO and CENTO. The Soviet Union in an overt manner became apparent
as the bulkiest cater of army hardware and equipments to India. Subsequently the war of 1965,
the race of weapons initiated between Pakistan and India. The Soviets did involve as an agent of
peace and harmony between India and Pakistan and cater her services for the agreement of
ceasefire ratified agreement which is generally called “The Agreement of Tashkent”.51 The
reluctance of Pakistan to pander along with Soviet Union was not wholly influenced by it near in
time and place mutual dealings with China; as by 1961, Soviets and China were at feller heads
upon the considered individual communism versions.52 The war of 1971 was a state of being
actual daze for the Pakistani west allied when it was anew discomfited by its friends of western.
After ratified agreement of friendship, peace and cooperation of Soviet Union with India it’s
performed a significant in the Pak-India war of 1971.53 At this occasion Soviet Union favored
India in an open way by making sure its presence of naval in the area. Soviet Union
commiserates along with the Mukti Bahni and observed came in to being of Bangladesh as a

50
Sabir Shah, “A brief recap of the troubled Pak-Russia relationship” The News, October 4, 2012.
51
Noor ul Haq, ed., "Positive Turn in Pakistan-Russia Relations” IPRI Factfile,(Islamabad Policy Research
Institute)14, no.11-12 (November-December 2012),9.
52
Hasan Askari Rizvi, “Pakistan’s Foreign Policy: An Overview 1947-2004”, Pildat Briefing Paper, 11(April
2004),15.
53
Hafeez Malik, Soviet-American Relations with Pakistan, Iran, and Afghanistan, 191.

xxvi
chance to impairment its antagonists; the China and United States. In an interesting manner,
many decades subsequently in 2012, meanwhile a formal press release issued by the Consulate-
General of Russia in Karachi, the ambassador of Russia explicated notice that belong to some
prior time Soviet rationalized mental attitude in 1971 contrary to Pakistan, was a “reasonably
awkward for our mutual dealings.”54 During the aftermath of psychological painful unsuccessful
ending of the war of 1971 and the treachery of the powers of Western, under the leadership of
Z.A Bhutto Pakistan followed the action plan of “Look East” an active “Bilateralism.” 55 This
epoch easily highlight the little betterment of Pakistan-Russia mutual dealings. Mr. Bhutto
officially performed a state tour of Soviet Union n March 1972. This tour considered first Prime
Minister Tour of super power since 1947 after the creating of Pakistan. 56 1973 to 1979, both
nations relished durable mutual dealing which also derived the benefit for the Soviet Union. This
epoch observed existence of Pakistan Steel Mills by the financial favor of Soviets. In spite of
this, this practice of cooperating between the both nations was inadequate lived and got freeze by
the aftermath and results of Pakistan 1977 elections. The invasion of Soviet on Afghanistan was
another significant turning point in the mutual dealings of Soviet Union and Pakistan. It is
commonly narrated that the Soviet Union communicated to Pakistan that it does not has in mind
as a purpose to traverse the Durand Line and Pakistan used up achromatic will be observe
extremely.57 A large but indefinite people trust that utilization of Mujahedeen by Pakistan in
Afghanistan contrary to the Soviet Union was in revenge to its not shrinking from danger favor
to India particularly during the wars of 1965 and 1971.58 Upon Soviet Union‘s disintegration, the
successor state Russian Federation went into the downward spiral of security and economic
difficulties. The same continued till 2000, however, President Vladimir Putin was able to turn
around the situation and make Russia economically stable. Russia understood the value of peace
for a thriving economy and resolved its long standing border conflicts with China and Turkey. In
1994-1995, Russian Federation and Pakistan could have improved ties during the Benazir

54
Consulate-General of the Russian Federation, "Russian-Pakistani Relations", Consulate-General of the
Russian Federation in Karachi, December 21, 2012.
55
Look East policy meant to look towards the non-western powers, especially USSR, China and the Arab
World. The active bilateralism was to ensure country’s relations on mutual interests of two
countrieswithout the involvement of third party.
56
“Foreign Relations” atwww.bhutto.orgaccessed on December 27, 2014.
57
Hafeez Malik, Soviet-American Relations with Pakistan, Iran, and Afghanistan, 219.
58
Haq Nawaz Akhtar, If Truth be Told, An Alternate History of Pakistan (Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publishers,
2007), 333.

xxvii
Bhutto‘s government, however this opportunity was lost when Pakistan recognized Taliban as
the legitimate government of Afghanistan and created delay in resolving issues of Soviet
POWs.59 At the time of nuclear tests by both Pakistan and India in 1998, Russian Federation did
not immediately condemn Pakistan indicating a soft stance towards country’s security concerns.
In April 1999 Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif paid an important state visit to the Kremlin, which
was the first trip to Moscow by a Pakistani Prime minister in 25 years. Russians also welcomed
the warming up of relations between India and Pakistan through the Lahore Declaration in 1999.
In the aftermath of 9/11, Pakistan‘s decision to join war on terror was welcomed by the Russian
Federation.60 Russian Federation stayed out of any NATO or ISAF contingent in Afghanistan; it
only conducted joint operations to curb narcotic smuggling with the ISAF forces. In February
2003, President Musharraf’s visit to Moscow resulted in the establishment of Joint Working
Group on Counter Terrorism, Joint Working Group on Strategic Stability and Inter
Governmental Joint Commission. Since then both countries have worked in coordination to
combat narcotic trade.61 Relations between Pakistan and Russian Federation witnessed another
positive note when Pakistan caught Chechen Terrorists from the Pak-Afghan border in 2004 and
handed them over to the Russian forces. In 2007, Russian Prime Minister Mikhail Fradkov
became the first Russian Prime Minister ever to visit Pakistan in the post-Soviet-era in 38
years.62

2.4 Russia’s Interests in Having Affable Relations with Pakistan

Following are Moscow’s key interests in establishing friendly ties with Islamabad:

1. Russia’s flourishing military hardware companies needs new markets to maintain its

economic status and for which Pakistan could be a potential buyer,

2. Terrorism and extremism is perceived as a potential threat in contemporary world, and

hence Russia is eager to work jointly to counter the threat,

59
Hasan Askari Rizvi, “Pakistan’s Foreign Policy: An Overview 1947-2004” 20.
60
Noor ul Haq, "Positive Turn in Pakistan-Russia Relations” 14.
61
Muhammad Nawaz Khan and Beenish Altaf, “On the Way to Tomorrow” The Diplomatic Insight, 6
(2013):12.
62
Noor ul Haq, "Positive Turn in Pakistan-Russia Relations” 112.

xxviii
 3. To curtail EU and U.S. role in the region, Russia want to strengthen its influence in the

near-abroad,

4. Moscow wants to pursue its multi-vectored foreign policy in the region,

5. Russia wants to keep an eye on the U.S. especially when it comes to already established

military bases and missile shield deployments in Asia-Pacific region, and

6. Pakistan’s geographical position as an energy gateway also prompted Russia to have

cordial relations with Pakistan.

Russia: New Door of Opportunities for Pakistan

Following are the factors that prompted Pakistan to further its relations with Russia:

1. Islamabad’s keen desire to lessen its dependence on its western ally U.S.,

2. Islamabad’s views that regional collaboration in order to solve regional problems would

proof fruitful,

3. Pakistan views U.S. as an unreliable friend with vague interests and therefore want to

further its relation with its northern flank, and

4. In order to maintain strategic balance in the region in relation to U.S.-India growing

military relations, Islamabad needs to have healthy relations with Moscow.

Pakistan and Russia: Convergence of Interests

Following are the some point highlighting Pakistan-Russia convergence on some mutual

issues/interests:

1. Combating terrorism, extremism, and separatism,

2. Energy crisis in Pakistan and a energy gateway for Russia,

xxix
 3. Gas pipelines including Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India gas pipeline (TAPI),

and Iran-Pakistan-India gas pipeline (IPI),

4. Thar Coal Project,

5. Pakistan and Russia’s cooperation and collaboration in Afghanistan in wake of

withdrawal of foreign forces,

6. U.S. permanent military bases in the region, and

7. Maintaining strategic balance in the region.

In order to further strengthen the diplomatic ties, Pakistan-Russia still needs to fill-up the gaps

and draw designs to institutionalize the ties more. For instance, the steps taken in 2002 in

Musharraf’s era i.e. joint working group on counter-terrorism, strategic stability and inter-

governmental joint commission should be relooked and enhanced. Moreover, people to people

contacts, cultural and scientific links, and academicians/student exchange programs should be

promoted between the two countries. Pakistan-Russia relations would further develop with the

cooperation in energy sector, oil and gas, telecommunication, space technology, and steel

production.

The birth of Pakistan coincided with the advent of Cold War. Naturally, superpower

confrontation pulled the infant nation, strategically located near the Persian Gulf, into its vortex.

Nevertheless, although leaning to the West, the political leadership decided to keep a low profile

and did not tie the country to any security arrangement. The Soviet Union did not appear

enthusiastic about the partition of Indian subcontinent. Its Communist ideology failed to impress

xxx
the Pakistani political elites. Being mindful of local temperament, it deemed Soviet materialism

distasteful.63

Henceforth, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, the first Governor General of Pakistan did not receive

warmth and cooperation from Soviet Union. Although the diplomatic relations between the two

countries were established in May, 194864 yet Pakistan being a fledgling state, surrounded by

various problems, found it incapable of opting for any specific power bloc.

The decisive moment came in Pakistan’s foreign relations when Prime Minister Liaquat Ali

Khan visited United States on May 3, 1950, in response to its formal invitation. It may be an

unfortunate event on part of Pakistan that Soviet Union’s invitation to the Prime Minister for

15th August 1949 came before US invitation. But the date coincided with the second anniversary

of India’s independence thus Pakistan proposed August 17 while the Soviets suggested end of

October or early November. In response, Pakistan proposed November 5, 1949. However, the

dates were not finalized and despite the best intentions for this opportunity the visit did not

materialize in Liaquat Ali Khan’s lifetime and thereafter. Since then Pakistan remained an ally to

US in the region and non-aligned India chose to be in Russian bloc. The hopes for robust

bilateral ties further died with Pakistan decided to join the US backed South-East Asian Treaty

Organization (SEATO) and Central Treaty Organization (CENTO).65

In 1955 Khrushchev undertook his tour of Asia – India, Afghanistan and Burma and openly

supported India on the Kashmir issue. However, in March 1956, Khrushchev’s close confidante,

63
Khan Abdul Wali Khan, Facts are Facts: The Untold Story of India’s Partition (New Delhi: Vikas Publication, 1987), 14.
64
Nazir Hussain and Quratulain Fatima, “Pak-Russian Relations: Historical Legacies and New Beginnings”, Central Asia, no.72
(June 2015): 2
65
Sarfraz Khan, and Noor Amin, “An Overview of Pak - Soviet/Russia Relations”, Central Asia, no.71 (Winter 2012): 3-4,
available at http://www.asc-centralasia.edu.pk /Issue_71/001_sarfraz.html; https://www.dawn.com/news/1020592.

xxxi
Anastas Mikoyan visited Pakistan and in the same year a parliamentary delegation of Pakistan

led by Mohammad Ayub Khuhro visited Moscow.66

Although it was the beginning of contacts between the two but Soviet Union never supported

Pakistan on territorial disputes with neighbors due to Pakistan’s involvement in anti-Soviet

military alliances. The real impetus to reinforced ties is attributed to Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto who

visited Russia in 1960 as Minister of Fuel Power and Natural Resources and concluded a Fuel

and Power Agreement. The USSR provided 120m rubles for a period of 12 years. Along with

experts 75% of the amount was provided in the form of equipments, and it was agreed that

Pakistani experts would be trained in this field. Many of today’s oil fields in Pakistan resulted

from the efforts of Soviet geologists.67 After the 1965 war between India and Pakistan on

Kashmir issue, besides UN efforts, the Soviet leader Aleksey Kosygin managed to bring both the

countries to an agreement known as the Tashkent Declaration which was signed by President

Ayub Khan and Lal Bahadur Shastri on January 4, 1966.68

www.media.hendler.php

66
https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=Yea-DAAAQBAJ&lpg=PA111&ots=mzoncZoxkg&dq=Anastas%Mikoyan

%20invitation%20to%Pakistani%20leaders%20in%201956&pg.

67
www.bhutto.org/1957-1965-speech37.php.

68
https://www.stimson.org/tashkent-declaration.

xxxii
In late 1970’s the USSR and People’s Republic of China were in competition for the ideological

leadership in their sphere of influence and Kissinger’s secret visit to Peking via Pakistan

perturbed USSR. The Soviets were of the view that Pakistan had aligned with their enemies – US

and China. Therefore, agitated, the USSR openly backed India in assisting the insurgency in East

Pakistan. The conflict eventually resulted in the creation of Bangladesh.69

Although Russia Pakistan relations have always been transitory, granting loans, technical

assistance, boosting trade relations in 1966-67 and launching thermal projects and inauguration

of Steel Mills in 1973, were few main initiatives taken by Russia to sustain some sort of

normalcy in the relationship.70

The then Pakistan Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif visited Moscow in 1999. It was the first visit to

Russia by a Pakistani head of government since 1974. In 2003 President Musharraf also paid a

visit to Moscow. The first visit from any Russian high official took place in 2007 when Russian

Prime Minister Mikhail Fradkov visited Pakistan, 16 years after the collapse of the Soviet Union.

President Asif Ali Zardari visited Russia in 2011 and several Memorandums of Understandings

(MoUs) were signed between both states in the areas of energy, agriculture and air services. In

2012 a Russian delegation came to Pakistan and signed three MOUs. They covered the

expansion of Pakistan Steel Mills, the energy sector, and the railways department. After that

General Ashfaq Pervez Kayani, then Pakistan’s Chief of Army Staff visited Russia in October

2012 and met several top Russian Army officials and politicians. In this meeting, discussions

held on development of defense relationships.15 After General Kiyani’s visit Russian Foreign

69
https://www.cacianalyst.org/publications/analytical-articles/item/13117-russias-pakistan-volte-face.html.

70
Ibid.

xxxiii
Minister, Sergey Viktorovich Lavrov visited Pakistan in October 2012. He held meetings and

made important statements on Pakistan-Russia relationship.71

The foreign policy of Pakistan, soon after independence, did not stand on solid foundations and

suffered from inconsistencies and imbalance.72 Owing to some historical, geographical and

ideological idiosyncrasies, Pakistan did not succeed in establishing closer, good neighborly ties

with the Soviet Union. The roots of the most noticeable ideological idiosyncrasies, affecting Pak-

Soviet relations, can be traced back to the pre-independence era of the Indo-Pak Subcontinent.

Pak-Soviet/Russia relationship can arbitrarialy be divided into five major periods: (1947– 1965),

(1966-1971), (1972 – 1977), (1978- 1991) and (1992-2014). First four phases till 1991 provide a

bird’s eye view of Pak-Soviet and the last phase (1992-2014) discusses Pak- Russia relations.

Pre-independence India had heavily been influenced by the Great October 1917 Socialist

Revolution, in Russia. The revolutionary message had virtually mesmerized the minds of the

emerging Indian educated middle class in the initial decades of the twentieth century. The First

Communist International (COMINTERN) in its first meeting, in March 1919, transmitted the

message of revolution on the Soviet model across the globe.73 The father of Russian Socialist

Revolution, V. I. Lenin (1870–1924), called for establishing an international communistic social

order, thus, invited not only progressive, educated social element of the European Continent, but

also of the Indian Sub-continent, to join hands and materialize this dream.74

Before partition of India, the Soviet Union had longstanding relations with the Communist Party

of India and Indian National Congress. Soviet Union rendered support to ‘Right to Self

Determination of Nations’ and encouraged National Liberation movements in colonized

71
Express Tribune, October 4, 2012.
72
Burk, S. M., An Historical Analysis of Pakistan’s Foreign Policy. Oxford University Press, Karachi 1990, pp 20-21.
73
Morgenthau, H. J., Politics Among Nations. 6th ed., Vanguard, Lahore 1991, p 75.
74
Williamson, H., Communism and India. Govt. of India Press, Calcutta 1935, p 321

xxxiv
countries, against imperial powers. Muslim League, on the other hand, did not have the vision to

cultivate relations with the Soviet Union, an anti-imperialist power, in its neighborhood. Both,

Soviets and Indian communists, also supported ‘Right of Self Determination of Nations’ and the

creation of Pakistan, exercising democratic will of Indian Muslims, popularly known as two

nation theory. However, subsequent rulers of Pakistan and pro west religious and other political

forces, created an impression that Islam was not appreciated by the USSR since state and politics

in the Soviet Union were separated from religion. The Communist Party of India (CPI) supported

the Partition Plan of India, however, the right wingers propagated that the socialists and

nationalists did not support partition of India.75

In 1920, M. N. Roy (1887–1954), leading Indian communist, based in Great Britain, joined the
International Communist Movement. Later, by 1934, well-known Indian Muslim intellectuals,
including: Syed Sajjad Zaheer, Mahmudul Zafar, Rasheed Jehan, Dr. K. M. Ashraf, Hajira
Begum also flocked this movement.76 The Progressive Writers Association (PWA), founded in
1936 in India, became the flag-bearer of socialist political thought in the Indian Sub-continent.77
Following the British withdrawal from India and emergence of two sovereign states – India and
Pakistan, in 1947, numerous seasoned writers, poets and intellectuals, such as Sajjad Zaheer
(1905-1973), Josh Maleh Abadi (1894-1982), Habib Jalib (1928-1993), Hasrat Mohani (1875-
1951) migrated to Pakistan.78 Joining hands with renowned, local, prolific writers and poets
including: Faiz Ahmad Faiz (1911-1984), Saadat Hussain Manto (1912-1955) and Ahmad
Nadeem Qasmi (1920-2006), together with peasant and workers Unions, provided great impetus
to the emerging socialist thought amongst budding intelligentsia and working people of Pakistan.

75
Ibid., pp 21-25.
76
The Daily Dawn, Peshawar, 12th October, 1954.
77
Malik, H., The Maxcist Literary Movment in India and Pakistan. In Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. XXVI, August 1967, pp 82-89.
78
Zafar, A., The Light: A History of the Movement for Progressive Literature in the Indo-Pak Subcontinent. translation from urdu, Oxford
University Press, Karachi 2012.

xxxv
2.4.1 First Phase 1947-1965

Two trends, both upward and downward, in the Pak-Soviet relations, can be witnessed in the in
post-independence, first period (1947-1965). In the early decades of the establishment of
Pakistan, the Communist Party of Pakistan had a significant influence in the lower and educated
middle classes of the society. However, the witch hunt, followed by alleged involvement of poets
and writers such as Sajjad Zahir, Sibt-e-Hasan and Faiz Ahmad Faiz along with some senior
military officers in the Rawalpindi Conspiracy Case, in 1951, compelled Communist Party
Cadres to go underground.79 However, the nationalist and progressive political organizations,
considered pro- socialist/Soviet, such as National Awami Party (NAP) its student wings,
Democratic Students Federation (DSF) and National Students Federation (NSF), both in the
West and East of Pakistan, continued functioning. Prime Minister of Pakistan, Laiqat Ali Khan
(1947-1951), declining Soviet invitation to visit USSR in 1949, instead paid an official visit to
USA.80 Moreover, holding of two sessions of the International Economic Conference at Karachi
and Tehran, in 1949,81 was interpreted by many observers in the USSR as Pakistan’s active
participation in the western efforts to create an anti-Soviet, anti-socialist block. Internally
promulgation of a notorious law, the Public Safety Act,82 passed in 1951, resulted in the arrest of
many left leaning leaders,83 allegedly involved in linguistic riots in former East Pakistan
(Bangladesh). Pakistan’s participation in the US sponsored military- economic alliances, such as
South-East Asian Treaty Organization (SEATO) and Central Treaty Organization (CENTO)
further worsened the possibility of Pak-Soviet bilateral relations.84 Many analysts view, not very
friendly Soviet position on Kashmir and Pukhtunistan,85 an outcome, of those hostile towards
USSR and socialism, facts.86 Moreover, downing by the Red Army of the U2, US spy plane,
operated from Badaber, Pakistan,87 in 1960, further alienated the Soviets.

79
Zaheer, H., The Times and Trial of the Rawalpindi Conspiracy, 1951, the Coup Attempt in Pakistan. Oxford University Press, Karachi
1998, pp 204-210.
80
Burk, S.M., An Historical Analysis of Pakistan’s Foreign Policy. Oxford University Press, Karachi 1990, pp 91-99.
81
Ibid. p,92.
82
Amin, N.U., Pak-Soviet Relations During Z.A. Bhutto Era 1972-77. Unpublished M.Phil. thesis submitted to Area Study Centre,
University of Peshawar, Peshawar 2008, pp 20-22.
83
Ibid ,. P, 20.
84
Daily The News, Peshawar, dated 13.4.2007.
85
Mehmood, S., Pakistan Political Roots & Development 1947-1999. Oxford University Press, Karachi 2004, pp 202-204
86
Naseem, A., Pak-Soviet Relations; 1947 – 1965. Lahore, Progressive publishers 1989.
87
Ibid

xxxvi
Steps bringing the two countries closer included: establishment of diplomatic relations, followed
by exchange of envoys between the two countries, in 1949-50;88 Soviet initiative, in 1956,
offering technical and economic assistance, to build Steel Mills;89 visit of Soviet Deputy Premier
to Pakistan,90 declaring resolution of the Kashmir problem according to the will of the people of
Kashmir;91 reflected softening of Soviet policy towards Pakistan. In 1961, Pakistan was granted
a loan worth $3 million for technical support in oil exploration.92 Some bye-agreements:
covering operation of air services; exchange of cultural delegations; assistance for mechanization
of agriculture; building power projects and promotion of technological and scientific knowledge,
were inked.93 The Russian assistance to Pakistan to develop oil, gas and mineral resources was
renewed in the 1960s with enhanced cooperation between the two countries.94 In the same year,
the Soviet Union provided $519 million for the purchase of heavy machinery.95

2.4.2 Second Phase 1966-1971

During the 2nd period, in 1966, the Soviet Union played role of mediator enabling India and
Pakistan to sign the Tashkent Declaration.25 The same year, under the barter system, Pakistan
exported rice, jute, cotton, etc., while Soviet Union exported vehicles and agricultural machinery.
These measures were aimed at improving bilateral relations. Pak-Soviet relations did improve
following such confidence building measures following second visit of President Ayub Khan to
the Soviet Union, in 1967. The hallmarks included: Expression of harmony over major
international issues; extension of mutual co-operation; confirmation of decamping US military
bases on Pakistani soil; increased volume of bilateral trade to Rs. 7 million; implementation of
over 30 developmental projects, in Pakistan, funded and provided technical assistance by the
Soviet Union.96 Moscow promised $200 million to implement Pakistan’s Fourth Five Years Plan

88
Belokrenitsky, V.Y., Llight Production in the Economy of Pakistan, (Russian). Nayka, Moscow 1972.
89
Ibid
90
Rizvi, D.H.S., Soviet Aided Projects in Pakistan. In Central Asia, no. 20, Area Study Centre, University of Peshawar, Peshawar 1987, pp
14-18.
91
Ibid., pp 14-18.
92
Daily The News, Islamabad dated 18.12.1998.
93
Ibid.
94
Quraish, K., Pakistan and USSR. In Pakistan Horizon, no. XXVII, University of Karachi, Karachi 1974, pp 61-64.
95
Mehboob, A., Popeadia, Pakistan’s Relations with Soviet Union 1947 – 1979: Constraints and Compulsions. Pakistan Study Center,
University of Karachi, Karachi 1988, p 78.
96
Malik, H., Soviet-Pakistan Relations and Post-Soviet Dynamics, 1947-92. Macmillan, London 1994, p251.

xxxvii
(1970-1975) when General Yahya Khan visited USSR in 1970.97 Issues adversely affecting Pak-
USSR relations included: Pakistan’s facilitation of famous Henry Kissinger’s secret visit to
China in 1971; Indo-Soviet Friendship Treaty of 1971,98 that enabling India to recieve $300
million annually;99 Pakistan’s opposition to the Soviet proposal of Asian Collective Security
System,100 allegedly aimed against China and last but not the least Soviet role during East
Pakistan Crisis, in 1971.
2.4.3 Third Phase 1972-77

In the 3rd period, Z. A. Bhutto visited the USSR twice, in a span of five years (1972-77), to give
further impetus to Pak-Soviet relations. His first visit (16-18 March 1972) broke ice in the
backdrop of East Pakistan Crisis, following the independence of Bangladesh. Both the countries
agreed to restore Pak-Soviet trade, enhance cooperation in geological prospecting, building a
metallurgical works in Karachi and help in power generation.101 They expressed unanimity of
views on resolving the Arab-Israeli conflict, withdrawal of foreign troops from Indo-China,
termination of the arms race and keeping nuclear disarmament under effective control. They also
called for a rational approach to solve contentious issues. The identity of views ensured
Pakistan’s vote in United Nations.102
Soviet economic assistance to Pakistan was significant in many ways since it transferred
technology and did not attach political strings. The year 1973 witnessed a remarkable
improvement in Pak-Soviet economic and scientific relations: visits of the Soviet economic
delegations;103 arrival of Pakistani students to USSR;104 signing of cultural agreements and above
all the inauguration of Karachi Steel Mills.105 In 1973, a number of Soviet economic delegations
and steel experts visited Pakistan, USSR also wrote off credit utilized in East Pakistan, before
1971.106

97
Hydier, S., The Foreign Policy of Pakistan. Daua Publications, Lahore 2000, p 59.
98
The Daily DAWN, Karachi, February 14, 1972.
99
Indo-Soviet treaty was signed on August 9, 1971, See : Khalida Qureshi. Pakistan and USSR. In Pakistan Horizon, no. xxvii,(I), 1974, p
61.
100
Jan, J.P, Soviet Policy Towards Pakistan and Bangladesh. New Delhi 1974, p30.
101
Ibid.p.35.
102
Ali, M., Reading in Pakistan Foreign Policy. Oxford University Press, Karachi 2013.
103
The Daily Dawn, dated 26-11-2012
104
Lawrance Ziring, L., The Foreign Policy of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto. Oxford University Press, Karachi 1990, p 130.
105
The Daily Dawn, Karachi, dated 19-12-2012.
106
Pakistan Year Book, Lahore, 1971.

xxxviii
To boost trade between the two countries, a seven member Soviet delegation led by trade
minister visited Pakistan, in 1973, envisaging a trade turnover of $ 12.4 million each way for
1973, $ 14.9 million during 1974 and 1975 each. In 1973, a Soviet embassy press release stated
that Pakistan will import 2300 tractors from USSR.107 Other Soviet exports to Pakistan, in 1974,
included road metalling machinery.108 In February 1974, Pakistan and the Soviet Union
concluded a barter trade agreement.109 In 1974, a contract was signed in Islamabad with a Soviet
firm for the purchase of machinery worth Rs. 2300 million. Another credit package of 160
million Roubles for Karachi Steel Mill was signed in December 1974. With the purpose of
strengthening bi-lateral economic ties, several steps were taken from 1975-77. On February
1975, Soviet deputy minister for foreign trade visited Pakistan and a program was concluded for
the exchange of goods. Before leaving for Moscow, the leader of the delegation said in Karachi
that Pakistan and the Soviet Union will sign a five year trade agreement. 110 In 1975, Pakistan and
the USSR entered into an annual program of exchange of scientific expertise. Bhutto’s policies
of nationalization and the tilt towards socialism were encouraged and praised by Arkhady
Maulaninkov the Islamabad based Pravda correspondent.111 In May 1977 the Soviet trade
delegation arrived in Islamabad and signed a trade protocol providing for an exchange of goods
worth $ 15 million.112
2.4.4 Fourth Phase 1978-90

Military dictator General Zia-ul-Haq overthrew democratically elected government on 5 July

1977. In the fourth period, Pak–Soviet relations nose-downed, following the Saur Revolution in
Afghanistan and entered a new phase after Soviet military intervention in Afghanistan, in
December, 1979. Soviet support in terms of 100,000 troops to a revolutionary Afghan regime in
Pakistan’s neighborhood brought a radical change in the region. The Afghan issue became the
main point of friction in Pak-Soviet relations. Ouster of Sardar Daud Khan in April 1978 by
revolutionary PDPA, led by Noor Muhammad Tarakki, a well-known socialist had not even
caused deterioration of relations to such a level. Pakistan recognized the government headed by

107
The Daily Dawn, Karachi, dated 16.2.2010.
108
Gankovski U. V. et.al., Present Pakistan, Economy, History and Culture. Nayka, Moscow 1976.
109
The Daily Dawn, Karachi, dated 16.2.2010.
110
, Z.A., Bhutto, Reshaping Foreign Policy of Pakistan. Passia Publishers, Lahore 1973, pp 17-19.
111
Belokrenitsky, V.Y., Light production in the Economy of Pakistan (Russian). Nayka, Moscow 1972.
112
Haq, N., ed., Pak Russia Relations. IPRI, Islamabad 2007.

xxxix
PDPA and Pakistan’s internationally isolated military dictator, General Zia ul Haq, visited the
Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, in September, 1978. Despite a revolutionary change in
Afghanistan, the then Finance Minister of Pakistan, Mr. Ghulam Ishaq Khan, visited Moscow in
July 1978 and Soviet Union assured continued Soviet credit facility for Karachi Steel Mills. He
lauded Soviet assistance and termed friendship with the Soviet Union, ‘a basic principle’ of
Pakistan’s foreign policy.113 He also extended Mr. Alexai Kosygin, Soviet Prime Minister,
invitation to visit Pakistan, which he accepted and expressed his intention to plan a state visit ‘in
the near future’.114 By the end of 1978, influx of refugees from Afghanistan to Pakistan began. In
March 1979, Soviet media began systematically accusing Pakistan of ‘interference in
Afghanistan’s internal affairs’.115 By this time Afghanistan had become a pivotal issue in Pak-
Soviet relations. Interestingly, on the eve of the Soviet invasion, visit to Afghanistan of Pak
Foreign Minister, Mr. Agha Shahi had been scheduled, but was cancelled, following the Soviet
action.116 Bilateral political friction notwithstanding, the Soviet Union did demonstrate a rather
‘business as-usual approach’ towards Pakistan. The Soviet Union sent delegations to inaugurate
Soviet funded projects such as Guddu Thermal Power Station and the Karachi Steel Mills.
Political hostility over Afghanistan did not adversely affect these projects rather bilateral trade
increased by 25 %.55 The Soviet Ambassador kept roaming around and even offered Pakistan
nuclear power plants. During last encounter at the UNO between Mr. Anrei Gromyko and Mr.
Agha Shahi, in September 1980, though the Soviet Foreign Minister chided his Pakistani
counterpart, “you seem to want to fight a war with us”,117 however, did invite him to visit
Moscow for parleys. Soviets supported Democratic Republic of Afghanistan while Pakistan
along with so called ‘free world’ provided overt and covert assistance to the Afghan Mujahideen
waging jihad against the Soviet infidels in the 1980s.
In November 1982, General Zia, visited Soviet Union, to participate in the funeral ceremony of
President Brezhnev and openly expressed his views of having a peaceful Afghanistan. Despite
Soviet friendly overtures towards Pakistan the military regime continued hostility towards Soviet
113
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Government of Pakistan, Foreign Affairs Year Book 2006-07. Government of Pakistan, Islamabad 2007,
pp 81-82.
114
Ali, L.A., Towards the Tashkent Declaration. Quaid-I-Azam University, Islamabad. Retrieved from
pu.edu.pk/images/journal/csas/PDF/Lubna%20Abid%20Ali.pdf, accessed on 10/10/2014.
115
Amin, N., Pak-Soviet Relations During ZA Bhutto’s Era (1972-1977). Unpublished M.Phil. Thesis, Area Study Centre, University of
Peshawar, Peshawar 2008, p 28.
116
Haq, N., ed., Pak Russia Relations. IPRI, Islamabad 2007.
117
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Government of Pakistan, Foreign Affairs Year Book 2006-07. Government of Pakistan, Islamabad 2007,
pp 94-95.

xl
communists and their puppets in Afghanistan. Pak-Soviet relations moved forward after Soviet
withdrawal from Afghanistan and the restoration of democracy in Pakistan, in 1988. On 1st
March 1990, the USSR again offered a nuclear deal to Pakistan to fulfill increased power
generation needs. The Soviet Ambassador to Pakistan, V. P. Yakunin said, ‘once the required
guarantees are provided, there is no harm in supplying a nuclear power plant to Pakistan’. 118 The
Production Minister of Pakistan, Shahid Zafar, immediately visited Moscow in response to the
offer and discussed the issue, Foreign Secretary of Pakistan, Tanveer Ahmad, also paid a visit.119
However, owing to technological reasons, Benazir Bhutto’s regime preferred to secure a French
deal which remained a non-starter.
2.4.5 Fifth Phase Pak-Russia Relations (1991-2008)

Succeeding Soviet/ Russian Governments, including that of President Boris Yeltsin continued
strategic partnership with India, supplied spares and new equipment that strengthened their
military relations. On the other hand USA had not only forbidden supply of new military
equipment to Pakistan in 1990, following enactment of The Pressler Amendment, during Bush
Administration, but also spares, maintenance, repair and up-gradation facilities of equipment
supplied even prior to 1990. Pakistan had not been able to diversify its sources of military
hardware supply, hence, succeeded in purchase of barely Agosta submarines and reconditioned,
old Mirage 5 fighters from France. Not only due to the cash crunch but also fear of US sanctions,
under the Pressler Amendment, played a significant role. Pakistan failed to secure purchase of
Russian equipment and also faced huge difficulties in buying 300 tanks from Ukraine.120 It
seems Pakistan’s repeated expressions of interest in Russian equipment were actually aimed at
causing concern in the US, that in case of non-removal of the Pressler Amendment, Pakistan
could buy Russian military equipment leading to further dwindling of American influence on the
armed forces of Pakistan.
Moscow did not appreciate alleged role of Pakistani Intelligence Services: firstly as a promoter
of war against Afghan Government; secondly, not only creating the Taliban and enabling them
seize power in Kabul but also supporting them to extend control over 90 percent of the Afghan
territory. Russia also viewed with suspicion greater interest of Inter Services Intelligence, ISI, in
118
Hassan, Z., Pakistan Relations with USSR, 1996. In The World Today, no. II, January, 1969.
119
Monthly Press Review, Lahore, April, 1990.
120
Retrieved from http://defence.pk/threads/indias-ayni-military-base-in-tajikistan-is-russia-locked.215493/page-20, accessed on
10/10/2014.

xli
supporting religious extremist organizations including: Markaz Dawa Al Irshad; Lashkar-e-
Taiba, its militant wing, Harkat-ul-Mujahideen (HUM) and the Tablighi Jamaat. Similar
assistance, she believed, has been extended to anti-Russian religious extremists, zealously
committing violent subversive activities in Chechnya, Dagistan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.121
Moscow frequently expressed robust apprehensions over the eulogisation of Chechnyan
extremist leaders in Pakistan and existence of training camps in Pakistan, and Taliban-controlled,
Afghanistan.122 It was widely believed that during second tenure of the Prime Minister, Benazir
Bhutto in the early 1990s, not only ISI but also religious extremist outfits covertly provided
training to Bosnian Muslim groups, to fight the Serbs, in confidence with the US. 123 Similar
assistance was, allegedly, also extended to the Muslims of Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) to
fight Belgrade, during Government of Prime Minister, Nawaz Sharif. Russian officials suspected
that Pakistan has been playing a formidable role in the American strategy to disintegrate
Yugoslavia, despite her displeasure at Washington over invoking Pressler Amendment.
Moreover, promoting dissatisfaction against Moscow amongst the Muslim population of
Chechnya and Caucasus and Dagestan by Pakistan, Russia feared, were in consonance with US
design to dismember the Russian Federation. Russia and the Central Asian Republics were
eagerly watching future plans of the Taliban.124 Russia also expressed displeasure over inept
Pakistani narcotics control authorities, unable to stop uninterrupted, enlarged smuggling of
narcotics into Russia via the Central Asian Republics, especially, Tajikistan.125
Despite such inhibiting factors, tentative steps to improve bilateral relations were successfully
initiated by PM Benazir Bhutto. To assure Moscow of Pakistan’s goodwill and build confidence
a liaison relationship between the ISI and the Russian intelligence was created that shared
counterterrorism and counter-narcotics information. This process continued following return to
power of Nawaz Sharif in February, 1997, the two countries exchanged notes on the situation in
Afghanistan during periodic consultations between the Afghan experts of the two Foreign

121
Retrieved from http://defence.pk/threads/indias-ayni-military-base-in-tajikistan-is-russia-locked.215493/page-20, accessed on
10/10/2014.
122
The Daily Dawn, Karachi, dated 20.10.2007.
123
Khan, R. M., Afghanistan and Pakistan, Conflict, Extremist and Resistance to Modernity. Oxford University Press, Karachi 2011, pp
89-90.
124
Retrieved from http://defence.pk/threads/indias-ayni-military-base-in-tajikistan-is-russia-locked.215493/page-20, accessed on
10/10/2014.
125
Sattar, A., Pakistan Foreign Policy 1947-2005. Oxford University Press, Karachi 2007, pp 34-36.

xlii
Offices. Pakistan also supported association of Moscow in finding a political solution in
Afghanistan.126
In July, 1997, serious initiatives to enhance bilateral trade, previously limited to barely US$ 50
million, were agreed by the two sides during the visit to Moscow of the then Foreign Minister,
Gohar Ayub Khan. Pakistan tried to sort out factors that delayed launch of Badr II,
meteorological satellite of Pakistan’s Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission
(SUPARCO), by a Russian rocket.127
The two Foreign Offices hotly contested in July, 1997, desirability of closer cooperation despite
obstructing factors. The debate in Pakistan intensified, following Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif’s
visit to the US in December, 1998, and failure in persuading the Clinton Administration to lift
ban on the sale of new military hardware and spare parts of previously supplied equipment to
Pakistan.128
Russian Foreign Office mentioned informally to its counterpart in Pakistan that Russia shall not
undermine the priority of its relations with India, still, she intends not to allow this to be a hurdle
in improving relations with Pakistan. They, reportedly, hinted that Russia might not sell military
equipment to Pakistan, however, need not forbid Ukraine and Belarus to sell military equipment
to Pakistan. Resultantly, Pakistan’s contract of purchase of tanks with Ukraine was implemented
and Belarus offered sale of tanks and aircraft during the visit of Vasily Borisovich Dolgoliov, the
Deputy Prime Minister of Belarus to Pakistan, in November, 1998.129
During his second tenure as Prime Minister, Mr. Nawaz Sharif visited Russia in April 1999.130
Prime Minister duly acknowledged Russia’s role as a ‘neighbor’ and a ‘global power’ in
mediating disputes in the region, the two sides re-affirmed the need of global relation to move
towards a balanced multi-polar world, free of confrontation, based on sovereign equality of all
states, democratic values and justice. Rectifying imbalance in Pakistan’s foreign policy appeared
still a distant and a rather abstract goal to critics advocating substantive gains from an opening
towards Russia.131

126
Ibid.
127
Daily The News. Islamabad, dated 28.08.1998.
128
The Daily Frontier Post. Peshawar, dated 26.12.1998.
129
The Daily Dawn. Karachi, dated 28.4.1999.
130
The Economist. U.K, May, 1999.
131
Area Study Centre, University of Peshawar, Pak-Russia: International Seminar on Confident Building Measure Between Pakistan,
Russia And Central Asia. Area Study Centre, University of Peshawar, Peshawar 2000, p 15.

xliii
At security level, a new thinking in Islamabad and Moscow tended to promote closer
understanding on security issues in Central and Southern Asia. Since Afghanistan, Kashmir and
Tajikistan were three flashpoints in the politically volatile two regions, the understanding in
Moscow that diplomacy, instead of war shall be used as an option to ensure the peaceful
resolution of conflicts, provided a source of hope.132
Security cooperation between Pakistan and Russia could take place in dealing with non-
traditional security threats such as terrorism, narcotics and drug trafficking, illegal flow of light
weapons, environmental pollution, energy and water conflicts and so forth. Another area of
security cooperation between Pakistan and Russia could be to control sources of ethnic and
religious extremism in the two countries. Traditionally, Russia has maintained its security and
strategic interests in Central and South Asia and the visit of Nawaz Sharif did give an
opportunity to the two countries to bridge the gap between their security perceptions. Moscow
remained a closer security partner of India, but in the post-cold war scenario, there has been a
greater need on the part of Islamabad and Moscow to replace traditional notions of security with
rational and logical considerations.133
The possibility of mediation and facilitation of Russia in resolving outstanding disputes between
India and Pakistan, particularly Kashmir has often been discussed in the relevant circles. In
Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif’s visit to Moscow also, there was talk about possible Russian role
in promoting peace in South Asia, namely at the Indo-Pak level. Historical evidence in terms of
Russian facilitation did exist in the shape of resolving Tashkent Declaration. But any possibility
of Moscow’s helping hand or facilitation for resolving conflicts between India and Pakistan
depends upon response of New Delhi. To alleviate the tension between India and Pakistan,
Russia can encourage the two countries sustain the normalization process. Russia supported the
Lahore Declaration and felt satisfied when India and Pakistan were involved in resolving their
conflicts. Russia and Pakistan realize a greater need to support the peace process in Afghanistan
and Tajikistan too. The joint statement issued by Russia and Pakistan after the conclusion of
Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif’s visit to Moscow, led observers to believe hope that the two
countries could work together to help resolve various regional conflicts.134

132
The Daily Dawn. Karchi, dated, 2010.
133
The Monthly Journal Press Review. Karachi, May, 1999.
134
Government of Pakistan, Pakistan Foreign Affairs. Pakistan Foreign Office, Islamabad 1999.

xliv
In the area of economic and trade cooperation, the visit of Pakistan’s Prime Minister, Nawaz
Sharif, in April, 1999, managed to break the logjam and three important steps were taken.
Pakistan and Russia granted the Most Favored Nation (MFN) status to each other. Signed the
agreement on trade and economic cooperation stipulating that both sides grant non
discriminatory treatment to each other in taxes, customs as well as method and transfer of
payments. The agreement was signed by Sartaj Aziz, Foreign Minister of Pakistan and the
Russian Trade Minister, Georgy Gabunia on behalf of respective governments.135The agreement
excluded preferential treatment provided by each country under any special arrangements as in
groups like SAARC. This replaced a barter trade agreement signed between the former USSR
and Pakistan in 1956. Three points had emerged as an outcome of the visit of Prime Minister of
Pakistan: Firstly, an agreement on trade cooperation was signed between the federations of the
chamber of commerce and industry of the two countries,136 covering private sector’s
arrangements of promotion of trade between the two countries. Secondly, the barter trade
agreement was signed between the two governments. Thirdly, it was decided to create the Joint
Ministerial Commission of the two countries to facilitate annual policy meetings at ministerial
level and to examine joint ventures between the two countries. Pak-Russia ties in economic and
commercial spheres have been in favour of Russia, though annual trade between the two
countries did not exceed $75m, the real challenge has been to achieve a leap forward in bilateral
trade. Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif took initiative of re-conciliation between the two countries in
April 1999, visiting Russia after 25 years.
Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs of Russia, Alexander Losyukov, visited Pakistan on 19 April
2001 and agreed to promote economic cooperation for peace and prosperity in the region.137
Edward S. Shevchenko, former Russian Ambassador in Pakistan, stated in 2001 that Russia
offers support for laying Gas pipeline from Iran to India via Pakistan. In fact Russian Gasprom
did express intent in this $4 billion project that led to signing in November 2002, a Memorandum
of Understanding with the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Resources of Pakistan.138 It might
benefit Russian oil and gas companies, had they participated in the said project. Similarly,

135
Monthly Journal, Press Review. Lahore, April, 1999.
136
The Daily Dawn. Karachi, dated 22.04.1999.
137
Daily The News. Islamabad, dated 25.04.2001.
138
Report of Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Resources, Pakistan Year Book. Islamabad 2002.

xlv
Russian Oil Company Rusneft and gas trader, It era could also benefit from a commercially
viable project of the Trans-Afghan Pipeline such as TAPI.
Russia can launch joint ventures to enlarge trade to improve existing relatively low trade volume
between the two countries. The six member Russian parliamentary delegation visiting Pakistan
in May, 2002 expressed intent to invest in Pakistan, particularly in the field of heavy machinery,
construction equipment and agricultural products.139 Trade between the two countries has been
fluctuating between: $63 million in 1998-1999, $93.34 million in 1999-2000, $69.64 million in
2000-2001, $83.45 million in 2001-2002, $60.47 million in 2002-2003 and $154.53 million in
2003-2004.140
It has been noted that Pakistan’s trade with Russia, is a meager 0.5% of its global trade, meaning
economic and trade relations between Russia and Pakistan are far short of their real potential.
This fact was acknowledged by the Chairman of Export Promotion Bureau (EPB) of Pakistan at
a seminar on ‘Pakistan’s Economy, Investment Opportunities and Pak-Russia Trade Relations,
held in Moscow, in October, 2003.141
Fiscal years, 1994-95 and 2003-04, have witnessed bilateral trade exceeding $150 million, i.e.,
$154.75 million and $154.53 million respectively. Bilateral trade rose, in 1994-95, owing to
Russian sale of raw cotton to Pakistan along with iron and steel manufactures. 142 In trade of
$154.53 million, in 2003-04, Pakistan exported cotton fabrics, sports goods, toys,
medical/surgical instruments, articles of textile materials and other commodities totaling $20.5
million. Russia exported fertilizers manufactures, paper and paper products, iron and steel, crude
rubber, and machinery and its parts totaling $134 million.143 Suffice to say that the balance of
trade had been much in favor of Russia, thus, making imperative upon Russia to allow special
concessions to Pakistani exports and grant Pakistan most-favored-nation status in trade and
investments. The prompt settlement of issues such as, debt restructuring of Pakistan, settlement
of financial obligations, and promotion of inter-bank relations, required to be urgently and
meaningfully addressed. Pak-Russia Intergovernmental Commission on Trade, particularly, the
Joint Economic Commission, established in 2000, needs to be re-vitalized to further strengthen,

139
Daily The News. Islamabad, dated 10.10.2003.
140
Ibid.
141
Khan, S.A., Pak-Russia Relations: Visiting Moscow 2007. In Central Asia, no. 62, Area Study Centre, University of Peshawar,
Peshawar 2008.
142
Government of Pakistan, Annual Report. Chamber of Commerce, Peshawar 2004.
143
Annual Economic Survey of Pakistan, Karachi, 2002.

xlvi
mutually beneficial economic cooperation, to pave way to bring the two countries closer, and
improve bilateral relations, to promote stability and peace in the region.144
A three-member Russian delegation of heavy mechanical industries visited Pakistan, in
December 2003.145 They visited Heavy Mechanical Complex at Texila, Pakistan Machine Tool
Factory Karachi, and Spinning Machine Company Lahore and indicated willingness to provide
expertise to textile sector of Pakistan.146 Russian automobile manufacturers can also invest in the
automobile sector of Pakistan. In 2003, the Federal Minister of industry and production invited
Russian automobile manufacturers to invest in assembling Russian-made cars and tractors in
Pakistan. Russia can also supply special machinery to produce spare parts of tractors and
automobiles. The Russians were also undertaking expansion work in 2003 at the Karachi Steel
Mills established with their assistance in the 1970s.147
General Parvez Musharaf visited Moscow in February 2003 and the then Prime Minister of
Pakistan Mir Zafarullah Khan Jamali in the following year. Surprisingly, after 38 years of
Russian PM Kosygin’s visit, in 1969, the Russian Prime Minister, Mikhail Fradkov, visited
Pakistan on 13th April 2007.148 Russian Prime Minister, Mikhail Fradkov and the Prime Minister
of Pakistan Shoukat Aziz exchanged views on various projects. Pakistan and Russia agreed to
conclude, an investment treaty, and agreement to avoid double taxation, to further expand trade
and economic ties. Both the countries signed: an agreement of cooperation in combating human
trafficking; smuggling of narcotics, drugs and psychotropic substances.149 Three memoranda of
understanding were also signed, to boost cooperation in various sectors, including: lying of new
railway tracks; supply of sleepers and signaling system; up-gradation of Mughal Pura Bridge
Workshop; and setting up metro railways, in major cities of Pakistan. State level contacts offer
certain prospects between the Russian Federation and Pakistan to establish more cordial
relations.150 Strong demand in Russian market has accelerated potato exports from Pakistan to
Russia. From January 2010 to February 16, 2010, around 25,000 ton potato had been exported

144
Daily The News.Islambad, dated 19.04.2007.
145
Daily The News. Islamabad, dated 21.03.2003.
146
The Daily Dawn. Karachi, dated 12.12.2003.
147
Daily The News. Islamabad, dated 16.01.2004.
148
The Daily Dawn. Karachi, dated 21.02.2010.
149
Daily Tribune Express. Islamabad, dated 18.03.2007.
150
Governmnet of Pakistan, Foreign Affairs. Islamabad, Government of Pakistan, Vol.xxxiv (iv – vi), April,-June, 2009.

xlvii
fetching, around $7.5 million, at an average price of, $300 to $315, per ton.151 Exporters were
optimistic of high potato exports during January–May, 2010, owing to strong demand from
Russia, where a dry spell resulted in crop failure.
The Russian Ambassador in Pakistan, Andry Bandnik, on December 11, 2010, at launching of
Pakistan–Russia Business Forum in Karachi, spoke about his government’s desire to strengthen
economic ties with Pakistan, enhancing bilateral trade and exchange of technology. He stated
that Russian exports to Pakistan primarily fertilizers, wheat, paper goods and rubber stood at $
346 million. Russian technology used in oil exploration, railways, power plants and steel sectors,
may assist Pakistan, he opined. Tariq Rafi, another member of the Forum, noted that Pakistan’s
exports to Russia stood at $ 600 million, still quite low and insignificant, keeping in view the
potential.152 Earlier, on November 7, 2010, a Russian delegation had expressed keen interest in
gas, mining, agriculture, livestock, healthcare and engineering sectors in Sindh.153 At the Sindh
Board of Investment, holding parleys with the Advisor to Chief Minister Sindh on Investment,
Mr. Zubair Motiwala, the head of the delegation, Russian National Investment Agency’s Chief
Executive Officer, agreed to explore possibilities of investing in these fields. Bright prospects of
Russian investment existed in Pakistan.154
Pakistan and Russia decided to enter into a new phase in defense cooperation, following first
ever visit of a Pakistani Chief of the Air Staff, Air Marshal Tahir Rafiq Butt to Russia on August
15, 2012. He visited various air force related Russian defense installations.155 He mentioned that
Pakistan already in use of Russian made helicopters seeks diversification and expansion in this
field; Russian choppers have been providing useful service to defense forces of Pakistan.156
Russia also agreed to invest up-to $500 million for expansion, rehabilitation and modernization
of Pakistan Steel Mills. A Pakistani delegation visited Moscow to settle financial and technical
terms of the project led to agree on a memorandum of understanding, signed by the two countries
on October 3, 2012. It envisions modernization, reconstruction and expansion of production
capacity of the Pakistan Steel by up to 1.5 million metric tons.157 Russian company

151
The Daily Dawn. Karachi, dated 16.02.2010.
152
Daily The News. Islamabad, dated 03.08.2012.
153
The Daily Dawn.Karachi, dated 10.10.2010.
154
Daily Tribune Express. Islamabad, dated March 2011.
155
Daily The Frontier Post. Peshawar, dated 20.08.2012.
156
The Daily Dawn. Karachi, dated 10.10.2010.
157
The Daily Dawn. Karachi, dated 28.11.2012.

xlviii
‘Tyazhpromexport’ had helped establish this plant and shall carry out technical audit. Chairman
of the Board of Investment, Saleem H. Mandviwalla and Russian Trade Representative in
Pakistan, Yuri M. Kolsov, had signed a formal contract in December, 2011 in this regard. In the
energy sector, Genco entered into a framework cooperation agreement with the Russian
Company, Techno prom export, to convert the Muzaffargarh Thermal power plant from furnace
oil to coal and to construct a new power plant at Jamshoro. Both the countries agreed to consider
setting up of a new plant with a capacity of 500 MW to 600 MW. They agreed that 15% of funds
will be provided by Genco and 85% through a loan against a sovereign guarantee of Pakistan. 158
Urdu–Russian Dictionary, compiled by Tashmirza Khalmirzaev, a Diplomat of the former Soviet
Union was jointly launched by Russian Academy of Sciences and National Language Authority
on 2.8.2012 in Islamabad.159
2.5 A Compendium of Pak-Russia Diplomacy

In 1948, diplomatic relations were established between Pakistan and the Russian Federation.
Under President Ayub Khan, advances were made in relations between the two countries yet
Soviet arms sales to India, during and after the 1971 Indo-Pak war did weaken bilateral relations.
President Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto once more made great strides in improving bilateral relations, with
a trip to Moscow in 1974, with substantial economic investments were made by the Soviet Union
in steels mills and oil exploration. However, with General Zia-ul-Haq replacing Bhutto, the clash
of ideology between the two nations deteriorated the status quo. The Soviet invasion of
Afghanistan and Pakistan’s subsequent material and economic support of the Mujahideen rebel
movement led to severe tension. With the withdrawal of Soviet troops, relations did defrost but
Pakistan’s support of the Taliban did remain a source of contention.
With Pakistan’s decision to join the international struggle against global terrorism, relations with
Russia improved once more. The Russian Prime Minister visited Pakistan in 2007, emphasizing
ways to improve cooperation between the two countries. Although Putin had stated that Russia
would not engage with Pakistan in military and strategic ties, this was reversed in 2011 when
Russia endorsed Pakistan’s bid to join the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation5 and offered
assistance in partnering in the expansion of Pakistan’s steel and coal sectors.

158
Daily Tribune Express. Islamabad, dated April, 2011.
159
The Daily Dawn. Karachi, dated 30.09.2012.

xlix
Summary
The inter-state relations between Pakistan and the former Soviet Union and/or present day
Russian Federation had never been finding an easy track. Though currently the two countries
hold similar opinions on major strategic international issues, such as: support to the concept of a
multi-polar world, supremacy of the role of UNO; disapproval of unilateral actions and use of
force to change the current international system; struggle against terrorism and combating illicit
narcotic’s production, trafficking; illegal migration of human beings, strengthening of nuclear
nonproliferation and push forward processes of regional cooperation. In the past relations
suffered due to the idiosyncrasies and notions such as: Soviet Communists/Russians did not
support creation of Pakistan; use of Soviet Union/Russia by Pakistan to blackmail the West and
extract concessions; Pakistan joining anti Soviet imperialist alliances SEATO and SENTO;
alleged Soviet/Russian support to India on Kashmir; Soviet/Russian role in the creation of
Bangladesh and Pakistan’s role in bleeding the Soviets/Russians in Afghanistan.
From 1947 to 1960 Pakistan’s close military cooperation with USA remained a major cause of
worsening relationship. In the mid-60s Pakistan’s military ruler, Field Marshal Mohammad
Ayub Khan tried to redress, Soviet Union positively responded by facilitating Tashkent Peace
Declaration between India and Pakistan in 1966. Some cooperation between the two countries
began in the field of Defense and economy, however, internal instability in Pakistan and alleged
USSR-India nexus to dismember Pakistan in 1971, resulting in the creation of Bangladesh,
sealed the fate of improving relations between both the nations.
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, flag-bearer of ‘bilateralism’, in the foreign affairs visited Soviet Union in
March 1972 and October 1974. Not only he laid foundation but multiplied Pak-Soviet
cooperation too in sectors such as science and technology, arts, culture, economy and education.
The land mark had been package of 160 million Rubles for Pakistan Steel Mills, Karachi.
Ceaseless gestures of Soviet friendship towards Pakistan including: barter trade agreements;
exchange programs in the fields of science, education, and training of Pakistani technicians and
engineers in Soviet Union, to effectively run the Soviet-aided technical programs in Pakistan;
continued, in1975-76.
In Pakistan, occupation of power by General Muhammad Ziaul Haq in July 1977; Saur
Revolution; a pro-Soviet military coup in Afghanistan in April 1978, and Soviet armed
intervention in Afghanistan, in December 1979, re-landed Pakistan in the formerly estranged

l
American camp. Ensuing jehad (holy war) in Afghanistan against Soviet/Russian infidels, aided
by Pakistan, clamped for almost two decades, fate of cooperation between Pakistan and Russia.
In the 90s Pakistan and Russian Federation, the successor state of Soviet Union, wasted
opportunities, to initiate ties without idiosyncrasies, adversely affecting them, and to strengthen
further in almost every field, particularly energy and technology. However, the level of Pakistan
- Russia relations did not climb much since Russia was more inward looking and the thaw
required vigorous efforts from both sides. The Pak-Russia rapprochement envisaged and
envisioned by Presidents Pervaiz Musharraf and Vladimir Putin in February 2003, in Moscow,
has not yet been released. Much has to be done to expand bilateral ties; to address problems of
conflict resolution; and disarmament, particularly in nuclear sphere, in the region. Pakistan’s
inclusion into the SCO, facilitation of the closer interaction of Russia with ECO, OIC and
SARRC may serve as important forums to develop political interaction between Pakistan and
Russia. Granting Russia, Most Favored Nation Status, by Pakistan and consideration of mutual
lowering of tariffs shall promote bilateral economic co-operation. Both Pakistan and Russia may
certainly benefit if they cooperate in the field of heavy industry, oil and gas, aerospace
technologies as well as textile and agriculture. Increased exchange of information; people to
people contact; creating regional systems of international relations amongst the Central Asian
countries, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Russia and China may be steps in further strengthening ties. It
seems, both Pakistan and Russia, following high level visits of Pakistani Chiefs of Air and
Ground forces have agreed to enter into agreements to purchase Russian made military
160
equipment, including MI35 Helicopters. According to Russian Ambassador Alexey Y.
Dedov, Russia is mindful of increased terrorism in Pakistan and will assist Pakistan in combating
terrorism by supplying military hardware. Pakistan has ordered twenty five (25) MI 35
Helicopters and will be delivered in due course.161 This may serve as a prelude to the beginning
of broader cooperation between the two countries and may lessen economic, technological and
defense difficulties of Pakistan.

160
Retrieved from http://www.asian-defence.net/2014/06/russia-lifts-arms-embargo-from-pakistan.html, Accessd on 10/102014
161
Russia to supply Mi-35 helicopter to Pakistan. In Express Tribune, dated 10.06.2014. Retrieved from
http://tribune.com.pk/story/719921/russia-to-supply-mi-35-helicopter-to-pakistan/, accessed on 10/10/2014.

li
Source: http://www.asian-defence.net/2014/06/russia-lifts-arms-embargo-from-pakistan.html

lii
Chapter 3 Revival in Pak-Russia Mutual Dealings

3.1 From Alienation to Pragmatism

Pak-Russia mutual dealings can be best resumed as a story of reciprocal misinterpretation,
misestimating and wasted chances because of the continuously varying action plans of the both
countries on the bases of geopolitical facts meanwhile the Cold War duration. History attests to
the reality that their mutual dealings have stayed gloomy key with merely some anticipations of
investment cooperation, trade and economic from 1960s to 1970s.162 The post-9/11 epoch has
restored chances for fervency reciprocal mutual dealings in which two countries can perform in a
ration manner according to their general economic and strategic sakes on issues requiring
international and regional susceptibility to a pathogen, particularly the Afghanistan terrorism and
morass. More particularly, it is the post-2014 the environment of regional security of South and
Central Asia, specifically grown in strength of the Islamic State of Khorasan (ISK) in
Afghanistan, which is now guiding the two states overlap of sakes. Islamic State of Khorasan in
Afghanistan has elevated great consequence security vexations for Russia, paving the path for
promoting mutual dealings with Pakistan.
Russia admits indispensability of Pakistan for conveying unceasing stability and peace in
Afghanistan. Unceasing and durable mutual dealings with Pakistan may also generate having
many directions space of economic for Russia in the America. In Addition, both eager economic
act of working jointly for undertakings in Central Asia;163 and by the Kremlin, Foreign Direct
Investment (FDI) can provide assistance to minimize dependence of Pakistan on Western aid,
specifically in sight of America, freeze armed forces sales to Pakistan164 likely decrease the
international isolation of latter and make divers its relating to diplomacy concentration beyond
China. Provided role of Russia as a dominant power of world, its significance as a regional
collaborator for Pakistan cannot be exaggerated. Another rational motive behind the set anew in

162
Rehan Aqil Khan, “Pakistan– Russia Relations and Future Prospects,” Opinion 2, no. 2 (2014): 14-25 (14-16),
http://www.ndu.edu.pk/afwc/pub/OPINION-Vol.2-No.2.pdf.
163
“Pakistan, Russia to Go for FTA, Currency Swap Agreement,” Express Tribune, November 8, 2011,
https://tribune.com.pk/story/289029/pakistan-russia-to-go-for-fta-currency-swap-agreement/.
164
Frud Bezhan, “Trump‟s Tool Kit: U.S. Options for Pressuring Pakistan,” Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, August 24, 2017,
https://www.rferl.org/a/trump-pakistan-strategy-pressure/28695060.html. Also see, “Pakistan Considers Canceling U.S. F-16
Deal, Buying from Jordan,” Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, June 15, 2016, https://www.rferl.org/a/pakistan-considers-
cancelling-us-f16-fighter-jet-deal-buying-used-planes-jordan/27798427.html.

liii
mutual dealings is the action plan of President Putin of growing vigorously the influence of his
state over its contiguous and remote regions of sake.165

17, Sadovaya-Kudrinskaya street Moscow, Russia, where the Embassy of Pakistan located.

165
Nazir Hussain and Khurshid Ali Sangay, “The Russian Resurgence and South Asian Region,” IPRI Journal XII, no. 2 (2012): 15-
34, http://www.ipripak.org/wp-content/ uploads/2014/01/art2nazs12.pdf.

liv
Determinants of this mutual dealing also have as part inter-regional economic expectations
through a range of the Eurasian Economic Community,166 Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)167, and
its successor the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU).168 The coming in to maturity strategic loss
of equilibrium, specifically in South Asia; the significant role of Pakistan in security of
Afghanistan; fight off the resurgence of Russia; sanctions of Washington on Islamabad; and the
raising menace of political theory favoring immoderate uncompromising policies are also
similarly to jeopardize the stability of Central and South Asia, in specifically, and the Eurasia
territory, in common. Too obvious to be doubted, stimulating situations are open to easy view in
deciding the complex composition of this reconciliation. For reference, the Delhi and
Washington have given expression of being annoyed over these stringing mutual dealings.
Founded on subaltern reexamine of pedantic sources, this study try to finds how Pak-Russia
mutual dealings gain through experience from disaffection to organized as institution, with a
specific concentration on why this mutual dealing is important Moscow and Islamabad. Socio-
cultural, counterterrorism, defense, energy, and economic domains are the significant variables
that are in detail critically inspected. Presented actuality of geopolitical obsessions like quest of
Moscow for performing an unmistakable role in the security of Afghanistan tartar of the
American autonomous; pursuits of Pakistan for existing of the straitjacket of America169 and
locating substitute actors of region offer the challenges, reasons, and expectations in constituting
prospective mutual relations. It is presented evidence that mutual dealings of Pakistan and Russia
are similarly to develop in futurity, particularly in terms of defense and economic joint operation
and make better coactions in the particular geographical region of counterterrorism.
3.2 From Estrangement to Institutional Engagement: A Historical Perspective

After the emerging of Pakistan on the map of the world, the state could make a selection either to
come in to adjustment with the block of communism or join the camp of capitalist founded on its

166
Georgios L. Vousinas, “Eurasian Economic Community: Towards Integration. Economic Challenges and Geostrategic
Aspects,” Modern Economy 5 (2014): 951-966, http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/me.2014.59088. EurAsEC (2000) [its successor
Eurasian Economic Union (2014)] is a regional integration initiative of Russia. It is an economic bloc consisting of Belarus,
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Russia.
167
LehmanBrown, “The Belt and Road Initiative” (paper, LehmanBrown International Accountants, Beijing, 2017),
https://www.lehmanbrown.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/The-Belt-and-Road-Initiative.pdf.
168
EEC, Eurasian Economic Integration: Facts and Figures (Moscow: Eurasian Economic Commission, 2016),
https://bit.ly/2hi6ZBN.
169
Muhammad Nawaz Khan and Beenish Altaf, Pakistan-Russia Rapprochement and Current Geo-Politics, IPRI Journal XIII, no.1
(2013): 125-134, http://www.ipripak.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/std4naww13.pdf.

lv
legacy of colonialism.170 The higher administration cerebrate the position for use of economic
favor they were searching meanwhile the era of Cold War could not be attained from Soviets. In
addition, Pakistan had to show consideration of its growing anxious feeling of securing
defense/armed forces resource in panorama of its fickle border of eastern side.171 It was the quest
of Pakistan to discover or locate the equilibrium of mightiness and to antagonize hostile designs
of India that sketched a pro-Washington tentative suggestion design as the major component of
its foreign plan of action meanwhile this era.
In spite of becoming the part of the Western camp, diplomatic mutual dealings with that time
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) were constituted in 1948.172 Mr. Ayoub Khan, The
president of Pakistan toured the Soviet Union for the first time in 1965.173

170
Nazir Hussain, “Pak-Russia Relations: Lost Opportunities and Future Options,” Journal of Political Studies 19, no. 1 (2012):
79-89 (80), http://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/pols/pdf-files/Pak-
russia%20relations,%20opportunities%20Nazir_Vol_19_Issue_1_2012.pdf.
171
Muhammad Hanif, “Pakistan-Russia Relations: Progress, Prospects and Constraints,” IPRI Journal XIII, no. 2 (2013): 63-86,
http://www.ipripak.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/art4han.pdf.
172
Ardeshir Cowasjee, “A Recap of Soviet-Pakistan Relations,” Dawn, March 12, 2011, https://www.dawn.com/news/612610.
173
Syed Waqar Ali Shah and Shaista Parveen, “Disintegration of Pakistan – The Role of Former Union of Soviet Socialist Republic
(USSR): An Appraisal,” Journal of the Research Society of Pakistan 53, no. 1 (2016): 171-190 (171),
http://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/history/PDF-FILES/13%20Paper_v53_1_16.pdf.

lvi
Alexei Kosygin USSR Council of Ministers Chairman center at a reception given by Mohammad Ayub Khan President of Pakistan

In this reign, Soviet Union performed a significant directed toward meditation role in the
Ratified Agreement of Tashkent in 1966, as a result of this significant agreement the war of 1965
174
between Pakistan and India ended.

President Ayub Khan signed the Tashkent Agreement January 10, 1966, ending the 17-day war between Pakistan and India in 1965.

On April 17, 1968, this was pursuit by the first ever tour to Pakistan of Kosygin, Prime Minister.
Meanwhile the 60s, Pakistan was proffered to become the part of the plan of “Kosygin” for a
grouping of region based economic, comprising Iran, India, Afghanistan, Soviet Union and
Pakistan, and the idea of Breznev an Asian Collective Security orderly group.” On the other hand
Pakistan did not hold as true to the proposal of this security because it observed that Russian
impelling to actions back were to moderate the influence of Chinese in the territory and also to

174
Tashkent Agreement, India-Pakistan, January 10, 1966.
https://www.britannica.com/event/Tashkent-Agreement.

lvii
menace its relationship with China.‟175 As a consequence, the Kremlin declared for the world
and specifically for Islamabad that “without the favor of Pakistan, it would be very
unmanageable for the Russia to conserve its status in the Central as well as in South Asia”.176

Moscow Kremlin Wall - Wikipedia

In this way a short lived duration of good mutual dealings closed between the neighboring states.
It was also the occasion when Pakistan’s action plan constructer initiated affirming solemnly and
formally that it was Soviet-India articulated jeopardizes according to the agreement cooperation,
peace and friendship of August 1971, which boosted India to separated Eastern Wing of Pakistan
into present day Bangladesh.177 Bilateral mutual dealings of Pakistan with Russia initiate to
aggravate even foster.
The Z.A. Bhutto administration tried to counterbalance the Dhaka traumatic declension of joint
together with the “fraudulent of the Washington” by presuming the Look East action plan under
bilateralism.178 This action plan guided to impermanent betterment in mutual dealings, as
apparent by the Bhutto Soviet toured in 1974, registered as the first Prime Minister of Pakistan to
tour Soviets.179 On the other hand, the Soviet act of invading in 1979 on Afghanistan concluded

175
Shah and Parveen, “Disintegration of Pakistan – The Role of Former Union of Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR): An
Appraisal,”179.
176
Ibid., 182.
177
Khan, “Pakistan– Russia Relations and Future Prospects,”16.
178
Hussain, “Pak-Russia Relations: Lost Opportunities and Future Options,” 5.
179
“Pak-Russia Relations,” Jahangir’s World Times, October 4, 2014, http://jworldtimes.com/jwt2015/magazine-archives/jwt-
2014/october2014/pak-russia-relations/.

lviii
this short-duration betterment of mutual dealings, tearing away Pakistan into the proxy war of
the America contrary to the prior time USSR.180

180
Lester W. Grau and Michael A. Cress, eds., The Soviet-Afghan War: How a Superpower Fought and Lost (Lawrence:
University Press of Kansas, 2002), 1.

lix
Map of the War in Afghanistan
Chasing Soviet back-down from Kabul and unanticipated desertion of Washington join together
with confinements according to the Glenn and Pressler Amendments compelled Pakistan to
consider again its panorama related to Russia.181 Finally, the next decade informed a not steep or
abrupt overlap, as evidence in the mutual interchange of peak standard official tours between the
two nations. A significant tour in this attentiveness took place in April 1999 approximately after
25 year of that time Prime Minister of Pakistan Mian Nawaz Sharif to Moscow.182

181
“US Created Taliban and Abandoned Pakistan, says Hillary,” Dawn, April 25, 2009, https://www.dawn.com/news/847153.
Also see, Ferrukh Mir, Half Truth (Bloomington: iUniverse, 2011), 402-403, and John Gennace, “US-Pakistan Relations after the
Soviet Withdrawal from Afghanistan: The Bush and Clinton Years,” Daily Journalist, January 21, 2017,
http://thedailyjournalist.com/the-historian/us-pakistan-relations-after-the-soviet-withdrawal-from-afghanistan-the-bush-and-
clinton-years/.
182
Khan, “Pakistan– Russia Relations and Future Prospects,”16-18.

lx
President Putin meets Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif
In spite of this, when Pakistan endorsed the Kabul and Taliban, 183 combating contrary to the
Northern Alliance, pro-Russia mutual dealings became turbid. On the other hand, the easily
perceived bend in revitalizing mutual dealings came when the Pakistan became most significant
element of the Washington-led waging of arm conflict on Terror in 2001, because of that de-
coordinating itself from the regime of that time Taliban. The stately campaign to commit mutual
dealings came in to being when that time President of Pakistan, Perviz Mushraf visited Vladimir
Putin at the occasion of the summit of multinational security Almaty on June 4, 2002.184

183
“The Taliban,” Mapping Militant Organizations (Stanford: Stanford University, 2016),
http://web.stanford.edu/group/mappingmilitants/cgi-bin/groups/view/367.The Afghan Taliban got rise in 1994 and its fall was
witnessed in 2001. “Three countries recognized the Taliban regime in Afghanistan between 1997 and 2001 such as Pakistan,
Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates.”
184
“President Vladimir Putin met with Pakistan‟s President Pervez Musharraf,” President of Russia, June 4, 2002,
http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/27120.

lxi
Pervez Musharraf shakes hands with Vladimir Putin (left), 2002.

This meeting led to constituent of the Joint Working Group on Strategic Stability and the Joint
Working Group on Counter-Terrorism,185 meanwhile the same year to interact in a certain way to
the occurring challenges to the stability of the region like arms control, narcotics smuggling,
human trafficking, terrorism, and extremism. Another not large but sufficient activity was

185
Hussain, “Pak-Russia Relations: Lost Opportunities and Future Options,” 86.

lxii
detected in 2011 when the combine meeting of Parliament find fault the Washington unilateral
in the arbitrary raid in Abbottabad for the murder of Osama bin Laden in May 2011 and in the
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) airstrikes on Salala Check Post and murder of 24
soldiers of Pakistan. Later on, new foreign action plan light lines of Pakistan envisioned making
an approach Moscow.”186 After that both states launched entire-inclusive coactions, and having
an illustration of six and half decades of diplomatic mutual dealings on starting the first bilateral
strategic conversion.187
Trade and Economic Relations
Economic mutual dealings of Pakistan with the Soviet Union have been on the contrary
moderator warm since the independence of Pakistan. Pakistan and Soviet Union set up trade
mutual dealings in the start of 1950s when Moscow united by being of the same opinion to
import leather, jute and cotton. Moscow purchased jute from Pakistan in interchange for 150,000
tons of wheat during the summer season of 1952 when Pakistan surrounded by fright of
famine.188 Eventually, Soviet Union and Pakistan set up a consortium of oil, Oilfields of
Pakistan, and showing involvements in setting up the first steel mills of Pakistan in 1958. After
three years of these initiatives in 1961, Moscow presented a temporary provision of money of 27
million Rubles to Islamabad for the exploration of gas and oil, after that this able to Pakistan to
set up in his Oil and Gas Development Organization.189 The Soviet Union catered proficient
skillfulness by virtue of possessing special knowledge and stretch out over duration a loan of 200
million dollars to Pakistan for the setting up of Pakistan Steel Mills in 1972 and this loan was
requite in conducive to comfort by Pakistan. This placement was hinder normal operation by
some companies of Pakistan that over-billed the unrefined standard goods and finally Soviet
Union declined to dwell by the placement. This spectacular temporary provision of money
remained a piercingly tinge in the Pak-Russia mutual dealings.190 In 2010, Moscow has again

186
Kamran Yousaf, “In a First, Pakistan, Russia to Hold Joint War Games,” Express Tribune, September 12, 2016,
https://tribune.com.pk/story/1180917/first-pakistan-russia-hold-joint-war-games/.
187
Tahir Mahmood Azad, “Pakistan-Russia Strategic Partnership: New Horizons for Cooperation” (brief, Institute of Strategic
Studies, Islamabad, 2016), http://issi.org.pk/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/Final-Issue-brief-Tahir-Azad-dated-26-12-2016.pdf;
and Baqir Sajjad Syed, “Pakistan, Russia to Enhance Cooperation,” Dawn, October 22, 2014,
https://www.dawn.com/news/1139575.
188
Hafeez Malik,Soviet-American relations with Pakistan, Iran, and Afghanistan,188.
189
‘Company History’ available atwww.ogdcl.comaccessed on December 27, 2014.
190
Hafeez Malik, Soviet-American Relations with Pakistan, Iran, and Afghanistan,191

lxiii
bounded to commercial activity of catering funds for up-gradation of Pakistan Steel Mills.191 The
mutual particular instance of buying and selling between Russia and Pakistan gradually dying to
80million dollars has expanded to 542 Million Dollars till 2012. 192
Mutual Trade Volume
Economic Session Bulk of Commercial Exchange (US Millions Dollar )
2003 92 US Million Dollars
2006 411.4 US Million Dollars
2008 630 US Million Dollars
2009 400 US Million Dollars
2012 542 US Million Dollars
Source: Ministry of Commerce, Government of Pakistan, 2010
Despite trade opportunities, the exports from Pakistan to Russian Federation$210 million (2012)
are a meager 0.04% of the total Russian trade volume. Similarly, imports by Pakistan from
Russian Federation at $332 million (2012) stands at 0.07% of the total Russian trade volume. 193
Pakistan has been the biggest exporter of potato to the Russian Federation in 2010-2011. It
exported 125,000 tons of potato to Russian Federation.194 Pakistan is a major exporter of
“Kinnow” to Russian Federation. There is a huge potential of textile, leather goods, vegetables
and fruits. The main issue hampering the export of goods is the quality, non professional attitude
of exporters and the bureaucratic hurdles at the government level.
MAJOR EXPORTS OF PAKISTAN TO RUSSIAN FEDERATION (2009)
PRODUCTS VOLUME US $ MILLION
Vegetable, Fruits, Rice 111.11 US Million Dollars
Textile Goods 78.9 US Million Dollars
Chemical fibers and Filaments 52.8 US Million Dollars
Cotton 29.6 US Million Dollars

191
“Russia and Pakistan: Prospects of Interaction, Commemorating the 65thanniversary of Bilateral
relations, H.E. Mr. Igor V. Morgulov, Deputy Foreign Minister of The Russian Federation”, The Diplomatic
Insight, 6 ( 2010): 4
192
Ministry of Commerce, “Trade Statistics July 20009-2010” http://www.commerce.gov.pkaccessed on
May 12, 2010.
193
Ministry of Commerce, “Trade Statistics July 2009-2010” http://www.commerce.gov.pkaccessed on
May 12.2010.
194
Ibid., Trade Statistics 2010-2011.

lxiv
Leather Goods 17.5 US Million Dollars
Pharmaceutical Products 10.7 US Million Dollars
Sports Goods 4.89 US Million Dollars
Source: Ministry of Commerce, Government of Pakistan, 2009.
MAJOR IMPORTS OF PAKISTAN FROM RUSSIAN FEDERATION (2009)
Product Bulk in US Million Dollars
Ferrous Materials and Products 124.6 US Million Dollars
Fertilizers Exports 53.4 US Million Dollars
News print and Paper Board 18.18 Million
Source: Ministry of Commerce, Government of Pakistan, 2009
In the aftermath of 2010 floods in Pakistan, the Russian Federation decreased the custom duty up
to 35% on Pakistani goods as a goodwill gesture. As measures to boast trade, two Pakistani
trading houses have been opened in Saint Petersburg. A trading house is also established in
Moscow to promote Pakistani products. Pakistan Russia Business Forum (PRBF) was
established in 2009 to promote commerce and tourism. Another such forum, “Business Council
for Promotion of Trade with Pakistan” is quite effectively working since its establishment in
2011. Also in order to enhance economic cooperation between Pakistan and Russia a
governmental commission has been formed. In terms of Russian investment in Pakistan, it
offered various options; financing the Iran-Pakistan (IP) gas pipeline and expansion of Pakistan
Steel Mills production from 1 to 3 million tons per annum.195 It also offered to finance various
energy projects in Pakistan such as Tarbella expansion, Diamer Bhasha Dam, CASA-1000, up-
gradation of Gaddu, Muzafargarh and Jamshoro Power Plants.196
3.3 Significance of ‘Pakistan’ for Moscow

“Pakistan is important for us in trade and economy and is an important country of South Asia
and the Organization of the Islamic Conference and can play an important role in the promotion
of peace and security in the region”.
- Vladimir Putin197

195
“Putin Keeps Pakistan Alive”, Pravada, November 8, 2011.
196
“Address of Trade Representative of the Russian Federation in Pakistan, Mr. Yuri M. Kozlov, Activities
of the Russian Federation in Pakistan”The Diplomatic Insight, 6 (2013): 8.
197
“Pakistan, Russia to Go for FTA, Currency Swap Agreement,” Express Tribune.

lxv
Moscow’s current inclination to Islamabad is in line with its conceptual „multi-vectored pursuits
in South Asia‟198 indicated by President Putin’s readiness to acclimatize his country’s foreign
policy to the shifting regional milieu. In fact, Moscow is proactively exploring prospective
markets to export its military equipment and investments to sustain its economy buoyancy.
Pakistan may likely be a potential buyer of Russian military hardware, besides offering Moscow
investment opportunities in infrastructure, industrial sectors, agriculture, particularly drip
irrigation and desert farming in areas suffering acute water shortage.
Russia also acknowledges Pakistan’s indispensability in stabilizing Afghanistan. Continuous
violence and instability in Kabul is threatening Central Asia and North Caucasus – Russia’s
backyard. Likewise, falling global oil prices in 2014199 leading to substantial revenue decline in
energy-exporting states have possibly pushed the Kremlin to explore more venues in politico-
economic and strategic realms with other regions of the world, including South Asia.
3.3.1 Islamabad’s Lucidity

Changing geopolitical dynamics in South Asia as evident in the growing instability in

Afghanistan,200 greater role of India in the region under the US umbrella, and Pakistan’s quest
for maintaining the delicate strategic equilibrium in the region and economic imperatives of the
country are factors which are shaping the Pakistan-Russia relations, specifically in view of the
US‟ unilateral actions and tightening conditions, more precisely under Trump’s new South Asia
policy. More specifically, Washington’s unilateral action in the Abbottabad raid and drone
strikes, „redefining rules of engagement‟ in the WTO,201 indefinite presence of US forces in
Afghanistan,202 suspension of the Coalition Support Fund (CSF)203 and military assistance, and
blaming Pakistan for providing safe havens to the Afghan Taliban are the reasons Pakistan is

198
Himani Pant, “The Changing Contours of Russia‟s South Asia Policy” (brief no. 193, Observer Research Foundation, New
Delhi, 2017), http://cf.orfonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/ORF_IssueBrief_193_India-Russia.pdf.
199
Tim Bowler, “Falling Oil Prices: Who are the Winners and Losers?” BBC News, January 19, 2015,
http://www.bbc.com/news/business-29643612.
200
Saima Perveen, Jehanzeb Khalil, Manzoor Ahmad and Jehangir Khalil, “Post 2014 Spillover Effects of Afghanistan‟s Crisis on
Pakistan‟s Foreign Policy,” special issue, FWU Journal of Social Sciences, 1, no.1 (2015): 1-8 (2),
201
Adam Linehan, “What Mattis‟ New Rules of Engagement Mean for The War in Afghanistan,” Task & Purpose, October 4,
2017, https://taskandpurpose.com/what-mattis-new-rules-of-engagement-mean-for-the-war-in-afghanistan/.
202
Nora Kelly, “Full Transcript: Donald Trump Announces His Afghanistan Policy,” Atlantic, August 21, 2017,
https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2017/08/full-transcript-donald-trump-announces-his-afghanistan-
policy/537552/; and “Why is Russia Warming up to Pakistan,” Times of Islamabad, February 27, 2018
203
“Ambassador to US Says Withheld Coalition Support Funds were „Reimbursement‟, not „Assistance‟,” Dawn, July 22, 2017,
https://www.dawn.com/news/1346930.

lxvi
striving to diversify its foreign relations, seek viable alternative solutions204 and rethink its rules
of economic, foreign and defense engagements205 in order to eventually dismiss the impression
that Pakistan is a US-proxy in the region. Pakistan’s ties with Russia are also likely to strengthen
its position at multilateral forums like the Heart of Asia Conference and Shanghai Cooperation
Organization (SCO), and help the country in evolving a more „regional approach‟ to resolve the
Afghan conundrum. Moscow’s importance for Islamabad lies in its strong credentials as a
regional and world power, its leading role in SCO and its privileged right to veto at the United
Nations Security Council (UNSC).
3.4 Vital Areas of Pakistan-Russia Cooperation

Economy
In 1956, Russia and Pakistan established trade relations under an agreement in which Pakistan
exported cotton, jute and leather,206 and the Soviet Union founded Pakistan Steel Mills (PSM) on
December 30, 1973 with a loan of USD 200 million.207 In 1999, both countries also agreed to
establish an Inter-Governmental Commission for Trade and Economy; concluded a bilateral
agreement on trade and economic cooperation to replace the 1956 agreement.208 Subsequently, in
2009, the Pakistan-Russia Intergovernmental Commission (IGC) on Trade, Economic, and
Scientific and Technical Cooperation was formed.209 Likewise, to stimulate commerce and
tourism the Pakistan-Russia Business Forum (PRBF) was established in 2009,210 followed by the
Business Council for Promotion of Trade with Pakistan.211
Pakistan can also seek FDI in technology, research, innovation and energy. To this end, a
Russian delegation visited Pakistan in September 2012 and concluded Memorandum of

204
Hussain and Sangay, “The Russian Resurgence and South Asian Region,”31.
205
Sabena Siddiqi, “The Russia Pakistan Equation,” Katehon, June 1, 2017, http://katehon.com/article/russia-pakistan-
equation.
206
George Ginsburgs, The Soviet Union and International Cooperation in Legal Matters, Law in Eastern Europe no. 38
(Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1988), 73, and Nazir Hussain and Quratulain Fatima, “Pak-Russian Relations: Historical
Legacies and New Beginnings,” Central Asia, no.72 (2013): 1-15 (6).
207
“A Look Back at History of PSM,” Express Tribune, November 10, 2013, https://tribune.com.pk/story/630036/a-look-back-at-
history-of-psm/; and Hanif, “Pakistan-Russia Relations: Progress, Prospects and Constraints,” 14-15.
208
Adnan Ali Shah, “Pakistan-Russia Relations: Post-Cold War Era,” Strategic Studies XXI, no. 2 (2001).
209
“Pakistan, Russia Agree to Promote Trade, Investment,” Dawn, May 12, 2011, https://www.dawn.com/news/628117; and
“Russian – Pakistani Relations,” Consulate General of the Russian Federation in Karachi,
https://web.archive.org/web/20130315070730/http://www.rusconsulkarachi.mid.ru/RUSSIA-PAKISTAN.htm.
210
Abdul Rauf Tabani, “Message of President of the Pakistan-Russia Business Forum” (speech, Karachi, June 12, 2009), Pakistan
Russia Business Forum, http://www.prbf.org/speeches4.html.
211
Hussain and Fatima, “Pak-Russian Relations: Historical Legacies and New Beginnings,” 9.

lxvii
Understandings (MOUs) to invest in PSM, metallurgy, railways, power, science and
technology.212 These MOUs were aimed at enlarging and up-grading PSM to increase its
productivity from one to three million tones,213 and the up-gradation of Pakistan Railways,
improving railroad infrastructure and, developing trans-regional rail links with Central Asian
Republics (CARs) and Iran.214 These economic linkages were further institutionalized during the
fourth meeting of the IGC with the formation of five Joint Working Groups (JWGs) on trade
and finance; energy; food and agriculture; banking; and industries. Moreover, the State Bank of
Pakistan and the Central Bank of Russian Federation signed an MOU in Moscow for „promoting
cooperation in the fields of financial systems‟ development, payment systems, financial
infrastructure, and financial institutions‟ supervision”.215 At present, Pakistan exports cotton
yarn, fabrics, rice, nuts, textile goods, sports goods, leather, leather products, pharmaceutical
products,216 tangerines and potatoes to the Russian Federation. Russian exports to Pakistan
include fertilizers, paperboard, and raw ferrous and ferrous products. Pakistan-Russia trade has
witnessed a gradual rise from USD 95 million in 1980 to USD 660 million till 2018.217
According to Yury Kozlov, Russia’s trade representative, trade between both countries is
expected to grow up to approximately USD 750-800 million by the end of 2019.218 To further
strengthen economic relations, Islamabad and Moscow are considering signing a Free Trade
Agreement (FTA).219 In this regard, Pakistan’s Ministry of Finance, Revenue and Economic
Affairs, coupled with other relevant ministries, were tasked to prepare recommendations when
Islamabad accepted Moscow’s proposal to enter into a FTA during the former Prime Minister

212
“Russian Businessmen Interested to Invest in many Projects of Pakistan,” Nihao-Salam, October 3, 2012
213
“$1 Billion Pakistan Steel Mills Expansion in Four Years,” MESTEEL, October 13, 2004, http://www.mesteel.com/cgi-bin/w3-
msql/goto.htm?url=http://www.mesteel.com/ countries/pakistan/steelnews19.htm.
214
“Pakistan, Russia Sign MoUs in Power, Railways and Steel Sectors,” News International, October 3, 2012,
https://www.thenews.com.pk/archive/print/388589-pakistan-russia-sign-mous-in-powerrailways-and-steel-sectors.
215
“Russian Central Bank, SBP Sign MoU,” Dawn, January 16, 2018, https://www.dawn.com/news/1383183.
216
Hussain and Fatima, “Pak-Russian Relations: Historical Legacies and New Beginnings,” 8.
217
“Pakistan-Russia Trade Likely to Reach $800m,” Express Tribune, December 29, 2018,
https://tribune.com.pk/story/1876880/2-pakistan-russia-trade-likely-reach-800m/; and Almas Haider Naqvi and Yasir Masood,
“Rejuvenating Pakistan-Russia Relations: Discernable Trends and Future,” Strategic Studies 37, no. 4 (2017): 18-38 (30),
http://issi.org.pk/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/2-SS_Almas_and_Yasir-_No-4_2017.pdf; and “Pakistani-Russian Bilateral Trade
in 2015,” Russian Exports, August 11, 2016, accessed September 30, 2016,
http://www.rusexporter.com/research/country/detail/4868/.
218
“Russia-Pakistan Bilateral Trade to Reach US$800 million by Year End: Yuri Kozlov,” Mettis Global, December 28, 2018,
https://mettisglobal.news/russia-pakistan-bilateral-trade-to-reach-us800-million-by-year-end-yuri-kozlov/.
219
Ghulam Abbas, “Pak-Russia Seek Trade Liberalisation,” Pakistan Today, December 8, 2011,
https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2011/12/08/pak-russia-seek-trade-liberalisation/.

lxviii
Nawaz Sharif’s visit to Astana during the 17th meeting of the Heads of the State Council of the
SCO.220
These economic prospects are likely to be cemented under transnational mega projects like the
BRI and its pilot project China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), the Central Asia Regional
Economic Cooperation, and Iran-Pakistan Gas Pipeline (IP).221 Pakistan’s geostrategic location is
central to the restoration of the Silk Route and Eurasian integration; and its significance in Pan-
Eurasian assimilation cannot be sidelined in Kremlin. Hence, it is not surprising that Russia has
shown interest in becoming part of the CPEC project, manifested in the Russian Ambassador to
Pakistan, Alexey Y. Dedov’s statement, „Russia „strongly‟ supported CPEC as it was important
for Pakistan’s economy and also regional connectivity”. Any Indian endeavors to sabotage the
initiative could likely be counteracted by Moscow’s formal presence in the project as a strong
stakeholder. This was reflected in the 15th Russia, India, and China Foreign Ministerial Meeting
in December 11, 2017, where Russia’s Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov „advised Delhi to find
ways to join the CPEC and benefit from the BRI”.222
Energy
A prominent area of cooperation during the Cold War was energy. Moscow established an oil
consortium „Pakistani Oilfields‟ in 1958;223 and the Oil and Gas Development Company Limited
(OGDCL) by lending Rubles 27 million in 1961.224 The same trend was witnessed in the post-
Cold war era when both signed MoUs in 2012 that involved extending technical assistance to the
Guddu and Muzaffargarh power plants, the 500 mega watts (MW) New Jamshoro power plant
(GENCO) and Tarbela-4 project.225 Other MOUs pertained to electricity transmission projects
from Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan to Afghanistan and Pakistan. Efforts are still underway for
establishing the Iran-Pakistan gas pipeline and involving Russia in coal gasification technology

220
Asif Bhatti, “Pakistan, Russia to Sign Free Trade Agreement,” Geo News, June 22, 2017, https://www.geo.tv/latest/146752-
pakistan-russia-to-sign-fta; and “PM Nawaz Arrives in Kazakhastan to Attend SCO Summit,” Express Tribune, June 8, 2017,
221
Naqvi and Masood, “Rejuvenating Pakistan-Russia Relations: Discernable Trends and Future,” 25.
222
Ume Farwa, “Pakistan-Russia Relations on Upward Trajectory,” Asia Times, December 19, 2017, accessed January 9, 2018,
http://www.atimes.com/pakistan-russia-relations-upward-trajectory/.
223
Hussain and Fatima, “Pak-Russian Relations: Historical Legacies and New Beginnings,” 7.
224
Ibid., 6
225
“Pakistan, Russia Sign MoUs in Power, Railways and Steel Sectors,” News International.

lxix
for the Thar coal project.226 Likewise, in 2015, in order to construct the North-South gas pipeline
from Lahore to Karachi, Russia agreed to invest USD 2 billion.227
Such investments will potentially meet Pakistan’s energy needs, while contributing to economic
buoyancy that would ultimately pave way for regional integration, specifically through
transnational energy cooperation.
Defense
Historically, Pakistan has not had formal defense relations with Russia, except for the maverick
helicopter deal of 1969.228 The Twenty-first Century witnessed an improvement in defense
collaboration in the wake of the former Russian Military Chief Col. Gen. Aleksandr Postnikov‟s
visit in 2011229 and the reciprocal visits to Moscow by former Air Chief Marshal Tahir Rafiq
Butt in August 2012,230 subsequently by the former Chief of Army Staff General Ashfaq Parvez
Kayani in October 2012.231 These visits laid the ground for future defence cooperation between
the two sides, especially when Postnikov, floated the „possibility of expanding defense ties by
holding joint military drills, exchanging trainees and trainers and selling and buying
weapons,‟88 which thereafter led to defense ventures in these three directions. In line with this
approach, for the very first time in April 2013, Commander of the Russian Air Force Viktor
Bondarev visited Islamabad to have deliberations for military deals. Major progress in defense
relations was observed when the Russian Defense Minister Sergei Shoigu visited Islamabad to
conclude the Defence Cooperation Agreement.232
Joint military drills are another feature of mutual interests as evident in the Arabian Monsoon
naval drills;233 followed by joint military exercises. In Pakistan, the multinational joint Naval
AMAN exercise was held in Karachi including 35 countries‟ naval forces, in which Russian

226
Board of Investment, GoP, “Pakistan, Russia Agree to Form Five Working Groups.”
227
“Pakistan, Russia Sign Agreement for Construction of North-South Gas Pipeline,” Dawn, October 16, 2015,
https://www.dawn.com/news/1213460.
228
Hanif, “Pakistan-Russia Relations: Progress, Prospects and Constraints,” 69.
229
“Pakistan, Russia to Boost Military Cooperation,” Pakistan Today, August 5, 2013,
https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2013/08/05/pakistan-russia-to-boost-military-cooperation/.
230
Pakistan Air Force, GoP, “Commander-In-Chief, Russian Federation Air Force Visits Air Headquarters,” press release, April 15,
2013, http://www.paf.gov.pk/press_release/uploaded/1366207051.pdf.
231
Baqir Sajjad Syed, “Kayani to Visit Russia from Oct 3,” Dawn, September 29, 2012, https://www.dawn.com/news/752938.
232
Baqir Sajjad Syed, “Pakistan, Russia Sign Landmark Defence Cooperation Agreement,” Dawn, November 21, 2014,
https://www.dawn.com/news/1145875.
233
“Are Pakistan and Russia Forming an Alliance? Not without China, Says Expert,” Dawn, April 1, 2017,
https://www.dawn.com/news/1324187.

lxx
Navy‟s largest anti-submarine warship Severmorsk also participated,234 substantiating the
converging inclination. Both countries took part in the Friendship military exercise held on the
mountain training range near Nizhny Arkhyz settlement in Karachay-Cherkessia, with more than
70 Pakistani mountaineers and over 100 soldiers of Russia’s mountain infantry division of the
Southern Military District.235 These ongoing trends indicate that the limited defense ties may
gradually turn into broader defense cooperation in the future. Such a possibility appeared when
Russian diplomat Pavel Didkovsky’s (First Secretary of the Russian Embassy in Islamabad)
indicated Moscow’s backing of the criterion-based approach for new members of Nuclear
Suppliers Group (NSG) that have not signed the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT),236 which
validates Islamabad’s NSG membership application. However, it is yet to be seen how Moscow
will incorporate this indication into its foreign policy pursuits.
The rationale behind Pakistan’s quest of enhancing its defense capability is to maintain strategic
equilibrium against India’s massive military build-up, which has rendered South Asia’s strategic
environment very fragile. The test of Agni V (Intercontinental Ballistic Missile with the range of
5,000 km)237 is in pursuance of this doctrine, which has upset the Eurasia-Pacific strategic
equilibrium. India is intentionally inciting a security impasse with the US‟ blessing, rationalising
the Indo-US military cooperation on the pretext of Pakistan-Sino strategic collaboration. This
also „provides an opportunity for a more inclusive implementation of the US Pivot to Asia,”
evident in the Indo-US Bilateral Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement,238 which sees
New Delhi as Washington’s crucial defense partner. This may spoil Russia’s vision of multiplier
Eurasian integration, while creating more regional insecurity. Moscow could be encouraged to
maintain balance against such anti-integration forces by further moving towards Islamabad.

234
“Naval Exercise AMAN 2017 Continues in Karachi,” Pakistan Today, February 12, 2017,
https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2017/02/12/multinational-naval-exercise-aman-2017-continues-in-karachi/.
235
Kamal Alam, “Growing Pakistan-Russia Military Ties Reflect Central Asia‟s Changing Geopolitics,” commentary (London:
Royal United Services Institute, 2017), https://rusi.org/commentary/growing-pakistan%E2%80%93russia-military-ties-reflect-
central-asia%E2%80%99s-changing-geopolitics. Also see, “Over 70 Pakistani Mountaineers Reach Russia for „Friendship-2017‟
Military Exercise,” Pakistan Today, September 24, 2017, https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2017/09/24/over-70-pakistani-
mountaineers-in-russia-for-friendship-2017-military-exercise/.
236
“Russia Supports Pakistan‟s Bid to Join Elite Nuclear Trading Club,” Express Tribune, December 15, 2017,
https://tribune.com.pk/story/1584950/1-russia-supports-pakistans-bid-join-elite-nuclear-trading-club/.
237
“Agni-V Missile Successfully Test-Fired,” Indian Express, January 18, 2018, http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-test-
fires-agni-5-missile-with-a-surface
238
Varghese K. George, “India, US Sign Military Logistics Pact,” Hindu, October 18, 2016,
http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/India-US-sign-military-logistics-pact/article14598282.ece.

lxxi
The aim of Moscow’s grand strategic vision of EurAsEC239 is an attempt towards regional
integration in the Eurasian region. In contrast, New Delhi’s aim of becoming a major power at
the cost of regional security is a worrisome element, which is not only likely to disrupt the
delicate strategic balance in South Asia,240 but also the strategic equilibrium of Eurasia-Pacific
region with the US blessing. Arguably, it would be in Moscow’s interests to stabilize South
Asia’s strategic imbalance by expanding defense cooperation with Islamabad, which could
contribute in maintaining the greater strategic equipoise in the Eurasia-Pacific region.
Counterterrorism
The field of counterterrorism offers a lot of scope to Islamabad and Moscow in enhancing their
cooperation for countering the emerging threat of violent radicalization. In this regard, both
countries have established a Bilateral Joint Working Group on Counter-Terrorism for regional
security. Simultaneously, President Putin backs Pakistan’s position on the war against terrorism,
besides agreeing on mutual regional efforts for eradicating extremism.241 Following the Quetta
blast on the Police Training College, President Putin offered support to Pakistan in combating
terrorism, in addition to showing readiness for the sale of Russia’s advanced military
hardware.242 In fact, achievements of the Pakistan Army to bring regional peace are recognized
by Moscow contrary to the prevalent attitude of Washington, which is skeptic of Pakistan
accusing it of providing safe havens to the Afghan Taliban. Despite New Delhi’s opposition, a
joint counterterrorism exercise Druzhbha (Friendship) was held between Russian and Pakistani
Special Operations Forces in Cherat. It was the very first counterterrorism military exercise.243
More recently, two-week long joint military drills in the mountains of Nowshehra district

239
S. Frederick Starr and Svante E. Cornell, eds., Putin’s Grand Strategy: The Eurasian Union and Its Discontents (Washington,
D.C.: Central Asia-Caucasus Institute & Silk Road Studies Program, 2014), 179-190,
http://silkroadstudies.org/resources/1409GrandStrategy.pdf.
240
Especially the testing of K-4, Submarine Launched Ballistic Missile (SLBM) with a range capability of 3,500 km
(intermediate range) by India has impacted the delicate strategic balance of South Asia. It has resulted in the
nuclearisation of the Indian Ocean. The test has also taken India closer to the second-strike capability. It will
ultimately lead India to enhance the range of its SLBM up to 5500 KM and more, which may allow the country in
future to have the capacity of launching a strike through submarine not only on Pakistan but also the Eurasia-
Pacific region (China) from the far flung area of the Indian Ocean and beyond.
241
“Russia Endorses Full SCO Membership for Pakistan,” Dawn, November 7, 2011, https://www.dawn.com/news/671932.
242
“Putin Offers Pakistan Help in Fighting Terrorism after Quetta Blast,” Nation, October 26, 2016,
http://nation.com.pk/international/26-Oct-2016/putin-offers-pakistan-help-in-fighting-terrorism-after-quetta-blast.
243
“Joint Exercise with Russia Progressing Well: ISPR,” Dawn, September 28, 2016, https://www.dawn.com/news/1286616.

lxxii
(Pakistan) were conducted from October 22 to November 4, 2018 to strengthen the existing
military relations.244
Social and Cultural
In the early 1950s Pakistan and Soviet Union shared many social and cultural activities. Their
cultural troupes visited each other’s countries and film shows were held. The Soviet Union also
provided economic and technical assistance in social sector development, agricultural
productivity such as pest control, desalination and soil erosion, and flood control.The Soviet
Union assisted to put into operation 1000kw medium-wave broadcasting station near Islamabad
which went on to become the major radio station of the country. The Soviets also supplied three
medium-wave and two short-wave length transmitters. A Soviet news magazine Tuluwas
regularly published from Karachi since 1967; however it got discontinued in 1982 in the
backdrop of Afghan war.36
Pakistan’s mega city Karachi used to be a hub for the Soviet tourists till 1990s. There were 8
flights daily from Moscow to Karachi to accommodate this boom of visitors. The trend however
died down with deteriorating situation of the city and development of Dubai as an alternate
economic hub. Russian Federation provided aid to the people of Pakistan in the aftermath of
2005 earthquake and 2010 Floods.37Pakistan receives enthusiastic Russian and Central Asian
climbers every year in a bid to climb the perilous mountain K-2. One of the posh restaurants of
the Russian Federation’s capital Moscow is “Gandhara.” It is a Pakistani restaurant that features
Buddha Statues from the Gandhara Civilization along with Pakistani cuisines.38Russian
Federation has a native 13million Muslim community39thathave their natural sympathies
towards the Muslims of Pakistan. Around 2000 Pakistani community is settled in the Russian
Federation including 500 students. The Moscow State University has an Urdu Faculty and
Punjab University has signed an agreement on student exchange program with Moscow State
University.40The detail of the students and respective universities is tabulated below.
UNIVERSITY WISE DISTRIBUTION OF STUDENTS
UNIVERSITY NAME STUDENTS NUMBERS

People’s Friendship University, Moscow 97

244
“Joint Military Drill with Russia has Reinforced Our Ties: Pakistan Army Chief,” Economic Times, November 5, 2018,
https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/joint-military-drill-with-russia-has-reinforced-our-ties-pakistan-army-
chief/articleshow/66513026.cms.

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Russian Medical Academy , Moscow 52
Moscow State University , Moscow 85
Tula Technical & Political University, Tula 95
Russia Medical University, Moscow 42
Submarine University, St. Petersburg 20
St. Peters Burg University , St, Petersburg
Tevr Medical University, Tevr 13
Russian chemical & Technical University, Moscow 32
Russian chemical & Technical University, Moscow 4
Source: Higher Education Commission, Pakistan Embassy in Moscow, 2013.
Pakistan-USSR social and cultural relations were established in 1964 when both counties signed
a one-year educational exchange program. Another agreement was concluded on June 5, 1965.
Consequently, exchange including dance performances, film shows and festivals were conducted
in both countries. The Pakistan cultural show in Dushanbe (1967) was one of the landmarks.108
A bilateral agreement on Cultural and Scientific Cooperation was signed in 1968 during the
former Prime Minister Kosygin‟s visit to Pakistan.245 The Soviet magazine Tulu was also printed
from Pakistan during the 1960s.246 Such activities discontinued following the Soviet invasion of
Afghanistan. Even at present, they seem to be limited, which appears to be the stumbling block
in getting an insight into each other’s respective values, traditions and cultures. The language
barrier is also a problem. To overcome these hurdles, the following initiatives have been taken:
Moscow State University and Pakistan’s National University of Modern Language (NUML)
appointed Urdu-language and Russian language faculty, respectively.

 An agreement on student exchange was concluded between the Punjab University and
the Moscow State University.247

 In 2012, the first Urdu-Russian dictionary was published by Pakistan-based Russian Dr

Tashmirza Khalmirev.248

245
Shah and Parveen, “Disintegration of Pakistan – The Role of Former Union of Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR): An Appraisal,”
179.
246
Hafeez Malik, ed., Soviet-American Relations with Pakistan, Iran, and Afghanistan (New York: St. Martin‟s Press, 1987), 194.
247
Hussain and Fatima, “Pak-Russian Relations: Historical Legacies and New Beginnings,” 10-11.
248
“Urdu-Russian Dictionary Launched,” News International, August 3, 2012,
https://www.thenews.com.pk/archive/print/377691-urdu-russian-dictionary-launched.

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  A Pakistan Study Center has been established in Moscow.249

 Association of Pakistani Graduates from Russia is quite active in the country. 250

 Voice of Russia held the 4th All-Pakistan Voice of Russia Conference in Lahore in
December 2013.251

 A well-reputed restaurant in Moscow “Gandhara” is famous for showcasing the

Gandhara civilization and Pakistani food.252
The growing renaissance in social and cultural ties between the two countries is another sign of
strengthening relations.
3.5 Russia’s Balancing Act in South Asia
“Washington” returning of India as the power of region has ascent great consequences anxious
feelings in Pakistan since it fortifies the comprehension among action planers that the America
role derived from its traditions as equilibrator between Pakistan and India might have closed, by
that means generating a absence of matter in the region. To fill this absence of matter, it shows
that Russia has took on title the role of playing this marked by great skill work to make sure that
its diplomacy in the direction of New Delhi and Islamabad remains precise.253 It not merely
searches to safe it’s derived from tradition mutual dealings with New Delhi, a significant
Washington strategic joint performer, but also constructs associations with the pro-China
Islamabad. In the past, Russia has been favoring India at the UNSC while frequently vetoing
resolutions on the Kashmir dispute. However, more recently in December 2017, it signed the
joint declaration issued at the Six-nation Speaker’s Conference in Islamabad supporting
Pakistan’s stance on Kashmir. The declaration underscored that for ensuring global and regional
peace and stability, the dispute of Jammu and Kashmir needs a peaceful resolution in accordance
with the UNSC resolutions.254

249
“Pakistan Study Centre Opens in Moscow,” Pakistan Times, July 16, 2012, http://archive.is/pQhV#selection-415.0-415.38.
250
Hussain and Fatima, “Pak-Russian Relations: Historical Legacies and New Beginnings,” 9-11.
251
“Pakistani Listeners of „The Voice of Russia‟ Run Conference in Lahore,” Voice of Russia, December 15, 2013, accessed
January 12, 2018,
252
Hussain and Fatima, “Pak-Russian Relations: Historical Legacies and New Beginnings,” 9-11.
253
Andrew Korybko, “Indian Fears: Is Russia Joining Pakistan China in CPEC?” Global Village Space, February 25, 2017,
https://www.globalvillagespace.com/indian-fears-is-russia-joining-pakistan-china-in-cpec/.
254
Harsh V. Pant, “Why Russia no Longer Cares for Friendship with India,” DailyO.in, March 29, 2018,
https://www.dailyo.in/politics/china-russia-vladimir-putin-xi-jinping-pakistan-collusion-india/story/1/23153.html.

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Thus, Moscow is engaging diplomatically with Islamabad and New Delhi, with the former
progressively getting substantial place in its foreign policy reflected in the statement of Zamir
Kabulov, Presidential Special Envoy to Afghanistan and Pakistan „urging that Russia’s South
Asia policy should expand beyond its historic Indian-centric links to equally include into its fold
the Muslim-majority countries such as Pakistan.” There appears to be a strategic shift in the
language coming out of the Kremlin vis-à-vis Kashmir moving away from calls for „dismantling
the terrorist infrastructure in Jammu and Kashmir in 2002,”255 to declaring in 2017 that „Russia
will use its influence to get Pakistan to stop alleged attacks in Indian Occupied Kashmir.
Pakistan is taking immense steps to stabilize the situation in the country.” Pakistan accepted
Putin‟s intermediary offer for reducing the India-Pakistan tensions following India’s aggression
along the Working Boundary and the Line of Control (LOC).256 US President Trump’s Afghan
strategy relying on a military solution instead of a negotiated settlement was also criticized by
Russia which supported Islamabad’s crucial role in regional security. It has been asserted that
Islamabad is „a key regional player to negotiate with... Putting pressure (on Pakistan) may
seriously destabilize the region-wide security situation and result in negative consequences for
Afghanistan.‟ Likewise, during the Heart of Asia Ministerial Conference in Amritsar, Russian
diplomats dismissed Indian and Afghan lambasting against Pakistan remarking, „..it is wrong to
criticize Pakistan.” Such diplomatic overtures are indicative that both countries are seeing „each
other as complementary partners for regional balance.”257
Future Outlook
Building on the above, the prevalent geopolitical landscape seems to be quite feasible for laying
the foundation of progressive relations between Pakistan and Russia. Contrary to the past, when
Islamabad used to ally with the US at international forums, it now has the option of reaching out
to Russia as a prospective diplomatic associate. This could be parallel to accessing the other
major power China, in garnering support for Pakistan’s position on issues such as human
trafficking and terrorism at multilateral fora. Institutional engagement with Moscow may enable
the country to procure the relatively cheaper Russian defense equipment for which the US tended

255
Mark A. Smith, Russia’s Relations with India & Pakistan, Russian Series no. 4/24 (Surrey: Conflict Studies Research Centre,
2004), https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/96157/04_Sep.pdf.
256
“Regional Peace: Pakistan Welcomes Russia‟s Mediation Offer on Kashmir,” Express Tribune, June 15, 2017,
https://tribune.com.pk/story/1436324/pakistan-welcomes-putins-offer-mediate-islamabad-new-delhi/.
257
“Russia Rejects Indian, Afghan Criticism on Pakistan,” News International, December 5, 2016,
https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/169900-Russia-rejects-Indian-Afghan-criticism-on-Pakistan.

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to charge higher prices than the international market and that too tied with US-dictated
conditions.
In 2011, Moscow – central member of the SCO – explicitly „backed Pakistan’s bid to join.”258
Pakistan and India became full members during 17th meeting of the Heads of the State Council
Summit 2017 in Astana.259 Moscow is backing SCO to address issues like terrorism, separatism
and extremism through a combined regional approach. Therefore, despite tense relations between
Pakistan and India, „the latter’s legal expert’s delegation took part in a three-day meeting of
Legal Experts Group of Shanghai Cooperation Organization-Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure
hosted by the former in May 2018.”260 Besides, Pakistan and India, for the first time,
participated in a multi-nation military exercise codenamed Peace Mission 2018 held from August
24 to August 29, 2018 in Russia.261 For Pakistan, the SCO is an appropriate forum that may
advance its financial interests, specifically in curbing its energy crisis. Using the platform,
Pakistan could attract Russia’s security support to fortify its domestic security and defense
proficiencies, especially in countering terrorism. Moscow may act to ensure rules-based order in
an attempt to resolving outstanding territorial conflicts. This approach could encourage the
country to maintain a delicate balance between India and Pakistan for regional stability. 262
The sudden rise of Dash in Afghanistan has made it indispensable for Russia to seek cooperation
of convenience between Taliban and Moscow and likewise between Islamabad and Moscow.
The much-desired goal of achieving stable peace in Afghanistan has necessitated enlarged
Russia-Pakistan diplomatic collaboration.
Moscow also has the potential to interlink the EurAsEC initiatives with the BRI. After joining
CPEC, Moscow may be able to perform an objective role in South Asia. It may enable Pakistan
to capitalize on the potential inflow of Russian investment in infrastructure, mechanical goods,

258
Rashid Siddiqi, “Prospects for Russia-Pakistan Rapprochement,” Strategic Studies 37, no. 2 (2017): 58-73,
http://issi.org.pk/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/
4-SS_Rashid_Siddiqi_No-2_2017.pdf
259
Aamir Ilyas Rana, “Historic Day: Pakistan Joins SCO at Astana Summit,” Express Tribune, June 9, 2017,
https://tribune.com.pk/story/1431365/pakistan-becomes-full-member-shanghai-cooperation-organisation/.
260
“3-Day RATS-SCO Legal Experts Meeting Concludes in Islamabad,” Radio Pakistan, May 25, 2018,
http://www.radio.gov.pk/25-05-2018/3-day-rats-sco-legal-experts-meeting-concludes-in-islamabad.
261
SM Hali, “Peace Mission 2018-Bringing Antagonists Together,” Daily Times, September 1, 2018,
https://dailytimes.com.pk/291048/peace-mission-2018-bringing-antagonists-together/; and Dawood Rehman, “SCO Peace
Mission 2018: Pakistan, India Conduct First Joint Anti-Terror Exercise in Russia,” Daily Pakistan, August 24, 2018,
https://en.dailypakistan.com.pk/headline/sco-exercise-peace-mission-2018-pakistan-india-conduct-first-joint-anti-terror-
exercise-in-russia/.
262
Ivan Kessler, “Russian South Asia Complexity,” Regional Rapport, March 6, 2017,
http://regionalrapport.com/2017/03/06/russian-south-asia-complexity/.

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chemical products, agriculture,263 metal industry and technological advancement. This will
depend, of course, on the manner in which Pakistan succeeds in bargaining for more benefits
with Russia by providing it access „to the warm waters of Arabian Sea.”264 On the
counterterrorism front, both states have to evolve collective level of trust and collaboration in
sharing actionable intelligence and expertise.
Summary of the Chapter
The architects of Russia-Pakistan bilateral relations need to be conscious that their ensuing
mutual collaboration should not to be overshadowed by India. The most pragmatic course of
action is to ensure a gradual move in building a step-by-step relationship for developing long-
term strategic commitments at subsequent phase instead of hastening into a fragile and
inconstant partnership.
To develop economic ties, Islamabad has to attract Moscow’s commercial interests into CPEC‟s
special industrial zones (SEZs), besides promotion of regular exchange programs in the domains
of private, commercial and trade sectors. In this regard, the Pakistan Mission to Moscow may
consider appointing a Commercial Counselor265 dedicated to trade delegations, organizations and
exhibitions. Moreover, Pakistan may consider connecting the Gwadar Port to Moscow via rail
link through Central Asia. Opening respective branch banking systems in Pakistan and Russia
would be a propellant in increasing business-to-business connections.
In the defense domain, a Joint Pakistan-Russia Commission on Defense Cooperation may
provide a platform for convening annual meetings for training, military drills on broader land-
sea-mountain warfare, exchange of military delegations, and up-gradation of heavy mechanical
industries, thus, enhancing shared ventures in these spheres.
Likewise, devising means of permanent interactivities between Pakistan-Russia parliamentarians,
government functionaries, academia, students, and media entities could act as a stimulant to
bring about the desired turnaround in bilateral relations. The way forward lies in a pragmatic and
robust foreign policy based on viable diplomatic options duly estimated on need assessment
principles. This may help diversify Pakistan’s alliances by cultivating relations not only with

263
Saddam Hussein, “Russia and Pakistan‟s Reluctant Romance,” Diplomat, February 25, 2017,
https://thediplomat.com/2017/02/russia-and-pakistans-reluctant-romance/. Pakistan can offer a „US$ 16 billion market in the
agriculture sector alone.‟
264
Hussaan Tariq, “Are Those Winds of Change We Detect in Pak-Russia Relations?” Pakistan Today, April 10, 2017,
https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2017/04/10/are-those-winds-of-change-we-detect-in-pak-russia-relations/.
265
At present, this seat is vacant in the trade wing of Pakistan‟s embassy in Moscow.

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major powers like Russia, but also with other significant stakeholders sharing commonality of
interests.

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Chapter 4 Pak-Russia Political Relations

4.1 An Overview of Pak-Russia Political Mutual Dealings 1947-1990

Since 1947, and particularly meanwhile the cold war, Pakistan invariably articulate their voice
with Washington, opposing actor of Russia so there was a preciseness antagonism between
Pakistan and Soviets particularly subsequently Islamabad express its favor with the
Afghanistan’s Taliban contrary to the Moscow. Notwithstanding, at remarkable phase, there
were ameliorated mutual dealings between them. Both the countries, worked together for the
boost up of commerce, trade, ethnicity and education meanwhile the initial three years after the
creation of Pakistan and later during 1965 to 1969, on the other hand including everything both
the countries have inimical mutual dealings and the rational motive was the deviating and
dissimilar stands on the international and regional security matters.266 Remote and separate from
that, both the countries worked and act contrary to each other mere on their own security issues,
geopolitical goals and interests for their own regional base but despite of this, there was no
having two side conflicts between both the countries.
In the international scenario of politics, there is no lasting enemy or ally but merely national
benefits are lasting, similarly every country and Pakistan is also performing the closely similar
by having cordiality with her belonging to the past an armed adversary with Russia .267 In order
to encouragement of its incontrovertible dimensional mutual dealings with Russia, Islamabad has
been looking and striving to change the appearance preferences of its foreign action plan, It
would be a significant event for Pakistan if it come to pass as a limited to a particular region
friendly nation of the veto power holder country, strong economy and; main world power,
Russia. Vladimir Putin, the President of Russia has lead it to new magnitudes and meanwhile his
sovereign power, Russia is reviving and rekindling and a attain making undulations in the
scenario of regional and international politics and flourishing as a reconciliation impel by
effecting new lineation of the politics of the world. Contrary to this scenery of back stage, this is

266
Mahesar, PAKISTAN'S RELUCTANT RELATIONSHIP WITH RUSSIA. Retrieved 05 12, 2019, from
academia:
https://www.academia.edu/36815728/PAKISTANS_RELUCTANT_RELATIONSHIP_WITH_RUSSIA
267
M. T. Khan, (2018). Pakistan‟s Growing Relations with Russia: Factoring in the Role of the US. ISSI , 87-
103.

lxxx
the latest possible moment for Russia to constitute its mutual dealings with other nations in
general.268
In the earlier period, the alliance of Moscow with Delhi, on the other hand bitter mutual dealings
with Pakistan, and against it, the alignment of Islamabad with the Washington even more
difficult to comprehend and analyze this entire unusual complication. In 2003, the failure of
mutual trust and certainty of past experience are basically the findings of the rancid time that has
elapsed which turn it complicated for the belonging to the distant past Pakistan and Soviet Union
to sustain and cultivate friendly mutual dealing. In the recent past Russia initiated its armed
forces and economic mutual dealings with Pakistan too, on the other hand the Moscow will not
take any peril by setting its mutual dealings with Delhi at adventure since India is the 2 nd
prominent economy after China in South Asia.269
As frequently Washington has an instinctive motives Pakistan to “do more”; incriminates
Pakistan of catering free from danger abodes to terrorists, and constitutes Pakistan a scapegoat
for entire lack of success which the American’s armed forces had in Afghanistan, which actuate
ahead their mutual dealings to a border. Since the America has initiated to take exception its
assistance of America, Pakistan required Russia to give a push its system of production,
distribution and consumption. In addition, pursuing the close mutual dealings of Europe and
America with India, Russia also necessitates Pakistan for trade and investment sector. Both are
having involvements so betterment in both the countries can be observed during just previous to
the present time.270 Pervez Musharraf, the President of Pakistan established beyond doubt the
initial drop and stretched the arms of cordiality and endeavored to actuate the procedures to
promote a secure mutual dealings later the Cold War by touring Russia later the request of by the
President of Russia Mr. Putin. There is no contrast in views of the reality that India and Russia
relish the partnership on strategy more than previous six decades and will preserve to have
mutual dealings which Pakistan recognize with gratitude on the other hand Pakistan is trending
downward in price by its economic status and facing complications in the sector of energy but
Russia is one of the bombastic supplier of energy sources i.e. gas and oil. For Moscow,
Islamabad could be their consumer to utilize energy and there can be coactions on the other

268
Masood, A. H. (2017). Rejuvenating Pakistan-Russia Relations: Discernable Trends and Future. ISSI ,
18-38.
269
M.S Zia, (2018). Pak-Russia Relations: Exploring the New Avenues. CISS Insight Vol.VI, No.2 , 1-22.
270
S. Akram, (2016). Pakistan Russia Relations: Future trends. Islamabad: ISSI.

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fields of trade too. It is the epoch having many aspects; nations change location in the direction
those nations where they observe their better sake. In 2009, and later on in 2011, Russia and
Pakistan emphasized reciprocal effort for restoration of peace and harmony in region and
specifically in Afghanistan. Versatile considerations act of working jointly in the particular kind
of commercial enterprises of energy and agriculture were subscribed meanwhile the tour of
Pervaiz Musharraf. Russian minister of defense toured Pakistan and dismissed as insignificant
impediments on the supply of projectiles to be fired to Pakistan by a ratified agreement related to
the extension of armed relations and defense and in different manner of the correspondence for
Mi35 helicopter’s to Pakistan as an auction. Pakistan and Russia, both have carefully thought out
in advance their national sake and reached to the findings that there is no option except to bring
in to existence reciprocal armed forces and institutional mutual dealings between them behind or
in the rear of the various factors for example American incline to India for the reason to
incorporate China and various other matters. Some of the major rational motives of Pak-Russia
political mutual dealings are:
4.1.1 US-India Strategic Cooperative Mutual Dealings

Primakov, the Prime Minister of Russia made a proposal in 1998. As stated in this proposal was
that China, Russia and India should sketch a strategic triangle in confrontation to Washington
which was not become in to reality by India. On the contrary, India was fraught with uncertainty
regarding the strategic favor of the practice of cooperating between Pakistan and Russia. But, the
clench of Russia on the Indian weapons market was possibility of incurring loss on a furnish
justification of the Indian-America nuclear ratified agreement and intensifying strategic
alignment of the India and America in reality India had stayed a important projectiles of fire
commercial place for Soviets. These orientation improvements in the region pressurized Russia
to less harsh its goals action plan. In spite of various official tours of president Putin to India no
attain the goals for Russia in impulsion India at a distance from its strategic business venture
created by contract of America. Imperfect capacity of Russia to hold India out of the approach of
USA is not subject to change. As a consequence, this action plan close the collaboration of

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Moscow with Delhi and as a reaction Moscow initiated developing mutual dealings with
Islamabad.271
4.1.2 Instability of Afghanistan

Coalitions of region are modifying as Pakistan examines her caused mental pain mutual dealings
with the America endeavor to obviate being blamed and blacklisted for "not performing and
working on some of the individuals designated and entities as radical who employ terror by the
United Nation". Moscow distinguishes significance of Pakistan for a passive settlement of
politics in Afghanistan is so acknowledged by Russia. It is the believes of Analysts that Moscow
is Russia is converted in to stone by enhancing fact of existence of the militants in surrounding
of Afghanistan. In recent past Russia called to Khyber Pakhtunkhwa a voluntary consul, which
bounds the province of Nangarhar in eastern Afghanistan and is apprehended with certainty for
the IS primary center. The IS current existence in northern border regions of Afghanistan with
Central Asia is second rational motive for demoralization in Russia.
For Russia existence of Islamic State’s (IS) in Afghanistan is the greatest peril to Central Asian
solidity. Russia observed that the long-lasting presence of the U.S and its allies in Afghanistan is
not suitable for Russia’s long term goal. So there is no other way except to work for the
stabilization in Afghanistan, and without the help of Pakistan, it is tricky and impossible.272
Being a victim itself, Russia is very receptive to volatility and drug-trafficking from Afghanistan
via Central Asia. Pakistan can bring stability to Afghanistan and ultimately Central Asian
solidity will be certain.
4.1.3 CPEC and Significance of Indian Ocean

The geo-political sakes of Russia have step by step settled in a new location to East from West
during the earlier Crimea era. The economy of Russian has been severely influenced because of
the imposition of Western bans and minimizing the prices of oil in markets of the world. For its
economy resurgence, now Russia is seeking new markets in the region of Asia and collaborators
of its strategy owed as a debt to the switches in the course of the world. A marvelous alternation
in action plan of Russia related to South Asia can be noted and Pakistan deems to be setting up

271
M. T. Khan, (2018). Pakistan’s Growing Relations with Russia: Factoring in the Role of the US. ISSI , 87-
103.
272
Dawn. (2018, 02 27). Why is Russia warming up to Pakistan? Retrieved 05 13, 2019, from Dawn:
https://www.dawn.com/news/1392060

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huge importance regarding views of Russia. The major rational motive gives an impression to be
in Afghanistan moreover to attaining approach to the Ocean of Arabian by the way of CPEC.
The Pakistan status of geography in Asia is an open secret, on the setting of its geography, and
the way of regarding to combine Eurasia Union with the Ocean of India.273
4.1.4 North-South Gas Pipeline

A greatly desired ratified agreement of energy which is approximately of 1.7 billion dollar for
placing a pipe line of liquefied natural gas (LNG) initiated from Karachi and closed at Lahore
according to ratified agreement which was developed between Pakistan and Russia on 23
December, 2014.274 Mean while the last month of 2019, the gas pipeline of North-South, which
length is 1122 km and the diameter of this pipe line is 42-inch, will be constructed from Karachi
to Punjab and this pipe line will transfer 12.4 billion LNG per annum in these two major part of
Pakistan. The major characteristics of this project have been completed and will be approved and
investigated by the appointed authorized officials belonging to Pakistan and Russia. The many
companies of Russian will get approach to the very recent developed markets and will supply
orders for the industrial enterprises of Russia and will increase exports except than
oil.275Meanwhile the initial 25 years after the construction of the above mentioned pipeline, it
will be controlled and managed by officials and engineers of Russia. The gas delivery expenses
will aid the company to repay the investments and reserves and earn revenue. After 25 years
accomplishment, the management of pipeline will be handover to Pakistan and after that Pakistan
will operate and control it freely.276

273
Korybko, A. (2015, 09 15). Pakistan Is The “Zipper” Of Pan-Eurasian Integration. Retrieved 05 13,
2019, from Russian Institute for strategic studies.: https://en.riss.ru/analysis/18882/
274
K. Abbas, (2016, 02 04). Russia's Revival:Opportunities and limitations for Pakistan. Retrieved 12 15,
2019, from IPRI: https://www.ipripak.org/russias-revival-opportunities-and-limitations-for-pakistan/
275
H. B., Malik, (2019, 03 17). Managing Pakistan-Russia relations. Retrieved 05 16, 2019, from Daily
times: https://dailytimes.com.pk/366074/managing-pakistan-russia-relations/
276
Dawn newspaper, (2016, 09 28)., joint exercises with Russia progressing. Retrieved 05 13, 2019, from
Dawn: https://www.dawn.com/news/1286616

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 4.2 Military relations: considerable feature of Moscow/Islamabad

Relations:

Pakistan was on the peak of the database of the states which are viciously trembled by the

terrorists and extremism. Armed forces of Pakistan performed a lot of endeavor by acting many

military operations to eradicate and scrap all types of armed actions in neighboring locality tribal

and Pak-Afghan border. Since 9/11 2001 to 2012, Pakistan approximately performed 251 large

level and 735 small levels operations to annihilate the roots of terrorism.277 The proficiency of

Pakistan in transaction with insurrection has at all the time and ever been appreciated from

Moscow, who is very interested to continue the reciprocal activities with Pakistan contrary

counter-terrorism. In addition, the America keeps destructive of moral and self-reliance the

Pakistan’s enhancement in scraping terrorism. Improving mutual dealings with Pakistan can

cater significant chance to Russia to acquire from the experience of Pakistan and accept as

challenges to the forces which are destabilizing that restrain its own locality. Moscow is so

informed that south-western and north western areas of Pakistan are catchy and slippery areas for

fighting and finding of direction. In spite of this, the armed forces of Pakistan attain goals in

fighting to the forces of militant in these slippery regions and conditions.

Russian prime minister even slammed the Salala Check post attack by US-NATO forces which

took more than twenty Pakistani soldier’s life and proclaimed it as an intolerable infringement of

a state’s independence.

277
I. K. Roy, (2016). Pakistan‟s Military Operations: the Counter terrorism Strategy (2001-2013)
Prospects and Implications. JRSP, 239-253.

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Chapter 5 Pak-Russia Economic Relations

5.1 A Review of Economic Relations

Pak-Soviet mutual dealings have endured various hurdles that cause worries since 1947. Earlier
than independence, Indian National Congress (INC) and All India Muslim League (AIML) had
been cohering to various, even contradictory, orientations that characterize the thinking of
nation. Muslim owners of land and real estate elite living in different territories of the sub-
continent founded Muslim League Muslim to catered necessities of the Muslim civil servants,
owner of landed elite and lawyers. Indian National Congress arrogated to be serving to typify of
Indian country persons and with respect to ideology ideologically departed in the direction of
socialism. Promptitude of the creation of Pakistan, in 1949, Soviet Union invited the first Prime
Minister of Pakistan for tour, but he arranged a formal tour of America. In addition, Pakistan
under the effect of politicians which were groom and educated in the western institutions, landed
nobility, and civil servants bending in the direction of America and did not sanction the policies
of socialist of the Soviet Union. Notwithstanding showing little enthusiasm of Pakistan, the
Soviet Union catered adequate technical and financial aid to Pakistan in the form of setting up
Steel Mills at Karachi and catered loan without any interest. On the other hand, Pakistan,
reported that the Soviet Union has performed unfriendly role in the East Pakistan drubbing and
the USSR did not recognize with gratitude opposition of Pakistan to the role of Soviet in
Afghanistan. Soviet Union also suspected Pakistan to have actions and activities in actuating the
Dagestan and Chechen insurrection and Pakistan leveled same accuses contrary to Soviets of
stimulating an organized rebellion in Baluchistan. In spite of awkward earlier period, there have
a certain outward aspects to have an existence much the inherent capacity of promoting Pak-
Russia reciprocal coactions in the diplomatic fields, economy, trade, technology, science,
prevention of drugs, mining, terrorism and extremism , though various chances and plenty of
time has antecedently been squandered.

5.2 Economic Cooperation

In the consequence of lacking spontaneity mutual dealings between America and Pakistan,
Pakistan has been locating to align the leading line of its foreign action plan in the direction of a

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possible significant cooperation on region base with solid powers of economic in Asia. These
struggles have most significantly comprehended into becoming stronger Pak-China economic
coactions, the most distinguish factor of which is the much debated China-Pakistan Economic
Corridor (CPEC). Another possible powerful alloy is Russia, on the other hand economic
coactions and mutual dealings between the two states have not yet subtracted. Meanwhile 2004-
05, the reciprocal trade volume had touched to 320 million dollar. Approximately ten years later,
exports of Pakistan to Soviet were minimized to only 234.91 million dollars contrary to the
imports of 206.98 million dollars.278 It can be observed that in the period of indeterminate length
the both states have remained trading shareholder on regular basis, “the relative amount of the
dual-way trade scarcely manifests the real existing in possibility of their merchandise.” 279 Alexey
Yurievich Dedov, the Ambassador of Russia during a tour of Peshawar in the provincial capital
of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa restated the similar anxious feeling, present reasoning that “there is a
great existing in possibility for enhancing trade between the dual states and for this intent close
interaction between the dual inhabitants, administrations and businessmen required to be
enhanced.”280 In the period of indeterminate length Pakistan and former USSRS had eras of
peak-level of trade and economic joint operation during the time that has elapsed, strongly
marked as the exploration of oil and gas,281 weapons of defense and the establishing of Pakistan
Steel Mill in 1970 in Pakistan with the assistance of techno-financial base of USSR, the present
coactions of economic is bounded.
Efforts have been underway in the last two decades to boost trade and economic ties. In 1999,
the Intergovernmental Agreement on Trade, Economic, Scientific and Technical Cooperation
(IGC) was signed between Pakistan and Russia. This agreement paved the way for putting in
place the institutional mechanism of bilateral interaction. Its first session was held in March
200048 and it has since been instrumental in developing a better understanding on economic and
trade relations between the two states.282

278
Chandra Rekha, India-Russia Post-Cold War Relations: A New Epoch of Cooperation, (New York: Routledge, 2017), p. 65
279
Speech of Ambassador of Russian Federation at Islamabad Policy Research Institute on August 1, 2018.
280
“Russia opens honorary consul office in Peshawar,” The News, February 20, 2018, available
athttps://www.thenews.com.pk/print/283412-russia-opens-honorary-consul-office-inpeshawar
281
“Pakistan-Soviet Oil Agreement,” First appeared in ‘The Pakistan Times’ in Lahore on March 23, 1961. A copy of the speech
is available at a site dedicated to Shaheed Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto at https://www.bhutto.org/1957-1965_speech37.php
282
“Intergovernmental Commission,” available at Chamber of Commerce and Industry of the Russian Federation,
http://en.pakistan-russia.ru/commission/

lxxxvii
In addition, within the Institute for Global Communication (IGC) hypothetical description, the
initial Pak-Russia Investment Forum was conduct with involution by Russian experts, officials
and businessmen. Moreover extending the range of reciprocal merchandize, the both directions
have united by being of the same opinion on the ratified agreement on outcome of decision of
Mutual Financial Claims and indebtedness on Operations of the belonging to prior time USSR.
Soviets and Pakistan had some awaiting confirmation claims of payments contrary to each other
a quantity of money of some million dollars. According to some Laws of Russia, it cannot bring
into being a facility of loan for Pakistan up to the time entire awaiting confirmation defrayments
are settled. With the assistance of this agreement of draft, this hindrance will be removed gently,
letting Russia and Pakistan to make better their economic mutual dealings.
5.3 Coactions’ on Organized Crime and Drug Trafficking

The matter of the trafficking of drug as a component of orchestrate crime is also a great
consequence of anxious feelings for the Federation of Russia. 283Because of the wide range
anarchy in Afghanistan, many types of drugs like opium and Hashish ratification is increasing. In
Russia illegal utilization of drug is a sever matter and by some approximate calculation, more
than 85 % of the cultivation of poppy are done under the control of Taliban in the various areas
of Afghanistan.284
In addition, not taking in to account the illegal drug utilization and drug-trafficking, the links in
series between drug trafficking and terrorism is also a matter that sabotages matrix of the
security of Russia.285 The process of producing drugs in wide ranges in Afghanistan and its
illegal deal to the vicinity of Soviets is an origination of invariant menace for Russia as the entire
amount of income produced by its merchandise according to what has been is alleged to buy war
equipments and enrolled furthermore hawkish. It is surmised that organized crimes and militancy
a in the vicinity of Russia are being obtained and provided money through these specify
origins.286 Both Russia and Pakistan have extended cooperation to scrap organized crimes and

283
Letizia Paoli, Drug Trafficking in Russia: A Form of Organized Crime? Journal of Drug Issues, Vol. 31, Issue 4, pp. 1007-
1038m available at https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/7ba0/cb743f41c37139d37095c37597a2576c7f48.pdf
284
“The Drug Problem and Organized Crime, Illicit Financial Flows, Corruption and Terrorism,” World Drug Report 2017, Issue
5, UNODC, https://www.unodc.org/wdr2017/field/Booklet_5_NEXUS.pdf
285
“Militants try to gain control of drug trafficking from Afghanistan — Russia’s FSB, TASS Russian News Agency, September
03, 2018, available at http://tass.com/world/1019755
286
Paoli, L., “Illegal Drug Trade in Russia. A Research Project commissioned by the UN Office for Drug Control and Crime
Prevention,” research in brief | forschung aktuell no. 3, Freiburg i. Br. 2001. Also see, Department of Defense. 2018. "A Global

lxxxviii
trafficking of drug.287 The Interior Ministry Pakistan has been performing an energetic role to
stop the drugs flow and catering assistance to Russia to destroy the roots of criminals and
suppliers of to Russia and its neighboring territories.288 Russia and Pakistan, in this regard, has
held exercises of drug-trafficking and part took secret informative data to increase mutual
actions. For training Pakistan has posted some officers of its Anti-Narcotics in Russia under the
ratified mutual agreement. On the Forum of Quintet, Russia has also made a ratified agreement
along with Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iran to scrap organized crime and trafficking of
drugs and narcotics.289 The procedures of combined training will enhance their acquisitions and
groom them to accept as a challenge tackle the narcotics trade in the country. The Ministry of
Internal Affairs of Russia and Anti-Narcotics Forces of Pakistan have also developed
information sharing on issues of countering and prevention of unlawful trafficking of narcotics
and usage of drugs similarly expertise and related secret information.290
5.4 Evolving Pakistan and Russia Relations

Both Russia and Pakistan now comprehend in a better way the forces stimulate the development

of their reciprocal mutual dealings and the necessity to better powerful institutional and military

to military mutual dealing. It’s because Pakistan faces a bulky deficit of energy and Soviet is one

of the largest exporters of gas and oil in the region, Soviet locates Pakistan as a significant

consuming place for the export of her fuel. It is also significant to comprehend the developing

mutual dealings in the way of regarding situation of sakes commonalities of Russia and Pakistan

in South Asia and its vicinity. At the same time Russia is questing economic collaborators in

South and East and Central Asia, it also desired to make sure dependable vicinity. In its search to

keep its particular geographical regions of influence safe, Russia has desires to trammel

Overview of Narcotics-Funded Terrorist and Other Extremist Groups". Washington, D.C.: The Library of Congress.
https://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/pdf-files/NarcsFundedTerrs_Extrems.pdf
287
“Russia's Medvedev talks terrorism, drug trade with Afghanistan, Pakistan leaders,” The
Christian Science Monitor, August 18, 2010, available at
https://www.csmonitor.com/World/terrorism-security/2010/0818/Russia-s-Medvedev-talksterrorism-
drug-trade-with-Afghanistan-Pakistan-leaders
288
“Pakistan Russia Joint Meeting on Counter Terrorism,” MOI Policies & Procedures,
February 08, 2014, available at https://www.interior.gov.pk/index.php/about-moi/policiesmoi/ 14-sample-data-articles/149-
pakistan-russia-joint-meeting-on-counter-terrorism
289
“International Cooperation Directorate,” Anti-Narcotics Force Website, available at http://anf.gov.pk/ic_participation.php
290
Igor Morgulov, “Russia-Pakistan: New vistas of cooperation,” Pakistan Observer, June 12, 2018,

lxxxix
components of disagreement in the States of Central Asia adjacent to Afghanistan. There are

dual main matters that Russia desires to supply in Afghanistan; trafficking of drug and militancy.

It is significant to observe the increased endeavors by Russia in Afghanistan to keep militancy in

291
control since Russia was implemental in acting with vigor ISIS out of Syria and Iraq which

consequence in few of those classes and their natural consequences continuously varying to out

of control territories of Afghanistan. There have since come out in to view unexpected abstract

places and informants of menaces to Soviet and its territories of affect exhaling from

Afghanistan. Without justification known as the Islamic State of Khorasan also called as ISKP

has make an addition to the enumeration of activist preserves functioning and controlling from

Afghanistan.292 ISIS of Khorasan consort in the northerly territories of Afghanistan is deemed by

Russia as a direct threat to both its own national security and that of the Central Asian states

within its sphere of influence. Through inherent nature the current existence of not in favor

entities of -Russia worries the Russian’s armed forces and agencies of intelligence. It is apparent

in the continued endeavors of Russia to restrict forward movements being made by activists in

the direction of the states of Central Asia. Under Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO),

anti- extremism, separatism, terrorism, force was set up named as the Regional Anti Terrorist

Structure or generally known as RATS.293 Both Russia and Pakistan, according to this ratified

arrangement, have united by being the same opinion to perform together for better coactions

291
“Decisive Russian action ensures defeat of ISIS in Syria; threats of terror loom large in Central Asia,” The Economic Times,
January 23, 2018, available at https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/decisive-russian-action-ensures-defeat-ofisis-
in-syria-threats-of-terror-looms-large-in-central-asia/articleshow/62614011.cms
292
Amira Jadoon et al, “Challenging the ISK Brand in Afghanistan-Pakistan: Rivalries and Divided Loyalties, “Combating
Terrorism Center, https://ctc.usma.edu/challenging-isk-brandafghanistan- pakistan-rivalries-divided-loyalties/, April 2018,
Volume 11, Issue 4.
293
“Agreement between state members of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization on Regional anti-terrorist structure,” available
at http://cis-legislation.com/document.fwx?rgn=3857, Also see, official website of RATS: http://ecrats.org/en/

xc
between their armed forces which are combating contrary to terrorism and enhance skillfulness

in obviating terrorism from the world and specifically from entire Asian States.294

In addition, both Pakistan and Russia search an Afghan-led, Afghan possessed national

reestablishing procedure to pave route for harmonious relations in the war-torn state and settling

of insurgency and drawn-out struggle of Afghanistan. Russia is furnishing favor of the endeavors

of Pakistan in Afghanistan to generate totality of surrounding of harmony in the extended spatial

location and Pakistan alternates the direction by participating and favoring the initiatives of

Russia of conducting peace discussions on Afghanistan.295

5.5Trade and Economic Relations

Economic mutual dealings of Pakistan with the Soviet Union have been on the contrary
moderator warm since the independence of Pakistan. Pakistan and Soviet Union set up trade
mutual dealings in the start of 1950s when Moscow united by being of the same opinion to
import leather, jute and cotton. Moscow purchased jute from Pakistan in interchange for 150,000
tons of wheat during the summer season of 1952 when Pakistan surrounded by fright of
famine.296 Eventually, Soviet Union and Pakistan set up a consortium of oil, Oilfields of
Pakistan, and showing involvements in setting up the first steel mills of Pakistan in 1958. After
three years of these initiatives in 1961, Moscow presented a temporary provision of money of 27
million Rubles to Islamabad for the exploration of gas and oil, after that this able to Pakistan to
set up in his Oil and Gas Development Organization.297 The Soviet Union catered proficient
skillfulness by virtue of possessing special knowledge and stretch out over duration a loan of 200
million dollars to Pakistan for the setting up of Pakistan Steel Mills in 1972 and this loan was
requite in conducive to comfort by Pakistan. This placement was hinder normal operation by
some companies of Pakistan that over-billed the unrefined standard goods and finally Soviet
Union declined to dwell by the placement. This spectacular temporary provision of money

294
Speech of Ambassador of Russian Federation at Islamabad Policy Research Institute on August 1, 2018.
295
“Pakistan in Talks with Russia on Buying Air Defense Systems – Defense Minister, “
Sputnik News, April 06, 2018, https://sputniknews.com/asia/201804061063290124-pakistanrussia-air-defense-systems/
296
Hafeez Malik,Soviet-American relations with Pakistan, Iran, and Afghanistan,188.
297
‘Company History’ available atwww.ogdcl.comaccessed on December 27, 2014.

xci
remained a piercingly tinge in the Pak-Russia mutual dealings.298 In 2010, Moscow has again
bounded to commercial activity of catering funds for up-gradation of Pakistan Steel Mills.299 The
mutual particular instance of buying and selling between Russia and Pakistan gradually dying to
80million dollars has expanded to 542 Million Dollars till 2012. 300
Mutual Trade Volume
Economic Session Bulk of Commercial Exchange (US Millions Dollar )
2003 92 US Million Dollars
2006 411.4 US Million Dollars
2008 630 US Million Dollars
2009 400 US Million Dollars
2012 542 US Million Dollars
Source: Ministry of Commerce, Government of Pakistan, 2010
Despite trade opportunities, the exports from Pakistan to Russian Federation$210 million (2012)
are a meager 0.04% of the total Russian trade volume. Similarly, imports by Pakistan from
Russian Federation at $332 million (2012) stands at 0.07% of the total Russian trade volume. 301
Pakistan has been the biggest exporter of potato to the Russian Federation in 2010-2011. It
exported 125,000 tons of potato to Russian Federation.302 Pakistan is a major exporter of
“Kinnow” to Russian Federation. There is a huge potential of textile, leather goods, vegetables
and fruits. The main issue hampering the export of goods is the quality, non professional attitude
of exporters and the bureaucratic hurdles at the government level.
MAJOR EXPORTS OF PAKISTAN TO RUSSIAN FEDERATION (2009)
PRODUCTS VOLUME US $ MILLION
Vegetable, Fruits, Rice 111.11 US Million Dollars
Textile Goods 78.9 US Million Dollars
Chemical fibers and Filaments 52.8 US Million Dollars

298
Hafeez Malik, Soviet-American Relations with Pakistan, Iran, and Afghanistan,191
299
“Russia and Pakistan: Prospects of Interaction, Commemorating the 65thanniversary of Bilateral
relations, H.E. Mr. Igor V. Morgulov, Deputy Foreign Minister of The Russian Federation”, The Diplomatic
Insight, 6 ( 2010): 4
300
Ministry of Commerce, “Trade Statistics July 20009-2010” http://www.commerce.gov.pkaccessed on
May 12, 2010.
301
Ministry of Commerce, “Trade Statistics July 2009-2010” http://www.commerce.gov.pkaccessed on
May 12.2010.
302
Ibid., Trade Statistics 2010-2011.

xcii
Cotton 29.6 US Million Dollars
Leather Goods 17.5 US Million Dollars
Pharmaceutical Products 10.7 US Million Dollars
Sports Goods 4.89 US Million Dollars
Source: Ministry of Commerce, Government of Pakistan, 2009.
MAJOR IMPORTS OF PAKISTAN FROM RUSSIAN FEDERATION (2009)
Product Bulk in US Million Dollars
Ferrous Materials and Products 124.6 US Million Dollars
Fertilizers Exports 53.4 US Million Dollars
News print and Paper Board 18.18 Million
Source: Ministry of Commerce, Government of Pakistan, 2009
In the aftermath of 2010 floods in Pakistan, the Russian Federation decreased the custom duty up
to 35% on Pakistani goods as a goodwill gesture. As measures to boast trade, two Pakistani
trading houses have been opened in Saint Petersburg. A trading house is also established in
Moscow to promote Pakistani products. Pakistan Russia Business Forum (PRBF) was
established in 2009 to promote commerce and tourism. Another such forum, “Business Council
for Promotion of Trade with Pakistan” is quite effectively working since its establishment in
2011. Also in order to enhance economic cooperation between Pakistan and Russia a
governmental commission has been formed. In terms of Russian investment in Pakistan, it
offered various options; financing the Iran-Pakistan (IP) gas pipeline and expansion of Pakistan
Steel Mills production from 1 to 3 million tons per annum.303 It also offered to finance various
energy projects in Pakistan such as Tarbella expansion, Diamer Bhasha Dam, CASA-1000, up-
gradation of Gaddu, Muzafargarh and Jamshoro Power Plants.304
Summary
Enhancing mutual dealings of Pakistan and Russia are observed as an innate reaction to a
prosperous US-Indo link. In addition, Islamabad is searching to improve as well as manage its
relations with the Washington. Both countries are searching to draw advantages on entire
possible reciprocal adventures without making a break their relations along with other countries
and encourage the necessity for ameliorate mutual dealings between Russia and Pakistan.

303
“Putin Keeps Pakistan Alive”, Pravada, November 8, 2011.
304
“Address of Trade Representative of the Russian Federation in Pakistan, Mr. Yuri M. Kozlov, Activities
of the Russian Federation in Pakistan”The Diplomatic Insight, 6 (2013): 8.

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Both for Russia and Pakistan, with regards to territorial defense, a no disturb by war Afghanistan
and a no disturb by strife vicinity to Russia is of preponderant significance. The necessity for a
no disturbs by turmoil and frees from danger vicinity leads its conditions of engagement with
Pakistan in addition. In addition, it is apparent t from the present furtherance in Pak-Russia
mutual dealings that Russia has confidence on the ability of Pakistan to scrap terrorism and is an
active manner Pakistan is pursuing the training of anti-terrorism. After inclusion of Pakistan in
the SCO where counter-terrorism and regional security are eminent precedence jobs, both
countries can perform a prominent character in attaining reciprocal security attached destinations
in Afghanistan. The present working jointly on drug trafficking, anti-narcotics, terrorism and
other machinated crimes are significant for Russia and on base of these consequences Pakistan is
taking crucial maneuvers to support Russia in checking these critical issues.
Presently, the economy of Pakistan and the clampdowns on Russia by the West bound the
standard of mutual dealing between the two countries. In the recent economic situation, Pakistan
does not have the power to obtaining by purchase to get by special effort the equipments of
Russian defense. Moreover, Russia cannot cater facilities of loan to Pakistan owed as debt to its
own disintegrating economy because of Washington -led bans on the companies of state-owned
and the businessmen of Russia. This predicament also means that Pakistan will remain unable to
replace India’s position vis-à-vis Russia and similarly, Russia would not be able to replace the
US. Therefore, while ambitious projects can be drafted and signed, the practicality of such
projects materializing would require third-party investment or loan facilities from International
Financial Institutions such as World Bank or IMF which function under Western influence.
Therefore, the lack of funds can have immense implications for these projects and possibly
undermine the true potential of economic relations between the two states.
However, the benefits of a close partnership are apparent to both states. Russia has a robust
defense production industry which can help Pakistan boost up its defence capability and help
train Pakistani technicians, scientists, and engineers to produce defence equipment indigenously.
On the other hand, Pakistan’s counterterrorism expertise is vital for Russia’s security interests.
While forging close relations, both states are cognizant of the fact that there are no permanent
friends or allies in the international system and interests guide new relations, however for a
mutually beneficial and long-term partnership, they will need to tread this new path carefully and
expand it to multiple levels of cooperation.

xciv
Chapter 6 Pak-Russia Relations Effects on the Regional Politics

6.1 Sakes, Goals and Foreign Policy of Russia in South Asia

Central Asian Republics’ (CARs) significant determined by geography emplacement,

hydrocarbon available sources and security of Russia exposures are important for interests and
action plan of Russia in Central Asia.305 However, meanwhile the last decade of twentieth
century, Russia could not concentrate to these territories because of her own matters attach with
economic complexities and transitional matters. Moscow also never considered obligatory that
the all significant states would be in a close manner engrossed in Central Asia. NATO forcible
current existence in Central Asia made these areas precedence in the Russian realm of foreign
action plan. Concerns of security because of the presence Islamic fundamentalists and NATO in
the region of the Muslim with firmness sketched the action plan of Russia towards the regional
security. Russia has developed its mutual dealings with CARs by setting up the Collective Rapid
Deployment Force according to Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO). It contains
7500 armed persons of Russia which are making sure the security of the Afghan-Tajik border.306
The Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS) of Shanghai Cooperation Organization’s (SCO’s)
has been set up as earlier as in 2004. In the sectors of security, military and defense, the region
remains steadfastly associated with Russia. In Central Asia, till now the Russia is the tongue
Franca. Presently, Russia is intemperately attached in the act of producing and transiting of gas
and oil in the region in spite China has presently dented its exclusive control in the Central Asian
sector of energy. In Central Asia, Russia relishes as a soft power due to the betterment of the
status of socio-economic that CARs attained meanwhile the Soviet reign having no
unprecedented in the history of the states of colonized and imperialists. Influence of Russia in
Central Asia will be permanent and durable as the region is in a wide spread way affiliated to
Russia in many and different walks of life d i.e. from energy and defense to investment and trade
and from identical to loyalty of geo-politics and general deems on development and governance.
Russia deems Central Asia significant for fostering its sakes in residual of Asia. Currently
305
Maria y. Omelicheva, “Central Asia” in Routledge Handbook of Russian Foreign Policy, ed. Andrei P. Tsygankov (Routledge,
2018), pp: 325-327
306
Ibid., p, 331.

xcv
Eurasians is the concentration of the foreign action plan of Russia intents while Central Asia has
to perform significant role in Eurasian Union of Russia. It is deserve referencing that the
significant of Central Asia for Russia has enhanced since 2001 and it will keep enhancing for the
upcoming near future eras and farther long in future. 307 If Washington, in a multicentre universe,
minimized to a Western Power that sets up powers to effect in the WEST merely and China over
orients, Russia comprehended to be exercising power over Eurasia which stimulates Central Asia
essential component to Russia. Russia deems the expanded spatial location as her derived from
tradition particular environment of influence for a favored character and considers that it has the
capability and also the ‘favor’ to shape and channel others’ mutual action along with CARs.308
6.2 Sakes, Goals and Policy of Pakistan in South Asia

Pakistan actualizes the economic and geographical importance of Central Regions of Asia;
location of region with regard to Pakistan and consequently has been endeavoring to counterfeit
closer political and economic mutual dealings with CARs since 1991. It is also aims of Pakistan
to response influence of India in the region. In start Pakistan endeavored to resuscitate the
famous in past related to cultural connections while also utilizing the card of religion and bonds
of ideology for having mutual dealings with CARs. In 1992, with success Pakistan detained in
conversation for the membership of CARs in Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO).
Pakistan also stretched available amount of 10 million dollar to each of the democratic and in
corporate in to a structure its mutual dealings by the set up of the commissions of inter-
government along with these democratic states. In 1995 tetragon transportation ratified
agreement was constituted among China, Pakistan, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan to use Highway
of Karakoram with Central Asia for trade.309 On the other hand, political and economic mutual
dealings with CARS are till now small in scope because of some rational motives. The very short
way for Pakistan to Central Asia is travelling through unstableness areas of Afghanistan.
Meanwhile the last decade of twentieth century there was encounter of sakes in Afghanistan in
the group of the states of regions while the involvement of Pakistan in Afghanistan was majorly

307
Bobo Lo, “Frontiers New and Old: Russia’s Policy in Central Asia”, Russia/NIS Centre, Russie.Nei.Visions No. 82, Paris
2015, retrieved from
https://www.ifri.org/sites/default/files/atoms/files/ifri_rnv_82_central_asia_bobolo_eng_january_2015
308
Ibid., p, 13
309
Shabir Ahmad Khan, “Pakistan’s Policy Towards Central Asia since1991: An Evaluation” pp: 111-126 in Central Asia No. 65,
Winter 2009 (Area Study Centre, University of Peshawar) : 117

xcvi
an endeavor for a stable administration there it’s because that Afghanistan can perform as
passage of trade with Central Asia.310 Trade along with the States of Central Asia is merely a
small part of its real capability and the projects of energy i.e. CASA 1000 and TAPI are still at
distance from realization because of Afghanistan instable administrative situations. Moreover,
the States of Central were also visualizing to the West for channelization of technology and
capital meanwhile their transition of economic. Limited resources of Pakistan could not present a
kind of trade and investment which Central Asian States required. At the same duration Pakistan
could not explicate a coherent plan of action in the directions of the region because of internal
economic and political instability because of several times administration change during the last
decade of twentieth century in Pakistan.
In spite of this Pakistan all the time and on every occasion prolonged expect and wish that it will
become an entrance path to surrounded entirely Xinjiang and Central Asia one day. A very
incontrovertible modification has came in to being presently in the mutual dealings among
Central Asian Regions and Pakistan because of the function properly projects of desegregation
started by super powers specifically Belt of China and Road Initiative (BRI) and Eurasian Union
of Russia. A chief one contrives of BRI and CPECT for Pakistan, avoid unpleasant instable
Afghanistan for admittance to Central Asia. The becoming friendlier mutual dealings between
Russia and Pakistan have also inspired with confidence to Central Asians States to enhance
reciprocal action along with Pakistan. In a hopeful manner CPEC will be appurtenance by
Afghanistan-Pakistan -Central Asia enclosed passageway. Pakistan, in the contested discussion
of either to cohere to the standard of subordinate and un-polarity its interests and to that of
USA’s hegemonic discourse of which Pakistan already became a victim or to follow and pursue
a course of diversify its foreign action plan by improving close mutual dealings with Russia, has
selected the later. Since 2005, the image of Pakistan has bettered in Central Asia specifically,
because of the action plan of American government modification in space of earlier Soviet by
revolutions of color and inculpation of America to Pakistan for its failure of action plan in
Afghanistan. CARs, Russia and Pakistan regarding the procedure of peace and talk for
Afghanistan political settlement are now on same page.

310
Shabir Ahmad Khan, “Pak-Uzbek Relations: Hopes and Hurdles”, pp: 121-134 in Central Asia No. 53 (Area Study Centre,
Uniersity of Peshawar, Winter 2003) p: 25

xcvii
6.3 Pak-Russia Relations and its Effects on Afghanistan

In speedily alteration global and regional postulated sequence of possible events,

friendly nations have become estranges on the other hand estranges became collaborators.
Region base modification in predisposition necessitates both Russia and Pakistan to improve
within shorter distance economic and strategic act of working jointly which will have wide
spread entailments on the economic and peace improvement of an adjacent region comprising
Central Asia and Afghanistan. Russia checks northern enclosed passageway to this adjacent
region while Pakistan caters an exit to this surrounded entirely adjacent region in the south. In
addition, Central Asia and Afghanistan associates Pakistan and Russia. This integral means
Pakistan, Central Asia, Russia and Afghanistan are innate collaborators. Both Pakistan and
Russia have overlap of sakes and similarly regional concerns of security. 311 Both the states have
mutual rational and mental attitude of region base approach to solve the complicated issues of
Afghanistan. Significantly, Pak-Sino close economic and strategic alignment also solidifies and
enforces Pak-Russia act of working jointly specifically on the issue of Central Asia and
Afghanistan. Russia, China and Pakistan are the original stake holders in progress and peace of
Central Asia and specifically Afghanistan. Entire the three states with firmness can sketch the
solution of the conundrum of Afghanistan if in an effective way they bring in to order and
organize their action plans.
The keen desire of Russia to have check and balance over the Central and South Asian
consolidation via Pakistan and Afghanistan is in line with the sakes of Pakistan i.e. to cater an
opening that permit escape to the surrounded entirely regions. A majority of the analysts of
Russia gave importance to geographical status of Pakistan vis-à-vis Central Asia and
Afghanistan. A Russian famous defense analyst Andrew Korybko narrated that Pakistan is an
innate entrance to Ocean of India, South Asia and beyond of Eurasian Union.312 At the same
way, Petr Topychkanov and Vladimir Moskalenko both Russian described, “the natural resource
of Pakistan is its advantageous strategic location which creates a significant association between

311
Faiza Bashir and Noreen Naseer, “New Cold War: Rebuilding Pakistan and Russia Relations” pp: 89-112 in Central Asia No.
82, Summer 2018 (Area Study Centre, University of Peshawar, January 2019), 91
312
Andrew Korybko, “Pakistan Is The “Zipper” Of Pan-Eurasian Integration”, Russian Institute of Strategic Studies, Moscow,
15/09/2015, retrieved from https://en.riss.ru/analysis/18882/ accessed 30/05/2019

xcviii
South Asia, Central Asia and Middle East”. 313
In Afghanistan, post USA no state of the region
will be in a status to maintain and bring peace in Afghanistan by unilateral manner. Bringing and
maintaining peace and prosperity in Afghanistan will be common obligation of all countries of
the region significantly by obligating the point of views, concerns and interests of each other. As
a consequence, Pak-Russia joint operation along with other countries of the region i.e. China,
Iran and CARs, as basic and original stakeholders in Afghanistan’s harmony and peace will be
conclusive and instrumental in bringing prosperity and peace in this region of the world. Pak-
Russia mutual dealings and joint action would welcome by CARs rational motive is that they
will be the utmost recipient of all interests of like this act of working jointly. It’s bad luck of
region that the phenomenon of ‘layover’ has bounded the personas of the various countries of the
region during the previous some decades. Layover happened when redundant power of region or
powers without deviation come on stage in the complex of region base security in an effective
manner quelling the dynamics of region and in this way politics of region are assimilated by
world level politics.
There is having no precedent Pak-Russia overlap on Afghanistan which previously was an
authentication of India-Soviet mutual dealings. The Kremlin has implied time presented
believability to the endeavors of Pakistan for counter terrorism and has announced a close
counter terrorism share holder to Pakistan.314 Russia is also has no objection and has showed
satisfaction on the Pak-China cooperation on the settlement of Afghan issue. It is also existing in
possibility that if security of this region is menaced by align armed forces in Afghanistan, then
Russia, along with the favor of Pakistan, as a reaction and for the security of region can interfere.
Presently, Pakistan, Russia and China axis looks a guarantee and symbol of prosperity and
security for Central Asia and specifically for Afghanistan. Buzan’s theory of regional security
complex narrated, the security of the region is very close associated to region base groups of the
states because of interdependence security of region. In present instance the pigeonholing of
Pakistan, Russia, Iran and China can be subservient in bringing prosperity and peace in entire
region and specifically in Afghanistan. Afghanistan instability is a basic source of detrimental

313
Vladimir Moskalenko and Petr Topychkanov, “Pakistan and Russia: Shared Challenges and Common Opportunities”,
Carnegie Centre Moscow, May 2014, retrieved from https://carnegieendowment.org/files/Brief-Russia_Pakistan2014.
314
Samuel Ramani, “What Driving Russia-Pakistan Cooperation on Afghanistan”, The Diplomat, May 09, 2017, retrieved from
https://thediplomat.com/2017/05/whats-driving-russia-pakistan-cooperation-on-afghanistan/

xcix
the process of development and peace of the countries of this region. So Afghanistan’s prosperity
and peace will emphatically beneficial for the most of the regional states.
In this way the betterment of security and economic situation of Afghanistan specially and
Central Asians States generally, the critical issue of drug-trafficking, the currently happening
clash and future desegregation of Pakistan, Siberia, Afghanistan and Central Asia to Indian
Ocean, South Asia, and farther along all make certain a prolong period of time involution
between Russia and Pakistan. Close Mutual dealings of Pakistan with Russia essential not be as
reaction to the India-US being close together or in other respects, rather it is essential be founded
on an intentionally conceived actualization of reciprocal sakes independent of their mutual
dealing along with other states of region and world. The similar principle and condition utilizes
to Russia as on the other hand India has been endeavoring its most to interruption recent Pak-
Russia enhancing mutual dealings and offsetting current position of Pakistan.
6.4 New Geopolitical Realities and Regional Fragility
The comings in to existence geopolitical actualities are similarly to influence the antagonists of
Pak-Russia mutual dealings. Initially, the moves upward of China from a tarriance relating to the
rural matters economy to a world industrial gargantuan, and the revival from inactivity and
disuse of Russia have in a very impressive manner altered the world economic and geopolitical
expanse of scenery. They have transmuted the state of environment of conflict and cooperation;
along with bring in to existence strategic challenges and opportunities. As a reference, , with the
enforce of sanctions of economic contrary to Russia by the European Union (EU)and
Washington in consequences of the annexation of Crimean and crisis of East Ukraine, 315 Russia
is seeking resort with China and other states like Pakistan, Turkey and Saudi Arabia. On the
other hand, USA impulsive with firmness to impoverish Russia of its energy market of
Europe,316during this period Washington favor to India, Turkmenistan, Pakistan and Afghanistan
project of gas pipeline. These contending sakes on the issue of energy between the Moscow and
Washington boosted up first to extend its local circumscribed of foreign mutual dealings and
made the part to Pakistan “multi-vectored” followers in this region. In the future, the Role of

315
Aleksandar Vasovic and Adrian Croft, “U.S., EU Set Sanctions as Putin Recognizes Crimea „Sovereignty‟,” Reuters, March 17,
2014, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ukraine-crisis/u-s-eu-set-sanctions-as-putin-recognizes-crimea-sovereignty-
idUSBREA1Q1E820140317; and Ali, “Pak-Russia Commission on Military Co-Op Set Up.”
316
Zafar Bhutta, “North-South Pipeline: Pakistan, Russia Reach LNG Price Accord,” Express Tribune, December 1, 2016,
https://tribune.com.pk/story/1249730/north-south-pipeline-pakistan-russia-reach-lng-price-accord/.

c
Moscow as a main defense military structure provider to India may be altering in to watery. 317 In
security scenario, Islamabad could be one of the concerned with future choices for Moscow.
On the second, there has been a concerned with suggestive of Idea lurch in stance of Moscow in
the direction of Afghan Taliban by comprehending them as a fact not to be disregarded, as
presented in a press briefing of Zamir Kabulov, “our sakes are the similar to the Taliban in
combating Daesh”.318 This shift is also drawing Moscow closer to Islamabad and seeing the
latter as a major stakeholder in the Afghan conundrum. Moscow is anxious to play a decisive
role in the post-2014 regional security calculus independent of the US, specifically in the context
of spillover from Afghanistan‟s instability. Moreover, the Moscow Conference on Afghanistan
frustrated New Delhi given the evolving convergence between Russia, China and Pakistan,
which appears to be awarding enhanced role to Pakistan in the future of Afghanistan. Whether
US troops completely or partially leave Afghanistan under the current negotiations taking
place,319 Pakistan needs to plan „a regional recalibration of its foreign policy towards Moscow
and Beijing after the suspension of the US security assistance.‟320
Third, the rise of the Daesh in Afghanistan has set alarm bells ringing. Extra-regional forces in
the country may employ Daesh as a proxy to undermine resurging Russia, China and Pakistan.321
This perception is gaining traction in the wake of reports validating the arrival of thousands of
Daesh miscreants from Syria, which is believed to be a move to destabilise the broader region.
Fourth, the logic behind cooperative ties between Moscow and New Delhi is multifaceted and
compelling as witnessed in their upgraded Special and Privileged Strategic Partnership.322The
Indo-Russia defence calculus equally enjoys privileged status. While defence sales may be

317
“US Narrows Gap with Top Supplier Russia, Arms Sales to India Soar 5-Fold,” Business Standard, March 17, 2018,
http://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/us-narrows-gap-with-top-supplier-russia-arms-sales-to-india-soar-
5-fold-118031700139_1.html. According to the SIPRI 2018, Moscow had a 62 per cent share of Delhi‟s arms imports during
2013-17, less than the 79 per cent in 2008-12. On the other hand, arms sale from Washington to Delhi is increasing every year.
During 2013-17, arms sales increased five times.
318
Indrani Bagchi, “Respect State to State Relations: Afghanistan to Russia,” Times of India, December 14, 2016,
https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/south-asia/respect-state-to-state-relations-afghanistan-to-
russia/articleshow/55985159.cms .
319
Mujib Mashal, “U.S. and Taliban Agree in Principle to Peace Framework, Envoy Says,” New York Times, January 28, 2019,
https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/28/world/asia/taliban-peace-deal-afghanistan.html.
320
“Pakistan‟s Recalibration of Foreign Policy towards Russia, China,” Times of Islamabad, January 30, 2018,
https://timesofislamabad.com/30-Jan-2018/pakistan-s-recalibration-of-foreign-policy-towards-russia-china.
321
Kamran Yousaf, “Pakistan, Russia and China Inch Closer to Formal Alliance,” Express Tribune, April 3, 2017,
https://tribune.com.pk/story/1372490/pakistan-russia-china-inch-closer-formal-alliance/.
322
Hanif, “Pakistan-Russia Relations: Progress, Prospects and Constraints,” 81-82.

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declining, New Delhi remains Moscow‟s largest weapons importer,323 which may prevent the
latter‟s foreign policy formulation from seeking broad spectrum entente with Islamabad.
Simultaneously, Moscow‟s traditional support of India for permanent membership of the UNSC,
NSG and the Nuclear Elite Club could have serious implications for Pakistan‟s strategic
calculus. When it comes to India, Moscow is playing its cards very cautiously realising on the
one hand that if it „continues to snub Pakistan in favour of India, it would ultimately run contrary
to the interests of Russia‟s security‟,324 while on the other hand stressing that „Moscow did not
complain about India‟s close cooperation with the US and so India also should not complain
about much low level of cooperation between Russia and Pakistan.‟325 Here, equally pertinent
are the comments made in 2012 by Ruslan Pukhov, „Delhi‟s attempts to diversify its supplies of
new weapons increasingly from Western countries are making Russia flinch. Moscow has
explained to Delhi… that it can also diversify its military-technical ties by means of a
rapprochement with Pakistan.‟326
6.5 Pak-Russia Mutual Dealings and Its Effects on the Security of Region

Meanwhile the Cold War the USSR favored India politically and by armed forces, along with
Pakistan is in a position of lasting clash since his emergence i.e. August 14, 1947. That joint
action attained its structure of law in 1974, at that time India in a formal way join with USSR. It
is deserving to be widely known and esteemed that India was merely single country which
admitted like this status willingly, meanwhile making a comparison to the states of Central
European squeeze her to act like this. Eastern Bloc and USSR favor concentrated majorly on the
providing arms and process of improving to the armed forces, which foster had been utilized in
the following in time huge conflicts, and minor encounters on Subcontinent region. It is also not
an Arcanum that Russian cognized in what way she assists India to attain control on atomic
arms. As a reaction, Pakistan for seven decades has been forcefully prosecuted on the direction

323
“US Narrows Gap with Top Supplier Russia, Arms Sales to India Soar 5-Fold,” Business Standard, March 17, 2018,
http://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/us-narrows-gap-with-top-supplier-russia-arms-sales-to-india-soar-
5-fold-118031700139_1.html.
324
Sergei Strokan, “Pakistan and Russia Move Closer toward Military Cooperation,” Russia Beyond, October 10, 2012,
https://www.rbth.com/articles/2012/10/10/pakistan_and_russia_move_closer_toward_military_cooperation_18965.html.
325
Sachin Parashar, “Russia Throws its Weight Behind China-Pakistan Corridor, Keeps India on Tenterhooks,” Times of India,
December 19, 2016, https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/russia-throws-its-weight-behind-china-pakistan-corridor-keeps-
india-on-tenterhooks/articleshow/56053869.cms.
326
Joshua Kucera, “Fearing Afghanistan, Russia Gets Closer to Pakistan,” Eurasianet, October 11, 2012,
http://www.eurasianet.org/node/66040.

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of America. Pakistan was a part of dual Alliances of pro-Western, SEATO and CENTO. It is
significant to detect the point of view of Pakistani that there was no Communist menace for its
defense. Engrossing on the direction of Western an impenetrable barrier has been purely
reasoned by the decision of India on joint working with the Soviets. It was merely path to
compulsory attain arms of sophisticated type to make equilibrium in the subcontinent specifically
with India. On these circumstances here were no values on common along the West for example
in democracy; its reason is that since 1954 with noticeable and short durations, Pakis-tan had
been administrated through armed forces. This was specifically apparent in the second last
decade of the twentieth century, when Pakistan turned in to a center of grooming and equipping
Mujahedeen which were conflicting with the armed forces of USSR in mountains of
Afghanistan. It was then that the United States turned a blind eye to Pakistan led works on
developing their own nuclear arsenal. It should be noted that Pakistan has had no major reasons
for the conflict with the Soviet Union until the end of the.327 Those countries do not have a
common border. Pakistani Communist Party has been not constituted any vital force on the
political scene. Obviously, Moscow did not support its development and the fostering of
revolutionary sentiment in Pakistan. It would be a very difficult task, as most of the national
population is engaged in agriculture, and the proletariat is only a small group of its society. Thus,
Marxist communism is not ideologically attractive, contrary to Maoism. Here, however the
alliance with Peoples Republic of China guarantees the security of Pakistan. It can therefore be
seen that the relationship between Pakistan and the Soviet Union has been conditioned more by
the geopolitical than ideological factor. This in turn opens up the field for changing vectors of
cooperation in the event of changes in case of change of international environment. It is
important to notice, that the United States never supported Pakistan’s stand over Kashmir. Even
worst, the Americans never assisted Pakistan in its wars against India: 1965 or 1971. In the first
case the USSR occurred to be peace-broker. In the second one the Americans allowed India to
partition Pakistan: one of the efforts of the war was creation of Bangladesh because of Indian
support for than East Pakistani freedom fighters. So it is impossible to call the USA loyal ally of
Pakistan. Also, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, in principle, the great powers have
remained tied to the Cold War paradigms. The first important changes occurred only in the late

327
Embassy of India, Moscow, Russia, “15th Russia-India-China Trilateral Foreign Ministers‟ Meeting New Delhi,” press release,
December 11, 2017, https://indianembassy-moscow.gov.in/15th_Russia_India.php.

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90's. Then India and Pakistan both conducted nuclear tests, which met with a firm reaction from
the United States of America and Russian Federation. Although than imposed embargo occurred
to be much more painful for Islamabad than for New Delhi. Another symptom of leaving his ally
(or at least forgetting about its strategic interest) by the Americans was firm stance against
Pakistan during the ongoing armed conflict in 1999, in the sector of Kargil in Jammu and
Kashmir. Then the envoy of the US President Bill Clinton, Strobe Talbot has forced Pakistan to
withdraw from the held positions, and take a seat at the negotiations table. It would seem that the
relations of Islamabad with Washington will improve after the September 11, 2001 terrorist
attacks, when Pakistan declared its membership in the so called "anti-terrorist coalition."
However, there are indications that the Americans were disappointed by the Pakistan’s lack of
serious commitment into the fight against the Islamists. Pakistan has focused on the local Taliban
fraction which threatened his control of the North Western Frontier Province (now Khyber-
Pakhtunkhwa) and the Tribal Areas (frontier with Afghanistan), than those involved in the fight
against NATO and US forces in Afghanistan. This could be due to the fundamental difference of
interest, which arose in the course of the American presence on the west side of the Durand Line.
US supported the former Northern Alliance, which group has been known for its strong pro-
Indian beliefs. In the vital, strategic interest of Pakistan is that the government in Kabul would
not be an ally of its "eternal arch-enemy" - India. The difference of opinion has deepened even
more when President George W. Bush, has been replaced by Barack Obama in the White House,
and there has been a change in tactics of American troops. The new president has defined a threat
in the region as an "Af-Pak" and thus treated, Pashtun inhabited parts of Afghanistan and
Pakistan as single entity. In that areas main enemy of the USA - the Taliban has had their camps.
Pakistani part of it wasn’t controlled de facto by the government in Islamabad. Therefore, US
Administration decided to perform more often air raids on suspected or actual terrorists hiding
places, using the unmanned aircraft (so-called. Drones). The side-effect of change of tactics is
high increase of the number of civilian casualties on the Pakistani side of the Durand Line (it is
official name of legally non recognized by Afgha-nistan border with Pakistan). This type of de
facto aggression by a foreign power and the exercising by the foreign armed forces of specific
executive (punitive) powers on the territory of Pakistan could not meet with good reception in
Islamabad. The apogee of the crisis in the bilateral relations was reached after the killing of
Osama bin Laden by US commandos in Abbottabad (which lays couple of miles from the

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Capital-Islamabad), 2 May 2011. Then the supreme command and Pakistani politicians have
criticized the methods used by the Americans. However, the form of the operation (the use of
"human component" instead of a Drone) may indicate that the Navy Seals operation took place
with the knowledge of the Pakistani government. It may have been forced to inactivity using
"diplomatic pressure". No political leader likes to be a subject of even soft political blackmail. It
is not a subject of this analysis to describe real pattern of “Operation Neptun Spear”. One can
compare the official version of US Administration with that proposed by American investigative
journalist Saymour Hersh. Both of them are putting bad shape on US violation of sovereignty of
Pakistan in that case. During the time of cooling relations between traditional allies occurred the
shift and rapprochement in the US and India cooperation. Its apogee has been the signing of an
agreement on cooperation the field of nuclear energy in 2008, which in practice gave New Delhi
access to the a test and most sophisticated technologies, including multi-warhead rockets. It is
worth noting that this agreement has been criticized by European countries for violation of the
rules of the Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT) signed in 1968. Another reason for the
approximation of the US and India is growing conflict in the South China Sea. Washington is
trying to engage New Delhi in the peace process and naval patrolling disputed waters so as to
make the conflict issue more multilateral, pan-Asiatic one. Americans try to use the tradition of
dating back 1962 hostility between India and China, and the growing imperial ambitions of
India. In this way, the current US is trying to move from unilateralism to collective defense and
to share the responsibility for future development of crisis with other Asian nations opposing
Chinas stand. This position is contrary to the interests of China and is not leading to the peaceful
resolution of the conflict, but may lead to further escalation. This radical change in the
geopolitical situation put Islamabad in a very difficult position. American public criticism for too
small and half-hearth involvement of Islamabad in the fight against terrorism and at the same
time stronger accusations of at least silent support of the Taliban on the one hand, and on the
other - the growing activity of India in Afghanistan (not only the construction of a strategic road
linking Afghanistan with Iran, breaking the existing monopoly of Pakistan on transit to and from
Afghanistan, but also the involvement of Indians in the training of the Afghan National Army)
seriously weakened the sense of security of Pakistan. It is important to notice, that for Pakistan
India is most serious threat and its involvement in Afghanistan is considered as some kind of
encirclement of Pakistan. So Islamabad is keen on any pro-Pakistani or at least non-pro-Indian

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government in Kabul. So when the USA had decided to support anti-Pakistani and pro-Indian
forces of previous Northern Alliance in Afghanistan, it was obvious that Pakistani involvement
in such coalition looks like mission impossible. So frankly, Americans expected the Pakistani
government to behave against its raison d’état without any safe-guards for Islamabad’s strategic
interest. The close cooperation with China in the field of military technology, although it has
some very interesting and prospective types of weapons, can’t replace the access to American
military technique. The problem that has been caused by deep dependence on American military
technology is also a legal one. The bilateral agreement limits use of the US produced weapons in
the event of a conflict with India to the case where a New Delhi will violate the principles of the
United Nations Charter. So as we know it is merely political matter to distinguish who is
aggressive and who is just defensive side if the conflict occurred. Also China’s politics towards
India is compatible with Pakistan’s vision. There is growing tension over hegemony in Asia
between Beijing and New Delhi, so Pakistan rationally supports the enemy of its arch-enemy.
China is arming and helping to develop Pakistan as an element of encirclement of India in Asia.
Pakistan is going to play the role of open window for Chinese export via new opened Gwadar
Harbor. This investment along with new roads and rail-roads of China-Pakistan Economic
Corridor (CPEC) will further engage Beijing in supporting of Pakistan’s military capabilities
towards India. This change in the international environment leads Pakistan to reconsider and
rethink its relations with re-emerging power- Russian Federation. With the escalation of the
crisis in Ukraine, transforming itself into regular war, the international isolation of the Russian
Federation is growing. The embargo imposed by the European Union and the United States,
forces the Kremlin to look for new markets for manufactured goods, including products for the
defense industry and raw materials. Without that, in the present circumstances (ruble losing its
value to major currencies) is not possible to fulfill the ambitious, imperial modernization plans of
the armed forces and the continuation of neo-imperial politics. Traditional markets do not
provide satis-factory demand for foreign currency. A European Union’s embargo on exports of
many goods, particularly fruit and vegetables is very painful for common Russians as is lack of
luxury goods for wealthy ones. Thus, also from the point of view of Russia, Pakistan is a
direction worth reconsidering. Moving away from the Cold War paradigm has been establishing
of the cooperation in the field of space technology. In 2001, a Russian rocket carried into orbit
the first Pakistani telecommunication satellite "Al Badr". The first signals of the possibility of

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military cooperation emerged in early 2009 when Islamabad probed the opportunity to purchase
Mi-35 assault helicopters. Earlier in 2002, Russia had sold to Pakistan several Mi-17 transport
helicopters, but this kind of transaction could be considered as support for rescue aviation, used
to remove the effects of natural disasters ravaging Pakistan quite often (e.g. flooding and
earthquakes).328 Mi-35, however, is strict offensive weapon. Initially, the Kremlin had not
expressed interest at that moment. The international but also internal situation in Russia,
however, has changed to such an extent that the contract on Mi-35 helicopter purchase was a
pretext to sign discussed herein agreement. During his visit to Islamabad, Minister Sergei Shoigu
announced that it is right moment to change the status of Pakistan as a trade partner from
category D to B. This means almost unlimited access to Russian military products. The effect of
this agreement has been the adoption of negotiations over the purchase by Pakistan of an
unspecified number of Su-35 multi-role aircraft in 2015. Their entry into service would change
significantly the potential of Pakistan Air Force in the possible confrontation with India. While
the purchase of an assault helicopter can be explained by the strengthening of military
capabilities in the fight against Islamic terrorism, case of long range multirole long-range
aircrafts are directed against its eastern neighbor. So far, New Delhi strongly opposed selling
such weapons to Pakistan, while it exported to India. That has happened many times in the past,
e.g. in case of contracts with the Po-land and Ukraine on purchase of tanks. However, this time
New Delhi hasn’t been able to do the same. There are also ongoing talks on the purchase of
training-assault airplanes Yak-130. Negotiations on the purchase of Russian-made jet engines
Kli-mov RD-93 for construction of the Sino-Pakistani cooperation multipurpose aircraft JF-17
were much easier. It turned out that manufactured in China on the Russian license engines do not
meet its tasks and do not give the expected aircraft performance. The subject of further
negotiations is if purchased Russian power units can be mounted also in export versions of JF-17
. An example of RD-93 jet engines indicates that even China as an ally of Russia are interested in
Islamabad’s rapprochement with Moscow.329 Another important element of cooperation between
Russia and Pakistan are military drills. This kind of cooperation has started in 2014 by the navies
of both countries by initiating an annual exercise. Officially, their goal is to develop techniques
of combating drug trafficking by sea. For the second half of 2016 there are planned the first ever

328
U.Purushothaman The Russia-Pakistan Rappro-chement: Should India Worry? ORF Issue Brief November 2015 Issue No.117
329
http://www.casa1000.org/MainPages/CASAAbout.php#vision (1.08.2016)

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joint army drills. They will take place in mountain areas. 2. Cooperation in the field of energy
Russian Federation traditionally focuses on expansion of its energy sector. Also in the agenda of
establishing cooperation with Pakistan appears this topic. One has to remember that the fast
growing economy of Pakistani increasingly demands for electricity. Every year in the summer
season noticeable restrictions in the supply of electricity to individual customers are imposed in
order to ensure continuity of supply for the industry sector. There are serious steps taken in
cooperation with China (China-Pakistan Economic Corridor CPEC) to increase the amount of
electricity produced by Pakistan, but they are long-term projects, and the problem needs
immediate action. One of them is taken together with Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan CASA-1000
project (Central Asia-South Asia power project). This worth $ 1.6 billion investment is expected
to provide Pakistan 1,300 megawatts of electricity, produced by the Central Asian hydro-power
plants.330 It has been launched 12 May 2016 in Tajikistan. Russia's accession to the project
would allow an increase in supply, which will significantly improve the energy balance of
Pakistan. Russia also expressed its interest in participating in major energy investment projects to
be implemented in the territory of Pakistan. One of them is the North-South LNG (Liquid
Natural Gas) pipeline which will connect Karachi with Lahore. The value of the investment is
expected to be $ 2 billion, and the completion date is planned for 2018. In January 2016 an
agreement has been signed between Gazprom and Petroleum Minister of Pakistan on purchases
5-7 tons of LNG per annum.331 It will diversify supplies of Pakistan and will make Islamabad
less reliable solely of Gulf-States cooperation and exports. It is very important if Pakistan wants
to stay out of growing Saudi Arabia-Iran tensions. Russian interest there should be considered
whether the bilateral cooperation actually has a chance of success, or is it just part of the
diplomatic, political game of both the Kremlin and Islamabad. Firstly, it is impossible not to
realize that the meetings of Russian and Pakistani diplomats and signed military agreement are
the result of the current political situation and the "response" to the isolation of Moscow by the
West. The contract on the one hand would make sense if the Pakistani-Russian relations will be
an effort of constant development and consequent realization of Russian influence in Pakistan.
Because of the changes which have occurred between Russia and the West and revised political
strategy of the Russian Federation, one can go to the question - is "renewal" of relations between

330
http://tribune.com.pk/story/1027143/bottleneck-pakistans-2-billion-lng-pipeline-project-hits-a-snag/ (4.08.2015)
331
http://tribune.com.pk/story/1027143/bottleneck-pakistans-2-billion-lng-pipeline-project-hits-a-snag/ (4.08.2015)

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Russia and Pakistan is just a result of Kremlin's desperation? The economic situation in Russia is
not optimistic and the leading branches of Russia's economy (arms industry and energy) lose
profits. Russia is trying to renew all relations with the countries of South Asia not only for
private economic interests but also for the potential impact on the future, "handing out cards
diplomacy" in Asia. Secondly (to support the above argumentation) we need to mention that in
terms of the benefits of the agreement, from the point of view of Russia, Pakistan, paradoxically,
is not particularly promising customer. According to official data, the country's military
expenditure is only 5.7 billion, so it is difficult to call it a promising sales market.332 It can be
concluded that the step might give some political benefits, than financial (unless we recognize
that Russia is already complete bankrupt in desperate need of any money). How it can look like
from the point of view of the Kremlin? We are witnessing a "new Great Game", which the most
powerful players are Russia and the USA. These countries are trying to maintain and / or
strengthen the sphere of influence in Central Asia and South Asia. Russia’s position in the region
depends on maintaining control over the Central Asian countries, due to the possession the most
in the of rich oil and gas resources. It recalls Mackinder’s concept of “Heartland”. Pakistan also
looks with interest to the areas of Central Asia, which is why the above meeting can be a
contribution to the agreements or confrontation of power (not only) in the future. We already
know that Russia is planning to energy cooperation with Pakistan in the field of major gas
projects related to work on gas pipelines and LNG terminals. Lahore Times says: The third
session of the Pakistan-Russian Joint Working Group (JWG) National Energy Administration
has expressed willingness to cooperate on various projects in the field of exploration of oil fields
and gas sources, construction of LNG terminals, north-south gas pipeline from Gwadar to
Nawabshah, sharing, geology and seismology survey data, develop, operate, modernize gas
infrastructure, innovative technologies in the coal industry and the construction / renovation of
units, in particular the Russian origin of the investment.333 Undoubtedly "takeover" of the
historic US ally - Pakistan, will be considered prestigious success for Russian diplomacy,
covered now by a specific international ostracism. On the other hand, at the end of 2014 visit of
President Putin to India was used to pressure on New Delhi to choose to work with traditional
partner, and not with the United States. Russian and Chinese media in recent times have been

332
http://www.dawn.com/news/1107312 (25.17. 2016)
333
http://www.lhrtimes.com/2014/11/22/pakistan-russia-cooperate-major-energy-projects-including-loating-lng-terminals-gas-
pipeline-232543/ (25.07.2016)

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very concerned about the significant growth of the military-political influence of the US in the
Asia-Pacific area. The agreement may also be a signal for Beijing. Islamabad is in fact
considered to be a strategic ally of China and their natural sphere of influence. China is the only
great power at this time which supports (although not unconditionally) Russia and its foreign
policy. An important element of the talks conducted by a team of Minister Shoigu in Islamabad
was the sale of jet engines for aircraft Chengdu JF-17, being the result of cooperation between
Sino-Pakistani (and probably the Chinese engineer’s project). Then perhaps there is a starting
point of Russian-Sino-Pakistani strategic triangle in Asia. If it succeeds it depends on the attitude
of India and the outcome of further cooperation of Russia with New Delhi. Important factor is
future development of events on South China Sea and level of India and Russia involvement in
it. 4. Pakistan interest Pakistan rapprochement with Russia can give multiple benefits. In face of
the cooling of relations with the US, and serious financial problems, the Pakistani armed forces
need access to cheaper than Western military technology to be able to modernize aging military
arsenal. It is possible only with Russia and/or China assistance. At the moment the first is
technologically more sophisticated. Another benefit may be deeper political commitment of
Russia and China in Afghanistan, which will counterbalance the emerging Indian expansion in
that country. Not without significance is also a kind of "lack of ideological orientation" of
Russian Fede-ration and Peoples Republic of China: Unlike the United States and the European
Union, these powers are not interested in the issue of promotion of human rights abroad, or
basically do not fight Islamic fundamentalism, if it does not jeopardize directly their safety (e.g.
Chechens, and Uighur separatists). This "new strategic triangle" has there-fore a development
potential. It depends on the sincerity of the intentions of its members. Can we deal with the
formation of new security architecture in Asia, verify that the next few years. Conclusions close
up between Pakistan and Russian is the logi-cal consequence of US policy towards India.
However, you cannot expect that such a change for Islamabad’s alliances can replace the current
one. Troubled by its own financial crisis, Russia has no funds for development aid comparable
with the US. Also, the Russian military technology is not as advanced as the US, so do not
balance the quantitative advantage which still holds India. The same cannot be assumed that
Russia decides to give up cooperation with India. New Delhi has too large economy, and too
large market for Russian weapons. The fact is symbolic postponing planned for 2016 President
Putin's visit to Pakistan under pressure from New Delhi. United States also do not intend to give

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up cooperation with Pakistan, which is important from the standpoint of American interests in
neighboring Afghanistan. Washington is vitally interested in the fact that Pakistan continues to
engage actively in the fight against terrorist and fundamentalist groups operating on the border
between Afghanistan and Pakistan. Despite significant differences, it is the fight against
terrorism and production and trafficking of drugs combines the interests of the US and Russia
with respect to Pakistan. Russia is also interested in elimination the hotbed of Islamic terrorism,
which could jeopardize its interests in Central Asia, as well as the potential and its internal
security in the future. This cannot be achieved without the goodwill and commitment of
Pakistan. Islamabad is the most likely chose the way of balancing between the two powers so as
to obtain the maximum benefit from cooperation with them. This is a risky game, because for
both Russia and the US much more valuable partner is India. Therefore, their relations with
Islamabad will be the result of relations with New Delhi. In such a situation, the safest, most
reliable ally of Pakistan remains China, with whom they share a common distance to India, and a
number of economic links, in-depth implementation of CPEC. If the relationship with China is
called the all-weather friendship, relations with the US can be called well on sunny weather, and
Russia-on rainy weather.
6.6 A Future Prospect of Evolving Mutual Dealings of Pakistan with Russia,

China and other Central Asian States

Since the occurring of 9/11 terrible incident, Pakistan has espoused a pragmatic and proactive
strategy in its foreign mutual dealings that assisted the nation to carry out a relating to diplomacy
comeback at world and regional bases. In this way Pakistan got ability to transform in an
effective way the prior to 9/11 hurdles and complications into opportunities and as a
consequence has turn in to a frontline country in worldwide endeavors in the scrap contrary to
terrorism. The entire community of the world has acknowledged at the proper time contribution
of Pakistan in the clash contrary to terrorism and its efforts to generate a maintain equilibrium by
starting procedure to better its dealings with Afghanistan and India. After the conclusion of the
government of Taliban in Afghanistan and an alternation of action plan of Pakistan regarding
Afghanistan, a main hurdle in developing dealings generally with Central Asian States and
specifically with Russia has been dispatched and there are powerful indicators of development in
mutual dealings. Pakistan and China are forwarding, in a better way in the field of economic. To

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better mutual dealings with entire neighboring nations in a reciprocally enhancing well-being
way is one of the major goal and destination of the foreign policy of Pakistan.
6.7 A Short Glance of Pakistan Mutual Dealings with China

Mutual dealings of with China have invariably remained the most significant of its mutual

dealings with other nations. It is founded on mutual interests respect and trust. Over the previous

seven decades, since the two nations set up their diplomatic mutual dealings, this mutual dealing

has germinated in a style to conduce the sakes of both states. To comprehend the development of

this mutual dealing from a right way of regarding situation, it is significant to take a short

skimming of the mutual dealing between the both nations. The initial period, the first Islamic and

3rd non-communist country was Pakistan to concord acknowledge to China. In spite of this

Pakistan set up political mutual dealings in 1951 along with China, the real integration of mutual

dealings initiated in the start of 1960s, when Pakistan converted its earlier supported and stance

of China seating in 1961, in the UN. During the 1962 war of Sino-Indian border, the America

done under pressure assistance of armed forces to India, being a friendly nation of the Western

bloc, Pakistan, deemed harmful to its concerns of defense and caused to leave of the Western

bloc (SEATO and CENTO). At same occasion and issue, a sharing of common attribute of sakes

deemed to be generating between both China and Pakistan. It was the sense of shared of a

germinating the environment of geo in which the both nations in an amicable manner discussed

and develop a ratified agreement on the conceptual separation of both nation mutual boundary in

the start of 1963. During the upcoming years, Pakistan on its persona sincerely assistance China

to closer the state of separation among nations that dual major powers desired to enforce on

China, through a ratified agreement of trade and catered her assistance to China keep in certain

state relation with few states, specifically the Islamic States. Likely, China performed a laudable

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character in its favor of Pakistan in attaining a state of peace in Indo-Pakistan war of 1965 by

catering austere admonitory to India. Following the war, China, also in an attempt to compensate

for war losses, supported Pakistan with military equipment including tanks and aircraft. In the

1960s, Pakistan-China relations evolved on firm foundations of mutual trust and confidence. In

the early 1970s, Pakistan played an important role in facilitating secret communications between

the US and China that resulted in Henry Kissinger’s secret visit to China followed by President

Richard Nixon’s historic visit. Sino-US normalization of relations was perceived in Indian

strategic thinking as the emergence of a US-Pakistan-China strategic triangle, which prompted

India to sign a treaty of peace, friendship and cooperation with the Soviet Union. It could be

termed as a kind of a security treaty because Article IX of the treaty stipulated that in “the event

of either party being subject to an attack or threat thereof, the high contracting parties shall

immediately enter into mutual consultations in order to remove such threat and to take

appropriate effective measures to ensure peace and security of their countries.” 334 This

development introduced a new dimension to the region, especially if seen in the context of the

Cold War, and also created more space for further consolidation of Pak-China relations. The

other development, which had profoundly influenced Sino-Pak relations, was the Indo-Pakistan

war in 1971, followed by the Chinese military and economic assistance to Pakistan. Later, on the

issue of Bangladesh’s application for membership to the UN, China, on Pakistan’s request,

exercised its veto power for the first time to stall the move, which helped Pakistan to secure in a

bargain the release of its POWs and the return of troops to their prewar positions. The Indian

nuclear explosion of 1974 introduced a new dimension to the strategic balance in the region and

gave fresh impetus to expanding Pak-China defense cooperation. Between 1971 and 1978, China

334
S. M. Burke and Lawrence Ziring, Pakistan’s Foreign Policy: an Historical Analysis, 2nd ed. (Karachi: Oxford
University Press, 1990)

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assisted Pakistan in building two defense-related mega projects, first, the Heavy Rebuild Factory

for T–59 tanks, and second, the F–6 Aircraft Rebuild Factory. Chinese intent to make Pakistan

self-reliant in the production of a conventional weapons system, without attaching any political

strings to its assistance, cultivated deep-rooted respect and goodwill for China in Pakistan. The

end of the 1970s witnessed international developments of immense consequences that continued

to impact on the entire region throughout the following decades and even today. These were the

Iranian Islamic Revolution in February 1979, the declared hostility of the new Iranian leadership

towards the US, and in the later part of the year, the invasion of Afghanistan by the Soviet

Union. Invasion of Afghanistan created a situation of two hostile fronts for Pakistan—India and

Afghanistan—threatening peace and stability in the region. At this crucial juncture, China stood

firmly by Pakistan and condemned the invasion of Afghanistan as a “hegemonic action” that

posed a threat to peace and stability not only for the region but for the entire world. Pakistan and

China had a shared perspective and developed coordinated strategies to deal with the Afghan

situation. China provided covertly, in the following years, military supplies worth $200 million

annually to the Afghan resistance groups, and extended political support to Pakistan at all

international forum. Throughout the 1980s, Pakistan-China relations continued to develop into a

comprehensive relationship. While China improved its relations with India towards the end of

the 1980s, Pakistan did not feel that China’s improving relations with India were at the cost of

China’s relations with Pakistan. Although there was a visible shift in the Chinese stance on

Kashmir, Pakistani policy makers believed that China’s improved relations with India would act

as a restraining factor on Indian belligerency towards Pakistan. Pakistan always supported China

on all issues important to Chinese national interests such as sovereignty over Hong Kong,

Taiwan, and Tibet and issues relating to human rights and democracy. China always appreciated

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and counted on Pakistan’s strong support as a trusted friend over all these issues at international

forum. Following the withdrawal of Soviet forces from Afghanistan in 1988–1989, the regional

strategic dynamics changed once again. The US, after having achieved its strategic interest of

rolling back communist aggression, claimed victory over the former Soviet Union and

abandoned Afghanistan. Pakistan’s support was no longer required by the US, so it came under

US sanctions for secretly developing nuclear weapons; an issue to which the US turned a blind

eye for a decade during the Afghan War. Throughout the 1990s, Pakistan remained under US

sanctions and China was the primary source of Pakistan’s military hardware procurements.

During this period, Pakistan-China defense-related cooperation also substantially increased.

China’s support for Pakistan’s nuclear and missile programs became a constant irritant in Sino-

US and Sino-Indian relations, especially the issue of supply of M-11 missiles and 500 ring

magnets to an “unsafeguarded” nuclear facility. China, on its part, despite tremendous US

pressure to cut off high-technology links with Pakistan, remained steadfast in its commitment to

strengthen Pakistan’s defense capability.335

The current phase In May 1998, Indian nuclear tests destabilized the strategic balance in South
Asia. As a prelude to these tests, the Indian defense minister and prime minister described China
as a long-term security threat. While commenting on the Indian assertion, the official Chinese
media reported that “India’s explosions have sabotaged the fragile trust built up with Beijing
over the past decade.” Following the Indian nuclear tests, Sino-Indian relations suffered a severe
setback. Deterioration in Sino-Indian relations reinforced Pakistan’s importance in China’s South
Asia policy. Pakistan and China held high-level consultations on the situation in South Asia.
China expressed its understanding of Pakistan’s compulsion to go nuclear. It gave Pakistan the

335
Under a 1986 agreement on nuclear cooperation for peaceful purposes, China had started work,
since 1993, on a 300-MW nuclear power plant at Chashma in Pakistan. During his visit to the US in
November 1997, Chinese president Jiang Zemin withstood American pressure and stated that China
would not compromise on its commitments to Pakistan regarding the transfer of nuclear
technology for peaceful purposes, The Nation, November 2, 1997.

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confidence to reestablish the strategic balance in South Asia by conducting its own nuclear tests.
The depth of Pakistan-China relations was reflected from the fact that it was after Pakistan had
acquired demonstrable nuclear weapons capability that the Chinese leadership gave assurance to
the visiting US president Bill Clinton in June 1998 of cooperating with the US on the issue of
nuclear proliferation. In 1999, during the Kargil conflict between the two nuclear states, India
and Pakistan, China adhered to a strict neutral position. China was concerned over the possibility
of escalation of the conflict, and asked both countries to defuse tensions. The Chinese position of
neutrality was duly acknowledged by India, and provided both countries with an opportunity to
mend their fences and once again improve their bilateral relations. Pakistan also had a complete
understanding of China’s interest to improve bilateral relations with India, especially in the
context of evolving Indo-US strategic partnership. After the events of 9/11, Pakistan and China
consulted each other on the unfolding situation in the region. On September 18, 2001, a special
envoy of the then Chinese president, Jiang Zemin, arrived in Islamabad to meet General Pervez
Musharraf and other officials and discussed the situation emerging as a consequence of the 9/11
attacks. Pakistan’s decision to side with the US and to provide use of its airspace and base
facilities had initially raised some concerns in Chinese policy-making circles. However, the
exchange of high-level visits clarified the Pakistani position that under no circumstances would
Pakistan allow its cooperation with the US to undermine Chinese strategic interests. During the
India-Pakistan military standoff in 2001–2002, China continued with its position of neutrality
and played an important role in defusing tensions between India and Pakistan through telephone
diplomacy. Since India escalated the tensions, despite Pakistan’s repeated requests for
negotiation, China’s role to pacify the situation was considered more favorably by the Pakistani
authorities and people. The Chinese leadership stated that “it is in the interests of both countries
and the expectation of the international community for both Pakistan and India to maintain the
utmost restraint and safeguard the peace and stability of South Asia.” China’s proactive
diplomacy to engage the US and India in the volatile South Asian situation was received well in
Pakistan and indeed helped to ease tensions. There was complete understanding between
Pakistan and China, and the Chinese leadership appreciated Musharraf government’s policies on
antiterrorism and peaceful resolution of contentious issues with India. President Musharraf, in his
December 2001 visit to China, explicitly expressed support of the Chinese campaign against
Muslim separatists in Xinjiang. He urged the Chinese Muslims to be very patriotic and to work

cxvi
for the betterment of their country. He declared that Pakistan would extend full support to China
to fight against East Turkestan terrorist forces.336 This was the first time that a Pakistani leader
went public in support of Chinese policies to curtail Muslim separatists in Xinjiang. In view of
Chinese concerns that there is a link between the separatist forces in Xinjiang and the jihad
organizations in Pakistan and Afghanistan, Pakistan has also institutionalized antiterrorism
dialogue with China and the two sides have agreed to share intelligence on terrorism. In
December 2003, the Pakistan Army in a military operation near the Pak-Afghan border killed
Hahsan Mahsum, the leader of the East Turkestan Islamic Movement, while extraditing a
number of alleged terrorists to China. In recent years, antiterrorism-related cooperation between
the two countries has constantly been expanding. On August 6, 2004, China and Pakistan
conducted their first joint antiterrorism military exercise named “Friendship 2004,” in Xinjiang.
In April 2005, during Premier Wen Jiabao’s visit to Islamabad, the two sides signed a treaty of
friendship, cooperation and good neighborly relations as well as an agreement on combating
terrorism, separatism and extremism. The comprehensive antiterrorism cooperation from
Pakistan has effectively removed the apprehensions of the Chinese side, holding in regard the
support of the Uighur Muslim separatists from some of Pakistan’s religious groups. Pakistan-
China defense-related cooperation has always been the most important component of their
overall bilateral relations. The tradition of high-level exchange of visits for consultations
between the armed forces of the two countries has provided sustenance to the bilateral relations,
as the institution of the armed forces plays a special role in political decision making in both
countries. In recent years, a mechanism of defense and security consultation has been
institutionalized between the two countries. Since March 2002, three rounds of consultations
have taken place. In order to enhance military-to-military cooperation, China and Pakistan, in
October 2003, conducted a joint maritime search-and-rescue exercise near Shanghai. That was
the first time for the navy of the People's Liberation Army (PLA) to conduct an exercise with a
foreign country. Similarly, in November 2005, during their visit to Pakistan, Chinese naval ships
conducted a second joint maritime search-and-rescue exercise with the Pakistan Navy. That was
again the first time for the PLA Navy to conduct a joint exercise in waters abroad. Pakistan and
China share a common interest in the security of the sea lanes of communication, and both
support a multilateral framework for guarding energy and trade sea routes. Defense production-

336
Dawn, December 22 and 23, 2001.

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related cooperation has also expanded in recent years between the two countries. Pakistan and
China have jointly developed JF–17 Thunder—a multi-role fighter aircraft. Pakistan and China
finalized a deal in April 2005, under which China Dockyard in Shanghai will build four F–22P
frigates for the Pakistan Navy and transfer the technology as well. Cooperation on other ongoing
defense projects is continuing to the satisfaction of both. At the political level, Pakistan and
China have unanimity of views on issues like the war on terrorism, Iraq, Afghanistan, and the
Iranian nuclear program. Both countries wish to strengthen the authority of the UN and oppose
unilateralism and concepts such as “coalition of the willing” or “concert of democracies” outside
the UN ambit to deal with international security issues. Current Trends in Pakistan-China
Relations In the last fifty-five years, Pakistan and China have developed exemplary cordial and
cooperative relations in the political and defense fields. However, the two countries remained
unable to forge a matching relationship at the economic front until recently. Since the late 1990s,
both countries realized the missing economic dimension in their evolving strategic relationship.
The two countries acknowledged the fact that in order to sustain a comprehensive cooperative
relationship, substantive economic cooperation, matching the level of political and strategic
cooperation, was absolutely necessary. Enhanced economic cooperation would not only
complete the comprehensiveness of bilateral relations but also help in achieving peace
development and stability in the region. In the last few years, through frequent interaction
between the leadership of the two countries, the two sides have been able to determine a vision
for the direction of their bilateral economic relations. Pakistan-China economic relations at
present can be termed as evolving and getting stronger day by day. Bilateral trade is surging,
investment is increasing, and the number of development projects and joint ventures is also
increasing. In the past, China has made valuable contributions to Pakistan’s economic
development, particularly the development of infrastructure and setting up of basic industries.
Currently, Pakistan and China are cooperating closely in the development of the Gwadar deep
seaport,337 which when it becomes operational will enhance economic activity in Pakistan and
provide important access to the sea for China’s rapidly developing western regions, Afghanistan,
and the Central Asian states. At present, a number of important projects such as the upgrading of

337
During the then Chinese premier Zhu Rongji’s 2001 visit, the two sides agreed to undertake the construction of
the Gwadar deep seaport. In March 2002, construction work started, and the first phase of the port was
completed in April 2005. Phase-two work is under progress. Gwadar is very close to the Iranian port city of Bander
Abbas.

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Karakorum Highway (which links Pakistan with China), Thar Coal Mining, upgrading of
Pakistan Railways, and Power Generation Projects—both nuclear and nonnuclear—are some
examples of this expanding economic cooperation. Besides this, the two sides have signed a
large number of agreements on economic cooperation. Both countries are emphasizing expansion
of the the role and engagement between the private sectors of the two countries, with the
patronage of the respective states, in undertaking initiatives on economic cooperation. From this
perspective, Chinese support for Pakistan in the economic sphere is “integral to Pakistan’s
development.”
Trade between the two countries has been registering a pattern of constant growth: $1.4 billion in
2001, to 3 billion in 2004, 4.25 billion in 2005, and the estimated trade volume in 2006 is at $5
billion.338 Traditionally, the balance of trade has been in favor of China. However, the two
countries now are taking measures to enhance Pakistan’s exports to China.339 Pakistan and China
signed a preferential trade arrangement (PTA) in November 2003, which has been operational
since January 1, 2004. Also, the two countries have instituted a joint study group to negotiate a
free trade agreement (FTA) and have simultaneously negotiated an early harvest Program (EHP),
which has been operational since January 1, 2006. It is expected that the FTA will become
operational before the end of 2007. In recent years, Pakistan has witnessed a steady growth in
Chinese investment. However, the scale of Chinese investment in Pakistan is still small.
According to Pakistan’s Board of Investment, out of the total Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) of
1,524 million dollars that came into Pakistan in July 2004–June 2005, the Chinese share was
only $443,763. Pakistan is very keen that besides goods, China should export capital to Pakistan.
While Pakistan seeks Chinese investment, the Chinese government also encourages its public
and private sector to actively take part in projects based in Pakistan. According to some
estimates, “China’s public and private sector has undertaken over two hundred and fifty projects
of different size in Pakistan. At present, over sixty Chinese companies have already established

338
Fazal-ur-Rahman, “Pak-China Economic Relations: Constraints and Opportunities,” Strategic Studies 26, no. 2,
Summer 2006, http://www.issi.org.pk/journal.html.
339
Pakistan’s trade deficit with China is primarily because China is competing in almost all the major sectors of
Pakistan’s potential export areas, which ironically happened to be very limited. Secondly, Pakistani business
community remained content with their established export destinations, i.e., the US and Western Europe, and
hardly made serious efforts either to diversify the export base or to explore other areas and regions for enhancing
the volume of their exports. This mental fixation with the Western markets and a no innovative export approach
has constantly undermined Pakistan’s export potential.

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permanent offices in Pakistan.”340 The size of Chinese business in Pakistan is growing. The
potential for growth of Pak-China economic relations is enormous, provided the process remains
on track and certain enabling conditions for future growth are successfully created.
The overall geostrategic environment for regional cooperation is also gradually becoming more
favorable. Pakistan’s entry into the Shanghai Cooperation Organization as an observer and
China’s entry into the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) as an
observer would allow Pakistan-China bilateral economic relations to grow from a regional
perspective. Also, there is a convergence of economic interests at the strategic level, especially in
areas of energy security and communication networks. China has opened up its western region
adjacent to Pakistan for trade and investment in order to reduce the economic disparity between
its developed coastal regions and other underdeveloped areas. Once developed, this region would
be a hub for economic activity between China, Central Asia, and South Asia. Pakistan’s intent to
become a “corridor for trade and energy” for western China and Central Asia by linking Gwadar
through upgraded Karakorum Highway with these areas entails promising prospects. To sum up,
I would like to say that Pakistan-China relations are based on solid foundations of trust and
mutuality of interests. These will not be influenced by changes in the regional or international
situation. Economic cooperation has taken center stage, while defense- and security-related
cooperation has assumed new dimensions. People-to-people contact is increasing at all levels of
the two civil societies. All these indicators point to the fact that Pakistan-China relations will
remain on the track of constant growth in all areas of mutual benefit.
Relations with Central Asia After a political stalemate for more than a decade, Pakistan’s
relations with Central Asia have recently started warming up once again. At the time the
Central Asian republics gained their independence, Pakistan expressed over enthusiasm for
establishing closer links with these states, without fully realizing the complexity and
diversity of the region, where each republic has had differing perspectives and divergent
national interests. A high-level Pakistani delegation led by the then minister of state for
economic affairs, Sardar Asif Ahmed Ali, visited Russia and the Central Asian republics
between November 24 and December 15, 1991. This was the first high-level contact between
Pakistan and Central Asia. Also, Pakistan was among the first states to recognize all

340
Mehmood-Ul-Hassan Khan, “New Heights of Pak-China Ties,” http://usa.mediamonitors
.net/content/view/full/227754.

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 independent Central Asian states on December 19, 1991. On that occasion, the then secretary
general of foreign affairs, Akram Zaki, said, “Recognition of the Central Asian states would
open new vistas of bilateral cooperation with these states with which Pakistan had close ties
of history, faith, and culture.”341 Pakistan extended $10 million in credit to each Central
Asian state; however, this amount was increased to $30 million for Uzbekistan. Also as a
goodwill gesture, consignments of five thousand tons of rice were sent to Russia and all
Central Asian states, besides $100,000 worth of medicines for each Central Asian state. 342 In
1991–1993, there was frequent two-way high-level exchange of visits. Although there was an
emotive side to Pakistan’s policy posturing, the primary thrust of Pakistan’s foreign policy
remained economic and commercial. The Economic Cooperation Organization framework
created in 1985 (formerly known as the Regional Cooperation for Development, RCD, and a
regional cooperation organization including Pakistan, Iran, and Turkey) was reinvigorated to
admit six Central Asian states and Afghanistan in 1992.
This organization had ambitious plans for regional cooperation, but these could not be
effectively implemented due to the lack of resources and political consensus. While
Pakistan’s engagement with all Central Asian states increased, cooperation with Uzbekistan
took center stage. A large number of agreements on economic cooperation, trade joint
ventures, scientific and cultural cooperation, education, tourism etc. were signed between the
two countries. Agreements to import hydelpower from Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan were also
signed in 1992. To institutionalize cooperation, Pakistan established joint economic
commissions with all the newly independent states. Under a special technical assistance
Program initiated in 1992–1993, Pakistan provided fully funded training facilities to the
Central Asian states, ranging from English language instruction, banking, accounting,
insurance, and postal service to diplomacy. These programs continued uninterrupted,
notwithstanding the political problems between the states. The civil war in Afghanistan and
Pakistan’s support of the Pushtoon ethnic faction against Tajik and Uzbek ethnic groups,
especially after the emergence of the Taliban in 1994, adversely affected the development of
bilateral relations. When the Taliban established its government in Kabul in 1996 and
Pakistan accorded recognition to that regime, it severely impacted Pakistan’s relations with

341
Dawn, December 21, 1991.
342
Saifullah Joyo, “Pakistan and Central Asia: Past, Present and Future,” South Asian Studies 20, no. 2, (July, 2005).

cxxi
the Central Asian states, especially with Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, which have borders with
Afghanistan. The Islamist insurgent groups opposing the regimes in Uzbekistan and
Tajikistan reportedly had direct connections with al Qaeda and the Taliban and received
military training in Afghanistan. This state of affairs posed a direct challenge to the security
and stability of some of the Central Asian states. For Pakistan, it was not possible to extract
itself from Afghanistan due to its own national security compulsions. As a result, the gulf
between Pakistan and the Central Asian states enlarged enormously. The 9/11 attacks
changed the entire scenario when the US sought Pakistan’s assistance to destroy the al Qaeda
network in Afghanistan. Pakistan agreed to support the US-led effort against al Qaeda and
distanced itself from the Taliban regime. The new situation once again provided Pakistan
with an opportunity to improve relations with the Central Asian states. However, the
misgivings created during the Taliban era regarding Pakistan’s interests in Afghanistan and
Central Asia will take some time to completely disappear. Another factor that will continue
to affect Pakistan’s relations with Central Asia and Russia is the presence of foreign (Arab,
Chechen, and Central Asian) elements in the tribal areas of Pakistan, who fled from
Afghanistan when attacked by US forces. Although Pakistan has conducted military
operations since 2004 to clear the areas of these miscreants, it is difficult to seal the border to
stop future infiltration from Afghanistan. Pakistan has proposed to fence and mine the border
to stop illegal crossings, but the Afghan government is opposed to the idea. At present,
Pakistan has taken the proactive diplomatic initiative to improve bilateral relations with all
Central Asian states. Pakistan at the same time is also using the route of multilateralism to
expand its engagement with its regional neighbors, especially through the framework of the
SCO. The basic policy objectives of Pakistan in Central Asia have not changed. These are the
economic and commercial interests, besides creating political goodwill for further
consolidation of relations. Pakistan is keen to use its strategic geographic location to serve as
a trade and energy corridor for the western regions of China, Afghanistan, and Central Asia.
Necessary infrastructure for this purpose is being developed, like the Gwadar deep seaport
and upgrading of Karakorum Highway. China has agreed to give Pakistan $350 million in aid
to upgrade the highway. The quadrilateral trade and transit agreement, which was signed
between Pakistan, China, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan, has been operational since 2004. It
can also be extended to Uzbekistan and Tajikistan as well. In the energy sector, it is hoped

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 that the Iran-Pakistan-India (IPI) gas pipeline project will soon materialize. The
Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan (TAP) oil and gas pipeline is another project under
consideration. The chairman of the All China Federation of Commerce and Industry, Hu
Deping, told President Musharraf during his 2006 Shanghai visit that they were preparing to
set up an oil refinery with a capacity of ten million tons a year near Gwadar at a cost of $4.5
billion. The facility would refine Chinese imports of crude oil from the Gulf countries into
petroleum products, which would then be transported through the energy corridor to western
China.343
President Musharraf, while addressing the SCO summit in Shanghai in June 2006,
highlighted Pakistan’s potential to contribute to the SCO framework by stating that “in
geopolitical, geostrategic, and geo-economic terms, Pakistan is most suitably positioned not
only to promote but also to play a key role in all interests espoused in the SCO charter.
Pakistan provides the natural link between the SCO states to connect the Eurasian heartland
with the Arabian Sea and South Asia. We offer critical overland routes and connectivity for
mutually beneficial trade and energy transactions intraregional and interregional . . . We have
a vision to develop Pakistan as a hub of economic activity linking the neighboring regions
through our railways, highways, and ports, thus serving as a trade and energy
corridor.”17Pakistan’s efforts to reengage Central Asia are slowly showing signs of progress.
The Uzbek president, Islam Karimov, in May 2006, made his first official trip to Pakistan in
fourteen years. The thrust of the nine agreements signed during his visit was on trade and
economic cooperation, though one agreement was on countering terrorism. Also, Pakistan
and Tajikistan are negotiating the routing of power transmission lines from Tajikistan to
Pakistan. In summing up, while efforts are being made by Pakistan in the right direction, to
improve its bilateral relations with all Central Asian states and to achieve a substantive level
of engagement in Central Asia, improvement in Pak-Russia and Pakistan-India relations is
equally important. In the absence of good working relations with Russia and India, given the
level of influence they have in Central Asia, Pakistan would continue to confront problems in
terms of expanding its engagement in Central Asia.

343
Kaleem Omar, “Energy Corridor could Become an Economic Bonanza for Pakistan,” Business and Finance
Review, June 19, 2006, http://www.jang.com.pk/thenews/jun2006-weekly/busrev-19-06-2006/index.html#1

cxxiii
Conclusion

As a researcher after developing this study I conclude that every state has an authoritarian mania

in developing her foreign policy. Whereas one state ascribes it a mania, one is not intimating that

this is something solely irrational or emotional. It may be founded on not counterfeit hatreds and

fears which have conglomerated in many decades and which may be winded together with

religious and material thoughtfulness. The Islamic republic of Pakistan is no elision to this fact.

Genuinely, a very small numbers of states were emerged in an ambience so overloaded with

extremely sharp mutual hatred, hostility and enmity as Pakistan was in 1947 as a consequence of

the segmentation of the sub-continent. Approximately each and every activity of Pakistan can be

construed as being provided with a motive of Indian reverence. She kicks that India played off

her very establishment and that her policy of extreme enmity and aggression preserves in its

intensity. India, both in corporeal and manpower and armed forces potency, is immensely greater

in number to Pakistan. Earlier India's border collide with Republic of China, even with the

assistance Pakistan was getting from the United States, her military numbers never transcend

more than one-third of India's armed forces. After near about one and half decade of Pakistan's

creation, and even after India's mortifying frustration in the border skirmish with China, Mr.

Nehru explicitly stated that, "Pak-India confederation remains our utmost end." Central Asian

Republics’ (CARs) significant determined by geography emplacement, hydrocarbon available

sources and security of Russia exposures are important for interests and action plan of Russia in

Central Asia. However, meanwhile the last decade of twentieth century, Russia could not

concentrate to these territories because of her own matters attach with economic complexities

and transitional matters. Moscow also never considered obligatory that the all significant states

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would be in a close manner engrossed in Central Asia. NATO forcible current existence in

Central Asia made these areas precedence in the Russian realm of foreign action plan. Concerns

of security because of the presence Islamic fundamentalists and NATO in the region of the

Muslim with firmness sketched the action plan of Russia towards the regional security. Russia

has developed its mutual dealings with CARs by setting up the Collective Rapid Deployment

Force according to Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO). It contains 7500 armed

persons of Russia which are making sure the security of the Afghan-Tajik border. The Regional

Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS) of Shanghai Cooperation Organization’s (SCO’s) has been set

up as earlier as in 2004. In the sectors of security, military and defense, the region remains

steadfastly associated with Russia. In Central Asia, till now the Russia is the tongue Franca.

Presently, Russia is intemperately attached in the act of producing and transiting of gas and oil in

the region in spite China has presently dented its exclusive control in the Central Asian sector of

energy. In Central Asia, Russia relishes as a soft power due to the betterment of the status of

socio-economic that CARs attained meanwhile the Soviet reign having no unprecedented in the

history of the states of colonized and imperialists. Influence of Russia in Central Asia will be

permanent and durable as the region is in a wide spread way affiliated to Russia in many and

different walks of life d i.e. from energy and defense to investment and trade and from identical

to loyalty of geo-politics and general deems on development and governance. Russia deems

Central Asia significant for fostering its sakes in residual of Asia. Currently Eurasians is the

concentration of the foreign action plan of Russia intents while Central Asia has to perform

significant role in Eurasian Union of Russia. It is deserve referencing that the significant of

Central Asia for Russia has enhanced since 2001 and it will keep enhancing for the upcoming

near future eras and farther long in future. If Washington, in a multicentre universe, minimized to

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a Western Power that sets up powers to effect in the WEST merely and China over orients,

Russia comprehended to be exercising power over Eurasia which stimulates Central Asia

essential component to Russia. Russia deems the expanded spatial location as her derived from

tradition particular environment of influence for a favored character and considers that it has the

capability and also the ‘favor’ to shape and channel others’ mutual action along with CARs.

Since birth of Pakistan, its relations with other countries developed slowly and gradually. At that
time America and Soviet Union were major powers leading the world. It was very difficult for
newly born country to create relations with any of the big power. On the other side India was a
constant threat for this important part of the South Asia. To keep its eyes on its enemy, it was
very necessary to get assistance from major powers. In this regard first Prime Minister of
Pakistan, Nawabzada Liaqat Ali Khan visited America in May 1950.
Both the states have mutual rational and mental attitude of region base approach to solve the
complicated issues of Afghanistan. Significantly, Pak-Sino close economic and strategic
alignment also solidifies and enforces Pak-Russia act of working jointly specifically on the issue
of Central Asia and Afghanistan. Russia, China and Pakistan are the original stake holders in
progress and peace of Central Asia and specifically Afghanistan. Entire the three states with
firmness can sketch the solution of the conundrum of Afghanistan if in an effective way they
bring in to order and organize their action plans.
The keen desire of Russia to have check and balance over the Central and South Asian
consolidation via Pakistan and Afghanistan is in line with the sakes of Pakistan i.e. to cater an
opening that permit escape to the surrounded entirely regions. A majority of the analysts of
Russia gave importance to geographical status of Pakistan vis-à-vis Central Asia and
Afghanistan. A Russian famous defense analyst Andrew Korybko narrated that Pakistan is an
innate entrance to Ocean of India, South Asia and beyond of Eurasian Union. At the same way,
Petr Topychkanov and Vladimir Moskalenko both Russian described, “The natural resource of
Pakistan is its advantageous strategic location which creates a significant association between
South Asia, Central Asia and Middle East”. In Afghanistan, post USA no state of the region will
be in a status to maintain and bring peace in Afghanistan by unilateral manner. Bringing and
maintaining peace and prosperity in Afghanistan will be common obligation of all countries of
the region significantly by obligating the point of views, concerns and interests of each other. As

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a consequence, Pak-Russia joint operation along with other countries of the region i.e. China,
Iran and CARs, as basic and original stakeholders in Afghanistan’s harmony and peace will be
conclusive and instrumental in bringing prosperity and peace in this region of the world. Pak-
Russia mutual dealings and joint action would welcome by CARs rational motive is that they
will be the utmost recipient of all interests of like this act of working jointly. It’s bad luck of
region that the phenomenon of ‘layover’ has bounded the personas of the various countries of the
region during the previous some decades. Layover happened when redundant power of region or
powers without deviation come on stage in the complex of region base security in an effective
manner quelling the dynamics of region and in this way politics of region are assimilated by
world level politics.

Findings
 After developing this research study I find that there is no friend and foe among the
nations merely national interests matter.
 Mutual dealings of the states remained fluctuant and inconsistent in the years back.
 In start Pakistan endeavored to resuscitate the famous in past related to cultural
connections while also utilizing the card of religion and bonds of ideology for having
mutual dealings with CARs.
 The very short way for Pakistan to Central Asia is travelling through unstableness areas
of Afghanistan.
 Pakistan all the time and on every occasion prolonged expects and wish that it will
become an entrance path to surrounded entirely Xinjiang and Central Asia one day.

 The becoming friendlier mutual dealings between Russia and Pakistan have also inspired
with confidence to Central Asians States to enhance reciprocal action along with
Pakistan.

 In speedily alteration global and regional postulated sequence of possible events, friendly
nations have become estranges on the other hand estranges became collaborators.

 Region base modification in predisposition necessitates both Russia and Pakistan to

improve within shorter distance economic and strategic act of working jointly which will

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 have wide spread entailments on the economic and peace improvement of an adjacent
region comprising Central Asia and Afghanistan.

 Both the states Pakistan and Russia have mutual rational and mental attitude of region
base approach to solve the complicated issues of Afghanistan.

 Russia, China and Pakistan are the original stake holders in progress and peace of
Central Asia and specifically Afghanistan.

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