Modernism – is about mind.

Modernism was a literary movement that lasted from the late nineteenth century
to around the mid-twentieth century, and encapsulated a series of burgeoning
writing techniques that influenced the course of literary history.
Influenced by worldwide industrialization and the first World War, literary
modernism was an emotional and experimental style of prose and poetry that
occurred in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century literature.

Literary modernism allowed writers to express themselves in more experimental

ways than in the past. Modernist works often contain non-linear narratives and
free-flowing interior monologues that emphasize the experiences and emotions
of the individual. Writers of modernist literature include Franz Kafka, D. H.
Lawrence, Virginia Woolf, T.S. Eliot, Gertrude Stein, Joseph Conrad,
Samuel Beckett, William Carlos Williams, and W.B. Yeats.

Here are a few distinguishing characteristics of modernist literature.

1. Experimentation: Modernist literature employed a number of different

experimental writing techniques that broke the conventional rules of
storytelling. Some of those techniques include blended imagery and
themes, absurdism, nonlinear narratives, and stream of consciousness—
which is a free flowing inner monologue.
2. Individualism: Modernist literature typically focuses on the individual,
rather than society as a whole. Stories follow characters as they adapt to a
changing world, often dealing with difficult circumstances and challenges.
3. Multiple perspectives: Many modernist writers wrote in the first person
perspective with multiple characters to emphasize the subjectivity of each
character, and add depth to the story by presenting a variety of viewpoints.
4. Free verse: Many modernist poets rejected the traditional structure of
poetry and opted for free verse, which lacks a consistent rhyme scheme,
metrical pattern, or musical form.
5. Literary devices: Many modernist writers rely on literary devices like
symbolism and imagery to help the reader understand the writing, and to
create a stronger connection between the text and the reader.

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Postmodernism - a literary movement that eschews absolute meaning and instead
emphasizes play, fragmentation, metafiction, and intertextuality. The literary
movement rose to prominence in the late 1950s and early 1960s as a reaction to
modernist literature’s quest for meaning in light of the significant human rights
violations of World War II. Common examples of postmodern literature include
Gravity’s Rainbow by Thomas Pynchon, Slaughterhouse-Five by Kurt Vonnegut,
and Catch-22 by Joseph Heller.
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Neo-romanticism - a broad movement crossing artistic boundaries that gave more
importance to the representation of internal feelings. It started as a reaction to
naturalism in the 19th century and harked back to the Romantic era, but it has since
become a reaction to modernism and post-modernism. Neo-romanticism began in
Britain around 1880, but later spread to other parts of the world including Eastern
Europe, America and even India. It covers painting, literature and music.
Characteristics of neo-romanticism include the expression of strong emotions such
as terror, awe, horror and love. Human emotions were as important as the
supernatural. Neo-romanticism sought to promote ideas such as perfect love, the
beauty of youth, heroes and romantic deaths. These included the romantic
traditions of Lord Byron.
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Romanticism - a literary movement spanning roughly 1790–1850. The movement
was characterized by a celebration of nature and the common man, a focus on
individual experience, an idealization of women, and an embrace of isolation and
melancholy. Romanticism can be seen as a reaction to the huge changes in society
that occurred during this period, including the revolutions that burned through
countries like France and the United States, ushering in grand experiments in
democracy. Prominent Romantic writers include John Keats, William
Wordsworth, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and Mary Shelley.
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Newspeak - propagandistic language that is characterized
by euphemism, circumlocution, and the inversion of customary meanings. George
Orwell coined the term in his novel Nineteen Eighty-four (1949).
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Nadsat - a fictional register or argot used by the teenage gang members in Anthony
Burgess's dystopian novel A Clockwork Orange. Burgess was a linguist and he
used this background to depict his characters as speaking a form of Russian-
influenced English. The name comes from the Russian suffix equivalent of "-teen"
as in "thirteen" (-надцать, -nad·tsat). Nadsat was also used in Stanley Kubrick's
film adaptation of the book.
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Big Brother - a fictional character and symbol in George Orwell's dystopian 1949
novel Nineteen Eighty-Four. He is ostensibly the leader of Oceania, a totalitarian
state wherein the ruling party, Ingsoc, wields total power "for its own sake" over
the inhabitants. In the society that Orwell describes, every citizen is under constant
surveillance by the authorities, mainly by telescreens (with the exception of the
Proles). The people are constantly reminded of this by the slogan "Big Brother is
watching you": a maxim that is ubiquitously on display.
In modern culture, the term "Big Brother" has entered the lexicon as a synonym for
abuse of government power, particularly in respect to civil liberties, often
specifically related to mass surveillance.
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In literature, ambiguity may occur with a character, word or
phrase, plot point, image, trope, or situation that can be understood in two
or more possible ways. It allows room for doubt and complexity, as well
as moments of double entendre and humor.
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Juxtaposition - a literary device that implies comparison or contrast. Writers create
juxtaposition by placing two entities side by side to create dramatic or ironic
contrast. Juxtaposition is a form of implied comparison in that there is no overt
comparison or inference on the part of the writer. This allows the reader to discern
how the paired entities are similar or different. The effect of this literary device is a
more profound understanding of contrast and creating a sense of fate or
inevitability in the comparison.
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A story is the requisite timeline of events present in any narrative. No story? No
novel. Because any novel, however abstract must report events of some kind.
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A plot expresses rationale and informs the reader why a specific list of events
belongs together, what the timeline is ultimately meant to communicate.
The classic example by E. M. Forster in his collected lectures, Aspects of the
Novel, still says it best:
“‘The king died and then the queen died’ is a story. ‘The king died, and then the
queen died of grief’ is a plot.
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Omniscient is a literary technique of writing a narrative in third person, in which
the narrator knows the feelings and thoughts of every character in the story.
Through omniscient narrative, the author brings an entire world of his characters to
life, and moves from character to character, allowing different voices to interpret
the events, and maintaining omniscient form — that is keeping a distance.
Omniscient narrative tells the story of every character by demonstrating that only
the narrator possesses information.
Types of Omniscient
 Omniscient Point of View – When a narrator has knowledge about all the
characters in a narrative, it is an omniscient, or all-knowing, point of view.
  Limited Omniscient Point of View – In limited omniscient point of view, a
narrator has limited knowledge of just one character, leaving other major or
minor characters.
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Unreliable narrator - a character who tells a story with a lack of credibility. There
are different types of unreliable narrators, and the presence of one can be revealed
to readers in varying ways — sometimes immediately, sometimes gradually, and
sometimes later in the story when a plot twist leaves us wondering if we’ve maybe
been a little too trusting.
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A symbol is something that stands for or suggests something else; it represents
something beyond literal meaning. In literature, a symbol can be a word, object,
action, character, or concept that embodies and evokes a range of additional
meaning and significance.
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Irony - a technique of indicating, as through character or plot development, an
intention or attitude opposite to that which is actually or ostensibly stated.
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Persona, plural personae, in literature, the person who is understood to be speaking
(or thinking or writing) a particular work. The persona is almost invariably distinct
from the author; it is the voice chosen by the author for a particular artistic
purpose. The persona may be a character in the work or merely an unnamed
narrator; but, insofar as the manner and style of expression in the work exhibit
taste, prejudice, emotion, or other characteristics of a human personality, the work
may be said to be in the voice of a persona.
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Epiphany is that moment in the story where a character achieves realization,
awareness, or a feeling of knowledge, after which events are seen through the
prism of this new light in the story.
James Joyce, the great Irish writer, used this term in his writings to indicate a
sudden eye-opener regarding the nature of a person or situation. He said that it is
the moment in which “the soul of the commonest object … seems to us radiant,
and may be manifested through any chance, word, or gesture.” He means to say
that even insignificant things in our lives can suddenly inspire in us an awareness
that can change our lives for good.
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A parable is a short, didactic story that is meant to teach a moral or principal.
Parables use human characters in believable situations so that the reader or listener
feels able to relate. There are many examples of parables in religious texts such as
the Bible and the Quran.
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The term “hedonism,” from the Greek word ἡδονή (hēdonē) for pleasure, refers to
several related theories about what is good for us, how we should behave, and what
motivates us to behave in the way that we do. All hedonistic theories identify
pleasure and pain as the only important elements of whatever phenomena they are
designed to describe. 
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Intertextuality is a sophisticated literary device making use of a textual reference
within some body of text, which reflects again the text used as a reference. Instead
of employing referential phrases from different literary works, intertextuality
draws upon the concept, rhetoric, or ideology from other writings to be merged in
the new text. It may be the retelling of an old story, or the rewriting of popular
stories in modern context for instance, James Joyce retells The Odyssey in his
very famous novel Ulysses.
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Chronological shifts - a narrative method (as in a novel) that shifts back and forth
in time from past to present instead of proceeding in strict chronological sequence
Foreshadowing is a literary device that writers utilize as a means to indicate or hint
to readers something that is to follow or appear later in a story. Foreshadowing,
when done properly, is an excellent device in terms of creating suspense and
dramatic tension for readers. It can set up emotional expectations
of character behaviors and/or plot outcomes. This can heighten a reader’s
enjoyment of a literary work, enhance the work’s meaning, and help the reader
make connections with other literature and literary themes.
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Flashback is a scene that takes place before a story begins. Flashbacks interrupt the
chronological order of the main narrative to take a reader back in time to the past
events in a character’s life. A writer uses this literary device to help readers better
understand present-day elements in the story or learn more about a character.
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Flash-forward is a literary device in which the plot goes ahead of time; meaning a
scene that interrupts and takes the narrative forward in time from the current time
in the story.
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Stream of consciousness is a style or technique of writing that tries to capture the
natural flow of a character's extended thought process, often by incorporating
sensory impressions, incomplete ideas, unusual syntax, and rough grammar.
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interior monologue is a narrative technique that shows the flow of thoughts going
through a character's head that other characters, for obvious reasons, aren't privy
to.
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A soliloquy - literary device used in drama, is a speech that reveals a
character's internal thoughts, motivations, or plans. Characters usually deliver
soliloquies while they are alone, but if other characters are present, they remain
silent and appear to be unaware that the character is talking. When delivering
soliloquies, characters often seem to be “thinking out loud.” Soliloquies are found
in dramatic works. 
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Free Indirect Speech is a form of narration written in the third person while
maintaining some essential elements of a first-person narrator. The author can thus
describe the inner workings of their characters; their private emotions and
thoughts, while still remaining at an observational distance. This allows for the
narrator to ‘delve in and out’ of the thoughts of any character they choose. The
Free Indirect style allows the author somehow manage to combine the detached
objectivity of a third person narration with the personal, biased and often
prejudiced voice of a first person narrator.
This is a subtle enough example of Jane Austen’s use of Free Indirect Style, but
relays to us something of how Marianne views her duties as a bereft woman in
love:

“Marianne would have thought herself very inexcusable had she been able at all
to sleep the first night after parting from Willoughby.

She would have been ashamed to look her family in the face the next morning, had
she not risen from her bed in more need of repose than when she lay down in it.”
(Ch. 16)

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Alliteration - a literary device that reflects repetition in two or more nearby words
of initial consonant sounds. Alliteration does not refer to the repetition of
consonant letters that begin words, but rather the repetition of the consonant sound
at the beginning of words. 
Example - She sells seashells by the sea-shore.
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Assonance is a literary device in which the repetition of similar vowel sounds takes
place in two or more words in proximity to each other within a line of poetry
or prose. Assonance most often refers to the repetition of internal vowel sounds in
words that do not end the same. For example, “he fell asleep under the cherry
tree” is a phrase that features assonance with the repetition of the long “e” vowel,
despite the fact that the words containing this vowel do not end in perfect rhymes.
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The word “absurd” refers to a literary genre and style of writing that focuses on the
meaninglessness of the universe and humanity’s attempts to make sense of it. The
best examples of the genre show the main characters’ struggle to find any meaning
in life. Rather than come to some revelation about their purpose, they remain
adrift, knowing that the universe is nothing but chaos. The stories often lack a
traditional plot structure, mimicking the lack of structure the characters’ worlds
have. In many cases, a character spends the narrative making decisions that are
baseless and suffering consequences that they disregard. The word “absurd” comes
from the Latin meaning “deaf” and “stupid.”
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Paradox - a statement or situation that may be true but seems impossible or
difficult to understand because it contains two opposite facts or characteristics
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Doppelganger – a term, derived from the German language and literally translates
into ‘double walker’. It refers to a character in the story that is actually a
counterfeit or a copy of a genuine character. Doppelgangers of the main characters
usually bear the ability to impersonate the original but have vastly different spirits
and intentions. The doppelganger usually has a different appearance but an earthly
soul and supernatural hoodwinking abilities that allow it to fool other unsuspecting
characters.
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 Bildungsroman is a literary term describing a formative novel about a
protagonist’s psychological and moral growth from their youth into adulthood.
Bildungsroman novels are generally written in the first-person and often feature
the name of the protagonist directly in the title, such as Emma, Jane Eyre,
and David Copperfield.
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Künstlerroman - (German: “artist’s novel”), class of Bildungsroman,
or apprenticeship novel, that deals with the youth and development of an
individual who becomes—or is on the threshold of becoming—a painter, musician,
or poet. The classic example is James Joyce’s Portrait of the Artist as a Young
Man (1916).
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Suspense is a literary device that authors use to keep their readers’ interest alive
throughout the work. It is a feeling of anticipation that something risky or
dangerous is about to happen. The purpose of using this type of anxiety in
literature is to make readers more concerned about the characters, and to form
sympathetic association with them.
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Credibility - willingness to accept something as true in the characters and in their
story world.
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A protagonist is the central character or leading figure in poetry, narrative, novel or
any other story. A protagonist is sometimes a “hero” to the audience or readers.
The word originally came from the Greek language, and in Greek drama it refers to
the person who led the chorus. Later on, the word started being used as a term for
the first actor in order of performance.
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Meter - a literary device that works as a structural element in poetry. Essentially,
meter is the basic rhythmic structure of a line within a poem or poetic work. Meter
functions as a means of imposing a specific number of syllables and emphasis
when it comes to a line of poetry that adds to its musicality
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Allegory - a narration or description in which events,
actions, characters, settings or objects represent specific abstractions or ideas.
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Literary impressionism was a movement that was born in the late nineteenth
century inspired by the influence of Impressionist plastic artists. Its objective was
to oppose the realistic literature that prevailed at that time. Impressionist literature
was characterized by focusing its attention on the mental life of the characters.
This included the narration of their appreciations of reality, their feelings, their
feelings and their emotions.
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The Decadent movement in literature was a short-lived but influential style during
the latter half of the 19th century. It is most associated with French literature, and
Charles Baudelaire was perhaps the foremost figure of the Decadent movement.
Decadent writers used elaborate, stylized language to discuss taboo and often
unsavory topics, such as death, depression, and deviant sexualities.
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Aestheticism is an art movement supporting the emphasis of aesthetic values more
than other themes for literature, fine art, music and other arts. In other words, this
movement was based on the principle that pursuit of beauty and elevation of taste
was the main aim of art. The foundation of aesthetic movement is considered to be
formulated in the 18th century by Immanuel Kant. This is an anti-Victorian
movement which had post-romantic roots.
This aestheticism used the concept of art for art’s sake. The original concept “l’art
pour l’art” is attributed to the French novelist Théophile Gautier. This rejected the
concept that art has a moral or ethical value and a didactic purpose. The followers
of this movement believed that art should only be beautiful.
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Setting - the location and time frame in which the action of a narrative takes place.
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Internal conflict refers to a character’s internal struggle. A character might struggle
with an emotional problem such as fear of intimacy or abandonment, for example.
Internal conflict is important for characterization, since flaws and internal
struggles make characters more lifelike and sympathetic.
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External conflict, on the other hand, refers to the conflicts between a character and
external forces. This type of conflict can be between one character and another or a
group (or between groups of characters). It can also be between a character and
more abstract forces. For example, a bleak and hostile environment in a post-
apocalyptic novel.
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Open ending - structural element of fictional texts, the opposite of solution or
dénouement. In a story with an open ending the conflict is not solved: the final
interpretation is left up to the reader or audience.
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A plot twist is a literary technique that introduces a radical change in the direction
or expected outcome of the plot in a work of fiction. When it happens near the end
of a story, it is as a twist or surprise ending.
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A dynamic character is a character who undergoes significant internal change
throughout the course of a story. The development of a dynamic character is often
subtle and unstated and is not due to a change in the character’s circumstances. A
dynamic character is one who learns a lesson or changes as a person (either for
better or for worse). Most main characters and major characters in stories are
dynamic.
VS
A static character is a type of character who remains largely the same throughout
the course of the storyline. Their environment may change, but they retain the
same personality and outlook as they had at the beginning of the story. It is
common for secondary characters in stories to be static.
Static characters are the opposite of dynamic characters; while static characters
stay the same throughout a story; dynamic characters undergo significant internal
change.
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Rhyme scheme is the pattern of rhyme that comes at the end of each verse or line
in poetry. In other words, it is the structure of end words of a verse or line that a
poet needs to create when writing a poem.
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A simile is a figure of speech and type of metaphor that compares two different
things using the words “like” or “as.” The purpose of a simile is to help describe
one thing by comparing it to another thing that is perhaps seemingly unrelated.
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A metaphor is a figure of speech that makes a comparison between two unlike
things. As a literary device, metaphor creates implicit comparisons without the
express use of “like” or “as.”
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Biblical allusions really have nothing to do with religion or putting forward
Judaism or Christianity. They provide the writer with an opportunity to expand
his/her ideas to demonstrate a timelessness inherent in the story being told. The
references—when understood by the reader—expand the understanding of
European and American literature, and allow the similarity in stories to unite a
cultural inheritance. The biblical allusion uses words and/or situations that make
direct references to biblical stories, characters, places, or motifs within a larger
story/text.
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Faction - a form of literature or filmmaking that treats real people or events as if
they were fictional or uses real people or events as essential elements in an
otherwise fictional rendition.\
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Didacticism is a term that refers to a particular philosophy in art and literature that
emphasizes the idea that different forms of art and literature ought to convey
information and instructions, along with pleasure and entertainment. The
word didactic is frequently used for those literary texts that are overloaded with
informative or realistic matter, and are marked by the omission of graceful and
pleasing details. Didactic, therefore, becomes a derogatory term referring to the
forms of literature that are ostentatiously dull and erudite. However, some literary
texts are entertaining as well as didactic.
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In George Orwell's dystopian classic 1984, doublethink is the act of holding,
simultaneously, two opposite, individually exclusive ideas or opinions and
believing in both simultaneously and absolutely. Doublethink requires using logic
against logic or suspending disbelief in the contradiction.
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Gothic literature can be defined as writing that employs dark and picturesque
scenery, startling and melodramatic narrative devices, and an overall atmosphere
of exoticism, mystery, fear, and dread. Often, a Gothic novel or story will revolve
around a large, ancient house that conceals a terrible secret or serves as the refuge
of an especially frightening and threatening character.
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Fantasy is a genre of literature that features magical and supernatural elements that
do not exist in the real world. Although some writers juxtapose a real world setting
with fantastical elements, many create entirely imaginary universes with their own
physical laws and logic and populations of imaginary races and creatures.
Speculative in nature, fantasy is not tied to reality or scientific fact.
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‘The Death of the Author’ is an influential 1968 essay by the French literary
theorist Roland Barthes. However, what does Barthes mean by ‘the death of the
author’? This important short essay was crucial in the development of
poststructuralist literary theory in the 1970s and 1980s, as many English
departments, especially in the United States, adopted Barthes’ ideas (along with
those of other thinkers such as Jacques Derrida).
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Simulacrum - is a representation or imitation of a person or thing. The word was
first recorded in the English language in the late 16th century, used to describe a
representation, such as a statue or a painting, especially of a god. By the late 19th
century, it had gathered a secondary association of inferiority: an image without
the substance or qualities of the original.
Sources:
https://www.masterclass.com/
https://literarydevices.net/
https://slideplayer.com/
https://www.cliffsnotes.com/