Chapter Two : Infinite Series, Power Series

1. Definitions and Notation

A series is an infinite ordered set of terms combined together by the addition
operator. The term infinite series is used to confirm the fact that series contain an
infinite number of terms.
There are many infinite series besides geometric series. Here are some examples:

(a) 1  2  3  4 ...
2 2 2 2

1 2 3 4
(b)  2  2  4  ... (2.1)
2 2 2 2

x2 x3 x4
(c) x     ...
2 3 4
In general, an infinite series means an expression of the form
a1  a 2  a 3  a 4 ... a n ...
Where a n (one for each positive integer n) are numbers or functions given by some
formula or rule. The three dots mean that the series never ends.
(a) 1  2 3  4 ...  n ...
2 2 2 2 2

1 2 3 4 n
(b)  2  3  4  ...  n  ...
2 2 2 2 2
x 2 x3 x 4 (1) n 1 x n
(c) x     ...   ... (2.2)
2 3 4 n
x3 (1) n1 x n
(d) x  x 2   ... 
2 n  1 !  ...
We can write the series in a shorter abbreviated form using a summation sign 
followed by the formula for the nth term. For example (2.1a) would be written

1  2  3  4  ...   n 2
2 2 2 2

n 1

The series (2.2d) would be written

x3 x3 
( 1)n 1 xn
xx  
2
2

6
 ...  
n  1 n  1!

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 2. The Geometric Series
If we have some bacteria in the Lab. Its growth will be 1>2>4>8>16>...This is
called Geometric series. In the geometric series (progression) we multiply each
term by some fixed number to get the next term. For example,
a) 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, ….
2 4 8 18
b) 1, , , , , ...
3 9 27 81
c) a, ar, ar2, ar3, ….
are geometric progressions. Let us consider the following expression
2 4 8 16
    .... (2.3)
3 9 27 81
This expression is an example of an infinite series, and we are asked to find its
sum. Not all infinite series have sums.
Let us find the sum of n terms in (2.3). The formula for the sum of n terms of the
geometric progression is
Sn 

a 1  rn 
1r
Using (2.3) 2   2 n  ,
1    
2 4 2
n
3   3     2 n 
Sn    ...      21    
3 9 3 1
2
  3  
n 3
as n increases,   decreases and approaches zero. Then the sum of n terms
2
3
approaches 2 as n increases, and we say that the sum of the series is 2.

Series such as (2.3) whose terms form a geometric progression are called
geometric series. We can write a geometric series in the form

a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + …+ arn-1 + …

the sum of the geometric series is by definition S  lim n  Sn
a
The geometric series has a sum if and only if r  1 , and in this case the sum is S 
1 r
Repeating decimals
A repeating decimal
. can be thought of as a geometric series whose common ratio
 
is a power of 110 0.3333... 
3

3

3
 ...
10 100 1000
3
 
 3   10  1
        
a 10
0.3333...  Try now : 0.6666... , 0.56565....
1 r 1
1      
10 9 3
 10 
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3. Convergent and Divergent Series
Let S=1+2+4+8+16+.....
2S=2+4+8+16+32+... = S-1
2S=S-1 > 2S-S=-1 > S=-1 ? ? ?
We have been talking about series which have a finite sum. We have also seen that
there are series which do not have finite sums, for example (2.1 a).
12  22  32  42 ...
If a series has a finite sum, it is called convergent. Otherwise it is called divergent.
If we have the series a n
a1  a 2  a 3  a 4 ... a n ...
Now consider the sums Sn that we obtain by adding more and more terms of the series.
We define
S1  a1
S2  a 1  a 2
S3  a1  a 2  a 3
Sn  a1  a 2  a 3 . . .  a n

Each Sn is called a partial sum; it is the sum of the first n terms of the series. as n
increases, the partial sums may increase without any limit as in the series (2.1a).

lim n Sn S (2.4)

It is understood that S is a finite number. If this happens, we make the following
definitions:

(1) If the partial sums Sn of an infinite series tend to a limit S, the series is
called convergent. Otherwise it is called divergent.

(2) The limiting value S is called the sum of the series.

(3) The difference Rn = S-Sn is called the remainder. From equation (2.4), we
see that
lim n R n lim n S  Sn S  S 0

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4. Testing Series for Convergence; The Preliminary Test
Preliminary test.
If lim n a n  0 , the series is divergent .
If lim n a n  0 , we must test further.

This is not a test for convergence; the preliminary test can never tell you that a series
converges. For example, the harmonic series

1 1 1 1 1
     ...
1 2 3 4 5
 1 n 

The nth term certainly tends to zero, but we shall soon show that the series =0
n 1
On the other hand, in the series

1 2 3 4 n
    ...  
2 3 4 5 n 1 n  1
The terms are tending to 1, so by the preliminary test, this series diverges and no further
testing is needed.

5. Tests for Convergence of Series of Positive Terms; Absolute Convergence

A. The Comparison test:
The terms of the sequence an are compared to those of another sequence bn. if,
 
For all n, 0  an bn , and  b n converges, then so
n 1
a
n 1
n converges.

 
For all n, an bn , and  b n diverges, then so
n 1
a
n 1
n diverges.


1 1 1 1 1
Example. Test  n!  1  2  6  24  ...
n 1
for convergence.

As a comparison series, choose the geometric series


1 1 1 1 1
2
n 1
n
     ...
2 4 8 16
Solution
Notice that we do not care about the first few terms in a series, because they can affect
the sum of the series but not whether it converges.

In our example, the terms of   1 n!
n 1
are smaller than the corresponding terms of

  12


n 1
n  for all n  3 . We know that the geometric series converges because its ratio is

1
  . Therefore
2
  1 n! converges also.
n 1

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B. The Integral test:
We can use this test when the terms of the series are positive and not increasing, that
is, when a n 1  a n . This test can still be used even if the condition a n 1  a n does

not hold for a finite number of terms.

The integral test states that:
 
If  a n dn is finite →  a n is convergent series
 
If  a n dn is infinite →  a n is divergent series
1 1 1 1
Example. Test for convergence the harmonic series 1      ...
2 3 4 5
Solution
Using the integral test, we evaluate 

 n dn   ln n 
1 

Since the integral is infinite, the series diverges.

C. Ratio Test
The integral test depends on your being able to integrate a n dn ; this is not always easy.
We consider another test which will handle many cases in which we cannot evaluate the
integral. Assume that for all n, a n  0 . Suppose that there exists r such that
a n 1
lim n r
an
If r  1 , then the series converges. If r  1 , then the series diverges. If r  1 , the ratio is
inconclusive, and the series may converge or diverge.
1 1 1 1
Example: Test for convergence the series 1   . . .  . . .
2! 3! 4! n!
Solution  1  1  n!  n n  1 . . . 3.2.1 1
        
 n  1!   n!   n  1!  n  1n n  1 . . . 3.2.1 n 1
 1 
 lim n   0
So, the series converges.  n 1

Example: Test for convergence the series

1 1 1 1
1    . . .  . . .
Solution 2 3 4 n
 1  1  n 
       
 n 1  n   n 1
 n  1
 lim n    lim n  1 Here the test tells us nothing and we must
 n 1 1
1
use some different test.
n

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D. A Special Comparison Test
This test has two parts: (a) a convergence test, and (b) a divergence test.

(a) If b
n 1
n is a convergent series of positive terms and a n  0 and a n b n tends to a

finite limit, then  a n converges.
n 1

(b) If d
n 1
n is a divergent series of positive terms and a n  0 and a n d n tends to a

limit greater than 0 (or tends to   ), then a
n 1
n diverges.

Example 1. Test for convergence 

2 n 2  5n  1

n 3 4 n3  7 n 2  2
Solution
For large n, we find 2 n 2  5 n 1 is nearly 2 n 2 to quite high accuracy. Similarly, the

denominator is nearly 4 n 3 .

n2  1
So we consider as a comparison series just

n 3

n3 n  3 n2
  
 2n  5 n  1 1
2
2n  5 n  1  2 2
lim n 
an
 lim n   3    lim n
4 n  7 n2  2 n2  4 n3  7 n2  2 
n 
bn
   
 5 1 
 2  2 
 lim n   n n   2 This is a finite limit, so the given series
 7 2  4 converges.
 4   
 n n2 

3n  n 3
Example . Test for convergence  5 2
n2 n 5n
Solution
Here we must decide which is the important term as n   ; is it 3n or n 3 ? We find out
by comparing their logarithms since ln N and N increase or decrease together. We have
ln 3n  n ln 3 , and ln n 3  3ln n . Now ln n is much smaller than n, so for large n we have

 3n 
n ln 3  3 ln n , and 3n  n 3 . Thus the comparison series is   5  . It is clear that this
n2  n 
series is divergent.
n3
 3n  n 3 1 n
Now by test (b) 3n  3 1
lim n   5    lim n
5 
 n  5 n 2
n  5
1 3
n
Which is greater than zero, so the given series diverges.

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6. Alternating Series
An alternating series is an infinite series of the form

  1
n 0
n
an (6.1)

with a n  0 (or a n  0 ) for all n. Its terms alternate between positive and negative.
Like any series, an alternating series converges if and only if the associated sequence
of partial sums converges.

7. Useful facts about series

We state the following facts:

1. The convergence or divergence of a series is not affected by multiplying every term of

the series by the same constant. Neither is it affected by changing a finite number of
terms (for example, omitting the first few terms).

 
 
2. Two convergent series n 1
a n and n 1
b n may be added (or subtracted) term by term

(an + bn). The resulting series is convergent, and its sum is obtained by adding
(subtracting) the sums of the two given series.

3. The terms of an absolutely convergent series may be rearranged in any order without
affecting either the convergence or the sum.

8. Power Series; Interval of Convergence

Series with their general term given as u n x   a n x n are called power series;

f x   a 0  a1 x  a 2 x 2  . . .  a n xn
n 0
Where the coefficients a n are independent of x. To use the ratio test we write

u n 1 a x n 1 a n 1
 n 1 n  x
un an x an
and find the limit
a n 1 1
lim n  
an R
Hence the condition for the convergence of a power series is obtained as

x R   R xR
where R is called the radius of convergence. At the end points the ratio test fails; hence these
points must be analyzed separately.

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Example 1: Test convergence for the power series
x2 x3 x4 xn
1 x     ...  ...
2 3 4 n
We use the ratio test
u n 1  x n 1   x n  n
       x
un  n 1  n  n 1

n
lim n 1
n 1
n 1 1
R  lim n   lim n  1   1
n n

So the radius of convergence R is 1; thus the series converges in the interval 1  x  1 . On the
other hand, at the end point x=1 it is divergent, while at the other end point, x=-1, it is
convergent. So the interval of convergence is 1  x  1

Example 2: Test convergence for the power series 1 x  2!x 2  3!x 3 . . .  n!x n . . .
a n1 n  1!
The ratio
  n  1
an n!
gives
lim n  n  1   
1
R
Thus the radius of convergence is zero. Note that this series converges only for x=0.

Example 3: Test convergence for the power series

x 2 x3 xn
1 x    . . .   ...
2! 3! n!
we find a n 1 n! 1
 
and
an n  1! n  1
1 1
lim n   0
n 1 R
Hence the radius of convergence is infinity. This series converges for all x values.

Example 4: Test convergence for power series

x
x3 x5 x7
   ...
 1 x 2n 1
. . .
n 1

The ratio 3! 5! 7! 2n  1!

u n 1 x 2n 1 x 2n 1 x2
  
un 2n  1! 2n  1! 2n  12n 
x2
lim n  0 So the radius of convergence is infinity.
2n  12n  This series converges for all x values.

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Example 5: Test convergence for the power series

1
x  2  x  22  ...
x  2n  ...
2 3 n 1
The ratio
u n 1

x  2  x  2 
n 1 n
x  2 n 1
un n2 n 1 n2
and
 n 1 
lim n  x  2  x 2
 n2 
The series converges for x  2  1 ; that is, for 1  x  2  1, or  3  x  1 .
If x = -3, the series is
1 1 1
1    ...
2 3 4
This is convergent by the alternating series test. For x = -1, the series is

1 1 1
1
2

3
 ...  
n 0 n 1

This is divergent by the integral test. Thus the series converges for  3  x  1

9. Theorems about Power Series

 A power series may be differentiated or integrated term by term; the resulting series
converges to the derivative or integral of the function represented by the original series
within the same interval of convergence as the original series (that is, not necessarily at
the endpoints of the interval).
 Two power series may be added, subtracted, or multiplied; the resultant series converges
at least in the common interval of convergence. You may divide two series if the
denominator series is not zero at x=0. The resulting series will have some interval of
convergence.
 One series may be substituted in another provided that the values of the substituted series
are in the interval of convergence of the other series.

 The power series of a function is unique, that is, there is just one power series of the form



n 0
a n x n which converges to a given function.

1. Addition and subtraction

When two functions f and g are decomposes into power series around the same center c, the
power series of the sum or difference of the functions can be obtained by termwise addition and

f x   
 a n x  c  gx    b n x  c 
subtraction. That is, if n n

n 0 n 0

Then f x   gx    a n  b n x  c 
n

n 0

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