Addis Ababa Science and Technology University

Department of Mathematics
Mathematics for Natural Science

Chapter-3: Lecture Notes Academic Year: 2021/22

Course code: Math1007 Semester: First
Course Title: Mathematics for Natural Year of study: Freshman
Science Category: Engineering & Applied
Date: June, 2022 Section: O1 and G
Instructor: T/Birhan A.(Ph.D)

1 Review of relations and functions

1.1 Relations
1.1.1 Cartesian Product
Definition 1.1 The Cartesian product of two sets A and B, denoted by A × B, is the set
which contains every ordered pair whose first coordinate is an element of A and second
coordinate is an element of B, i.e.

A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A and b ∈ B}

Example 1.2 Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b, c}. Then,

A × B = {(1, a), (1, b), (1, c), (2, a), (2, b), (2, c), (3, a), (3, b), (3, c)}

Remark 1.3

(i) A × B ̸= B × A

(ii) Two ordered pairs (a, b) and (c, d) are equal if and only if a = c and b = d.

Definition 1.4 A relation is a subset of the set of ordered pairs of real numbers, A × B.

Method of defining relations

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1. LIST OF ORDERED PAIRS. When the subset consists of a reasonably small (finite)
number of ordered pairs, we just write them down.
This list of pairs defines the relation.

Example 1.5 An example of such a relation are:

(a) {(0, 3), (2, −1), (2, 4), (1, 3), (0, 0)}
(b) Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {a, b, c}.
• R1 = {(1, a)} and R2 = {(2, b), (3, b), (4, c), (5, a)} are relations from A into
B;
• R3 = {(a, 3), (b, 1)} and R4 = {(b, 2), (c, 4), (a, 2), (b, 3)} are relations from B
into A

2. EQUATIONS. The subset is often defined to consist of those ordered pairs which
satisfy a certain equation. Then the relation (x, y)|(x, y) satisfy the given equation

Example 1.6 Examples of such relations are: {(x, y)|3x+2y = 2}, {(x, y)|4x2 −6xy+
y 2 = 0}

3. INEQUALITIES. Here the subset is defined to consist of those ordered pairs which
satisfy a certain equation. Then the relation (x, y)|(x, y) satisfy the given inequality

Example 1.7 The relation {(x, y)|x + 3y > 2}

Example 1.8 Let A = {1, 3, 5, 7} and B = {6, 8}. Let R be the relation ”less than”
from A to B. Then, R = {(1, 6), (1, 8), ((3, 6), (3, 8), (5, 6), (5, 8), (7, 8)}.

Definition 1.9 Let R be a relation from A into B. Then,

(a) the domain of R, denoted by Dom(R), is the set of first coordinates of the elements of
R, i.e Dom(R) = {a ∈ A : (a, b) ∈ R}

(b) the range of R, denoted by Range(R), is the set of second coordinates of elements of
R, i.e Range(R) = {b ∈ B : (a, b) ∈ R}

Example 1.10

1. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6}. Let R be the relation on A defined by R = {(a, b) : a, b ∈

A, a is a factor of b}. Find the domain and range of R.

Solution: We have
R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 6), (2, 2), (2, 4), (2, 6), (3, 3), (3, 6), (4, 4), (6, 6)}.
Then, Dom(R) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6} and Range(R) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6}.

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2. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {1, 2, 3, · · · , 67}. Let R = {(x, y) ∈ A × B :

x is cube root of y }. Find a) R b) Dom(R) c) Range(R)

√ √ √ √ √
Solution: We have 1 = 3 1, 2 = 3 8, 3 = 3 27, 4 = 3 64, 5 = 3 125 and 1, 8, 27
and 64 are in B whereas 125 is not in B. Thus, R = {(1, 1), (2, 8), (3, 27), (4, 64)},
Dom(R) = {1, 2, 3, 4} and Range(R) = {1, 8, 27, 64}.

Remark 1.11 If R is a relation from the set A to the set B, then the set B is called the
co-domain of the relation R. The range of relation is always a subset of the co-domain.

Example 1.12

1. The set R = {(4, 7), (5, 8), (6, 10)} is a relation from set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} to set
B = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10}. The domain of R is {4, 5, 6}, the range of R is {7, 8, 10} and the
co-domain of R is {6, 7, 8, 9, 10}.

2. The set of ordered pairs R = {(8, 2), (6, −3), (5, 7), (5, −3)} is a relation between the
sets {5, 6, 8} and {2, −3, 7}, where {5, 6, 8} is the domain and {2, −3, 7} is the range.

Definition 1.13 If R is a relation from A into B, then the inverse relation of R, denoted
by R−1 , is a relation from B to A and is given by:R−1 = {(y, x) : (x, y) ∈ R}. Observe that
Dom(R) = Range(R−1 ) and Range(R) = Dom(R−1 ).

Example 1.14
1. If R = {(1, 4), (9, 15), (10, 2)} is a relation on a set A = {1, 2, 3, · · · , 20}, then
R−1 = {(4, 1), (15, 9), (2, 10)}.

2. Let R be a relation defined on N by R = {(a, b) : a, b ∈ N, a + 2b = 11}. Find a) R b)

Dom(R) c) Range(R) d)R−1

Solution: The smallest natural number is 1.

b = 1 ⇒a + 2(1) = 11 ⇒ a = 9
b = 2 ⇒a + 2(2) = 11 ⇒ a = 7
b = 3 ⇒a + 2(3) = 11 ⇒ a = 5
b = 4 ⇒a + 2(4) = 11 ⇒ a = 3
b = 5 ⇒a + 2(5) = 11 ⇒ a = 1
b = 6 ⇒a + 2(6) = 11 ⇒ a = −1 ̸∈ N

Therefore, R = {(9, 1), (7, 2), (5, 3), (3, 4), (1, 5)}, Dom(R) = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9},
Range(R) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and R−1 = {(1, 9), (2, 7), (3, 5), (4, 3), (5, 1)}.

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1.2 Functions
Definition 1.15 A function f is a relation in which no two order pairs have the same first
element.

This means that, given an x in the domain of f , there is a unique pair (x, y) belonging to
the function. This determines a value y uniquely associated with the given x. We denote
this value by the symbol f (x), read ”f of x,” called the value of the function f at x.

Definition 1.16 The value f (x) of the function f at x (in the domain of f ) is the second
element of that unique ordered pair (x, y) belonging to f which has x as its first element.

Example 1.17 Determine whether the following relations are functions.

a) R = {(5, −2), (3, 5), (3, 7)} b) R = {(2, 4), (3, 4), (6, −4)}

Solution:

a) Since the domain element 3 is assigned to two different values in the range, 5 and
7, it is not a function.

b) Each element in the domain, {2, 3, 6}, is assigned no more than one value in
the range, 2 is assigned only 4, 3 is assigned only 4, and 6 is assigned only −4.
Therefore, it is a function.

Example 1.18 The relation {(x, y)|3x − 2y + 4 = 0} is also a function since there is a
3x + 4
unique y = f (x) = associated with each x. The domain is X, and the range is Y .
2

Example 1.19 The relation {(x, y)|y = x2 is also a function with f (x) = x2 . The domain
is X, and the range is [0, ∞) ⊂ Y .

Example 1.20 The relation {(x, y)|x2 + y 2 = 4} is not a function. For √ to each x in the
open interval [−2, 2] there are associated two values of y, namely, y = ± 4 − x2 .

Example 1.21 We may define a function by giving its values for each x in its domain. For
example, (
1 if x ≥ 0
f (x) =
−1 if x < 0
defines the function f whose ordered pairs are (x, f (x)). The domain is X; the range is
{−1, 1} ⊂ Y .
√
Example 1.22 Find the domain of the function f (x) = 3x − x2 .

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Definition 1.23 Let f be a function from set A to set B. If B is a subset of the set of real
numbers R, then f is called a real valued function, and in particular if A is also a subset of
R, then f : A → B is called a real function.

Example 1.24 The function f : R → R defined by f (x) = x2 + 3x − 7, x ∈ R is a real

function.

Example 1.25 The function f : R → R defined as f (x) = |x|, x ∈ R is also a real function.

1.2.1 Algebra of Functions

We have studied the four elementary operations of arithmetic +, −, ×, ÷ in connection with
numbers (Chap. 2). These ideas can also be applied to functions according to the following
definitions.
Definition 1.26 Let f (x) and g(x) be two functions. The sum f + g, the difference f − g,
the product f g, and the quotient fg are defined as follows:

1. (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

2. (f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x)

3. (f g)(x) = f (x) × g(x)

 
f f (x)
4. (x) =
g g(x)
The domain of each of f + g, f − g, and f g is the set of all elements x common to the
domains ofTf and g; that T is, it is the intersection
T of the sets df and dg . Thus
T in symbols
df +g = df dg , df −g = df dg , and df g = df dg . The domain df /g = df dg except for
those x’s for which g(x) = 0. (Division by zero is impossible.)
Example 1.27 Given the two functions f and g whose values are f (x) = x2 and g(x) = x3 ,
the domain of each is a set of real numbers. Then

(f + g)(x) = x2 + x3 df +g = R
(f − g)(x) = x2 − x3 df −g = R
(f g)(x) = x2 × x3 = x5 df g = R
x2
 
f 1
(x) = 3 = df /g = R except {0}
g x x

Definition 1.28 Given two functions f (x) and g(x), the composition of the two functions
is denoted by f og and is defined by:
(f og)(x) = f (g(x)).

Example 1.29 Let f (x) = 3x2 − 2x + 1 and g(x) = 4x + 7. The composite f og is given by
f (g(x)) = f (4x + 7) = 3(4x + 7)2 − 2(4x + 7) + 1 = 48x2 + 160x + 134

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Example 1.30 Given f (x) = 5x2 − 3x + 2 and g(x) = 4x + 3, find a) (f og)(−2) b) (gof )(2)
c) (f og)(x) d) (gof )(x)

Solution:

a) (f og)(−2) = f (g(−2)) = f (−5) = 5(−5)2 − 3(−5) + 2 = 142

b) (gof )(2) = g(f (2)) = g(16) = 4(16) + 3 = 67

c) (f og)(x) = f (g(x)) = f (4x + 3) = 5(4x + 3)2 − 3(4x + 3) + 2 = 80x2 + 108x + 38

d) (gof )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(5x2 − 3x + 2) = 4(5x2 − 3x + 2) + 3 = 20x2 − 12x + 11

Example 1.31 Given f and g whose values are f (x) = x2 + 2 and g(x) = 1 − x1 , form the
composite functions gof and f og.

1 x2 +1
Solution: (gof )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(x2 + 2) = 1 − x2 +2
= x2 +2

2
(f og)(x) = f (g(x)) = f (1 − x1 ) = 1 − x1 + 2 =

Example 1.32 Find gof when g and f have the values g(x) = |x| and f (x) = x2 − 3x + 1.

1.2.2 Types of functions

One to one functions

Definition 1.33 A function f : A → B is called one to one, often written 1–1, if and only
if for all x1 , x2 ∈ A, f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) implies x1 = x2 . In words, no two elements of A are
mapped to one element of B.

Example 1.34 Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {1, 4, 7, 8}. Consider the functions

i) f : A → B defined as f (1) = 1, f (2) = 4, f (3) = 4, f (4) = 8

ii) g : A → B defined as f (1) = 4, f (2) = 7, f (3) = 1, f (4) = 8

Then, f is not 1–1, but g is a 1–1 function.

Onto functions

Definition 1.35 Let f be a function from a set A into a set B. Then f is called an onto
function(or f maps onto B) if every element of B is an image of some element in A, i.e,
Range(f ) = B.

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Example 1.36 Consider the relation f from Z into Z defined by f (n) = n2 for all n ∈ Z.
Now, domain of f is Z. Also, if n = n′ , then n2 = (n′ )2 , i.e. f (n) = f (n′ ). Hence, f is well
defined and is a function. However, f (1) = 1 = f (−1) and 1 ̸= −1, which implies that f is
not 1–1. For all n ∈ Z, f (n) is a non-negative integer. This shows that a negative integer
has no pre–image. Hence, f is not onto. Note that f is onto {0, 1, 4, 9, · · · }.

1–1 Correspondence

Definition 1.37 A function f : A → B is said to be a 1-1 correspondence or bijective if f

is both 1–1 and onto.

Example 1.38 For A = {−1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 4, 9}, f : A → B defined as f (x) = x2 is

bijective.

Example 1.39 Show that the function f : N → N , given by f (x) = x + 1, if x is odd, and
x − 1, if x is even, is a bijective function,

Solution: Let f (x1 ) = f (x2 ). Further, let us suppose that x1 is odd, and x2 is even,
then we have x1 + 1 = x2 − 1, or x2 − x1 = 2, which is not possible.
Also the possibility of x1 being even, and x2 being odd is also ruled out, using the same
argument. Therefore x1 , and x2 both should be either odd or even.
Let us assume both x1 , and x2 to be odd, and we have f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇒ x1 + 1 =
x2 + 1 ⇒ x1 = x2 . Also, if both x1 , and x2 are even, we have f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇒ x1 − 1 =
x2 − 1 ⇒ x1 = x2 . Therefore, the function f is a one-one function.
Further, any odd number 2n + 1 in the co-domain of N is the image of 2n + 2 in the
domain of N , and any even number 2n in the co-domain of N , is the image of 2n − 1 in
the domain N . Hence the function is onto function.
Therefore, the given function is a bijective function.

Inverse of a function

Definition 1.40 Given the function f such that no two of its ordered pairs have the same
second element(f is one to one), the inverse function f −1 is the set of ordered pairs obtained
from f by interchanging in each ordered pair the first and second elements.
Thus
f −1 = {(y, x) : (x, y) ∈ f }

The range of f is the domain of f −1 and the domain of f is the range of f −1 .

Example 1.41 Let f be defined by the equation f (x) = 3x + 1 over the domain which is
the set of real numbers from 0 to 1; otherwise, f is not defined. The range is the set of real
numbers from 1 to 4 inclusive. Find the inverse function f −1 , its domain and range.

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Solution: First we switch variables, getting

x = 3y + 1
Next we solve this equation for y, getting
y = x−13
Thus
f −1 (x) = x−1
3

√
Example 1.42 If f is defined by y = 21 4 − x2 , find the inverse function f −1 , its domain
and range. We suppose that the domain of f is given by −2 ≤ x ≤ 0; the range is, then,
given by 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.

√
Solution: First note that a function F is determined by y = 12 4 − x2 over the larger
domain −2 ≤ x ≤ 2 but that then F has ordered pairs such as (−2, 0) and (2, 0). Hence
F has no inverse F −1 . √
We interchange variables in the equation y = 21 4 − x2 ; this yields

1p
x= 4 − y2 (1.43)
2
To solve (1.43) for y, we must square both sides;
p but here we must be careful, since the
1
square of (1.43) is also the square of x = − 2 4 − y 2 , which is not our function.
We have
x2 = 14 (4 − y 2 )
That is, 4x2 = 4 − y 2

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Or y 2 = 4 − 4x2
Now, to obtain y, we must extract the square root of both sides, and this gives
√
y = ±2 1 − x2 (1.44)

This is not exactly what we want, since we cannot use both signs. Equation (1.44) does
not define a function; it defines a relation. We look back and note that the domain of
f was the set −2 to 0. All of these are negative (with the exception of 0). Since the
range of f −1 must be given by −2 ≤ y ≤ 0, we must choose the negative sign in (1.44).
Finally, therefore, the inverse function f −1 is given by
√
y = −2 1 − x2

the domain of which is the set of reals defined by the inequality 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.

This illustration emphasizes an important point: If f does not have an inverse, we may he
able to restrict its domain so that this restricted function does have an inverse

Example 1.45 If f is defined by y = 2x , find the inverse f −1 . The inverse certainly exists
since no two choices of x give the same value of y.
We switch variables in y = 2x and obtain x = 2y . Now we wish to solve for y, but we have
no method for doing so. In this case the inverse function f −1 has no simple formula like
those in Illustrations 1.41 and 1.42.

Remark 1.46 Please be aware that f −1 (x) is not the reciprocal of f . That is, f −1 (x) ̸= f (x)
1

If we want to write the reciprocal of the function f (x) by using a negative exponent, we must
1
write f (x) = [f (x)]−1

Polynomial Functions

Definition 1.47 A function P is called a polynomial function if it is given by

y = P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 , an ̸= 0

where n is a positive integer or zero and the coefficients a0 , a1 , · · · , an are real numbers. Its
domain is the set of real numbers, and its range is some subset of the set of real numbers.
√ 4
Example 1.48 p(x) = 2x2 + 1, q(x) = 3x + 2x − π and f (x) = 2x3 are examples of
polynomial functions.

Properties of polynomial functions

1. The graph of a polynomial is a smooth unbroken curve. The word smooth means that
the graph does not have any sharp corners as turning points.

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2. If p is a polynomial of degree n, then it has at most n zeros. Thus, a quadratic

polynomial has at most 2 zeros.

3. The graph of a polynomial function of degree n can have at most n-1 turning points.
Thus, the graph of a polynomial of degree 5 can have at most 4 turning points.

4. The graph of a polynomial always exhibits the characteristic that as x gets very large,
y gets very large.

• Zeros of a polynomial

Definition 1.49 A number a is a zero of a polynomial function p if p(a) = 0.

Division Algorithm
Let p(x) and d(x) be polynomials with d(x) ̸= 0, and with the degree of d(x) less than or
equal to the degree of p(x). Then there are polynomials q(x) and R(x) such that
p(x) = d(x) · q(x) + R(x) , where either R(x) ̸= 0 or the degree of R(x) is less than
|{z} |{z} |{z} | {z }
dividend divisor quotient remainder
degree of d(x).

Theorem 1.50 (The Remainder Theorem) When a polynomial p(x) of degree at least
1 is divided by x − r, then the remainder is p(r).

Example 1.51 The remainder when P (x) = x3 − x2 + 3x − 1 is divided by x − 2 is p(2) = 9.

Theorem 1.52 (The Factor Theorem) x − r is a factor of p(x) if and only if p(r) = 0.

Theorem 1.53 (Location theorem) Let f be a polynomial function and a and b be real
numbers such that a < b. If f (a)f (b) < 0, then there is at least one zero of f between a and
b.

Theorem 1.54 (Fundamental Theorem of Algebra) If p(x) is a polynomial of degree

n > 0 whose coefficients are complex numbers, then p(x) has at least one zero in the complex
number system.

Theorem 1.55 (Number-of-roots Theorem.) A complex polynomial equation P (x) = 0

of degree n(n ≥ 1) has exactly n roots. It is possible, of course, for two or more of these
roots to be equal. If k roots are all equal to r, say, the common language used is ”r is said
to be a root of multiplicity k.” For Theorem 1.55 to be true, it is necessary to count a root
of multiplicity k as k roots.

Theorem 1.56 (The linear Factorization Theorem) If p(x) = an xn +an−1 xn−1 +· · ·+

a1 x + a0 , where n ≥ 1 and an ̸= 0, then p(x) = an (x − r1 )(x − r2 ) · · · (x − rn ), where the ri
are complex numbers (possible real and not necessarily distinct).

Example 1.57 Express each of the polynomials in the form described by the Linear Factorization
Theorem. List each zero and its multiplicity.

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a) p(x) = x3 − 6x2 − 16x

b) p(x) = 3x2 − 10x + 8

a) p(x) = 2x4 + 8x3 + 10x2

Solution:

a) We may factorize p(x) as follows:

p(x) = x3 − 6x2 − 16x = x x2 − 6x − 16

= x(x − 8)(x + 2)
= x(x − 8)(x − (−2))

The zeros of p(x) are 0, 8, and −2 each of multiplicity one.

b) We may factorize q(x) as follows:

q(x) = 3x2 − 10x + 8 = x(3x − 4)(x − 2)

4
= 3(x − )(x − 2)
3

c) We may factorize f (x) as follows:

f (x) = 2x4 − 8x3 + 10x2 = 2x2 (x2 + 4x + 5)

= 2x2 (x − (−2 + i))(x − (−2 − i))

Thus, the zeros of f (x) are 0 with multiplicity two and −2 + i and −2 − i each
with multiplicity one.

Example 1.58

1. Find a polynomial p(x) with exactly the following zeros and multiplicity
zeros multiplicity
-1 3
2 4
5 2
Are there any other polynomials that give the same roots and multiplicity?

2. Find a polynomial f (x) having the zeros described in part (a) such that f (1) = 32.

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Solution:

1. Based on the Factor Theorem, we may write the polynomial as: p(x) = (x −
(−1))3 (x − 2)4 (x − 5)2 = (x + 1)3 (x − 2)4 (x − 5)2 which gives the required roots and
multiplicities. Any polynomial of the form kp(x), where k is a non-zero constant
will give the same roots and multiplicities.

2. Based on part (1), we know that f (x) = k(x + 1)3 (x − 2)4 (x − 5)2 . Since we want
f (x) = 32, we have

f (1) = k(x + 1)3 (1 − 2)4 (1 − 5)2

1
32 = k(8)(1)(16) ⇒ k =
4
Thus, f (x) = 14 (x + 1)3 (x − 2)4 (x − 5)2 .

Theorem 1.59 (Conjugate Roots Theorem) Let p(x) be a polynomial with real coefficients.
If complex number a + bi (where a and b are real numbers) is a zero of p(x), then so is its
conjugate a − bi.
√
Example 1.60 Let r(x) = x4 + 2x3 − 9x2 + 26x − 20. Given that 1 − 3i is a zero, find
the other zero of r(x).

√
Solution: According
√ to the Conjugate Roots Theorem, if 1
√ − 3i is a zero, √
then its
conjugate, 1 + 3i must also be a zero. Therefore, x − (1 − 3i) and x − (1 + 3i) are
r(x), and so their product must be a factor of r(x). That is, [x − (1 −
both factors of √
√
3i)][x − (1 + 3i)] = x2 − 2x + 4 is a factor of r(x). Dividing r(x) by x2 − 2x + 4, we
obtain
r(x) = (x2 − 2x + 4)(x2 + 4x − 5) = (x2 − 2x + 4)(x + 5)(x − 1).
√ √
Thus, the zeros of r(x) are 1 − 3i, 1 + 3i, −5 and 1.

Theorem 1.61 (The Rational Root Theorem) Suppose that f (x) = an xn +an−1 xn−1 +
· · · + a1 x + a0 , where n ≥ 1, an ̸= 0 ia an nth degree polynomial with integer coefficients. If
p
q
is a rational root of f (x) = 0 where p and q have no common factor other than ±1, then
p is a factor of a0 and q is a factor of an .

Example 1.62 Find all the zeros of the function p(x) = 2x3 + 3x2 − 23x − 12.

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Solution: According to the Rational Root Theorem, if pq is a rational root of the given
equation, then p must be a factor of −12 and q must be a factor of 2. Thus, we have
possible values of p : ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±6, ±12
possible values of q: ±1, ±2
possible rational roots pq : ±1, ± 21 , ±2, ±3, ± 32 , ±4, ±6, ±12 We may check these possible
roots by substituting the value in p(x). Now p(1) = −30 and p(−1) = 12. Since p(1) is
negative and p(−1) is positive, by location theorem, p(x) has a zero between −1 and 1.
Since p( −1
2
) = 0, then (x + 12 ) is a factor of p(x). Using long division, we obtain

1
p(x) = 2x3 + 3x2 − 23x − 12 = (x + )(2x2 + 2x − 24)
2
1
= 2(x + )(x + 4)(x − 3)
2
Therefore, the zeros of p(x) are − 21 ,−4 and 3.

Rational Functions
P (x)
Definition 1.63 A function R defined hy y = R(x) = Q(x)
, where P (x) and Q(x) are
polynomials, is called a rational function.
P (x)
Note that the domain of the rational function R(x) = Q(x)
is {x : Q(x) ̸= 0}
2 x−1 x3 −2x2 +1
Example 1.64 The functions R(x) = x+2
, R(x) = x2 −4
and R(x) = x2 +2x
are examples
of rational functions
3x−5
Example 1.65 Find the domain and zeros of the function R(x) = x2 −x−12

Solution: The values of x for which x2 − x − 12 = 0 are excluded from the domain of
R .Since x2 − x − 12 = (x − 4)(x + 3), we have Dom(R) = {x : x ̸= −3, 4}. To find the
zeros of R(x), we solve the equation

P (x)
= 0 ⇔ P (x) = 0&Q(x) ̸= 0
Q(x)

Therefore, to find the zeros of R(x), we solve 3x − 5 = 0, giving x = 53 . Since 5

3
does not
make the denominator zero, it is the only zero of R(x).

Graphs and Continuity

(i) Polynomial Functions. A polynomial function, defined by y = P (x), where P (x) is
a polynomial, is continuous everywhere. The graph of a polynomial function is a
continuous curve. The domain of definition is the set of real numbers; the range is a
subset of the real numbers (which could be the whole set).

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Definition 1.66 The zeros of P are the values of x for which P (x) = 0.

Example 1.67 Sketch the graph of the polynomial function given hy y = x4 − 2x2 .

Solution: For purposes of graphing we now consider the domain as the set of real
numbers. Since
x4 − 2x2 = x2 (x2 − 2)
√
the zeros are seen to be x = 0, 0, ± 2. (For the factor x2 , we write x = 0, 0; see
Theorem 1.55, and following remark.)
The graph is continuous everywhere. It is symmetric with respect to the y-axis
since x appears to even powers only.

Figure 1: graph of y = x4 − 2x2

(ii) Rational Functions. A rational function, defined by

P (x)
y=
Q(x)

where P (x) and Q(x) are polynomials, is continuous everywhere with the exception
of at most a finite number of isolated values of x, namely, those for which Q(x) = 0.
These values must be excluded from the domain. The range is a subset of the reals.
The graph of a rational function is a continuous curve with the exception of at most
a finite number of points. A point of discontinuity is a point x1 such that Q(x1 ) = 0.
At such a point the function is undefined, as in x−5
x−5
at x = 5 or as in x1 at x = 0.
Steps to sketch(to draw) the graph of a rational function R(x)

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1. Identify the domain and simplify it.

2. Find the intercepts of the graph whenever possible. Recall the following:
– y–intercept is the point on y–axis where the graph of y = R(x) intersects
with the y–axis. At this point x = 0. Thus, y = R(0), or (0, f (0)) is the
y–intercept if 0 ∈ Dom(R).
– x–intercept is the point on x–axis where the graph of y = R(x) intersects
with the x–axis. At this point y = 0. Thus, x = a or (a, 0) is x–intercept if
R(a) = 0.
3. Determine the asymptotes of the graph. Here, remember the following.
• Vertical Asymptote: The vertical line x = a is called a vertical asymptote(VA)
of R(x) if
(i) a ∈ dom(R), i.e., R is not defined at x = a; and
(ii) R(x) → ∞ or R(x) → −∞ when x → a+ or x → a− . In this case, the graph
of R is almost vertically rising upward (if R(x) → ∞) or sinking downward
(if R(x) → −∞) along with the vertical line x = a when x approaches a
either from the right or from the left.
• Horizontal Asymptote: A horizontal line y = b is called horizontal asymptote
(HA) of R(x) if the value of the function becomes closer and closer to b (i.e.,
R(x) → b) as R(x) → ∞ or R(x) → −∞.
In this case, the graph of R becomes almost a horizontal line along with (or near)
the line y = b as x → ∞ and as x → −∞.
• Oblique Asymptote: The oblique line y = ax + b, a ̸= 0, is called an oblique
asymptote (OA) of R if the value of the function, R(x), becomes closer and closer
to ax + b(i.e., R(x) becomes approximately ax + b) as either x → ∞ or x → −∞.
In this case, the graph of R becomes almost a straight line along with (or near)
the oblique line y = ax + b as x → ∞ and as x → −∞.
P (x)
Remark 1.68 1. Let R(x) = Q(x)
be a rational function. Then,

(i) if Q(a) = 0 and P (a) ̸= 0 then x = a is a vertical asymptot(VA) of R.

(ii) if Q(a) = 0 = P (a), then x = a may or may not be a VA of R. In this case,
simplify R(x) and look for VA of the simplest form of R.
P (x)
2. A rational function R(x) = Q(x)
has a HA only when degree(P (x)) ≤ degree(Q(x)). In
this case,
(i) if degree(P (x)) < degree(Q(x)), then y = 0 (the x-axis) is the HA of R
an xn +an−1 xn−1 +···+a1 x+a0
(ii) if degree(P (x)) = degree(Q(x)) = n, i.e., R(x) = bn xn +bn−1 xn−1 +···+b1 x+b0
, then
y = abnn is the HA of R
P (x)
3. A rational function R(x) = Q(x) has an OA only when degree(P (x)) = degree(Q(x))+1.
In this case, using long division, if the quotient of P (x)÷Q(x) is ax+b, then y = ax+b
is the OA of R.

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Math–1007 Lecture Notes 2021/22 Page 16 of 18
x+2 x2 +3x+2
Example 1.69 Sketch the graphs of (a) R(x) = x−2
(b) g(x) = x2 −1

Solution:

(a) Since x − 1 = 0 at x = 1, dom(R) = R \ {1}.

• Intercepts: y-intercept: x = 0 ⇒ R(0) = −2. Hence, (0, −2) is y-intercept.
x-intercept: y = 0 ⇒ x + 2 = 0 ⇒ x = −2. Hence, (−2, 0) is x-intercept.
• Asymptotes:

⋄ VA: Since x − 1 = 0 at x = 1 and x + 2 ̸= 0 at x = 1, x = 1 is VA of R. In

fact, if x → 1+ , then x + 2 ≈ 3but the denominator x − 1 is almost 0 (but
positive). Consequently, R(x) → ∞ as x → 1+ .
Moreover, R(x) → −∞ as x → 1− (since, if x → 1− then x–1 is almost 0 but
negative ). (So, the graph of R rises up to +∞ at the right side of x = 1, and
sink down to −∞ at the left side of x = 1).
⋄ HA: Note that if we divide x + 2 by x–1, the quotient is 1 and remainder is
3. Thus,
R(x) = x+2
x−1
3
= 1 + x−1 . Thus, if x → ∞ (x → −∞), then x−1 3
→ 0 so that
R(x) → 1 Hence, y = 1 is the HA of R.

Using these information, we can sketch the graph of R as displayed below

x+2
Figure 2: Graph of R(x) = x−1

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(b) Both the denominator and numerator are 0 at x = −1. So, first factorize and
simplify them:
x2 + 3x + 2 = (x + 2)(x + 1) and x2 − 1 = (x − 1)(x + 1). Therefore,

x2 + 3x + 2 (x + 2)(x + 1)
g(x) = 2
= , x ̸= −1
x −1 (x − 1)(x + 1)
x+2
= . (so, dom(g) = R \ {1, −1})
x−1
This implies that only x = 1 is VA.
x+2
Hence, the graph of g(x) = , x ̸= −1, is exactly the same as that of
x−1
x+2
R(x) = except that g(x) is not defined at x = −1. Therefore, the graph of
x−1
g and its VA are the same as that of R except that there should be a ’hole’ at the
point corresponding to x = −1 on the graph of g as shown below

x+2
Figure 3: Graph of g(x) = x−1
,x ̸= −1

x−2
Example 1.70 Sketch the graph of the rational function f (x) = x2 −3x−4

Solution: We will follow the outline presented in the Procedure for Graphing Rational
Functions.

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Step 1: First, factor both numerator and denominator.

x−2
f (x) = (1.71)
(x + 1)(x − 4)

Step 2: Thus, f has two restrictions, x = −1 and x = 4. That is, the domain of f is
Df = {s : x ̸= −1, 4}

Step 3: The numerator of equation (1.71) is zero at x = 2 and this value is not a restriction.
Thus, 2 is a zero of f and (2, 0) is an x-intercept of the graph of f .

Step 4: Note that the rational function is already reduced to lowest terms (if it weren’t,
we’d reduce at this point). Note that the restrictions x = −1 and x = 4 are still
restrictions of the reduced form.

Step 5: We can use all the information gathered to date to draw the image shown below.

Relations and functions Chapter–2