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Assessment of Psammophytic Medicinal Plant Diversity Used

among the Rural Communities in Coastal East Midnapore, West
Bengal, India
Article in Journal of Herbs Spices & Medicinal Plants · December 2019

DOI: 10.1080/10496475.2019.1707736
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JOURNAL OF HERBS, SPICES & MEDICINAL PLANTS
https://doi.org/10.1080/10496475.2019.1707736
Assessment of Psammophytic Medicinal Plant Diversity

Used among the Rural Communities in Coastal East
Midnapore, West Bengal, India
Uday Kumar Sen and Ram Kumar Bhakat
a
Ecology and Taxonomy Laboratory Department of Botany and Forestry, Vidyasagar University, West
Bengal, India�
ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

The diversity and conservation status of medicinal plants were Received 4 October 2019
studied in the coastal East Midnapore district under West
KEYWORDS
Bengal in India. Information on the medicinal plants was Coastal plant; fidelity level;
obtained from semistructured questionnaires, interviews, and informant consensus factor;
field excursions involving herbalists and taxonomists. medicinal plant; use value
A semistructured questionnaire was used to interview a total
of 120 informants. By using different quantitative indices,
results were analyzed for fidelity level (FL), informant consen-
sus factor (ICF), and use value (UV). In this study, 162 plant
species were reported as being used for medicinal purposes.
Fabaceae was a dominant family, and the most frequently used
parts were leaves (20.35%); the most used herbal medicinal
preparation method was a decoction (38.27%) and the highest
ICF was noted for digestive disorders (27.24%). The FL varied
from 17.86% to 100%. Species having the highest UV was
Ricinus communis (0.01595). The findings show that medicinal
plants were the main sources of medicines for primary health
care.
Introduction
Plant communities of the dune complex lead from the interaction between
plant species tolerance and sandy substratum, elevated wind speeds, salt
spray, sand accretion, and heterogeneity of the environment.[1 �] Many plant
species’ propagules are spread by currents of water and deposited on the drift
line, and discover circumstances for germination; however, in the extremely
disturbed setting, seedling establishment, development, and reproduction are
denied to all but a few species with ecological amplitude adequate to resist
the physical stresses associated with sand accretion, erosion, and
sandblasting.[2] The variations between habitats from the edge of the water
to the ecotone of the inland grass-forest lead to the establishment of ecolo-
gically distinct groups of plants and animals. The difference is caused by
CONTACT Uday Kumar Sen uudaysen@gmail.com Ecology and Taxonomy Laboratory Department of
Botany and Forestry, Vidyasagar University, Midnapore-721 102, West Bengal, India
Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online at www.tandfonline.com/whsm.
© 2019 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
2 U. K. SEN AND R. K. BHAKAT
sharp variations in the physical setting that can produce sharp areas, with the
two community kinds being abruptly or gradually blended.[3] These zones are
fairly stable in some places for lengthy periods before a noticeable shift
happens in the society depending on the shoreline recession, the availability
of fresh bare fields, and the progress of populations toward the seashore.[4]
Foredune species are stoloniferous hemicryptophytes (Ipomoea and
grasses), with buds scarcely integrated into the soil surface in hot tropical,
subtropical, and dry areas. On the high beach and embryo dune on coastal
shores, plants are advancing either as rhizomes or as stolons to disturbance-
prone drift lines and mid beach areas. This is a convergent, adaptive trait that
encourages stability of the coastline. Foredune species have the capacity to
occupy a bare area[5] quickly. The fragmentation of rhizomes, stolons, and
seedling establishment enables new sites to be dispersed and new populations
to be established.[6]
The plants on coastal sand dunes, called psammophytes, play an important
role in defending the shoreline against erosion and flooding.[7] Disruption of
this coastal vegetation has prompted increasing concern. India has
a shoreline of 7,500 km with several lagoons, estuaries, and mangrove
swamps that support abundant biotic and abiotic resources.[8] With respect
to geographical place, the bounties of natural, biotic, and marine assets are
attributed to the 98-km long stretch of East Midnapore coast in a substantial
section on the east coast.
The coastal area of East Midnapore district is a region of floral diversity with
a variety of vegetation and a high level of endemic medicinal plants. The sand
dune flora from the same coast of the neighboring state, Odisha, has been
reported,[9] and others[10] explored the coastal medicinal plants in this area
conducted primarily on fishing communities. This study documented the tradi-
tional ethnobotanical understanding in the Indian coastal regions, the variety of
coastal sand dune medicinal plants, the preparation and administration meth-
ods, and the diseases and conditions the plants were used to treat.
Materials and Methods

Description of the Study Area
East Midnapore district (latitude 22º57′10″- 21º36′35″N and longitude 88º 12′
40″-86º 33′50″E, average altitude 6 m asl) is one of the West Bengal’s 18
administrative districts. It is bordered in the south by the Bay of Bengal, in
the east by the Rupnarayana river, and in the west by Subarnarekha. The Bay
of Bengal and these great rivers and their numerous branches have created
a flourishing and easy water navigation system that fosters trade, culture, and
early contact with people outside the region. Approximately 90% of the
population lives in the rural areas of this district.[11] The survey was
JOURNAL OF HERBS, SPICES & MEDICINAL PLANTS 3
conducted on the sand dune and salt marsh areas in the coastal stretch of
Purba Medinipur district, West Bengal, India (Fig. 1a and b), with the
assumption that vegetation type will vary with altitude variation, which
may have an impact on the type of ethnomedicinal plant availability.
Participant Selection, Interviewing Process, and Data Collection

The study was conducted from March 2016 to April 2019 across all seasons
of the year. Participants were selected based on their ethnomedicinal knowl-
edge. The interviews were carried out on plants used in ethnomedicine
among the villagers. Individuals who were locally recognized as knowledge-
able on plant use were identified with the assistance of the village elders. The
selection in the questionnaire was described systematically and through
participatory rural appraisal (PRA) method. A total of 120 informants were
interviewed using a semistructured questionnaire consisting of open- and
close-ended questions. There were 17 questions in the questionnaire which
were conducted in the local dialect of the Bengali language. Due to the
dynamic nature of ethnobotanical information, this study included plants
mentioned by three or more informants to increase the reliability of the
obtained data.[12] The data were recorded in a data sheet with the names of
the plant species, families, voucher number of plant specimens, habits, life
span, nativity, flowering and fruiting time, IUCN status, plant part(s) used,
mode of administration, ailments treated, and total citations. After knowing
a b
Figure 1. A. Map showing East Midnapore district in West Bengal, India. B. Study site (from line to
coast).
the specific use of the medicinal plants, informers were taken to the field to
identify the plants on the basis of local names. Photographs of the plant habit
and reproductive structures were taken, and common plants were collected
for voucher sheet preparation. Voucher sheets were verified in the herbarium
section, Department of Botany, Vidyasagar University. Rare or endangered
plants were kept untouched. Collected plants were compared with the litera-
ture and identified with the help of standard keys to the specimens.[13–17]
Scientific names of all plants were checked with www.theplantlist.org[18] and
www.tropicos.org[19] websites and confirmed by only accepted name.
Quantitative Ethnobotany
Fidelity Level (FL)
Because many plant species might be used in the same use category, the most
preferred species used for the treatment of a particular ailment was calculated as
FL[20]:
FL ¼ Np=N;
where Np was the number of use reports cited for a given species for
a particular ailment, and N was the total number of use reports cited for any
given species. High FL values (near-100%) were obtained for plants for which
almost all use reports referred to the same method of use, whereas low FL
values were noted for plants used for many different purposes.
Informant Consensus Factor (ICF)

The homogeneity in the ethnomedicinal information documented from the
traditional informants was calculated as ICF[21,22]:
ICF ¼ Nur Nt=ðNur 1Þ
where Nur refers to the total number of use reports for each disease cluster
and Nt refers to the total number of species used for that cluster.
Use Value (UV) for One Species

The UV index was used to calculate the citation of plants during interviews,
as described[23–25] and adapted by others.[26] It was calculated as follows:
X
UVc ¼ U is =ns
where U was the sum of the total number of use citations by all informants
for a given species divided by the total number of informants (ns). This
evaluated the relative importance of each medicinal species based on its
relative use among informants. This index was useful for the analysis of the
use of a single species and to compare plants among the same sample.[27]
Results
Demographic Characteristics and Knowledge of Informants on Medicinal
Plants
Among the informants, 49 (40.83%) respondents were male and 71 (59.17%)
were female. This repartition was not unusual in ethnobotanical investiga-
tions in India, due to the importance of women in the domestic context,
where most plant resources, especially alimentary and medicinal plants, were
managed. This also meant that, in the current investigation, women proved
to be the main upholders of traditions linked to domestic life. Most of them
(39[32.50%] of all the informants) were professional herbalists; 13 (10.83%)
were unemployed; 28 (23.34%) were housewives; 27 (22.50%) were farmers/
fishermen; 9 (7.50%) worked as teachers; and only 4 (3.33%) employed in
government sectors. The age of the informants was from 20 to 80 years. Age
wise, 41 (34.16%) informants were in the age group of 51–60 years, which is
much higher than the informants in the other age groups—32 (26.67%,
41–50 years), 24 (20%, ≥61 years), 18 (15%, 31–40 years), and 5 (4.17%,
≥30 years), respectively. As for educational qualifications, only 3 (2.50%)
were illiterate; 44 (36.67%) had only primary school education; 39 (32.50%)
had secondary school education; 21 (17.50%) had higher secondary school
education, and only 13 (10.83%) had a university degree.
The 162 plant species that are used by traditional healers among the village
people were interviewed, identified, and documented. Among the medicinal
plants identified, most of them belong to 10 families. The plant family
Fabaceae and genera Crotalaria were most frequently represented among
the documented useful species, with a total of 22 and 4 species out of the 162
plants identified (Table 1).
Different Plant Taxa

In this study, a total of 162 species belonging to 132 genera distributed
among 52 families of 28 orders were recorded. The nine well-represented
families (≥5 species) were Fabaceae,31 (19.14%); Poaceae, 12 (7.41%);
Malvaceae, 10 (6.17%); Amaranthaceae, 7 (4.32%); Rhizophoraceae, 7
(4.32%); Asteraceae, 6 (3.70%); Apocynaceae, 5 (3.09%); Arecaceae, 5
(3.09%); and Euphorbiaceae, 5 (3.09%) in descending array. Another four
families had 4�
(2.47%), four families had 3 (1.85%), and 11 families each had
2 (1.23%) species, 24 families carrying only 1 (0.62%) species each.
The 10 dominant plant families that encompassed more than 56% genera
with descending numbers (≥6 species) were Fabaceae, 22 (16.67%); Poaceae,
11 (8.33%); Malvaceae, 7 (5.30%); Amaranthaceae, 6 (4.55%); Asteraceae, 6
(4.55%); Apocynaceae, 5 (3.79%),;Euphorbiaceae, 5 (3.79%); Arecaceae, 4
(3.03%); Rhizophoraceae, 4 (3.03%); and Rubiaceae, 4 (3.03%).
6
Table 1. Database of dominant coastal salt marsh and sand dune species diversity.
IUCN Plant Fidelity Use
Sl. Voucher Life Seasonal red list part(s) Mode of Total level value
No. Name of the species/Family no. Habit span Nativity availability status used administration Ailment(s) treated citation (FL) (UV)
1. Abelmoschus moschatus Medik./ USML1 H A E Aug-Dec NE Fr,Se Decoction Digestive disorder 12 48.00 0.00623
Malvaceae Nerve disorder 13 52.00
2. Acacia jacquemontii Benth./ USFA1 S P N May-Sep NE Ba,Gu,St Infusion Skin disease 15 57.69 0.00374
Fabaceae
3. Acacia senegal (L.) Willd./Fabaceae USFA2 T P N May-Nov NE Fr,Sb Infusion Skin disease 5 41.67 0.00125
4. Acanthus ilicifolius L./Acanthaceae USAC1 S P N Apr-Jul LC Wp Paste Snake bite 11 52.38 0.00274
U. K. SEN AND R. K. BHAKAT
5. Acanthus volubilis Wall./ USAC2 C P N Mar-Jul LC Se Raw Digestive disorder 2 33.33 0.00100
Acanthaceae Respiratory disorder 2 40.00
6. Achyranthes aspera L./ USAM1 H A N Sep-Feb NE Wp Juice Urinary disorder 22 52.38 0.01047
Amaranthaceae Liver disorder 20 52.63
7. Acroceras munroanum (Balansa) USPA1 H P N All NE Wp Paste Wound healing 3 37.50 0.00772
Henrard/Poaceae
8. Aegiceras corniculatum (L.) Blanco/ USPI1 T P N Mar-Aug LC Sb Decoction Analgesic 31 50.00 0.00100
Primulaceae
9. Aeluropus lagopoides (L.) Thwaites/ USPA2 H P N All LC Wp Paste Wound healing 4 44.44 0.00075
Poaceae
10. Aerva javanica (Burm.f.) Juss. ex USAM2 H P E Jul-Jan NE In,Le Paste Rheumatic disorder 31 51.67 0.00772
Schult./Amaranthaceae
11. Ageratum conyzoides (L.) L./ USAT1 H A E Nov-Mar LC Le,Ro Paste Skin disease 17 54.84 0.00424
Asteraceae
12. Alphonsea ventricosa (Roxb.) Hook.f. USAN1 T P N Mar-Sep NE Fr Boiled Digestive disorder 2 33.33 0.00125
& Thomson/Annonaceae Menstrual disorder 3 60.00
13. Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R.Br. ex USAM3 H A E Jul-Feb LC Wp Juice Digestive disorder 17 62.96 0.00897
DC./Amaranthaceae Nerve disorder 19 67.86
(Continued )
Table 1. (Continued).
14. Alysicarpus hamosus Edgew./ USFA3 H A N Nov-Jan NE Fr,Le, Decoction Antitumor 16 53.33 0.00399
Fabaceae Rb,Sb,St
15. Anacardium occidentale L./ USAA1 T P E Mar-Jun NE Fr,Le, Decoction Antitumor 17 80.95 0.00424
Anacardiaceae Rb,Sb,St
16. Aponogeton natans (L.) Engl. & K. USAP1 H P N Aug-Nov LC Le Raw Febrifuge 14 56.00 0.00349
Krause/Aponogetonaceae
17. Argemone mexicana L./ USPP1 H A E Dec-Apr NE Fr,Se Juice Skin disease 17 70.83 0.00424
Papaveraceae
18. Asparagus dumosus Baker/ USAS1 C P N Sep-May NE Rh,St Paste Digestive disorder 3 33.33 0.00125
Asparagaceae Urinary disorder 2 33.33
19. Avicennia marina subsp. australasica USAC3 T P E Mar-Jul NE Wp Juice Astringent 6 85.71 0.00150
(Walp.) J.Everett/Acanthaceae
20. Avicennia officinalis L./Acanthaceae USAC4 T P N Apr-Jul LC Ba,Fr, Paste Astringent 12 52.17 0.01146
Ro,Se Sexual disease 17 65.38
Skin disease 17 58.62
21. Azadirachta indica A. Juss./ USME1 T P N Mar-Jul LC Ba,Le Decoction Skin disease 17 60.71 0.00424
Meliaceae
22. Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst./ USPT1 H A N Sep-Jan LC Wp Infusion Immune system 10 52.63 0.00249
Plantaginaceae disorder
23. Balanites roxburghii Planch./ USZG1 T P N Dec-Jul NE Ba,Fr,Le, Paste Worm infection 18 58.06 0.00847
Zygophyllaceae Ro Wound healing 16 50.00
24. Barringtonia acutangula (L.) Gaertn./ USLE1 T P N Jan-Apr LC Fr,Le,Sb, Juice Dental problem 14 48.28 0.00872
Lecythidaceae Se,St Digestive disorder 21 55.26
(Continued )
7
8
25. Borassus flabellifer L./Arecaceae USAE1 T P E Feb-Sep NE Fr,Le,St Juice Digestive disorder 6 37.50 0.00224
Respiratory disorder 3 25.00
26. Brownlowia tersa (L.) Kosterm./ USML2 S P N Jul-Jan NT Le Paste Wound healing 2 25.00 0.00100
Malvaceae Digestive disorder 2 28.57
27. Bruguiera gymnorhiza (L.) Lam./ USRH1 T P N Jun-Oct LC Ba Juice Digestive disorder 16 55.17 0.00573
Rhizophoraceae Restorative 7 46.67

28. Bruguiera sexangula (Lour.) Poir./ USRH2 T P N Jul-Jan LC Fr, Le Paste Skin disease 17 54.84 0.00424
Rhizophoraceae
29. Bulbostylis barbata (Rottb.) C.B. USCY1 H P E Jul-Oct LC Le Decoction Digestive disorder 34 43.59 0.00847
Clarke/Cyperaceae
30. Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb./ USFA4 C P N Aug-Apr LC Le,Ro,Se Infusion Digestive disorder 16 51.61 0.00399
Fabaceae
31. Calligonum polygonoides L./ USPL1 S P N Aug-Jan NE Wp Decoction Urinary disorder 2 33.33 0.00050
Polygonaceae
32. Calophyllum inophyllum L./ USCU1 T P N Jan-Apr LC Se Oil Nerve disorder 9 47.37 0.00399
Clusiaceae Skin disease 7 58.33
33. Calotropis gigantea (L.) Dryand./ USAO1 S P E Mar-Feb NE Ba,Fl,La, Decoction Digestive disorder 16 51.61 0.00399
Apocynaceae Le,Rb,
Ro,Se,
34. Canavalia rosea (Sw.) DC./Fabaceae USFA5 C A E All NE Fl,Fr,Se Infusion Digestive disorder 17 51.52 0.00548
Rheumatic disorder 5 45.45
35. Capparis decidua (Forssk.) Edgew./ USCP1 C P N Nov-Mar LC Le,Ro,St Paste Respiratory disorder 12 52.17 0.00299
Capparaceae
36. Carissa spinarum L./Apocynaceae USAO2 T P N Mar-Oct NE Fr Raw Digestive disorder 16 51.61 0.00399
(Continued )
37. Casuarina equisetifolia L./ USCS1 T P N Apr-Oct LC St Decoction Digestive disorder 2 100.00 0.00075
Casuarinaceae Respiratory disorder 1 33.33
38. Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb.) USRU1 T P N Apr-Dec NE Ba,Fr,Se Infusion Digestive disorder 25 89.29 0.01221
Tirveng./Rubiaceae Respiratory disorder 24 63.16
39. Ceriops decandra (Griff.) W.Theob./ USRH3 T P N Apr-Oct NT Ba Juice Child birth 22 84.62 0.00548
Rhizophoraceae
40. Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C.B.Rob./ USRH4 T P N Aug-Ma. LC Ba Juice Metabolic disorder 12 92.31 0.00299
Rhizophoraceae
41. Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King USAT2 S A E Mar-Sep NE Wp Juice Digestive disorder 19 67.86 0.01346
& H.Rob./Asteraceae Diabetes 16 100.00
Worm infection 19 50.00
42. Cissus quinquangularis Chiov./ USVT1 C P N Jul-Jan NE Wp Decoction Metabolic disorder 3 50.00 0.00075
Vitaceae
43. Cocos nucifera L./Arecaceae USAE2 T P N All NE Fr,St Raw Digestive disorder 6 46.15 0.00199
Immune system 2 40.00
buster
44. Crotalaria burhia Benth./Fabaceae USFA6 S A N All NE Le,St Powder Digestive disorder 22 88.00 0.00548
45. Crotalaria medicaginea Lam./ USFA7 S A N Jan-Mar NE Wp Paste Digestive disorder 16 53.33 0.00847
Fabaceae Skin disease 18 50.00
46. Crotalaria retusa L./Fabaceae USFA8 S A N Jul-Jan NE Wp Decoction Metabolic disorder 4 44.44 0.00150
Restorative 2 50.00
47. Crotalaria verrucosa L./Fabaceae USFA9 S A N Jul-Jan NE Le,Ro Powder Metabolic disorder 16 51.61 0.00748
Restorative 14 48.28
(Continued )
9
10
48. Croton bonplandianus Baill./ USEU1 H P E All NE La,Le Decoction Wound healing 28 56.00 0.00698
Euphorbiaceae
49. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers./Poaceae USPA3 H P E All NE Wp Decoction Digestive disorder 31 93.94 0.00772
50. Cynometra iripa Kostel./Fabaceae USFA10 S A N Mar-Aug LC Le, Se,St Paste Wound healing 2 50.00 0.00050
51. Cyperus arenarius Retz./Cyperaceae USCY2 H P N Jul-Jan LC Wp Decoction Digestive disorder 12 52.17 0.00349
Urinary disorder 2 40.00

52. Cyperus rotundus L./Cyperaceae USCY3 H P E Sep-Dec LC Wp Decoction Digestive disorder 14 53.85 0.00449
And immune system 4 44.44
buster
53. Dalbergia spinosa Roxb./Fabaceae USFA11 C A N Mar-Jun NE Fr,Le,Sb Decoction Digestive disorder 5 45.45 0.00573
54. Delonix elata (L.) Gamble/Fabaceae USFA12 T P N Mar-Jul LC Le,Sb Decoction Rheumatic disorder 21 80.77 0.00523
55. Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth./ USFA13 C P N Jul-Jan LC Wp Raw Skin disease 19 67.86 0.00473
Fabaceae
56. Derris trifoliata Lour./Fabaceae USFA14 C P N Mar-Aug NE Wp Infusion Analgesic 17 54.84 0.00424
57. Desmodium dichotomum (Willd.) USFA15 H P N Aug-Jun NE Wp Infusion Analgesic 3 50.00 0.00075
DC./Fabaceae
58. Enicostema axillare (Poir. ex Lam.) A. USGN1 H A N Aug-Dec NE Wp Juice Diabetes 21 52.50 0.01072
Raynal/Gentianaceae Worm infection 22 53.66
59. Epaltes australis Less./Asteraceae USAT3 H A N Aug-Nov NE Le Infusion Digestive disorder 2 66.67 0.00772
60. Eragrostis gangetica (Roxb.) Steud./ USPA4 H P N Aug-Feb NE Wp Decoction Skin disease 19 61.29 0.00473
Poaceae
(Continued )
61. Eragrostis unioloides (Retz.) Nees ex USPA5 H P N Aug-Feb LC Wp Decoction Skin disease 26 53.06 0.00648
Steud./Poaceae
62. Erythrina variegata L./Fabaceae USFA16 T P N Mar-Jul LC Le,Sb Decoction Respiratory disorder 13 46.43 0.00673
Digestive disorder 14 48.28
63. Eucalyptus globulus Labill./ USMY1 T P E Apr-Mar NE Le Decoction Digestive disorder 8 50.00 0.00449
Myrtaceae Respiratory disorder 10 41.67
64. Euphorbia tithymaloides L./ USEU2 H P N Mar-Apr LC Wp Decoction Metabolic disorder 9 100.00 0.00224
Euphorbiaceae
65. Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L./ USCN1 H A N Jul-Feb NE Wp Decoction Respiratory disorder 15 93.75 0.00648
Convolvulaceae Sexual disease 11 84.62
66. Exacum pedunculatum L./ USGN2 H A N Oct-Dec NE Wp Decoction Digestive disorder 3 50.00 0.00075
Gentianaceae
67. Excoecaria agallocha L./ USEU3 T P N Nov-Feb LC La Juice Skin disease 20 83.33 0.00498
Euphorbiaceae
68. Fimbristylis ferruginea (L.) Vahl/ USCY4 H P N Jul-Oct LC Wp Juice Digestive disorder 32 82.05 0.00797
Cyperaceae
69. Gisekia pharnaceoides L./Gisekiaceae USGS1 C A N Jul-Aug NE Wp Juice Metabolic disorder 4 80.00 0.00199
Sexual disease 4 66.67
70. Gloriosa superba L./Colchicaceae USCO1 C P N Jul-Sep LC Le,Tu Paste Skin disease 21 84.00 0.00523
71. Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) DC./ USRT1 S P N Sep-Apr NE Le,Ro, Decoction Metabolic disorder 19 73.08 0.00897
Rutaceae Sb Child birth 17 62.96
72. Halopyrum mucronatum (L.) Stapf/ USPA6 H P N Sep-Feb NE Ro Decoction Skin disease 12 50.00 0.00299
Poaceae
(Continued )
11
12
73. Halosarcia indica (Willd.) Paul G. USAM4 S P N Oct-Mar NE Wp Powder Skin disease 19 61.29 0.00473
Wilson/Amaranthaceae
74. Heliotropium curassavicum L./ USBR1 H P E Mar-Nov LC Le,Ro Decoction Sexual disease 17 43.59 0.00424
Boraginaceae
75. Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. ex USAO3 C P N Aug-Jan NE Ro Powder Digestive disorder 11 28.95 0.00598
Schult./Apocynaceae Sexual disorder 13 81.25
76. Heritiera fomes Buch.-Ham. USML3 T P N Apr-Jul EN Gu,Le, Decoction Digestive disorder 5 17.86 0.00125
/Malvaceae Se
77. Heritiera kanikensis Majumdar & L.K. USML4 T P N Jul-Mar NE Sb,Se Boiled Skin disease 24 82.76 0.00598
Banerjee/Malvaceae
78. Heritiera littoralis Aiton/Malvaceae USML5 T P N Jul-Mar LC Ro,Se Decoction Digestive disorder 24 92.31 0.01072
79. Hibiscus tilliaceus L./Malvaceae USML6 T P N All LC Le,Ro Juice Digestive disorder 17 44.74 0.00623
80. Holigarna caustica (Dennst.) Oken/ USAA2 T P N Mar-Oct NE Ba,Fr Decoction Liver disorder 4 44.44 0.00100
Anacardiaceae
81. Hydrophylax maritima L.f./Rubiaceae USRU2 H A N Mar-Jun NE Wp Decoction Skin disease 28 51.85 0.00698
82. Intsia bijuga (Colebr.) Kuntze/ USFA17 T P N Jun-Dec VU Ba Paste Digestive disorder 1 50.00 0.00299
Fabaceae Rheumatic 9 47.37
83. Ipomoea pes-caprae (L.) R. Br./ USCN2 C P N Oct-Jul NE Le,Ro Decoction Sexual disease 8 72.73 0.00199
Convolvulaceae
84. Jatropha gossypiifolia L./ USEU4 S P E Apr-Aug NE La,Le,Se Decoction Respiratory disorder 4 44.44 0.00100
Euphorbiaceae
(Continued )
85. Kandelia candel (L.) Druce/ USRH5 T P N Jan-Aug LC Le,Sb Decoction Diabetes 8 72.73 0.00199
Rhizophoraceae
86. Launaea sarmentosa (Willd.) Sch.Bip. USAT4 H A N Jun-Sep NE Wp Juice Rheumatic disorder 20 48.78 0.00498
ex Kuntze/Asteraceae
87. Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link/ USLM1 H A N Sep-Jan LC Wp Juice Skin disease 19 48.72 0.00473
Lamiaceae
88. Leucas diffusa Benth./Lamiaceae USLM2 H A N Oct-Dec LC Wp Juice Skin disease 31 51.67 0.00772
89. Limnophila indica (L.) Druce/ USPT2 H A N Sep-Dec LC Wp Juice Digestive disorder 3 50.00 0.00075
Plantaginaceae
90. Lindernia anagallis (Burm.f.) USLI1 H A N Jul-Dec LC Wp Juice Digestive disorder 2 50.00 0.00050
Pennell/Linderniaceae
91. Litsea nitida (Roxb.) Hook. f./ USLA1 T P N May-Feb NE Sb,Le,Fr Juice Metabolic disorder 3 42.86 0.00648
Lauraceae Immune system 23 79.31
disorder
92. Merope angulata Swingle/Rutaceae USRT2 S P N Apr- Jul NE Ro Decoction Skin disease 24 77.42 0.00598
93. Mimosa pudica L./Fabaceae USFA18 H P E Jul-Nov LC Le,Ro Juice Child birth 20 48.78 0.00972
94. Mucuna gigantea (Willd.) DC./ USFA19 C A N Dec-Mar NE Ro,Sb, Powder Sexual disease 3 50.00 0.00174
Fabaceae Se Immune system 4 50.00
disorder
95. Myriophyllum indicum Willd./ USHA1 H P N May-Sep LC Ro Raw Digestive disorder 3 33.33 0.00075
Haloragaceae
96. Nicotiana plumbaginifolia Viv./ USSO1 H A E May-Sep NE Le Juice Skin disease 24 85.71 0.00598
Solanaceae
(Continued )
13
14
97. Nypa fruticans Wurmb/Arecaceae USAE3 S P N Apr-Jul LC St Raw Sexual disease 2 50.00 0.00100
Insect bite 2 66.67
98. Ochthochloa compressa (Forssk.) USPA7 H A N Jul-Feb NE Wp Paste Skin disease 24 55.81 0.00673
Hilu/Poaceae Wound healing 3 50.00
99. Oldenlandia tenelliflora (Blume) USRU3 H A N Apr-Nov NE Wp Decoction Liver disorder 2 50.00 0.00050
Kuntze/Rubiaceae
100. Opuntia stricta (Haw.) Haw./ USCC3 S P E Apr-Aug LC Fr Raw Diabetes 7 46.67 0.00174
Cactaceae
101. Opuntia dillenii (Ker Gawl.) Haw./ USCC1 S P N Aug-Nov LC Wp Pulp Digestive disorder 27 52.94 0.01121
Cactaceae Rheumatic disorder 18 52.94
102. Opuntia monacantha (Willd.) Haw./ USCC2 S P E Apr-Aug LC Wp Pulp Digestive disorder 32 62.75 0.01271
Cactaceae Rheumatic disorder 19 59.38
103. Pandanus odorifer (Forssk.) Kuntze/ USPN1 S P N Jul-May LC Fl,Le,Ro Juice Urinary disorder 27 77.14 0.00673
Pandanaceae
104. Pandanus tectorius Parkinson ex Du USPN2 S P N Jul-Nov NE Fl,Le,Ro Juice Urinary disorder 23 71.88 0.00573
Roi/Pandanaceae
105. Panicum turgidum Forssk./Poaceae USPA8 H P N Jul-Feb NE Wp Raw Digestive disorder 17 48.57 0.00424
106. Parthenium hysterophorus L./ USAT5 H A E All NE Wp Decoction Metabolic 14 35.90 0.00797
Asteraceae Nerve disorder 11 47.83
107. Pedalium murex L./Pedaliaceae USPD1 H A E Sep-Dec NE Fr,Le Juice Restorative 24 57.14 0.01146
108. Phoenix paludosa Roxb./Arecaceae USAE4 S P N Apr-Jul NT Fr Raw Nerve disorder 21 48.84 0.00523
(Continued )
109. Phoenix sylvestris (L.) Roxb./ USAE5 T P N Feb-Jun NE Fr Raw Restorative 47 69.12 0.01171
Arecaceae
110. Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex USPA9 H P N Jul-Oct LC Ro Juice Urinary disorder 15 50.00 0.00374
Steud./Poaceae
111. Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene/ USVR1 H P N Sep-Mar LC Wp Juice Child birth 32 91.43 0.01246
Verbenaceae Wound healing 18 51.43
112. Pluchea lanceolata (DC.) C.B.Clarke/ USAT6 H P E Aug-Oct NE Le,Ro Paste Child birth 19 48.72 0.00473
Asteraceae
113. Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre/ USFA20 T P N Apr-Feb LC Ba,Fl,Le, Juice Skin disease 28 96.55 0.00698
Fabaceae Ro,Se
114. Porteresia coarctata (Roxb.) Tateoka/ USPA10 H A N Oct-Dec DD Wp Juice Digestive disorder 31 65.96 0.00772
Poaceae
115. Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce/ USFA21 T P E Apr-Feb NE Fr,Le, Decoction Child birth 21 48.84 0.01570
Fabaceae Rb,Sb,St Dental problem 42 51.85
116. Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC./Fabaceae USFA22 T P E Apr-Feb NE Fr,Le, Decoction Child birth 22 47.83 0.01570
Rb,Sb,St Dental problem 41 64.06
117. Rhizophora apiculata Blume/ USRH6 T P N Apr-Jul LC Sb Infusion Astringent 16 45.71 0.00997
118. Rhizophora mucronata Lam./ USRH7 T P N Apr-Jul LC Sb Infusion Astringent 18 51.43 0.01072
119. Rhynchosia minima (L.) DC./ USFA23 C P N Sep-Feb. LC Fr,Rb Paste Digestive disorder 31 96.88 0.00772
Fabaceae
120. Ricinus communis L./Euphorbiaceae USEU5 S P E Jan-Apr NE Fl,Le,Ro, Paste Digestive disorder 21 58.33 0.01595
Se Rheumatic disorder 43 66.15
(Continued )
15
16
121. Rothia indica (L.) Druce/Fabaceae USFA24 H A N Aug-Feb NE Wp Vegetable Restorative 19 73.08 0.00473
122. Rumex dentatus L./Polygonaceae USPL2 H A N Feb-Apr LC Wp Decoction Skin disease 35 89.74 0.00872
123. Ruppia maritima L./Ruppiaceae USRP1 H P E Apr-Nov LC Wp Decoction Skin disease 41 56.94 0.01022
124. Saccharum spontaneum L./Poaceae USPA11 H P E Aug-Nov LC Le,Ro Juice Sexual disease 17 43.59 0.00424
125. Salacia chinensis L./Celastraceae USCL1 C P N Feb-Ap. NE Ro Decoction Sexual disease 19 50.00 0.00473
126. Salsola kali L./Amaranthaceae USAM5 H A N Jul-Aug NE Wp Decoction Digestive disorder 42 46.15 0.01047
127. Salvadora oleoides Decne./ USSL1 T P N Aug-Dec NE Fr Decoction Digestive disorder 36 66.67 0.00897
Salvadoraceae
128. Salvadora persica L./Salvadoraceae USSL2 S P N Aug-Dec NE Fr Decoction Digestive disorder 34 55.74 0.00847
129. Sarcolobus globosus Wall./ USAO4 C P N Jun-Sep NE Se Paste Antitumor 16 48.48 0.00399
Apocynaceae
130. Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb./ USFA25 S P E Mar-Aug NE Ro Decoction Sexual disease 26 50.98 0.01072
Fabaceae Urinary disorder 17 51.52
131. Senna occidentalis (L.) Link/ USFA26 S P E Aug-Dec NE Le,Ro, Decoction Diabetes 31 53.45 0.01470
Fabaceae Sb Digestive disorder 28 54.90
132. Sericostoma pauciflorum Stocks ex USBR2 S P N All NE Ro,Sb Decoction Child birth 29 54.72 0.01570
Wight/Boraginaceae Digestive disorder 34 57.63
133. Sesuvium portulacastrum (L.) L./ USAZ1 H P N Dec-Aug NE Wp Juice Digestive disorder 22 52.38 0.00548
Aizoaceae
134. Sida cordifolia L./Malvaceae USML7 S A N Aug-Dec NE Le,Ro Decoction Digestive disorder 31 63.27 0.01296
135. Sida ovata Forssk./Malvaceae USML8 S A E Jul-Feb NE Le,Fr Paste Skin disease 25 54.35 0.00623
136. Sonneratia alba Sm./Lythraceae USLT1 T P N May-Aug LC Fl,Fr,Sb Decoction Respiratory disorder 32 66.67 0.01221
Wound healing 17 35.42
(Continued )
137. Sonneratia apetala Buch.-Ham. USLT2 T P N Feb-Nov LC Sb Decoction Digestive disorder 15 50.00 0.00374
/Lythraceae
138. Sonneratia griffithii Kurz/Lythraceae USLT3 S P N Feb-Jul CR Sb Decoction Digestive disorder 39 54.93 0.00972
139. Spermacoce articularis L.f./Rubiaceae USRU4 H A N Jul-Dec NE Ro Juice Liver disorder 35 47.95 0.00872
140. Spinifex littoreus (Burm.f.) Merr./ USPA12 H P N Aug-Jul NE Ro Juice Digestive disorder 41 53.95 0.01022
Poaceae
141. Stictocardia tiliifolia (Desr.) Hallier f./ USCN3 C P N Oct-Jan LC Wp Juice Restorative 11 50.00 0.00274
Convolvulaceae
142. Suaeda maritima (L.) Dumort./ USAM6 H A N Jul-Oct NE Le Decoction Febrifuge 12 41.38 0.00299
Amaranthaceae
143. Suaeda monoica Forssk. ex J.F. USAM7 H A N Apr-Jul NE Wp Paste Wound healing 32 52.46 0.00797
Gmel./Amaranthaceae
144. Tamarix aphylla (L.) H.Karst./ USTM1 T P N May-Dec NE Sb Paste Skin disease 21 51.22 0.00523
Tamaricaceae
145. Tamarix indica Willd./Tamaricaceae USTM2 T P N Mar-Aug NE Wp Juice Liver disorder 31 79.49 0.00772
146. Tecomella undulata (Sm.) Seem./ USBG1 T P N Feb-Apr NE Sb Decoction Sexual disease 5 26.32 0.00125
Bignoniaceae
147. Tephrosia maxima (L.) Pers./ USFA27 H P E Sep-Nov NE Wp Paste Skin disease 19 65.52 0.00473
Fabaceae
148. Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers./ USFA28 H P N Sep-Dec LC Wp Decoction Digestive disorder 41 69.49 0.01470
Fabaceae Urinary disorder 18 52.94
149. Tephrosia villosa (L.) Pers./Fabaceae USFA29 H P N Jul-Oct LC Le,Ro,Se Decoction Digestive disorder 8 44.44 0.00523
150. Terminalia catappa L./ USCB1 T P N Apr-Feb NE Fr,Le,Sb Decoction Digestive disorder 28 54.90 0.00698
Combretaceae
(Continued )
17
18
151. Thespesia populnea (L.) Sol. ex USML9 T P N Aug-Jan LC Le,Ro Paste Rheumatic disorder 39 47.56 0.01395
Corrêa/Malvaceae Skin diseases 17 56.67
152. Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam./Rutaceae USRT3 C P N Sep-Mar NE Wp Juice Liver disorder 33 55.00 0.01296
153. Tribulus terrestris L./Zygophyllaceae USZG2 C A N Feb-Sep LC Fr,Le Juice Restorative 48 73.85 0.01196
154. Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq./ USML10 S A N Aug-Jan NE Fl,Le,Ro, Decoction Digestive disorder 31 50.00 0.01321
Malvaceae Sb Sexual disease 22 48.89
155. Tylophora flexuosa R. Br./ USAO5 C P N Apr-Nov NE Le Juice Urinary disorder 32 48.48 0.01470
Apocynaceae Snake bite 27 45.76
156. Vachellia tortilis (Forssk.) Galasso USFA30 T P E May-Aug NE Fr,Sb Infusion Skin disease 21 46.67 0.00523
and Banfi/Fabaceae
157. Vitex negundo L./Lamiaceae USLM3 T P N Mar-Jan NE Wp Infusion Respiratory disorder 28 51.85 0.00698
158. Volkameria inermis L./Lamiaceae USLM4 S P N Nov-Jan NE Le Infusion Febrifuge 47 58.75 0.01171
159. Xylocarpus granatum J.Koenig/ USME2 T P N Apr-Jul LC Ba,Fr,Se Decoction Digestive disorder 12 33.33 0.00299
Meliaceae
160. Ziziphus jujuba Mill./Rhamnaceae USRA1 T P E Sep-Mar LC Fr,Le,Ro, Decoction Digestive disorder 19 54.29 0.00698
Sb,Se,St Immune system 9 50.00
buster
161. Ziziphus nummularia (Burm.f.) Wight USRA2 S P E FebApr NE Fr,Le,Ro, Decoction Digestive disorder 16 44.44 0.00573
and Arn./Rhamnaceae Sb Immune system 7 33.33
buster
162. Zornia diphylla (L.) Pers./Fabaceae USFA31 H A N Aug-Feb NE Le Decoction Skin disease 47 58.02 0.01171
Abbreviations:
Habit:C, climber; H, herb; S, shrub; T, tree.
Life span: A, annual; B, biennial; P, perennial.
Nativity: E, exotic; N, native.
Flowering and Fruiting time: All, all seasons.
IUCN status:CR, critically endangered; DD, data deficient; EN, endangered; LC, least concern; NE, not evaluated,;NT, near threatened; VU, vulnerable.
Plant part(s) used: Ba, bark; Fl, flower; Fr, fruit; Gu, gum, In, inflorescence; La, latex; Le, leaf; Rb, root bark,; Rh, rhizome; Ro, root; Sb, stem bark; Se, seed; St, stem; Tu, tuber; Wp,
whole plant.
The six well-represented genera were Crotalaria (4 species), Ceriops (3

species), Heritiera (3 species), Opuntia (3 species), Sonneratia (3 species), and
Tephrosia (3 species). Acacia, Acanthus, Avicennia, Bruguiera, Cyperus,
Derris, Eragrostis, Leucas, Pandanus, Phoenix, Prosopis, Rhizophora,
Salvadora, Senna, Sida, Suaeda, Tamarix, and Ziziphus were the 18 well-
represented genera with 2 species. There was only one species in another 107
genera (Table 1). In all, 125 (77.16%) species were native, while 37 (22.84%)
species were exotic (Table 1).
Species Diversity in Different Growth Form

The current floristic study showed that it had a total of 162 plant species
[dicots 135 (83.34%) and monocots 27 (16.66%)] of the genera 132 [dicots
109 (82.58%) and monocots 23 (17.42%)] of 52 families [dicots 44 (84.62%)
and monocots 8 (15.38%)] under 28 orders [dicots 22 (78.57%) and mono-
cots 6 (21.43%)]. Of the reported species, 59 (36.42%) were herbs. Other
species reported were 33 shrubs (20.37%), 49 trees (30.25%), and 21 climbers
(12.96%). Among the total dicots 135 (83.34%) and monocots 27 (16.66%),
herbs, shrubs, trees, and climbers represented 41, 29, 46, 19 and 18, 4, 3, 2
species, respectively, representing 25.31%, 17.90%, 28.40%, 11.73% and
11.12%, 2.46%, 1.85%, 1.23% of the total species (Table 2).
Life Span
In the study area, in one growing season, 44 (27.16%) annual plants would go
through their life cycle, whereas 118 (72.84%) perennial plants could survive
the most unfavorable conditions and could stay alive for more than 2 years
(Table 2).
Plant Part(s) Used

All part(s) of various plant species were used against different ailments. The
most utilized plant parts were leaves 58 (20.35%), followed by whole plant 53
(18.60%), root 37 (12.98%), fruit 35 (12.28%), stem bark 29 (10.18%), seed 22
(7.72%), stem 15 (5.26%), all types of bark 13 (4.56%), flower 8 (2.81%), root
bark 6 (2.11%), latex 4 (1.40%), gum 2 (0.70%), inflorescence 1 (0.35%),
rhizome 1 (0.35%), and tuber 1 (0.35%), respectively (Table 1).
Preparation and Administration

The main method of preparation was the use of the intact plant decoction 62
(38.27%), followed by juice 39 (24.07%), paste 25 (15.43%), infusion 14
(8.64%), raw 11 (6.79%), powder 5 (3.09%), boiled 2 (1.23%), pulp 2
20
Table 2. ICF values of use category of multiple plants claimed as having medicinal values by informants of the ethnic communities.
Sl. Number of plant Number of % of all ICF
No. Use category Plant species with citation species used use citation citations value
1. Analgesic Aegiceras corniculatum[6], Derris trifoliata[4], Desmodium dichotomum[11] 03 51 1.27 0.96
Q5 2. Antitumor Alysicarpus hamosus[1�], Anacardium occidentale[4], Sarcolobus globosus[1] 03 49 1.22 0.96
3. Astringent Avicennia marina subsp. australasica[8], Avicennia officinalis[28], Rhizophora apiculata[1], Rhizophora 04 52 1.30 0.94
mucronata[20]
4. Child birth Ceriops decandra[14], Glycosmis pentaphylla[4], Mimosa pudica[29], Phyla nodiflora[30], Pluchea 08 182 4.54 0.96
lanceolata[31], Prosopis cineraria[32], Prosopis juliflora[14], Sericostoma pauciflorum[12]
5. Dental problems Barringtonia acutangula[2], Prosopis cineraria[33], Prosopis juliflora[34] 03 97 2.42 0.98
6. Diabetes Chromolaena odorata[1], Enicostema axillare[32], Kandelia candel[35], Opuntia stricta[36], Senna 05 83 2.07 0.95
occidentalis[6]
7. Digestive disorder Abelmoschus moschatus[28], Acanthus volubilis[26], Alphonsea ventricosa[26], Alternanthera sessilis[4], 60 1093 27.24 0.95
Asparagus dumosus[11], Barringtonia acutangula[32], Borassus flabellifer[8], Brownlowia tersa[26],
Bruguiera gymnorhiza[1], Bulbostylis barbata[17], Caesalpinia bonduc[1], Calotropis gigantea[1],
Canavalia rosea[4], Carissa spinarum[1], Casuarina equisetifolia[26], Catunaregam spinosa[37],
Chromolaena odorata[31], Cocos nucifera[8], Crotalaria burhia[14], Crotalaria medicaginea[1], Cynodon
dactylon[6], Cyperus arenarius[28], Cyperus rotundus[2], Dalbergia spinosa[15], Epaltes australis[26],
Erythrina variegata[2], Eucalyptus globulus[35], Exacum pedunculatum[11], Fimbristylis ferruginea[30],
Hemidesmus indicus[38], Heritiera fomes[15], Heritiera littoralis[39], Hibiscus tilliaceus[4], Intsia bijuga[27],
Limnophila indica[11], Lindernia anagallis[26], Myriophyllum indicum[11], Opuntia dillenii[3], Opuntia
monacantha[30], Panicum turgidum[4], Porteresia coarctata[6], Rhynchosia minima[6], Ricinus
communis[32], Salsola kali[33], Salvadora oleoides[23], Salvadora persica[17], Senna occidentalis[21],
Sericostoma pauciflorum[17], Sesuvium portulacastrum[14], Sida cordifolia[6], Sonneratia apetala[40],
Sonneratia griffithii[13], Spinifex littoreus[34], Tephrosia purpurea[34], Tephrosia villosa[35], Terminalia
catappa[21], Triumfetta rhomboidea[6], Xylocarpus granatum[28], Ziziphus jujuba[31], Ziziphus
nummularia[1]
8. Febrifuge Aponogeton natans[2], Suaeda maritima[28], Volkameria inermis[41] 03 73 1.82 0.97
9. Immune system Bacopa monnieri[42], Cocos nucifera[26], Cyperus rotundus[43], Litsea nitida[22], Mucuna gigantea[43], 07 59 1.47 0.90
disorder/buster Ziziphus jujuba[44], Ziziphus nummularia[36]
10. Insect bite Nypa fruticans[26] 01 2 0.05 1.00
(Continued )
11. Liver disorder Achyranthes aspera[29], Holigarna caustica[43], Oldenlandia tenelliflora[26], Spermacoce articularis[9], 06 125 3.11 0.96
Tamarix indica[6], Toddalia asiatica[7]
12. Menstrual Alphonsea ventricosa[11] 01 3 0.07 1.00
disorder
13. Metabolic Ceriops tagal[28], Cissus quinquangularis[11], Crotalaria retusa[43], Crotalaria verrucosa[1], Euphorbia 09 84 2.09 0.90
disorder tithymaloides[44], Gisekia pharnaceoides[43], Glycosmis pentaphylla[31], Litsea nitida[11], Parthenium
hysterophorus[2]
14. Nerve disorder Abelmoschus moschatus[45], Alternanthera sessilis[31], Calophyllum inophyllum[44], Parthenium 05 73 1.82 0.94
hysterophorus[38], Phoenix paludosa[32]
15. Respiratory Acanthus volubilis[26], Borassus flabellifer[11], Capparis decidua[28], Casuarina equisetifolia[27], 11 144 3.59 0.93
disorder Catunaregam spinosa[39], Erythrina variegata[45], Eucalyptus globulus[42], Evolvulus alsinoides[40],
Jatropha gossypiifolia[43], Sonneratia alba[30], Vitex negundo[21]
16. Restorative Bruguiera gymnorhiza[36], Crotalaria retusa[26], Crotalaria verrucosa[2], Pedalium murex[39], Phoenix 10 221 5.51 0.96
sylvestris[41], Rhizophora apiculata[39], Rhizophora mucronata[37], Rothia indica[31], Stictocardia
tiliifolia[38], Tribulus terrestris[46]
17. Rheumatic Aerva javanica[6], Canavalia rosea[15], Delonix elata[32], Hibiscus tilliaceus[35], Intsia bijuga[44], Launaea 11 232 5.78 0.96
disorder sarmentosa[29], Opuntia dillenii[20], Opuntia monacantha[31], Ricinus communis[16], Thespesia
populnea[13], Toddalia asiatica[31]
18. Sexual disease Avicennia officinalis[4], Evolvulus alsinoides[38], Gisekia pharnaceoides[43], Heliotropium curassavicum[4], 15 204 5.08 0.93
Hemidesmus indicus[45], Ipomoea pes-caprae[35], Mimosa pudica[31], Mucuna gigantea[11], Nypa
fruticans[26], Saccharum spontaneum[4], Salacia chinensis[31], Senna auriculata[47], Sida cordifolia[32],
Tecomella undulata[15], Triumfetta rhomboidea[14]
(Continued )
21
22
19. Skin disease Acacia jacquemontii[40], Acacia senegal[15], Ageratum conyzoides[4], Argemone mexicana[4], Avicennia 36 782 19.49 0.96
officinalis[4], Azadirachta indica[4], Bruguiera sexangula[4], Calophyllum inophyllum[36], Crotalaria
medicaginea[20], Dalbergia spinosa[20], Derris scandens[31], Epaltes australis[12], Eragrostis gangetica[31],

Eragrostis unioloides[47], Excoecaria agallocha[29], Gloriosa superba[32], Halopyrum mucronatum[28],
Halosarcia indica[31], Heritiera kanikensis[39], Heritiera littoralis[31], Hydrophylax maritima[21], Leucas
aspera[31], Leucas diffusa[6], Merope angulata[39], Nicotiana plumbaginifolia[39], Ochthochloa
compressa[39], Pedalium murex[14], Pongamia pinnata[21], Rumex dentatus[9], Ruppia maritima[34], Sida
ovata[37], Tamarix aphylla[32], Tephrosia maxima[31], Thespesia populnea[4], Vachellia tortilis[32], Zornia
diphylla[41]
20. Snake bite Acanthus ilicifolius[38], Tylophora flexuosa[3] 02 38 0.95 0.97
21. Urinary disorder Achyranthes aspera[14], Asparagus dumosus[26], Calligonum polygonoides[26], Cyperus arenarius[26], 13 182 4.54 0.93
Intsia bijuga[26], Pandanus odorifer[3], Pandanus tectorius[22], Parthenium hysterophorus[36], Phragmites
karka[40], Senna auriculata[4], Tephrosia purpurea[20], Tephrosia villosa[45], Tylophora flexuosa[30]
22. Worm infection Balanites roxburghii[20], Chromolaena odorata[31], Enicostema axillare[14] 03 59 1.47 0.97
23. Wound healing Acroceras munroanum[11], Aeluropus lagopoides[43], Balanites roxburghii[1], Brownlowia tersa[26], Croton 10 125 3.11 0.93
bonplandianus[21], Cynometra iripa[26], Ochthochloa compressa[11], Phyla nodiflora[20], Sonneratia
alba[4], Suaeda monoica[30]
ICF: informant consensus factor.
(1.23%), and while oil and vegetable were the least used 1 (0.62%) (Table 2).
More than 66% of the plants were used fresh, while 34% were subjected to
heat before use.
Fidelity Level
The FL of plant species ranged from 17.86% to 100% (Table 1). In general,
high FL of a species indicated the prevalence of a specific disease in an area
and the utilization of plant species by the inhabitants to treat it.[48] Casuarina
equisetifolia, Chromolaena odorata, and Euphorbia tithymaloides depicted
100% FL against digestive, diabetes, and metabolic disorder, respectively
(Table 2).
Ailments Treated and ICF

In order to calculate the ICF, plants were grouped into 23 distinct groups
based on the use citations by informants and other end users (Table 1). In
this research, the ICF values ranged from 1.00 for insect bite and menstrual
disorder and 0.90 for immune system disorder/buster and metabolic disor-
der. Thus, all clusters had an ICF value >0.9, and therefore all of them could
be considered bioactive.
The largest number of plant species was used for digestive disorder
therapy (60 species, 27.24%), followed by skin disease (36 species, 19.49%),
rheumatic disorder (11 species, 5.78%), restorative disorder (10 species,
5.51%), sexual disease (15 species, 5.08%), child birth (8 species, 4.54%),
urinary disorder (13 species, 4.54%), respiratory disorder (11 species,
3.59%), wound healing (10 species, 3.11%), liver disorder (6 species,
3.11%), dental problems (3 species, 2.42%), metabolic disorder (9 species,
2.09%), diabetes (5 species, 2.07%), nerve disorder (5 species, 1.82%), febri-
fuge (3 species, 1.82%), immune system disorder/buster (7 species, 1.47%),
worm infection (3 species, 1.47%), astringent (4 species, 1.30%), analgesic (3
species, 1.27%), antitumor (3 species, 1.22%), snake bite (2 species, 0.95%),
menstrual disorder (1 species, 0.07%), and insect bite (1 species, 0.05%)
(Table 2).
Use Value
In this study, UV ranged from 0.01595 to 0.00050. High UV was noted in
Ricinus communis (0.01595), whereas Calligonum polygonoides, Cynometra
iripa, Lindernia anagallis, and Oldenlandia tenelliflora had lower use value
(0.00050) (Table 2). Greater UV plants were also frequently used in other
areas of India. Plants with high UVs showed that informants considered
these plants to be very essential.
Discussion
Previous studies had documented indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants
and medicinal plant practices used in other parts of India and by other ethnic
groups.[10,44] This study complemented existing studies and extended them
to sand dune and salt marsh areas where the ecology, practices, biodiversity,
accessibility, and cultural acceptability of medicinal plants were different
from the other regions. The previous studies and this study captured
a wide range of different ethnic and social groups, reflecting the richness of
knowledge in use of plants for medicinal purposes, and the significance and
cultural acceptability of plant-based medicinal practice in large parts of India.
At the same time, this indicated that plant diversity and use of plant-based
remedies remained decisive for managing human health in
countries[9,28,29,35–37,39,41–45,49,50]
In this study, a total of 162 species belonging to 132 genera distributed
among 52 families of 28 orders were recorded from the study area. The nine
well-represented families (≥5 species) were Fabaceae, Poaceae, Malvaceae,
Amaranthaceae, Rhizophoraceae, Asteraceae, Apocynaceae, Arecaceae, and
Euphorbiaceae in descending array. A similar dominant family distribution
was reported earlier.[10]
In some cases, more than one plant organ of the same species, especially
a combination of leaves and stems, were used in the preparation of remedies.
The fact that leaves were the most frequently used part corresponds to
similar results reported in studies in Asia[9,36,39,43–45,49,50] and other parts of
the world.[28,35,37,42,51] Leaves were commonly used for the preparation of
herbal medicines due to the likely presence of active compounds and com-
parative ease of phytochemical and pharmacological studies compared to
other parts.[51] It was also observed that residents identified the plants from
their leaves. Additionally, leaves were the main photosynthetic organs in
plants, and photosynthates were translocated to other parts, such as the
roots, bark, fruits, and seeds. These might act as toxins for protection against
predators and some were of medicinal value to humans. It was noted that
leaves were active in food and metabolite production.[31] The utilization of
the underground organs, both roots and rhizomes, was less widespread,
whereas aerial organs were highly used. Roots were the second most fre-
quently used plant part by healers, likely due to their higher concentration of
bioactive compounds than other plant parts.[32,41] Inhabitants of dry coastal
sand regions tended to focus their attention on plant parts that were con-
tinuously available, such as bark or roots because plants in such areas may be
regularly exposed to long periods of drought and thus lost their leaves.
However, the use of roots was more damaging to the plant itself, than
when the leaves from branches were used.
Both internal and external methods of administration were used to cure

ailments.[30,32,46,52] The advantage of external application was that it was safe
because it resulted in indirect yet immediate local effects on the area and
allowed for easier regulation of dosages depending on the concentrations of
beneficial or toxic compounds.
Most of the plants with high FL values had pharmacological effects that
had been proven scientifically. The lowest FL 17.86% (Heritiera fomes)
indicated less-preferred species for treating digestive disorder. This species
was mainly found in the estuary region of the Rasulpur river and new
distribution report in East Midnapore district. However, these plants had
been widely used against several diseases. There were 63 plants that were
used against two or more diseases, and 99 plants used to cure a single
ailment. High ICFs and FLs suggested that the plant might contain valuable
physiochemical compounds. These traditional or local medicines, handed
down despite their traditional background had high ICFs and FLs because
of their efficacy and safety.
The ICF findings could be helpful in prioritizing medicinal plants for
further scientific validation,[34,53] and products from plants with greater
ICF values were anticipated to be pharmacologically efficient
remedies.[40,54] Documentation of inherently wealthy traditional ethnome-
dicinal knowledge based on ICF values had given useful data on new
pharmacological aspects for improving human healthcare in many
diseases[54], as well as helping to preserve and manage locally endangered,
gradually disappearing, significant ethnomedicinal plant species. If validated,
the claim for medicinal plants used for human ailments in traditional med-
icine could provide fresh applications. However, none were below 0.9, typi-
cally resulting from plant use in the treatment of rare diseases,[55] indicating
that the plant species were frequently used in the study region.
In addition, the largest number of plant species were recorded for treating
digestive disorders and skin disease, while the smallest number of medicinal
plant species were recorded for treating menstrual disorder and insect bites
(Table 2). This indicated that the health issues of humans in the locality were
probably digestive disorders, and skin disease and these issues may be due to
poor hygiene, shared use of common water resources, and zoonotic parasite
infection that increased illnesses borne by vectors.
The indigenous people used medicinal plants not only for treatment of
human ailments but also used them in their diets as vegetables, and thus
evaluation of the nutritional, pharmacological, toxicological and clinical
studies may be helpful in wider application.[38] The study revealed that
most plants reported in this study were wild. There was a lack of conserva-
tion strategies in the area which may be addressed by conservation strategies.
The species with greater UV may be further explored for the future devel-
opment of fresh herbal drugs for phytochemical screening.[47]
Acknowledgments
Special thanks to all informants who generously shared their knowledge of local plants and
traditional medicinal uses. We are grateful for the proper identification of plant species by
Dr. G. G. Maity, ex-professor at Kalyani University. We would like to thank the anonymous
reviewers for reading our manuscript carefully and for their many insightful comments and
suggestions.
Conflicts of interest
None.
ORCID
Uday Kumar Sen http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1901-3069
Ram Kumar Bhakat http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5248-9229
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Assessment of Psammophytic Medicinal Plant Diversity Used

Article in Journal of Herbs Spices & Medicinal Plants · December 2019

Uday Kumar Sen

medicinal plant View project

Community based biodiversity conservation View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Assessment of Psammophytic Medicinal Plant Diversity

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Materials and Methods

Participant Selection, Interviewing Process, and Data Collection

Informant Consensus Factor (ICF)

Use Value (UV) for One Species

Different Plant Taxa

Rhizophoraceae Restorative 7 46.67

Urinary disorder 2 40.00

Se Rheumatic disorder 43 66.15

The six well-represented genera were Crotalaria (4 species), Ceriops (3

Species Diversity in Different Growth Form

Plant Part(s) Used

Preparation and Administration

medicaginea[20], Dalbergia spinosa[20], Derris scandens[31], Epaltes australis[12], Eragrostis gangetica[31],

Ailments Treated and ICF

Both internal and external methods of administration were used to cure

[31] Ghorbani, A.;. Studies on Pharmaceutical Ethnobotany in the Region of Turkmen

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