Vol 19 No 4 April 2020

IJLTER.
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International Journal
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Educational Research
p-ISSN: 1694-2493
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Vol.19 No.4
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
(IJLTER)
Vol. 19, No. 4 (April 2020)
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VOLUME 19 NUMBER 4 April 2020
Table of Contents
Addressing Domestic Abuse and Violence via a Non-Formal Environment Seen as a Pedagogical Tool at
University ................................................................................................................................................................................ 1
Ivanna I. Parfanovich, Andrii Ya. Parfanovich, Vitalii G. Panok, Larysa V. Zdanevych and Liudmila I. Romanovska
Towards De-Colonial Agitations in University Classrooms: The Quest for Afrocentric Pedagogy .......................... 14
Bunmi Isaiah Omodan and Bekithemba Dube
Restructuring the Teacher Education System in Vietnam ............................................................................................... 29

Quang Hong Pham and Nam Danh Nguyen
Factors Influencing the Sustainability of Quality Performance from the Viewpoint of Teaching Staff: An Applied
Study at the University of Petra .......................................................................................................................................... 44
Maram Fouad Abu Al-Nadi and Dina Mohamed Said Qarashay
Teachers’ Instructional Components of Warm-up Rehearsal in Elementary School Chorus in South Korea .......... 62
Seungyoun Hong
Intercultural Competence Development of German Nursing Personnel via Advanced Training Projects .............. 78
Natalya Bidyuk, Halyna Oleskova and Vitaliy Tretko
Comparative Study on the Use of the Educational Resources of PeruEduca by Teachers from Arequipa and
Moquegua .............................................................................................................................................................................. 94
Anyela Bejarano, Steve Pareja, Marco Córdova, Teresa Ramos-Quispe, Antonio Silva Sprock and Klinge Orlando Villalba-
Condori
Leadership Types and Digital Leadership in Higher Education: Behavioural Data Analysis from University of
Patras in Greece ................................................................................................................................................................... 110
Hera Antonopoulou, Constantinos Halkiopoulos, Olympia Barlou and Grigorios N. Beligiannis
Formation of Lifelong Learning Competences in the Process of Professional Training of Future Lawyers........... 130
Uliana Z. Koruts, Valerii P. Petkov, Ehor S. Nazymko, Tetiana A. Denysova and Uliana M. Oliinyk
Strategies for Facilitating Listening Skills among Foreign Language Learners in US Universities ......................... 150
Dishari Chattaraj
The Effectiveness of Using Three-Dimensional Visualization Tools to Improve Students’ Understanding of
Medicinal Chemistry and Advanced Drug Design Concepts ....................................................................................... 170
Heba ِAbdel-Halim
Probing the Differences Caused by Cognitive Variables on LET Performance: An Embedded Mixed Method
Study..................................................................................................................................................................................... 188
Michael B. Cahapay
Cognitive Domain Performance for Non-Laboratory Embedded and Laboratory Embedded Course .................. 206
Rohaya Alias, Noraida Mohd Saim, Nur Asmaliza Mohd Noor and Siti Hawa Rosli
A Correspondence Analysis of Fifty-Five Japanese Historical First-to Fifth-Year English-as-a-Foreign-Language

Textbooks ............................................................................................................................................................................. 223
Tomoo Asai, Ryohei Honda, Kiyomi Watanabe and Toshiaki Ozasa
The Place of Creativity in EFL Omani Syllabus: A Content Analysis of Grade 12 Students’ and Teachers’ Books
............................................................................................................................................................................................... 248
Mariam Said Al Jabri, Fawzia Al Seyabi, Salma Al Humaidi and Abdulhamid Hasan
An Analysis of Higher-Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) in the Learning of Economics .............................................. 268
Ari Saptono, Suparno Suparno, Agus Wibowo, Eeng Ahman, Ismiyati Ismiyati and Deni Sukayugi
Correcting Misconceptions in Fractions Using Interactive Technological Learning Activities ................................ 291
Mohammad Ahmad Alkhateeb
Experimental and Research Verification of the Methodology of Forming the High School Students’ Artistic Taste
for the Vocal Heritage (Late XIX-Early XX Century) ..................................................................................................... 309
Yuliia V. Merezhko, Dmytro A. Lievit, Oksana P. Petrykova, Svitlana V. Gmyrina and Mariia S. Kasianchuk
Islamic Spirituality, Resilience and Achievement Motivation of Yemeni Refugee Students: A Proposed
Conceptual Framework...................................................................................................................................................... 322
Manal Ali Ahmed, Sahabuddin Hashim and Nik Rosila Nik Yaacob
Creative Teaching Strategy to Reduce Bullying in Schools ........................................................................................... 343

Siti Irene Astuti Dwiningrum, Norwaliza Abdul Wahab and Haryanto Haryanto
Preferential Admission Policies for Ethnic Minority Students in Yunnan: Help or Hindrance ............................... 356
Dongyuan Deng, Seepho Sirinthorn and Andrew Lian
1

Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 1-13, April 2020
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.4.1
Addressing Domestic Abuse and Violence via a

Non-Formal Environment Seen as a Pedagogical
Tool at University
Ivanna I. Parfanovich
Department of Social Pedagogy and Social Work, Ternopil Volodymyr Hnatiuk
National Pedagogical University, Ternopil, Ukraine
Andrii Ya. Parfanovich

Department of Social Pedagogy and Social Work, Ternopil Volodymyr Hnatiuk
National Pedagogical University, Ternopil, Ukraine
Vitalii G. Panok
Ukrainian Scientific-Methodological Center of Applied Psychology and Social
Work, National Academy of Educational Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine
Larysa V. Zdanevych
Department of Pre-School Pedagogy, Psychology and Professional Methods,
Khmelnytskyi Humanitarian-Pedagogical Academy, Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine
Liudmila I. Romanovska
Department of Social work and Pedagogics, Khmelnytskyi National University,
Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine
Abstract. The purpose of the study was to identify how family abuse and
violence could be addressed via a non-formal educational environment
seen as a pedagogical tool at university. The study utilised an exploratory
case study design. Quantitative and qualitative data were drawn from
observations of sampled students’ performance in the programme
entitled “Legal and Psychological Domains of Domestic Abuse and
Violence” and through the interview. The Attitudes towards Domestic
Violence Questionnaire (ADV), the quiz entitled “Dimensions and
dynamics of family violence” was administered to measure the impact of
the domestic abuse and violence on the students’ awareness of legal and
psychological consequences. IBM SPSS Statistics software was used to
process the above data. MS Office Excel Software was used to
consolidated and process the data drawn from the interview. The study
showed that non-formal university settings have the potential to enrich
pedagogic tools for addressing domestic abuse and violence. The
prevention intervention had a positive impact on students’ awareness of
legal and psychological aspects of domestic abuse and violence, students’
perceptions of committing abusive and/or violent actions by men and
©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

2
women in family settings. It was validated by measurements,

observations, and students’ feedbacks. The experiment raised some
implications like attracting experts, raising funds, finding sufficient
evidence, and cases to fill the programme content. Further research is
needed in developing methodology and instruments of evaluation of the
effectiveness of such intervention programmes.
Keywords: university education; pedagogic tools of non-formal settings;

educational intervention programme; domestic abuse and violence
1. Introduction
Domestic abuse and violence have been a social, legal, and psychological
(psychiatric) problem for many generations (Barnett, Miller-Perrin & Perrin, 2010;
Ghafournia, 2017; Odenbring, Johansson, Lunneblad & Hammarén, 2015).
According to the annual police reports, in Ukraine, the figures for the issue-related
cases are increasing by approximately 3% a year (111 cases in 2017, 115 cases in
2018, and 121 cases in 2019) (ZIK, 2020). This suggests that current measures do
not resolve the issue and additional targeted preventive interventions are
required (Stanley, Ellis, Farrelly, Hollinghurst & Downe, 2015). University
student youth seems to be a reasonable target audience because they are classified
as exposed current or former victims of domestic or peer abuse and violence
(Odenbring et al., 2015) and their experience can be used to change their own
beliefs and behaviour. Moreover, educational interventions are becoming
standard pedagogic tools that are mostly aimed at the legal and psychological
dimensions of the issue (Lloyd, 2018). They are widely used in both institutional
and community settings and have proven to be effective to deal with young
individuals’ life crisis and to prepare the latter for ‘violence-free relationships’ in
the future (Adelman, Rosenberg & Hobart, 2016; Gabriel et al., 2018; Heaven-
Oakland, n./d.; Owen, Antle & Quirk, 2017).
1.1. Literature review

The literature review found that the issue has been a widely discussed and
multifaceted legal, psychological, medical and scientific (educational dimension)
problem for over the last decades (Crowther-Dowey, Gillespie & Hopkins, 2016;
Parkinson & Rogers, 2019). The targeted domestic abuse prevention education
programmes are run either at secondary schools (World Health Organization,
2019) or by public organisations (European Union, n./d.). They are aimed at
cultivating a new culture of interpersonal relationships at schools and raise public
awareness of domestic abuse and violence (Lloyd, 2018; Wagner, Jones, Tsaroucha
& Cumbers, 2019; McKibbin & Humphreys, 2020). There are still debates in the
literature concerning whether the domestic abuse and violence prevention
education interventions should be based on a gendered approach (Stanley, Ellis
& Bell, 2011; Fenton & Mott, 2017). As it was found, those programmes are
delivered in conventional educational settings and using conventional
pedagogical tools. For example, the “Safe to Learn” initiative intends to train
children’s life skills through the organised activities ‘to shape their attitudes and
norms’ at schools (World Health Organization, 2019). The Master’s degree course
entitled “Abuse and gender violence: an interdisciplinary vision” also used

3
conventional university approach to engage students to explore the issue from

different perspectives (“Master’s course in gender violence”, 2015). The
specialised training and certification programmes for the professionals working
in the field of domestic violence prevention and elimination are also delivered
conventionally (Stover & Lent, 2014; Domestic Violence Resource Centre Victoria,
n./d.).
However, this approach might seem to be quite tactless in some delicate
situations that are better tackled in a non-determined environment in the
community-like atmosphere (Goldman, Assaraf & Shaharabani, 2013).
The study found few resources on intervention programmes to have been run in
non-formal settings at university and formally evaluated which created the gap
for the research.
Therefore, the purpose of the study was to identify how family abuse and violence
could be addressed via a non-formal educational environment seen as a
pedagogical tool at university.
The study sought to address the research questions below:
1. How did the prevention programme entitled “Legal and Psychological
Domains of Domestic Abuse and Violence” impact on students’ awareness of
legal and psychological aspects of domestic abuse and violence?
2. How did the prevention programme entitled “Legal and Psychological
Domains of Domestic Abuse and Violence” impact on students’ gender-related
perception of committing abusive and/or violent actions by men and women in
family settings?
3. What were the involved students’ perceptions of the project delivery format?
2. Materials and methods

The study utilised an exploratory single-case study design based on one group
pre-test and post-test data and was conducted at Volodymyr Vynnychenko
Central Ukrainian State Pedagogical University. Quantitative and qualitative data
were drawn from observations of sampled students’ performance in the
randomised experiment and through interviews with them. The Attitudes
towards Domestic Violence Questionnaire (ADV) designed by Fox and Gadd
(2012) was used to explore changes in students’ perceptions of men’s and
women’s behaviour in situations of conflicts. The quiz entitled “Dimensions and
dynamics of family violence” (AVERT Family Violence, 2010) (the legal domain
of the issue) was administered to measure the impact of the programme entitled
“Legal and Psychological Domains of Domestic Abuse and Violence” on the
students’ awareness of legal and psychological consequences of the domestic
abuse and violence. The variables for the study were students’ awareness of legal
and psychological aspects of domestic abuse and violence, students’ gender-
related perception of committing abusive and/or violent actions by men and
women in family settings.

4
2.1. The programme

The prevention programme entitled “Legal and Psychological Domains of
Domestic Abuse and Violence” was designed to train the students in dealing with
conflicts and to raise students’ awareness of legal aspects of the issue (see the
structure of the programme visualised in Fig. 1). The training was followed by
Mock Talk Shows aimed at analysing real cases on the issues of domestic violence
and abuse. Ten sessions were delivered once in two weeks throughout the period
from September to the end of December of 2019 by expert practitioners and Mock
Talk Shows were held by the research team members supported by invited
practitioners who delivered the classes. They were domestic violence lawyers,
domestic violence counsellors (psychologists and psychiatrists), and domestic
violence social workers working in the field for more than ten years.
Legal counselling Conflictology

classes basics classes
Mock Talk Case-studies

Shows “Legal and
Psychological
Domains of
Domestic Abuse
and Violence”
Figure 1: “Legal and Psychological Domains of Domestic Abuse and Violence”

programme design
The topics for the sessions were related to forms of domestic abuse and violence,
the ways to recognise them, legal punishments for committing them, effects of
domestic abuse on a young person, victimisation and barriers to leaving, means
and ways of dealing with conflicts, risks and causes for the commitment of family
violence and abuse, etc (see the topics outlined in Table 1). The format for the
Mock Talk Show was adapted from The Oprah Winfrey TV Show© and the cases
for the ‘shows’ were borrowed from the La Strada – Ukraine (n./d.). This is the
NGO that actively promotes information and provides training on prevention
and social assistance, and is active in the improvement of national legislation on
human trafficking, sexual exploitation of children, violence, discrimination and
human rights in Ukraine.

5
Table 1: The outline of the topics distributed by session and hours dedicated to each
topic
# session
Topic Hours
1 Forms of domestic abuse and violence. How to recognise them. 2

2 Legal punishments for committing them. Analysing cases. 2
3 Mock Talk Show. 2
4 Legal counselling basics. Building up mutual trust. Case-study. 2
Simulations.
5 Ethical issues of legal counselling on family violence and abuse. 2
Written communication. Persuasion techniques.
6 Risks and causes for the commitment of family violence and abuse. 2
7 Effects of domestic abuse on a young person: gender issues. 2
Victimisation and barriers to leaving: gender issues.
8 Mock Talk Show. 2
9 How to deal with abuse-based conflicts in a family. Analysing cases. 2
Quiz entitled “Strategies for Coping with Unhealthy Family
Behaviour” (Study.com, n./d.)
10 Mock Talk Show. 2
“Safe Families Club” as a non-formal learning environment was set up to run the
experiment. The project was advertised to potential participants using
presentations, posters, and announcements at some lectures. The objective of this
was to involve volunteers who were sensitive to the issue of domestic abuse and
violence and agreed to further assist the experts who ran educational prevention
interventions at three schools located in Kropyvnytskyi Town.
2.2. Sampling
Simple random sampling was used to hire volunteers for the study. Forty-three
students in their second, third, and fourth years, majoring in Psychology, Law,
and Journalism of Volodymyr Vynnychenko Central Ukrainian State Pedagogical
University were encouraged to apply for participation in the training programme.
The primary rationale for selecting those majors was the fact that the topic of
domestic abuse and violence was related to the students’ specialism. They were
supposed to write a motivation letter which was used to shortlist 30 students for
the interview. It was conducted by a panel of two psychology experts in the field
of domestic violence and abuse. It included the questions as follows: 1) What do
you see as triggers of violence and abuse in families? 2) If you were your father,
how would you react to some misbehaviours of yours in the classroom? 3)
Describe the worst argument you had with someone from your family and how
you coped with it, etc. The selection criteria were non-violent thinking, non-
proneness to aggressive dominance, or gender humiliation, being a non-
vulnerable person. As the study utilised one group design, twenty-one students
(13 females aged between 19 and 22 and 8 males aged between 19 and 21) were
sampled for the intervention. They were considered mutually homogeneous as
they had gone through the above selection procedure. At this stage, the pre-
treatment measurements, including the Attitudes towards Domestic Violence

6
Questionnaire (ADV) and a quiz entitled “Family Violence & Abuse” (ClickLaw
WikiBooks, n./d.) were administered.
2.3. Major research-related ethical issues

Before the experiment, written informed consent was obtained from the sampled
students to address the confidentiality of their personal information (Cacciattolo,
2015; Akaranga & Makau, 2016). The “primum non nocere” [“first, do no harm”]
principle was followed at every stage of the study to avoid or minimise any
deliberate or potential harm. The sampled students were treated as non-
vulnerable (Drew, Hardman & Hosp, 2008) for a reason being that they lived on
campus but not with their families.
2.4. Instruments
The study used such quantitative tools as observation reports, evaluation sheets,
student attendance records, the Questionnaire on Attitudes towards Domestic
Violence (ADV) (Fox & Gadd, 2012) and quizzes entitled “Family Violence &
Abuse” (ClickLaw WikiBooks, n./d.) and “Dimensions and dynamics of family
violence” (AVERT Family Violence, 2010). To ensure the reliability of the
observation reports, behavioural code description was developed and three
assessors were hired to take records. Data were simultaneously collected by all
assessors on each separate session. Kappa Online Calculator (Statistics Solution,
n./d.) was used to assesses the inter-rater reliability of three raters drawn from
the observation reports, evaluation sheets, student attendance records. The kappa
coefficient was 0.74 which was substantial and proved that the measurements
were reliable.
The questionnaire on attitudes towards domestic violence proved to be an
effective tool that can be used to assess the effectiveness of domestic abuse
prevention programmes (Fox, Gadd & Sim, 2015). At the pre-test stage, it aimed
at exploring students’ experience of domestic violence and abuse as victims,
perpetrators and as witnesses.
IBM SPSS Statistics software was used to process the above data.
Additionally, the questionnaire for interviewing sampled students was used to
obtain qualitative data. It comprised five open-ended questions which were as
follows:
1) How did the programme influence your beliefs?
2) What were your gains from this programme?
3) Did you appreciate the non-formal format of the pedagogical engagement?
4) What were the problems you faced or challenged as a participant and assistant
in the project?
5) What do you suggest improving so that the programme addressed those
problems?
MS Office Excel Software was used to consolidated and process the data drawn
from the interview.

7
3. Results
The prevention programme entitled “Legal and Psychological Domains of
Domestic Abuse and Violence” and “Safe Families Club” have appeared to be the
most significant result of this research which brought a number of benefits to the
sampled students.
The repeated measurements of the students’ awareness of legal and psychological
aspects of domestic abuse and violence (see Table 2), students’ gender-related
perception of committing abusive and/or violent actions by men and women in
family settings proved the relationship between participation of the students in
the prevention programme and the changes to have occurred in the variables.
Table 2: Relation between the participation of the students in the programme and
their awareness of family abuse expressed as proportions of correct/incorrect answers
in quizzes before and after the intervention, in %
Before Intervention After Intervention
𝑛 “Family Violence & Abuse” “Dimensions and dynamics of 𝑑𝑓
Quiz family violence” Quiz
IA CA IA CA
𝑛 = 21 19
53% 47% 33% 67%
Note: IA – incorrect answers; CA - correct answers.
As can be seen, the proportion of the correct answers increased by 20% which
indicated the programme boosted students’ knowledge related to the issue.
The results that were obtained at pre-test and post-test stages through the
questionnaire on attitudes towards domestic violence and compared at the post-
test stage showed a decrease in victimisation (before the intervention: 𝐹1.0891 =
4.02; 𝑝 = 0.41; p < .001 VS after the intervention 𝐹0.9214 = 3.79; 𝑝 = 0.37; 𝑝 < .001)
and perpetration (before the intervention: 𝐹1.1062 = 13.31; 𝑝 = 0.04; 𝑝 < .001 VS
after the intervention: 𝐹0.9932 = 11.79; 𝑝 = 0. 33; 𝑝 < .001) characteristics in the
sampled students. It suggested that the educational environment raised students’
self-confidence in dealing with violent actions towards them.
The change in perceptions of committing abusive and/or violent actions by men
and women in family settings also took place after the intervention (see Table 3).
Table 3: Change in approval of abusive and/or violent actions by men and women in
the family to have taken place due to the intervention based on the ADV
questionnaire (12-item version), item-total correlations (ITC), before and after the
intervention
Before Intervention After Intervention

# of question
𝑛 of responses
𝑛 of responses
approval, approval,
ITC ITC
% %
1 20 83 .637 17 31 .560
2 16 39 .641 19 21 .591
3 21 47 .608 20 12 .598
4 13 56 .557 21 18 .512

8
5 20 35 .656 14 11 .523
6 18 51 .643 18 17 .511
7 19 63 .669 17 22 .533
8 15 78 .778 15 32 .611
9 21 74 .634 20 29 .602
10 21 66 .671 20 24 .594
11 17 41 .665 18 18 .601
12 19 52 .751 21 22 .627
Note: The questions are laid out in the order they appear on the questionnaire. ITC ‒ Item-total correlation
The figures in Table 3 illustrated a marked decrease in the approval of abusive

and violent deeds of partners in family settings.
The observation reports of the research team members and evaluation sheets also
proved that the students suggested two primary justifiable reasons for abuse or
violence from both sides (from men or women): who attacked or hurt first and
who cheated first. Moreover, females are easier than males to forgive their
partners either abuse or violence or cheating in their family relationships. Seven
out of eight sampled male students tended to justify a violent or abusive response
in the situations in which women were drunk or drugged or they
humiliated/offended males in some way (especially publicly), they were angry
and shouted at males.
The figures in Table 4 reveal the shift in sampled students’ knowledge of core
legal and psychological aspects of domestic abuse and violence and their skills
and abilities to deal with them before and after the intervention.
Table 4: Students’ pre-test and post-test measurement results in the knowledge of core
aspects of domestic abuse and violence and their skills and abilities to deal with
them, expressed as mean values obtained from measurements before and after the
intervention
KCLA KCPA SA
Cronbac
N SD t p
h’s alpha
B A B A B A value
n = 21 57.87 74.11 48.58 69.13 43.21 0.783

69.11 721 0.73 0.38
(> 0.7)
Note: B – Before; A – After; KCLA ‒ knowledge of core legal aspects; KCPA - knowledge of core psychological
aspects; SA ‒ skills and abilities to deal with the issues.
The above suggests that the sampled students experienced a statistically

significant change (of approximately 16%) in awareness of legal and psychological
aspects of domestic violence and abuse and improved their skills of dealing with
them.
3.1. Results of Semi-structured Interview (EG students, 𝒏 = 𝟐𝟏, 𝒅𝒇 = 𝟐)

Question 1. How did the programme influence your beliefs? Seventeen
respondents reported a radical change in their attitudes to some domestic abusive
and violent behaviours. Four participants were still convinced that women’s
behaviour was the key trigger of a conflict in a family.
Question 2. What were your gains from this programme? Twelve people reported
that they learned how to control their behaviour when the conflict situation

9
emerged. Seven people confessed that training sessions developed their self-
confidence when dealing with people causing trouble. One student reported
progress in communication with ‘difficult’ people. One participant found the
programme useful for their relationships.
Question 3. Did you appreciate the non-formal format of the pedagogical
engagement? Eleven people found the format to be optimal for this very issue.
Eight people stated it was OK for them. Two participants stated that the format
did not fit their learning style.
Question 4. What were the problems you faced or challenged as a participant and
assistant in the project? Two respondents reported they were overloaded with
information. Two participants stated that the format did not fit their learning
style.
Question 5. What do you suggest improving so that the programme addressed
those problems? Nineteen students suggested training them in NLP and debating
before the intervention.
The students’ responses to the interview questions imply that students were
generally positive about the format of the project and appreciated the outcomes.
4. Discussion
This study has been the first attempt in Ukraine to evaluate the effectiveness of
using prevention programme entitled “Legal and Psychological Domains of
Domestic Abuse and Violence” delivered through a non-formal environment at
university and how this programme influenced students’ gender-related
perceptions of committing abusive and/or violent actions by men and women in
family settings. Additionally, it aimed at exploring students’ perceptions of the
project delivery format. It was found that the students’ awareness of legal and
psychological aspects of domestic abuse and violence increased by about 20%, the
approval of abusive and violent deeds of partners in family settings decrease by
approximately substantially, the students’ skills of dealing with domestic violence
and abuse and improved by about 16%. The results that were obtained at pre-test
and post-test stages through the questionnaire on attitudes towards domestic
violence and compared at the post-test stage showed a decrease in victimisation
and perpetration characteristics in the sampled students, which indicated that the
educational environment raised students’ self-confidence in dealing with violent
actions towards them.
The above results addressed the questions of this study and complied with
literature highlighting best prevention practices in coping with domestic abuse
and violence (European Institute for Gender Equality, 2015; Katz & McGuire,
2018; Pisani Altafim & Martins Linhares, 2016). The findings, which were in line
with previous studies (Institute of Medicine and National Research Council,
1998), from the study proved that the quality of educational prevention
intervention improved when conducted jointly by a practitioner from the issue
field and an educator. This is due to the fact (Grimmer, 2016) that young people
are sensitive to issues like trust, betrayal, love, friendship, and respect the experts’
opinions, trust them more than their relatives or friends.

10
The study goes in line with Fox, Hale & Gadd (2014) stating that the concerns
related with domestic abuse and violence in young people should be anticipated
in the student-tailored education programmes in the class and out-of-class
activities at school and university. This was also found in the study that non-
formal university settings and the age of the students were favourable
prerequisites for addressing domestic abuse and violence. This study is also
consistent with the findings of Roy, Lindsay & Dallaire, (2013) whose research
demonstrated the importance of establishing cooperation with the specialist
facilitators from external agencies to support teachers in the educational
interventions of this kind.
The experiment provides a new insight into the prevention educational project
management that can be delivered non-formally and with the involvement of the
expert facilitators from the external institutions.
The reason for this is that high rates of abuse and violence, to have been performed
to and by young people, are found (see the Introduction section).
The study contributed to the pedagogic domain of dealing with the issue of family
abuse and violence by exploring non-formal university settings.
4.1. Limitations of the study

The results of the study might be challenged because of the number of sampled
students, the duration of the experiment, and instrumentation used to obtain
statistical data. Moreover, the study did not assess the actual behaviour of the
respondents but only their attitudes towards domestic violence and abuse. The
results of the research only rely on one group of sampled students. And one can
argue that there is no alternative explanation of the results.
5. Conclusion
The study showed that the non-formal university settings have the potential to
enrich pedagogic tools for addressing domestic abuse and violence. The
prevention intervention organised in the way presented had a positive impact on
students’ awareness of legal and psychological aspects of domestic abuse and
violence, students’ perceptions of committing abusive and/or violent actions by
men and women in family settings. It was validated by measurements,
observations, and students’ feedbacks. The pre-test and post-test results proved
that the project to have been delivered through the non-formal educational
environment had a positive outcome in terms of a reduction of victimisation and
perpetration characteristics in involved students and an increase in students’ self-
confidence in tackling violent actions towards them in both family and
educational environment.
The results obtained directly and indirectly from the research implied that the
issue is still gender-stereotyped and young people need extensive training in
establishing and maintaining relationships with representatives of the opposite
gender. The programmes of such kind should be incorporated into the university
curriculum as an optional or elective course. Furthermore, both teachers’ and
involved experts’ knowledge of students’ experiences and learning preferences
are a prerequisite for success of this intervention.

11
The experiment also raised some implications like attracting experts, raising
funds, finding sufficient evidence, and cases to fill the programme content.
Further research is needed in developing methodology and tools for evaluation
of the effectiveness of such intervention programmes.
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Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 14-28, April 2020
Towards De-Colonial Agitations in University

Classrooms: The Quest for Afrocentric Pedagogy
Bunmi Isaiah Omodan and Bekithemba Dube

University of the Free State
Republic of South Africa
Abstract. This study empirically conceptualised and rationalised

decoloniality as a way to bridge the vacuumed of Americentric
classroom hegemony in an attempt to reposition classroom with
Afrocentricism as a dominant practice in Universities. “Ubuntugogy” as
a transformational deviation from the Americentric teaching and
learning is adopted as a theoretical framework. The study is situated in
the transformative paradigm because its focus is to propose
“ubuntugogy” as a way to deconstruct Eurocentric hegemony in
university classrooms. Critical Emancipatory Research CER as an
epistemological movement that is channelled towards emancipation and
freedom from ideological enslavement is used as research design, and
the participants consist of 10 people, 5 actively experienced lecturers,
and 5 students were selected in the QwaQwa campus of the University
of the Free State. Free attitude interview was used to collect data from
the participant and the data collected were analysed using Thomas and
Harden’s three steps of thematic analysis. The study found out that the
curriculum and the perpendicular of language and cultural diversities,
and colonization of mind and irresistible western classroom system are
the significant challenges of implementing “ubuntugogy” in the
classroom. The study subsequently proposed curriculum adjustment to
accommodate trans-languaging and cultural diversities, and inculcation
of self-worth and self-esteem to respond to the western irresistibility in
the system with the conclusion that Afrocentric classroom may be one
dimensional and thus needs to be redirected to speak to the issues of
globalization.
Keywords: university classrooms; decoloniality; ubuntugogy;

afrocentricism; modernity
1. Introduction
21st-century classroom activities is characterised with the leftover of coloniality
otherwise acknowledged as modernity. Though the spate of modernity sounds
progressively inevitable to the echelon of school and schooling, most especially
in the global south, its trajectories have become a compulsory devil to the
factorisation and production of indigenous knowledge. In our argument, these

15
may not wholly take away the beauty of educational advancement and national
productivity, but the sociality, socialisation, discoverability and ingenious
constructivism are wallowing in the abyss of oblivion. This is supported by
Musitha and Mafukata (2018) and Omodan (2019), that the South Africa
education system still battling with the consequentiality of the Bantu education.
This lacuna is connected to the Eurocentric classroom mapping in our schools. In
these observations, no level of education in South Africa is exempted. This may
be the reason why Rodney (2012) proposed that “Africa should develop its
model of development” to jettison the modernised coloniality and euro-centrism
in schools.
In this article, we are joining our proposition with the assumptions of Lebeloane
(2018) that the curriculum deserves to be reconstructed to pave ways for the
implementers (Teachers/Lectures) who are the major classroom practitioners
(Omodan, Ekundayo & Omodan, 2018). That is, the curriculum must be
reconstructed to accommodate ethics and ethos of inclusivity, internalization of
indigenous knowledge, disengagement of the indignity of language,
indiscriminate sociality, and social justice. By ensuring these postulations, the
content knowledge that encompasses self-determined knowledge construction,
historically inclined ways of idealizing, pragmatic realities as means of knowing
will be determined by the environmental and epistemological realities within
learners’ conferment. However, the classroom on its own is not abstract, and it
does not exist alone without the students, teachers/lecturers and above all, the
instinct of actualizing students’ achievement and school productivity. This
means that human beings are the classroom and to which classroom is set to
affect, therefore, to erase the mirage of discourse from the deoloniality, the
minds and the mindset of the subjects must be decolonized.
Decolonising the mindset is a confirmation to the fact that Eurocentric and

Americentric classroom is not only from the intensity of the coloniality
(Mignolo, 2011; Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2015) but the inability of the colonised to
discover the endemic of natural thinking, idealizing and “doing”. Hence, the
idea of deconstruction of students and teachers/lecturers’ mind cannot be
disconnected from the classroom decoloniality. Though the curriculum is the
guiding principles cum policies for teachers/lecturers and students, but the
mindset to bring it to reality is fundamental to individual perspective of the
socio-ecological realities of the classroom. From this, the quest to define and
redefine own experience beyond the idea of the long-standing coloniality
becomes activated. This, as described by Ngũgĩ (1986) as the politics and
politicking of language in African literature, is a constructive role in cultural
transition, historical reorientation, and love for social identity, which in our
argument is called Africanism. From this narrative, one could conclude that the
epistemologically “dismembered” ideas as a result of Euro/Americentric
pedagogies could be re-launched.

16
2. The place of Curriculum in Afrocentric Pedagogy

In order to ensure Afrocentricism in the space of Africa education and most
especially in classroom ecology, a concerted effort is needed to consistently
propel our education documents such as curriculum and other policies that
bother more on educational development. A redoubled effort in propelling the
idea of Africanising our curricular in South Africa and elsewhere in Africa needs
a serious study of the idea of Apartheid and if we have completely de-linked
ourselves from its rationality. This is what is needed to be able to delink our
epistemological praxis from the westerners. This idea of epistemological
disconnection according to Odora-Hoppers and Matiwana (2017) will ensure a
perfectly deconstructed Eurocentric way of doing. This according to him is
because South African and other African countries still produce knowledge in
line with the mirage of modernity. This is to say that the curriculum status quo
must be interrogated to establish what appeases the current way of generating
knowledge and give credence to ingenious knowledge as a practical concept.
This according to Luckett (2016) may not be achieved except if we start
questioning the temerity of who decides what counts, what knowledge is valid,
and to whom should take the lead, among others. This was supported by Joseph
(2017), that in order to dis-expand the colonial archive, the knowledge and the
historical development relating to curriculum must be deconstructed.
The school’s curriculum itself has been conceptualized from multidisciplinary

dimensions to mean what and how, when, and why the education system wants
its students to learn an arranged content planned for them in schools. Though
arguments exist that curriculum could be planned and thought, most
fundamentally could be taught as live (Lebeloane, 2017). This rationale behind
curriculum being taught as live, in our view, is to avail the students’ enablement
to be able to critique the way and process of implementation, which is one of the
beauties of decoloniality and “ubuntugogy”. In order to ensure unhindered
decolonization in university classrooms, the idea of Le Grange (2017) about the
various forms of the curriculum cannot be underrated. He deconstructs
curriculum in the classroom into two, which are explicit, hidden or null.
The explicit curriculum according to Lebeloane (2017) is a deliberately planned

learning content that exposes learners to the exigencies of themselves and their
environment, ranging from the past, present and the future. This kind of
curriculum according to Le Grange (2017) provides learners with skills to
critique, question and ameliorate issues by way of critical thinking. Some of the
materials or tools used in the type of curriculum are expert presentations,
textbooks, and readers among others. In our argument, it appears that this kind
of curriculum could enable learners to individually construct knowledge by the
virtue of what he thinks is best because it does allow the student to ask
questions to how and why. On the other hand, the hidden curriculum is the one
that indoctrinates the practitioners, which include students, teachers, lecturers,
among others into the dominant culture and values of the colonisers (Le Grange,
2017; Lebeloane, 2017). This we think is the fact that the content and the freedom
to critique and ask questions are not made known or taught in schools. In the
quest to decolonize the practical space, one could start to ask questions such as

17
5Wh; why, when, what, who, and how. Even the colonization of the mindset
may not be far from the hidden curriculum that is ideally Eurocentric.
3. Situating the Problems as lack of Africanised Pedagogy in the

Universities
In order to challenge the Eurocentric or Americentric classroom “way of doing”,
the contributions of university education in Africa cannot be underrated. This
level of education is the universal community of scholars. This is assumed to
contain various pieces of knowledge. It is where the face of a nation, to some
extent, is the light to the darkness as created by the coloniality. The problem of
this study, therefore, rests on the fact that observations and experiences showed
that universities even other levels of education had neglected the aesthetic of
indigenous knowledge (Senanayake, 2006; Kaya & Seleti, 2013). This is to say
that, the foreign way of doing has been accepted “hook line and sinker,” not
minding the locality of the differentiation in the environmental fragmentation,
cultural relativism, and the ecological prowess of all the stakeholders both
lectures and students are the order of the day. Even the organogram and
administrative functionality of the universities is not an exemption. Though this
article is only addressing the teaching and learning by defacing the long-
standing Eurocentric classroom mapping and replacing it with pedagogy that is
fitted to accommodate the use of local knowledge in the process of knowledge
construction. This is argued to mean Afrocentric Pedagogy.
However, it is observed that the “natural way of doing”, which could mean
“indigenous way of doing” is perceived to have been taken away the hegemony
of sense of belonging on the part of university teachers and students. This
problem could be linked to the national and university curriculum that arrested
the Afrocentric classroom constructivism instead of converging with the
personal and social needs of curriculum implementers (Odora-Hoppers, 2001).
This may have hindered the teachers and students’ social dimension of
knowledge construction by interpreting the issues below the value and cultural
lenses and awareness, making it looks like our own way of doing are below the
standard (Van Wyk, 2002). In line with this argument, though knowledge is
linked to interest and power domination (Badat, 1997) which is peculiar to
current university pedagogy the dominance of the long-standing coloniality in
the system. This according to Avis (1996) has regarded knowledge production as
hegemonic practices that propagated the rise in poverty, power dominance and
social breakdown in general productivity. Besides, our observation also shows
that the mindset of teachers, students, and other stakeholder are Eurocentric.
Our encounter with many lecturers and students on the trajectories of classroom
decoloniality makes me conclude that the mind of the lecturers is somewhat
stuck to the implementation of foreign ways of doing, at the expense of cultural
and local inclination.
Our encounter with students, most especially those studying science-related

courses, showed that many contents in the classroom are completely strange and
unable to link them to any concrete and practical realities around them. Among
many observations, universities in South Africa, most especially those located in
the rural ecology, are far from opening the space for local and or indigenous

18
knowledge productions. Even, the instructional materials that are used as aids to
learning are not exemplifying or relating to known knowledge. Classrooms in
the observed universities have been conducted from the “unknown to
unknown” as against “known to unknown” practice. This study is however
determined to empirically conceptualise and rationalise decoloniality as a way
to bridge the vacuumed of Americentric classroom hegemony.
4. Theoretical Framework: “Ubuntugogy” as an Approach

This study is grounded in the concept of “ubuntugogy” which in our view is
Afrocentric pedagogy that is rooted in Africanism called “Ubuntu”. Ubuntugogy
was propounded in 2005 and argued by Bangura to the best-hidden pedagogy,
which was branded by the qualities of culturalism, environmentalism, and
Afrocentricism (Ganyi & Owan, 2016). However, “Ubuntugogy”
metamorphosed from the philosophy of “Ubuntu”; Ubuntu, etymologically
emanated from Xhosa and Zulu languages (Samkange & Samkange: 1980) which
means Humanity and or Humanness (Omodan & Tsoetsi 2019). This is to say
that Ubuntu could be referred to as the quality of being human and humane
(Tworeck et al., 2015). These were conceptualised as “a person is a person
through others” (Khomba, 2011). From the above, ubuntugogy could be said to
mean an Africanised way of teaching and learning. This was conceptualised by
Bangura (2017) as an “art and science of teaching and learning that is dominated
by humanity and love towards others”. From the above, we can make bold to
argue along with Ganyi and Owan (2016) that “ubuntugogy” is a
transformational deviation from the Amenricentric teaching and learning
otherwise called “pedagogy.”
Ubuntugogy is, however, a system of teaching and learning that is centered on

the utilisation of indigenous and Africanised teaching and learning aids in the
classroom where culturalism and environmentalism take the lead (Bangura,
2015) in the teaching and learning input, process and output. This could also be
referred to as Afrocentric pedagogy. This theory is relevant in this study because
it propels the utilisation and galvanization of culturally and environmentally
inclined teaching aids, material and practice to dominate the process of
knowledge construction in the classroom. This will enable learners and the
teachers and in case of the university system, the students and the lecturers to
get along. This could manifest quick knowledge and assimilation because
African people are confirmed to crush on the process that enables employment
of indigenous spices to discourse. Such an atmosphere enables the lecturers to
dispense knowledge from the known to unknown. That is, when classroom
content is dispensed and simplified to the students using local examples and
materials, it will open their reasoning and be able to link the concept from
environmentalism thereby enhance their assimilation. In other to be able to
achieve this and inject it into the reality of the university classrooms, the
following research question and aim guided the study.

19
5. Research Question and Aim of the Study

The question of “how to concretize Afrocentric classroom practices to decolonize
the euro-centric classroom hegemony” piloted the study. In order to do justices
to this empirical discourse, the inconsistencies in the university classrooms and
the failure of its system to accommodate Afrocentric constructivism will be
explored.
6. Objectives of the Study

Based on the research question and aims of the study, the following research
objectives paved the way to unravel the problem of Afrocentricism in university
classrooms;
• The study investigated the challenges associated with the
implementation of Afrocentric Classroom pedagogy.
• The study probed into the possible solution to the challenges with more
focus on the implementation of “ubuntugogy”.
7. Methodology
This is situated in the transformative paradigm because its focus is to propose
ubuntugogy as a way to deconstruct Eurocentric hegemony in university
classrooms. Besides, the ontology and epistemic stance informing the study is
concerned with the social and historical nature in correlation to the classroom
reality (Chilisa, 2013). Critical Emancipatory Research (CER) is adopted as a
research design for this study, and this is adopted to enable researcher to
understand and respond to the issue of classroom sociality and interrogate social
justices in the curriculum implementation. In the argument of Dube (2016) and
Ngwenyama (1992), CER is a break-away ideology from Frankfurt school which
is centered towards reformation. In a similar perspective, CER is an
epistemological movement that is channeled towards emancipation and freedom
from ideological enslavement (Dube & Hlalele, 2018). That is, this choice of
design exposes the participant to the systematic social and ideological
enslavement eroded in Eurocentric pedagogy. CER is, therefore, appropriate to
stand as a foundation for this research process because it stands as anti-
injustices; it promotes emancipation and encourages freedom in the research
process for transformation. The research participants comprise of five university
students, and five lecturers in the Qwaqwa campus of the university of the Free
State, South Africa, totaling ten participants, who are active in classroom
activities, the selected student were fourth year and postgraduate honour
students who are assumed to be much experienced in university pedagogy. The
selected lecturers are those with at least four years’ experience in the system
with active classroom experience.
Free attitude interview was used to collect data from the participant; this
method of data generation is considered appropriate because it enables the
participants to discuss the issue as it appears to them. Free attitude interview is
regarded as a conversation that uncovers real thoughts about a particular
phenomenon (Creswell et al., 2016), and it helps the researcher to understand
people, their sociality, and the nature of the problem they live with (Mahoko,
Omodan & Tsotetsi, 2019). The data collected was analysed using three steps of

20
analysis prescribed by (Thomas & Harden, 2008), these steps according to them
involve coding text, developing descriptive themes, and generating analytical
meaning from the coded text. This becomes relevant to this study because it
enables the researcher to arrange the data according to the objectives of the
study. This further ensures the readers a coherence and cohesion of
understanding of the research and its findings.
8. Results and Findings

The results from this study were informed by the implementation of the
methodological stance as stated above, the principle of CER as research design
was fully followed and the data generated through the interview were coded,
schematised and analysed based on the objectives of the study. The objectives
were to explore the challenges associated with the implementation of the
Afrocentric teaching-learning system in the University classroom and to provide
possible solutions to the challenges to establish the need for Africanism in the
classroom.
9. The challenges associated with the implementation of Afrocentric

Classroom pedagogy
Sub-themes under objective one that was analysed based on themes from the
raw data are; curriculum and the perpendicular of language and cultural
diversities, and colonization of mind and irresistible western classroom system.
These were derived from the participants’ statements and triangulated with
literature. For stressless reading, the Lecturers were represented as LT while
students were represented as ST in the analysis below;
9.1 Curriculum and the Perpendicular of Language and Cultural diversities

Delinking, separating, and or distancing learners from Eurocentric pedagogy in
university classrooms could not be done in isolation if at all it is going to see the
light of the day. This is because no system of teaching and learning exist without
curriculum or policy backup, not only which, the language of teaching and
learning is also essential in classroom activities, management, and knowledge
production. This in line with the fact that curriculum and other policy document
is needed to delink epistemological praxis that could ensure a complete
disconnection of eurocentric knowledge construct (Odora-Hoppers & Matiwana,
2017) from educational practitioners and replace it with Africentric way of
doing and thinking. This is the ideal that is expected in the reality of this
discourse but the reverse is the case in the system as the participants' statements
seem to contradict. See the statements below;
LT2: “Inadequacy of indigenous instructors in schools has made all of us

accept foreign classroom culture as the best and it remains like that”
LT3: “Lack of resources relevant to the curriculum/shortage of textual

resources to refer to... Lessons that could incorporate Indigenous Knowledge
could be time-consuming”

21
The statement from LT1 lament that even there are approval ways with which
the classroom could be decolonised in the way of using “ubuntugogy”, there are
limited lecturers who can understand and implement the niti-gritty of such idea.
These scenarios according to him have practically made the people more
westernized to the extent that it may be difficult to retrace the hegemony of
Eurocentric in African classroom mostly in universities. Lack of human capital
such as lecturer to implement indigenous knowledge across the classes is the
only contributing factor to the challenges, but lack and shortage of locally
inclined materials and school resources according to the statement of LT3 is not
helping the mater. His idea could mean that the use of indigenous teaching aids
may exist but are not enough to ensure consistent use of indigenized teaching
aids all the time. The last statement of the LT3 also confirmed that the use of
indigenized teaching aids is not time friendly. To think of it, the intention is to
say that the use will not allow the lecturer to quickly address the needed issues
in classroom as and when due. This is not practically far from the fact that the
curriculum and/or the policy book that is piloting the university education in
South Africa is either silent or inactive about the incorporation of local content.
The use or not of this indigenized teaching and learning at times is not the sole
problem of the lecturer. According to the participants' statements, it bothers
more on the issue of diversities in South African classrooms. See the following
statements;
LT5: “Since a classroom consists of diversity, another challenge would be,

to know which IK from which cultures would be more relevant in a diverse
classroom...”
ST1: “Afrocentric education/ curriculum is one dimensional and does may

not speak to the issues of the global context and therefore in an ever-
evolving world where the education system seeks to produce 21st century
and global citizens, Afrocentric curricula may be irrelevant as it only
speaks to the history of one people”.
In the statement of LT5, one could confirm that the trajectory of classroom
diversities in South Africa, that is, that classroom consists of people from
different cultures that come with different socio-political-economic and cultural
backgrounds. In this case, it may be difficult for a lecturer to choose which
indigenous artefact or history and ways of going is better employed. Besides, the
lecturer may even not be familiar with more than one of two cultural and
environmental backgrounds. Therefore, such a teacher does not have a choice
than to use generally accepted teaching practices in the classroom. This is not far
from the analysis of ST1, who stressed that the Afrocentric curriculum is one
dimensional too and does not accommodate diversities of people that can
support the best global practice. This according to her is irrelevant. Moreover,
our understanding is because Afrocentric pedagogy may not accommodate the
people’s choice, most notably in the university system, where people from
various countries converge in the search for knowledge. However, the issue of
diversity that comes with language differences surface and because more
problematic to the implementation of indigenous knowledge. This is confirmed
by the responses below;

22
LT2 “Considering the place of African languages in the in a Eurocentric

society. Can they coexist or does it have to be either one of the languages”
ST3: “It is difficult to even begin believing in African ways of life in this
political era, most especially in the classroom. So, in other words, African
pedagogy still needs a lot of development for curriculum purposes”
The statement from LT2 gives a severe concern about the possibility of having
one language as Africans, which is practically in our view not achievement
anytime soon. Even in a country, there are many languages, South Africa, for
example, has up to 12 different languages that come with their peculiarities, etc.
This is in line with the argument of Ngũgĩ (1986) which states that there are
politics and politicking of language in African literature that clamoured for
social identity. This idea is not in isolation as the ST3 confirmed that it is
challenging to believe in the African way of life as a result of the unstable
political system that has characterized the continent. Maybe this statement is
coming as a result of politics that has been involving in the formulation and
implementation of policies and even curriculum. This trust diversion may not be
the focus of this study, but it gives meaning to the reason why many
implementers may not even trust the people in power for curriculum and policy
formulations. He further stressed that African pedagogy needs a very long way
to go. From the above, it is evidenced that curriculum and university education
policies are not very kin in the inculcation of Africanized way of practices in the
classroom and that the Language in the place of diversities is a significant
challenge in the classroom that is diverse like South Africa.
This finding is supported by Joseph (2017), that the only way to ensure indignity
as against the colonial archive, the knowledge and the historical development
relating to curriculum must be deconstructed. From the above analysis, it is
therefore found out that the Africanised factors are not yet in the curriculum,
and the perpendicular of Language and Cultural diversities is confirmed to be a
challenge to the implementation of Africanised knowledge production in the
classroom. This finding also goes in consonance with the agitation of Lebeloane
(2018) that the curriculum deserves to be reconstructed to pave ways for the
implementers. This is practically what the agitation for decoloniality through
ubuntugogy is preaching. That is, to ensure the possibilities of Ubuntugogy as a
way of decoloniality, the curriculum and languaging will not be an extraneous
variable in the process. Because decoloniality and ubuntugogy according to
Ganyi and Owan (2016, p. 35) is transformational teaching and learning which
could make teaching and learning process more acceptably productive to
students.
9.2 Colonisation of Mind and Irresistible Western Classroom System

This challenge is not new in the education system, and it is perceived that the
system is inclined with the western way of doing that is uneasy to be dismantled
based on its long-standing practices of modernity. This idea is not too far from
what has dominated the mind of the lecturers and the students. This according
to Van Wyk (2002) have hindered the socially constructed knowledge and
interpretation of values and culturalism because the westernized mindset of the
practitioners portraits the Africanised way of doing as below standards. This is

23
evident in the fact that knowledge is linked to interest and power domination
(Badat, 1997), which is the dominance of the long-standing coloniality in the
universities. This has gone a long way to congest the mindset of the people to
believing that only acceptable ways of doing are the westernized and anything
short of that is targeted uncivilized. This does not only exist in our observations
and literature but also in the participants' statements as illustrated below;
LT1: “Inferiority complex is the case, lectures and parents alike believe that
using indigenous languages in the classroom setting will rubbish their
personalities, hence their continuous insistence on the use of foreign
languages”
ST4: “Western knowledge has reduced African knowledge into fiction and
ridiculed it to something that is unorthodox”
ST4: “beside the classroom, even there is no much-written work that is in

the African context”
From these statements, one could confirm that there is decolonization of life,
thinking and doing. The statement of LT1, confirmed that there is an inferiority
complex among the lecturers and the parents. This is evidence according to him
that parent is not confident in the locally way of doing things thereby will find it
difficult to enroll their children in such schools. Furthermore, there is a feeling
that using indigenous language or classroom practice is proof that such may be
tagged as rubbish and thereby affecting their social personalities. Because of this,
they prefer to engrain themselves in the assumed civilized (westernized) ways.
This complex as examined above according to ST4 confirms that western
knowledge as reduced African knowledge to nothing and making it look like a
fiction that is wallowing in the illusion of reality. This is not palatable but in
reality, that is what is playing to the gallery. That is why the perceptions of
people are that the British schools that operate within the British curriculum are
better than the national curriculum ones. This challenge according to ST4 is not
only peculiar to this perceived systematic marginalization but also in the world
of records. The ST4 stresses that there is not much written that is done in the
African context. This may not be that there is no writing that is done is such
context but could be that many such have imbibed the westernized content to
prove their worth.
From the above analysis, it seems that it may not be easy to completely
decolonised classroom for the purpose of re-establishing “ubuntugogy”. The
reason for this may not be restricted only to the fact that practitioners have been
systematically colonised from the aspect of knowledge construction. But another
fact emerging from the field is that almost all the practitioners are western-
trained. See the statements below;
LT2: “it is going to be a challenge to decolonise the African classrooms

because most of the teachers, as well as the children, are raised in a modern
way”
L4: “Influx of foreign teachers/lecturers who do not have indigenous

knowledge of teaching into the schools”.

24
The argument here is that the challenge regarding the implementation of

Africanised classroom pedagogy is facing so many extraneous problems such as
the fact that many teachers are trained in a westernized manner and as well as
students, most of them grown up where there were little or no experience about
local and indigenous knowledge. This may not go well even in the ideal and the
discourse is coming to reality. This bothers more on the law of realism that says
what cannot be seen may not be real. The finding is, therefore, that the mindset
and the way of doing of the people in the system are already indebted to
colonization and wiliness to promote the persistence coloniality exists among
them. On the other hand, western pedagogy and its practices, according to this
study, were found to be irresistible, though these findings may not be absolutely
defined the mind and the interest of this research location. I, therefore, argue in
line with Avis (1996) that production of knowledge in the classroom has been
swept under the carpet of Eurocentric practices that have propagated in power
dominance and social breakdown in general productivities. This is confirming
the true state of Ubuntugogy in universities as opined by Owan (2016) that the
best of “ubuntugogy” is still hidden because it was branded with the beauties of
culturalism, environmentalism, and Afrocentricism.
10. Solutions to the challenges of Afrocentric Classroom Pedagogy

Sub-themes under objective two that were analysed based on themes from the
raw data are; curriculum adjustment to accommodate trans-languaging and
cultural diversities, and inculcation of self-worth and self-esteem to respond to
the irresistibility.
10.1 Curriculum and or Policy Readjustment to Accommodate Languages and

Cultural Diversities
Based on the above challenges as emanated from the participants alongside the
analytical interpretations, one could confirm that the curriculum needs to be
readjusted to accommodate the issue of cultural diversities, language differences
in order to be able to respond well to the issue and agitations classroom
Africanisation. This may not be achievable in isolation, that is, the practical
involvement of leaders, most notably, those in the affairs of higher education
should ensure that all these agitations are incorporated; this in our argument
may equip the practitioners with necessary weapons to deal with the
deficiencies and any hidden trajectories of “Ubuntugogy”. This call is not only
based on our argument, but on the participants’ statements also justified the
need. See below;
LT3: “Need to identify an Authority saddled with the power to implement

the proposed education policy or create one if there exists none for effective
implementation of the policy”.
From this, one could say all eyes are on the leaders, the curriculum planners, the
policymakers to gear up and propound all-inclusive law that will inculcate the
spirit of multilingualism that could enhance the learning and the use of multiple
languages by the teachers and even the learners. This is pertinent because it is
deduced that diversity in terms of language and culture may not allow the

25
actualization of Africanised classrooms in the university system. The below

statements are also justifying the need though in slightly different manners;
L3: “we need to adopt a far-reaching indigenous language that is sufficient,

flexible and trans-ethnically acceptable to operationalize the policy”.
ST3: “we need a position to appreciate African languages then we will move
into incorporating the African knowledge into the curriculum.”
In line with the above, the formulation of inclusive curriculum/policies on

education will only survive if it is adapted with “a far-reaching indigenous
language that is sufficient, flexible and trans-ethnically acceptable to operationalize the
policy”. This position will enhance the appreciation of African cultures, language
and ways of doing. From this analysis, it is hereby found out that curriculum
and or policy readjustment to accommodate languages and cultural diversities is
essential, this is not an idea that is in isolation, this is in support of the call by
Lebeloane (2017) that there is a need for a deliberately planned curriculum
content that will expose students to themselves and the environment by
exposing the historical linkage of issues to the present and the future. This is also
supporting the conclusion of Grange (2017) that various forms of the curriculum
cannot be underrated when it comes to educational transformation.
10.2 Inculcation of Self Worth and Self Esteem to respond to

irresistibility
Self-worth and self-esteem are one of the factors that strengthen students,
teachers, lecturers, and other practitioners, according to Jan et al., (2015) enhance
their skills, develop them both mentally and physically. The wellness and ability
of the stakeholder as mentioned above are essential in what and how the school
operates and implementation of academic plans are done (Omodan, Ekundayo
& Bamikole, 2018). Self-confidence and self-esteem have been found by
researchers to be essential in the performance of lecturers and the students
(Kususanto, Ismail & Jamil, 2010; Mbuva, 2016). Going by these, the
recommendation of the practitioners’ self-efficacy that could promote self-belief
and worth among them is not out of place. This is also mentioned in the
participants' statement as a means to make bold to defend one history and
dimensions of culture, see below;
ST1: Practitioners who are knowledgeable in that area of expertise must

come forth and Africanism as a narrative and the true history behind it
because there are too many accounts of our history.
LT1: Teachers/lecturers and parents alike should see indigenous languages

as keys to all-round improvement and should learn from countries like
China, Japan, Germany.
These statements are coming as a perceived result of lack of self-worth, esteem,

and efficacy coupled with boldness to display and define oneself to the people.
This does not only bother on the lecturers and or students, but Africanism must
also be defined and popularised with a carefully defined history that makes
unity in diversity. The boldness to defend oneself among many olds also

26
accounts for why LT1 admonished that parents and lecturers should see
indigeneity as a way of life, as a means for growth and development. The reasons
why LT1 referred to countries such as China, Japan, and Germany are because
those countries are examples of countries where indignity and traditional ways
of doing dominates. Moreover, this has helped them rise among the countries of
the world. It is, therefore, found out that inculcation of self-worth and self-
esteem to respond to the irresistibility of western ways of doing could be one of
the solutions that could enhance the implementation of Africanised ways of
doing. This is supported by the finding of Jan, et al. (2015) that building more on
the teachers’ and students' self-esteem is a panacea of productivities and
performance. This could also be linked to the fact that when there is boldness
and self-belief, to challenge the hegemony of any kind in the classroom will be
activated and any forms of oppression, whether systematic, physical or hidden,
will be challenged. This is because self-esteem is essential in the performing
abilities of lecturers and the students (Mbuva, 2016).
11. Conclusion
In conclusion, as findings would have it that the challenges of the Afrocentric
classroom operation in universities are inabilities of the curriculum to
incorporate the principles of Ubuntugogy, and the perpendicular of language
and cultural diversities. Another challenge is the colonisation of mind and
irresistible western hegemony in the classroom. All these were found to be
essential if the agitation will be sustained. Along these, the solutions were
provided which includes, the quest that curriculum should be readjusted to
accommodate trans-languaging and cultural diversities. Not only that, all the
practitioners are also enjoyed to be endowed with entire self-worth and self-
esteem needed to respond to the irresistibility of modernity in classrooms.
However, the need for mass orientation that focuses on socio-psychological
decolonisation of students and lecturers against the Eurocentric influences of
modernity towards broad and legitimate acceptance of the proposed Afrocentric
pedagogy policy in teaching through the production of indigenous knowledge
in the University system. Therefore, Afrocentric education/curriculum may be
one dimensional and thus needs to be redirected to speak to the issues of
globalization; this will enhance the concept to operate within the ever-evolving
world where the education system seeks to produce 21st century and global
citizens.
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29

Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 29-43, April 2020
Restructuring the Teacher Education System in

Vietnam
Quang Hong Pham

Thai Nguyen University,
Thai Nguyen, 250000, Vietnam
Nam Danh Nguyen*

Thai Nguyen University of Education,
Thai Nguyen, 250000, Vietnam
Abstract. This paper presents international experiences and the real

situation of the teacher education system in Vietnam. This research has
also shown some challenges that teacher education institutions would
face within the context of radical and comprehensive education
renovation. Based on analyzing the teacher education system and
teacher education management, the paper presents some viewpoints
and principles for restructuring teacher education as well as draws
lessons for Vietnam in renovating the teacher education model. Then,
the paper proposes the new teacher education model and reorganized the
teacher education system, in which the research determines some key
educational universities and their “satellites” educational universities
and colleges at localities across the country. The paper also suggests a
solution for establishing the connection between key educational
universities and their satellites among the system so that it could meet
the requirements of the labor market and society. These suggestions
help educational universities and colleges to reorganize their functions
and missions of training future teachers. The research also makes a
contribution to change the policies for teachers and teacher education in
Vietnam.
Keywords: restructuring; teacher education; teacher education system;

teacher training; educational university; Vietnam
1. Introduction
In the trend of globalization, teachers must work in a multicultural, multi-ethnic,
multi-religious, multinational, and multi-lingual environment. This trend
requires teachers must not only meet the national professional standards but
also towards the international professional standards to be able to adapt to this
*
Corresponding author’s e-mail: danhnam.nguyen@tnue.edu.vn

30
working environment. That is also the challenge to train global citizens to adapt
to the world labor market (Quang, 2013; Binh, 2013; Ayesha, 2018). Therefore,
the impact of international integration trends on the professional standards of
teachers is a matter of concern in the process of teacher training. Furthermore,
the teacher labor market in the globalization trend is broad, open, and flexible.
Hence, if the teacher does not meet the requirements of international standards,
there is a risk of being unemployed (Sang, 2011; Quang, 2013; Michael, 2018).
Consequently, teacher training or educational universities must train teachers
who have the competencies to adapt to the international working environment.
Vietnam has faced with an urgent need for industrialization and modernization
in the context of a socialist-oriented market economy and global integration. The
government has been implementing a radical and comprehensive renovation in
education and training. In particular, the general education program in the year
2018 has crucial changes from educational objectives, learning content, methods
to evaluation methods, implementation conditions, and management systems.
Therefore, it is very necessary to renovate the teacher education system to train a
new model of teachers that satisfies the educational renovation (Binh, 2013;
Quang, 2013). The search for teacher training models suitable for the new
context which is conducted with a series of workshops on teacher education.
Moreover, the Ministry of Education and Training has developed teacher
standards, school standards, and requested educational universities to renew
training programs, program, and institution accreditation. In this circumstance,
the paper studies the experiences of successful institutions in the world in
teacher education. It draws lessons for Vietnamese higher education for
determining the direction in modernizing teacher training models.
International studies have shown that teacher education programs in many
countries have gradually developed from low-ranked teacher training
institutions to comprehensive universities. In Vietnam, the educational colleges
trained preschool, elementary school teachers, and educational universities
trained high school teachers. These institutions are being upgraded into
multidisciplinary universities to meet the growing needs for high-quality
teachers. Besides, educational schools and teacher training colleges integrated
into universities, and non-teacher universities are allowed to involve in teacher
preparation (Quang, 2013; Binh, 2013; Hieu, Nam, 2019). Reconstruction of
teacher education programs aims at establishing a new teacher education model
at universities where a college of education collaborates with other academic
colleges to educate prospective teachers. The system formed by teacher training
colleges and local educational universities that respectively trained prospective
teachers for preschools, elementary schools, and secondary schools. In Vietnam,
teacher training colleges and educational universities were public, managed by,
the model of the central planning economy. The resources, recruitment of faculty
and enrolment of students, approaches of teacher education, and allocation of
graduates were all decided and controlled by the Ministry of Education and
Training. The objective of this study is to investigate the real situation in the
teacher education system in some countries in the world and to evaluate the
system in Vietnam. After that, the study draws lessons for teacher education and
suggestions for restructuring the teacher education system in Vietnam that

31
satisfying the needs of the labor market, society, and international cooperation in
higher education.
2. Literature review
2.1 Teacher education management
The traditional teacher education system transformed into a new direction.
Teacher education programs did not solely retain in educational colleges and
universities; instead, more and more comprehensive colleges involved in
preparing teachers (Christie, Drew, 2017; James, 2018). The expansion of teacher
education programs into comprehensive colleges and universities is the most
radical change in the institutional structure of teacher education in the world.
But this kind of change has a limited impact on the teacher education system as
the majority of teachers who are still trained in teacher education colleges and
universities in Vietnam. Therefore, locating teacher education programs in
comprehensive universities will be the long-run goal for the reform of teacher
education (Sang, 2011; Quang, 2013). In many countries, teacher education
follows the market mechanism, according to the needs of the labor market.
However, because of the unique nature of each country, there are differences in
the role and intervention of the government in the teacher education system
(Susan, 2015; Saba et al., 2020). There is still centralized management of teacher
education systems such as South Korea, Singapore, France, Netherlands,
England, China, Japan, Hong Kong, etc. The Ministry of Education manages
almost all aspects of the teacher education process and diplomas or certificates
for teachers (Vidovich, 2008; Adele, 2009; Cheryl, 2016).
In South Korea, the main task of training teachers is from the universities of
education and the faculties of education in comprehensive universities. In the
past, too constricted regulations and deep government intervention prevented
the Korean education system from meeting the educational needs of the people.
Therefore, South Korea has reformed its education system towards a market-
based approach (Lee, 2000). In Singapore, the top-down management model is
applied uniformly in education. The Ministry of Education jointly researches the
problem of identifying human resource training needs for society and the
development trend of industries serving the requirements of economic
development, the Ministry of Manpower, and the Economic Development
Council, and then make recommendations to the universities. Therefore,
education policies effectively integrated with economic systems and human
resource training orientations (Cheryl, 2016; Oon-Seng, Woon-Chia & Ee-Ling,
2017).
In the Netherlands, the Ministry of Education and the Education Inspectorate
are responsible for state management of teacher training. The Ministry provides
guidelines, regulations, and guidelines to implement the requirements for
enrollment admission, output standards, and the content of teacher training
programs. In the United Kingdom, the Department of Teacher Training, the
Department of Education and Skills, the Education Standards and Teaching
Council are responsible for training and issuing certificates for teachers (Sun,
2004; Cheryl, 2016). Besides, these institutions are also responsible for

32
developing and issuing regulations on training and certification for teachers,

including a set of standards for testing teacher training programs, requirements
for early enrollment, input and output criteria, the content of teacher
certification exams, and teacher training programs.
In China, the teacher education system consists of 141 educational or “normal”
schools, including 37 educational universities. There are three types of
independent teacher training, namely: teacher education school, educational
school (including teacher training school), and vocational-technical schools.
Teacher education schools divided into educational universities, educational
institutes (colleges), and high schools. The educational schools divided into
senior national executive education institutes, provincial educational institutes,
regional city-level education institutes, district teacher training schools. Besides,
China has several multidisciplinary universities that also participate in teacher
training. The management of teacher training is in the form of a limited right
system, which means that the central government decides the development of
the teacher training system. Under state leadership, education authorities at all
levels directly manage the respective teacher training schools in the areas of
human resources, finance, and facilities (Paine, Fang & Wilson, 2006). Currently,
the Ministry of Education retains control of a small number of schools (less than
5% of the total number of universities and colleges), most of which are heavily
financially invested with the intention to become “world-class university”. Other
universities are financially funded and directly under provincial or municipal
governments or special zones. Generally, Chinese teacher training characterized
by an independent orientation-training model, organized and managed by the
State. The local government directly manages and supervises the direction of
educational organization, the structure of training majors and subjects,
personnel, enrollment, program content, financial allocation, etc. This article
helps the autonomy of educational schools increased significantly. Besides, the
Chinese government encourages comprehensive universities and technical
universities of good quality to participate in training primary and secondary
teachers. The advantage of comprehensive universities in general in teacher
training is to provide schools with excellent students, after being trained in
pedagogical skills for one to two years to become teachers (Paine, Fang &
Wilson, 2006; Zhu, Han, 2006; Oon-Seng, Woon-Chia & Ee-Ling, 2017).
Some countries have made full autonomy to higher education institutions in
training teachers such as the United States, Germany, Australia, Finland, etc.
Recruitment, training, and fostering teachers in many countries based on the
standardization principle, in which the most crucial standard is the teacher
career standard. Moreover, professional standards for teachers are issued and
managed by the government. Countries like the United States, Germany, and
Australia, these standards are assigned to the states to regulate. Educational
schools determine the content of the training program, but it must be assessed
and accredited by an independent national body or state inspection committee.
Therefore, universities, regardless of whether they are public or private, have
autonomy. The states authorize professional associations to develop professional
standards for teachers and oversee training schools according to the approved
standards. Thus, the United States, Germany, and Australia have a socio-

33
economy operating on the principles of a market economy, law, democracy, and

multiculturalism (Sun, 2004; Paul, 2015; Cheryl, 2016; Christie, Drew, 2017).
In Australia, until before the late 1980s, the Australian post-secondary education
system consisted of two sub-systems: a group of higher education institutions
and a group of colleges, including technical and educational colleges. However,
since the early 1980s, there have been many factors that require the integration
of colleges into universities. Specifically, the demand for teacher training has
been saturated, which makes it difficult for educational colleges to recruit
students. State budget spreads over many inefficient schools. Many colleges are
small in size that do not create conditions for faculty members to improve their
teaching and applied research capacity. In 1988, the Australian government
proposed a new policy (White Paper) to restructure the higher education system.
The scheme identifies the merger requirement to reduce the number of
universities and colleges but increases the training scale of facilities. Educational
colleges forced to merge or convert into universities to strengthen management
and investment efficiency (Paul, 2015; Susan, 2015).
In the United States, the national center for education statistics tasked with
making teacher demand forecasts. Some states also research and apply their
forecasting model. The model predicts the total number of new teachers that
need to be recruited based on the time series because teachers retired gradually
year by year and other reasons, as well as the increase of students enrolling. The
model uses the national center's educational statistics data from school surveys,
social human resource surveys, and other sources. In New Zealand, the teacher
replacement demand forecast focuses on understanding the factors that affect
the estimates of the number of teachers for the new school year to meet the
needs of schools (Paul, 2015; Cheryl, 2016; John, Mary, 2016). These factors
include the rate of transfer of students to the next level of education, the demand
for teachers, policy changes, the ratio of teachers/students, the teacher’s class
time, and the age of the teacher.
2.2 Restructuring the teacher education system
In China, the first teacher training facility established in 1897, which is Nanyang
Gongxe Public School in Shanghai, later Jiaotong University. Next was Jinshi
Daxuetang in 1898, then the Beijing University. In 1904, the first public
educational school was established. In the early stage, the Chinese educational
model is similar to the Japanese educational model from enrollment, program
content, training time and objectives. After that, the Chinese teacher training
system shifted to the French model. The training facilities are divided into two
levels, medium, and high quality, aiming to train primary and secondary
teachers. These schools later turned into educational schools. By 1920, there was
a significant change in modern Chinese society. The teacher training system was
learning from the Western model, especially the United States. In 1922, the
public school system changed to a six-three-three model similar to that of the
United States (six years of elementary school, three years of junior high school,
and three years of high school). The training of teachers is also diverse with
more models such as educational schools, specialized teacher training schools,
educational colleges and educational universities with the goal of training
teachers at the different levels of school (Paine, Fang & Wilson, 2006; Robyn et

34
al., 2017). At present, China has about 120 universities and colleges with teacher
training programs, including six key educational universities, 32 provincial
educational universities, educational faculties of interdisciplinary universities,
and other educational colleges. Key educational universities are identified based
on the tradition of research training, the quality of training, and the distribution
of six regions of China without any specific set of standards. These key
educational universities receive investment and budget support from the
Ministry of Education, and other educational universities only receive support
from the provinces or localities according to different levels. The function of the
key educational universities is to focus on training masters and doctors with
minimal training of bachelor. These universities are also different from the
provincial educational universities that focus on bachelor training. In summary,
there are five approaches to changing the institutional structure of teacher
education that have emerged in China. The first approach is that selective
teacher training or “normal” universities are changing from institutes preparing
teachers to comprehensive universities. Some national selective educational
universities transformed into comprehensive universities by expanding the
scope of their programs, such as establishing law programs and schools of
business. Some colleges combine to form a new educational university. The
second approach is that municipal educational schools, two- or three-year
teacher colleges, institutes of education, and teacher training schools
incorporated into four-year teacher colleges. Thirdly, some educational schools,
two- or three-year teacher colleges, institutes of education, teacher training
schools, and vocational colleges combined to become three-year comprehensive
colleges. Fourthly, some teacher colleges incorporate other kinds of colleges to
become universities. The last approach is to establish four-year colleges by
merging local and provincial four-year teacher colleges, two- or three-year
teacher colleges, and institutes of education (Sun, 2004; Zhu, Han, 2006).
In France, institutions of higher education and teacher training are subject to the
state and organizational administration of the Ministry of Education (manages
high school levels) and the Ministry of Higher Education & Research (manages
faculty, teacher, and research training). In 1989, France transformed teacher
training from a network of educational universities to teacher training institutes.
By 2008, these institutes transformed into faculties of teacher training at
universities. However, universities are not allowed to recruit and pay salaries for
their teachers and staff. Thus, the over-centralized management of the state,
leading to the lack of autonomy of training institutions, is one of the main
characteristics of the French education system (Cheryl, 2016; Eija, Raimo, 2017;
Rita, 2019).
In Australia, it has also experienced a boom in teacher training facilities in the
first half of the twentieth century in the context of a series of public high schools,
the demand for high school teachers increased. In 1970, the government
established and invested in teacher training colleges, creating a two-level teacher
training system: colleges and universities. The differences between teacher
training colleges and universities are: firstly, college lecturers have lower salaries
and do fewer scientific research; secondly, the teacher training program in
colleges towards the nature of vocational training; thirdly, colleges train only
preschool and primary teachers. By 1988, to improve the quality of teacher

35
training, the Ministry of Labor, Education & Training had made significant
decisions on Australian higher education, directly impacting teacher training.
Some teacher training colleges have evolved into teacher training universities,
with the training period increasing from three years to four years (Paul, 2015). A
part of lecturers at educational colleges is moving to work at educational
universities. With this reform, teachers’ training costs at educational schools
partly funded by student tuition fees and a large portion of government
funding. Teacher students are preferential with tuition policy, and the time to
pay is after graduation, going to work. In 2006, teacher training programs
extensively accredited across Australia, the results of which were the basis for
the Australian government to invest its budget. The Australian government
focuses on attracting excellent graduates to follow the teacher education path
with additional time of training. The Ministry of Education takes responsibility
for developing national standards for teachers, enrolling teacher students, and
improving the quality of data on teacher human resources. In 2011, Australia
promulgated a set of professional standards for teachers applicable to teachers
nationwide. Since 2012, teacher training programs have focused more on
pedagogical practice for students, with internships lasting from 12 to 20 weeks.
At the same time, the Government supports educational universities to develop
their expertise in teaching pedagogical practice. All Australian teacher training
colleges have educational experts who guide teachers in secondary schools
(Adele, 2009; Paul, 2015; Jean, Anja & Clare, 2019).
3. Research methods
To investigate the real situation of the teacher education system in Vietnam, a
survey was conducted in more than 20 universities and colleges of education
from December 2018 to December 2019. A questionnaire designed to examine
the restructuring of the teacher education institution system in the context of
radical and comprehensive education renovation. Additionally, more than 20
workshops and academic forums also organized to collect lecturers’ and
specialists’ ideas about some measures to reorganize the teacher education
system at some localities. In-depth interviews with 60 educational experts also
recorded and analyzed to evaluate the training competency of teacher education
institutions. As a result, some recommendations in this study based on these
experts’ points of view. The study also examined international experiences from
developed countries to suggest a teacher education model for Vietnam as well as
the solutions for restructuring the teacher education system for the whole
country.
4. Research results
4.1 The teacher education system in Vietnam
This study has conducted a survey and analysis of data in the last five years of
more than 20 teacher education institutions across the country to assess the
status of system restructuring, which focuses on analyzing distribution,
organization, resources, scale, and quality of these universities of education in

36
the system. From that, we propose the orientation of reorganizing these

universities and developing some key educational universities in Vietnam.
There are 114 teacher education institutions, including educational universities,
educational colleges, faculties of education in comprehensive universities, and
40 multi-disciplinary vocational training schools for training preschool teachers.
These institutions are distributed in all regions and localities (Lu, Anh, Van,
2019). Each province has at least one pedagogy school, primarily concentrated in
some big cities like Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City. In the period from the late
1990s to the early 2000s, the scale of teacher training institutions was expanded
mainly based on establishing faculties of education in multidisciplinary
universities, and many educational colleges were upgraded to comprehensive
universities but maintaining teacher training program. Consequently, the system
of teacher training is too widely distributed, resources scattered, and many
educational universities are small in size and low in quality. Most educational
universities are entirely independent in teacher training tasks, weak connectivity
in the system, no sharing of resources to improve the quality and effectiveness of
teacher training for the whole industry.
The training functions of many teacher training institutions are overlapping
because there is no specific assignment of tasks for each university in the system.
Also, the opening of many pedagogical training disciplines still relies on the
available competencies and experience. In some universities, there are faculties
of training that coincide with the critical training tasks of other educational
universities that wasting investment resources. In particular, there is no
connection between educational universities and localities. In other words, there
is no link chain of supply and demand for teachers which leads to an excess or
partial shortage of teachers. This is one of the emerging issues in recent years
that dramatically affects the quality of education in many localities and causes
pressing public opinion. Although the educational universities have increasingly
focused on the quality of training the training program is not consistent, the
output standards have not oriented towards developing students’ competencies,
not yet closely linked with professional standards teacher requirements. Many
students do not find suitable jobs after their graduation, even there is a shortage
of local teachers. This fact makes the society, especially students and parents
concerned, in many localities the lack of pedagogical enrollment sources and the
failure to attract good pupils at schools who are suitable for studying in the
teacher education program.
Moreover, quality assurance conditions, training capacity, and scientific research
capacity of educational universities are still limited. Professional qualifications
of lecturers have not yet met the requirements of training and renovating
general education and training. Teaching and scientific research are the two
main tasks of lecturers who are parallel and mutually related. The percentage of
lecturers with doctoral degrees in many educational universities is not high,
especially the universities with small training scale. Most professors, associate
professors, and doctors concentrated in educational universities in big cities like
Hanoi National University of Education (55.9% of lecturers with a doctorate),
Hue University of Education (49.6% of lecturers with a doctorate), Thai Nguyen
University of Education (48.5% of lecturers with a doctorate). The educational

37
colleges in some localities lack qualified lecturers; the percentage of lecturers

with doctoral degrees is only more than 4.0%. It expected that by 2022 these
universities will reach the rate of lecturers with a doctorate of 60%. With
favorable conditions for highly qualified staff, some educational universities
may focus on investing in building high-quality training programs. In many
educational universities, equipment for teaching and learning is too outdated or
has exploited for a long time, so it does not meet the requirements of applying
modern technology in education, especially in the context of the fourth
industrial revolution. Some educational colleges upgrade to universities or
switch to multidisciplinary training in the condition that they have not invested
in teaching facilities.
All of the educational institutions in Vietnam are public. Therefore, the revenue
of these institutions mainly based on the tuition subsidies provided by the state
per student, so the ability to develop and mobilize off-budget financial resources
is limited. Although nearly all educational universities have expanded into
training fields other than teacher training (multidisciplinary), funding is still
primarily based on the state budget. In recent years, the scale of the practice of
educational universities and colleges has decreased due to saturated teacher
training demand, resulting in low investment and economic efficiency. As such,
it is necessary to rearrange the network of educational institutions to focus
resources, increase investment in physical and financial facilities to promote
effectiveness for the whole system. The scientific research capacity of most
educational universities and colleges is weak, failing to meet the requirements of
teacher training and education science development. Currently, the new
educational universities focus on the task of short-term training and retraining,
not paying adequate attention to scientific research. There is no educational
university with a robust research group to strengthen research capacity in
educational science, develop general education programs, and consult policy
mechanisms for implementing new public education at schools.
When the socio-economic transition from a centralized mechanism, subsidy to a
market mechanism with macro-regulation, teacher education universities must
also have corresponding changes, the higher education system must undertake
the training of human resources not only for the State but also for many other
economic sectors. Training in order-based human resources, most training
products need to be highly adaptable to the labor market. Training human
resources for general education is also in the general trend of higher education.
If teacher training conducted according to the ordering mechanism, teacher
students after graduation will have to be assigned to work. Therefore, it can see
that the teacher training sector must adapt to the development of a market
economy. However, the scale of teacher training is unique because it will change
after a certain period due to reasons such as retired teachers, changes in
population size, renovation of education, and training with teacher policies.
Therefore, forecasting research on the need for training human resources for
learning is an urgent requirement to restructure the network of educational
universities.
The education sector lacks predictive capacity in the supply and demand of
human resources to meet the needs of the labor market. Educational universities

38
(especially local ones) enroll mainly on their training capacity but do not base on
the human resource needs of education, locality, and general integration
conditions. The increase of the training scale in some universities leads to the
difference between supply and demand teachers. Consequently, the students are
unable to find jobs after graduation. This situation also causes anxiety for
parents and students as well as has not attracted good candidates for admission
to educational universities as expected. Moreover, the lack of control of teacher-
student enrollment at some educational universities leads to a waste of state
budget allocations. As a result, tuition compensation in teacher training
institutions such as Hanoi National University of Education, Ho Chi Minh City
Pedagogical University, has a minimal investment. If teachers trained in a closed
model, it is necessary to set up the order mechanism of the State, local needs, or
other stakeholders. However, the current recruitment of teachers in localities is
undertaken by the Department of Interior Office according to the current
regulations on decentralization. At the same time, the Department of Education
and Training is the unit that manages and employs teachers. Therefore, choosing
the method of training teachers according to the ordering mechanism should
consider adjusting policies at a macro level. Besides, local education
management agencies and teacher training institutions have not been proactive
in forecasting the industry’s labor supply and demand to suit the population
size, population distribution, characteristics of geography, economy-society of
the region. The subsidy of teacher education tuition subsidies per student has
led universities to try to increase training targets to increase financial resources
according to their training capacity leading to the phenomenon of a partial
shortage of teachers in some subjects. Therefore, it is necessary to create
mechanisms to enhance the autonomy and accountability of educational
universities, helping teacher training institutions to promote their dynamism,
creativity, innovation, and autonomy. For that reason, the teacher training
institutions system should be restructured based on the needs of the labor
market through the choices of learners and society.
4.2 Viewpoints and principles for restructuring teacher education system
Based on the analysis of limitations and inadequacies of the teacher education
system and the educational experts’ opinion, this study proposes some
viewpoints for restructuring the teacher education system. Firstly, restructuring
of the teacher education system should base on quality standards and quality
assurance conditions. It creates the classification and mechanism of healthy
competition on quality among teacher education institutions, administration
innovation, training capacity building, and policies on teacher training. The
training must be associated with the needs of teachers in each locality and the
requirements of the curriculum. Secondly, overcoming the overlap, inefficiencies
of the current teacher education system; ensuring autonomy and accountability,
especially accountability for training quality; maximizing the available resources
of each institution to form a practical teacher education network; investing on
setting up some key educational universities with the role of leading the system;
and transforming some other educational universities and colleges into
“satellites” of the key educational universities in regions. Thirdly, the
implementation of arrangement needs an appropriate, inherited, and feasible
roadmap, so that teacher education institutions have enough time to reorganize

39
themselves. Restructuring should also pay attention to the distribution of

educational universities by geographical space to ensure regional factors,
suitable to population size, socio-economic development of the region, and each
locality. Finally, the State should play a central management role in the field of
teacher education, promote socialization, mobilize and effectively use all
resources invested in education; strengthen interconnection between the
educational universities and the labor market in the training process; enhancing
the responsibilities of supervision of the Ministry of Education and Training.
Based on those basic viewpoints, this study proposes some principles for
restructuring teacher education system. Firstly, the restructuring must be based
on a set of educational university regulations, creating conditions for ensuring
the quality of education and improving the efficiency of the global education
system. The Ministry of Education and Training needs to develop a set of
educational university standards, and then evaluate the training capacity
according to these standards to identify key or “satellite” teacher education
institutions. It is necessary to determine the functions and roles of the key
educational universities and their satellites in the system. The key educational
universities must play a leading role in the system, improving the effectiveness
and quality of teacher education throughout the country. Secondly, restructuring
of educational universities must take into account geopolitical, socio-economic,
and regional factors. The consideration of geopolitical factors aimed at
stimulating the steady development among regions, creating favorable
conditions not only in the teacher training process but also teachers’ continuous
professional development. It is crucial to develop the key teacher education
institutions in big cities as well as to distribute teacher education institutions in
regions, especially in the mountainous and remote areas. This distribution
creates favorable conditions for students and recruit teachers for localities.
Thirdly, restructuring the teacher education system should take into account the
context of basic and comprehensive renovation in education and training, the
meaning of international integration, the new trend in the world in teacher
education, and the change in personality model of future teachers. To
successfully implement the new general education program requires educational
universities to restructure, renovate curriculum and training models following
the national qualification framework and Association of Southeast Asian
Nations qualification framework. Some researches have shown that educational
universities tend to become multidisciplinary universities and educational
colleges upgrade into comprehensive universities (John, Mary, 2016; Christie,
Drew, 2017; Michael, 2018). The need for the number of teachers is no longer
urgent, even redundant. Still, the professional quality requirements of the
teachers are critical to meet the global integration and general education
renovation as well. Therefore, the system needs to ensure the interconnection
among key educational universities, multidisciplinary universities, and
educational colleges at localities. Fourthly, the teacher training model needs to
meet the requirement of using the teacher force of society, paying attention to
the “market areas” factor, the attractiveness and the spread of key educational
universities. Besides, ensuring the requirements of teacher training according to
practical needs to serve private schools, international schools in the country,

40
from which it is necessary to orient the supply of teachers for the regional and
global labor market.
4.3 Lessons for restructuring teacher education system
Over the past decade, many notable positive changes have occurred in teacher
education systems in many countries around the world. In Vietnam, there are
following challenges that teacher education system would face with: (i) a diverse
society in the process of stable economic development; (ii) the relationship
between government, society, and teacher education institutions; changes in the
governance role of government; significant differences between the quality of
teachers in urban and rural areas; (iii) inheritance or innovation in teacher
education change in which educational universities tend to be multidisciplinary
and research-oriented; (iv) the reform of teacher education influenced by the
globalization and the context of international teaching staff.
There are several educational universities and colleges that are psychologically
waiting for a change in the State’s investment and remedy policies for teacher
education but are not ready to renew themselves. Hence, restructuring the
teacher education system help overcome the dispersion, spreading, and
duplication of functions of the current system, linking training with user needs,
focusing on quality and efficiency of the training process, ensuring inheritance,
feasibility, promoting self-control and accountability of educational universities.
However, this study would not present a detailed solution for reorganizing the
teacher education system as well as social impact after restructuring. To
implement this task, the government should encourage educational universities
or colleges to voluntarily merge or join by the law to focus resources, improve
the quality and effectiveness of training. Educational universities and colleges
that overlap in terms of their functions in the same locality must have a roadmap
to merge into one teacher education institution or change into local educational
service centers.
From analyzing the above challenges, this study draws lessons for restructuring
teacher education system in Vietnam. The Ministry of Education and Training
has centralized management of teacher training, but it needs to give more
autonomy to educational universities. The Ministry only manages at the macro
level like issuing educational policies, professional standards for teachers,
teacher education program standards, output standards, and program
accreditation standards. It should establish some key educational universities
under the direct management of the Ministry of Education and Training,
allowing them to conduct multidisciplinary training and also allowing
comprehensive universities to open a new teacher education program. The
government focuses on investing resources for key educational universities to
train high-quality teachers and meet international teacher education standards.
It is also necessary to maintain teacher education institutions in localities,
especially in regions with typical cultural characteristics and areas of ethnic
minorities. However, it needs to merge teacher education institutions in the
same location, allowing teachers to be trained at provincial colleges (to train
local preschool teachers and to be continuing education centers for fostering
local teachers and educational managers). The key educational universities take
the responsibility to train high-quality teachers and foster core teachers and

41
educational managers at the localities. Finally, it should build close relationships

between educational universities and their satellites, schools, and society in
teacher training and fostering, educational scientific research, and providing
educational services for the community. To build this relationship, it is necessary
to clearly determine the functions and roles of key universities and universities,
colleges at the localities. Specifically, the key education universities must focus
on high-quality teachers and post-graduate training. Satellites universities and
colleges must focus on developing bachelor programs, training and re-training
teachers for localities.
5. Conclusions
In some developed countries, the educational universities built, and the
organizational structure is in comprehensive universities. In Vietnam, most
localities have teacher education institutions from colleges to universities.
Therefore, the higher education master plan and data on human resource needs
for the industry will help key educational universities and colleges at the
localities to determine the training scale. Also, it is necessary to develop an
orientation to enhance the efficiency of investment, improve the quality of
graduates, and propose practical teacher training and fostering solutions to
make the network of educational universities effective and sustainable. On the
one hand, it is also crucial to establish some key educational universities to
concentrate investment resources to enhance the quality of teaching staff at
schools. On the other hand, it acts as a focal point to connect “satellites”
educational universities/colleges in localities to perform the tasks of fostering
teachers and educational managers.
In general, firstly, it should strengthen the network of teacher education
institutions based on stratification by level, type of training, and socio-economic
characteristics of each region. Secondly, it should decentralize the management
of teacher education institutions to promote autonomy, creativity, and self-
responsibility in teacher training. Thirdly, it is necessary to support scientific
research projects, especially educational sciences in educational universities.
Fourthly, the investment in facilities for educational universities must be
associated with capacity training for staff and lecturers of these institutions to
limit wasteful expenditure. Smart classroom/lab models can invest efficiently,
but performance is also an issue that needs to address. Fifthly, to restructure a
network of teacher education bases on a socialist-oriented market economy, that
is, both ensure the autonomy of educational universities and ensure uniformity
in administration. In other words, restructuring the teacher education system
must be combined with renovating university administration and enhancing
training capacity on teacher education.
6. Acknowledgments
This paper supported by a research grant from the National Educational Science
Program code KHGD/16-20 with the study “Research on restructuring the
network of teacher training institutions in Vietnam to 2025, vision to 2035”.

42
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44

Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 44-61, April 2020
Factors Influencing the Sustainability of Quality

Performance from the Viewpoint of Teaching
Staff: An Applied Study at the University of Petra
Maram Fouad Abu Al-Nadi and Dina Mohamed Said Qarashay

University of Petra
Amman, Jordan
Abstract. This objective of this study is to identify the factors which

influence the sustainability of the quality performance at Petra University
from the faculty members’ points of view. The participants were the
teaching staff from the University of Petra. Out of 283 staff, 103 members
took part in this study. A questionnaire consisting of 34 items was
developed. The results showed that governance, educational programs,
job satisfaction, and job performance were significant factors for the
sustainability of quality performances at the University of Petra. The
results also revealed that there is a meaningful relationship between
sustainable factors and gender, while no significant differences could be
attributed to academic rank or college type. Thus, these factors were
recommended to be enhanced and developed based on quality standards.
Keywords: quality sustainability; job performance; faculty members;

University of Petra
1. Introduction
The development of education in general and higher education, in particular, has
become a necessity for writers, intellectuals and educators in the Arab world since
the educational process did not achieve the desired objectives in keeping up with
the scientific, technical, and informational developments. By establishing and
developing specialized bodies or councils for academic accreditation and quality
assurance, many Arab countries have strived for reforms in the higher education
for the proper educational and academic standards that serve the community and
the academic institution itself by (Taha, Taha & Dalimi, 2015). However, a
profound and radical changes in all aspects of society in connecting higher
education with the needs and concerns of the community is required. A
reconsideration of the function of the universities, providing the appropriate
outputs to the labor market and the adoption of a knowledge-based economy is
also required. Therefore, the development of personal skills and capabilities is a
must (Mohammed, Jassim, Jbouri, Abdurahman & Abdalrazzaq, 2015).

45
The application of quality systems is essential in enhancing the current practices

in the higher education institutions. It is also important to develop strategies and
plans, take actions to fill the gaps, and optimize the possibilities for better
performances (Al-Kasr, 2018). Quality of education reflects the ability of the
educational institution to perform and prepare graduates capable of meeting the
needs of the society and that of labor market (Mohammed, 2012). The University
of Petra (UoP) is a Jordanian university that plays a distinctive role in the
preparation of cadres who are qualified for the achievement of comprehensive
development of staff skills, knowledge enrichment and application of knowledge.
The University of Petra is active in developing communication with its
surrounding community, participating in regional and international scientific and
cultural events in order to boost scientific research in various fields. Creating job
opportunities, practicing its social responsibility, offering diverse educational
programs, and updating its curriculum to align with the latest teaching methods
and scientific research, are some of its other important objectives (University of
Petra, 2019).
Currently, the world is witnessing a lot of competition in quality performance

with focus on social opportunities and potential. A quality performance is an
important process for management that necessitates planning and developing,
and it need to be aligned with the needs and capabilities of the organisation.
Quality objectives for higher education was summarised by Martin (2017).
Quality objectives in higher education

The goals of the quality assurance system in higher education institutions are as
follows (Raqqad, 2014; Olimat, 2015; Al-Ameen, 2017): with the increase of higher
education institutions, the government stressed that the quality of education to
ensure that its outcomes meet the needs of the labor market must be controlled;
accountability and transparency must be upheld in order to ensure that
institutions of higher education are consistent with the general policy orientations
of the state and current practices must be improved by conducting self-evaluation
that helps decision-makers to develop strategies and plans towards better
performance.
Sustainability of quality performance in higher education institutions

Governance
The concept of university governance has recently emerged to reflect the real crisis
of the institutions of higher education, where some universities develop its
executive authority or make-decisions in isolation from students and staff
members’ interest. That reinforces the culture of the reluctance of participation,
weakens the development of the university and the academic institution and
scientific orientations. Due to the lack of transparency and management
accountability mechanisms, the education process as a whole can be negatively
affected. Accordingly, the government aims at bringing all parties to their
responsibilities, which ultimately, it is hoped, will reflect in better performances
from students, faculty members, administrative staff and other university staff
(Halawah & Taha, 2011).

46
Academic programs
Academic programs are a set of mechanisms used to achieve knowledge, skills,
and services provided by the university within a limited period. However, a
collection of factors to achieving quality performance sustainability in the
educational programs are: measurable and specific objectives of the academic
programs, effectiveness of the curriculum, effectiveness of teaching and learning
methods and the effectiveness of administrative mechanisms (Association of Arab
Universities, 2015).
Job satisfaction
Many factors contribute to job satisfaction and these can be categorised into three
groups (Ahmed, 2011): individual factors, organizational factors and
environmental factors. Individual factors include the capacity of the personnel,
their motivation, age, experience and scientific qualifications. Organizational
factors are related to the organization type, work field, quality, and
responsibilities of employees and the relationship among staff, colleagues, and
supervisors. Environmental factors include the work environment, society's
perception, employee appreciation of his/her own role and the his/her degree of
integration in the workplace.
Job performance
This refers to the degree to which employee's tasks are to be fulfilled. Often, there
is confusion and overlap between performance and effort, as the latter relates to
the energy expended by the employee while performing a mission. In contrast,
production is measured based on results, as emphasized by Abu Sharkh (2010)
and Al-Froukh (2011). The organization can only compete if high performance is
one of its most essential characteristics. This performance stems from the outcome
of the individual performances in the organization as a whole.
Problem statement
The sustainability of quality in the performance of universities is one of the main
pillars of a good education and one which is required to promote active learning
that complies with the rapid technical, scientific, and cognitive evolution all over
the globe. Hence, this study aims at revealing the factors which influence the
sustainability of the quality performance of The University of Petra from the
viewpoint of its teaching staff. The potential factors are shown in Figure 1.
Questions of the study

This study aims at answering the following questions:
Question 1: What are the factors influencing the sustainability of the quality
performance of the University of Petra from the viewpoint of its faculty members?
Question 2: Are there any significant differences at the (α ≤ 0.05) level which
influences the sustainability of quality performance of the University of Petra
from the viewpoint of its faculty members owing to gender, academic rank, and
college type?

47
Factors influencing
the sustainability of
quality performance Job Performance
Governance
Job Satisfaction
Academic Programs
Demographic
data
Figure 1. Factors influencing the sustainability of quality performance
Importance of the study

The significance of this study lies in the information and ideas associated with the
quality of performance of Jordanian universities, which will contribute to the
promoting of Jordanian higher education. The study results may benefit the
Ministry of Higher Education with its accreditation programs, Presidents of
Jordanian universities by improving the conditions of the institutional
environment and researchers by providing a theoretical framework and a deeper
insight into the factors which influence the sustainability of quality in Jordanian
universities.
Definitions
Quality is a systematic process of class screening that leads to ensure excellent
from educational institutions (or academic programs), meets regional and
international standards so that the institutions can continuously improve its
performance (Al-Khatib & Al-Khatib, 2010). Sustainability of quality is recognized
by the researcher as continuing quality, persistence, survival, and fulfilment
through all the operations of the foundation. Job performance is the academic and
administrative duties entrusted by the faculty members following the regulations
and the instructions of the university (Sarairah, 2011).
Limitations of the study

The research was to the faculty members of the University of Petra in the
2017/2018 academic year.

48
Al-Nukari and Al-Tarawneh (2018) investigated the degree to which Jordanian
universities achieve quality assurance standards from the deans of the faculties
and academic department heads’ point of view. 59 deans and 161 department
heads took part in the study. They were chosen intentionally from three national
and three private universities in Jordan. The findings showed that the degree to
which Jordanian universities achieve quality assurance standards was high.
According to the job title variable, there were significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05)
in the estimates of faculty deans and department heads of the degree to which
Jordanian universities achieve quality assurance standards. Provision of material
and moral support from deans and department heads can have a significant
impact to which quality are met in Jordanian universities.
The study of Olkiewicz (2018) aimed at showing that improving quality through
foresight could be a tool for shaping efficiency in the organization, which in turn
might also be a way of strategic management and development of different
aspects of the organization. The results showed that the application of foresight
identifies organizational, administrative, and social changes that affect innovation
(including the diversification of technological processes and automation),
production dynamics, sales, and quality in the organization. The results also
showed that “quality insight " can become a trend that includes the main strength
to improve quality, competitiveness, productivity, and efficiency in the
development of the organization.
Wei and Baocun (2018) studied the government-led university education

assessment system in China which improved the quality of colleges and
universities. They noted that China had conducted five rounds of evaluation since
the 1990s and gradually developed a "five-in-one" evaluation system. The results
showed that there were some problems in terms of diversity of evaluation
subjects, dominance of government administration, lack of uniformity of the
system, arbitrary application of evaluation, poor feedback channels for evaluation
of results, and difficulty to achieve improvements. The study recommended that
there should be exerted effort to increase the enthusiasm of colleges. Universities,
however, should be promoted by strengthening their role of evaluation. In
addition to enhancing evaluation laws, improving feedback channels, and
allowing independent evaluation to be held substantially improves the quality of
higher education.
A study by Tadesse, Manathunga and Gillies (2018) was aimed at identifying

mechanisms to assess the quality of higher education but it was limited to
compliance and accountability. It worked on studying the perceptions of a group
of stakeholders on the quality of teaching and learning, evaluation, and review of
experiences in higher education in Ethiopia. The results showed that current
quality improvement efforts are fragmented and geared towards quality
assurance rather than more general and permanent improvements. It also showed
that most of the quality, evaluation concerns, and audit practices only led to more
than mere preparation and execution of official reports in a very random manner.
The study recommended an effective internal system, formative evaluation, and

49
support for those working in the sector as a critical tool to implement quality
improvements.
The main objective of Belash et al. (2015) was to evaluate quality assurance of
educational programs according to the task (act, check, do, and plan), by
monitoring the satisfaction of stakeholders with the results of education. One of
the main findings of the study is that higher education institutions can adopt a
methodology to monitor the satisfaction of students, graduates, and stakeholders
as a mechanism to ensure the quality of academic programs.
A study by Badrakhan (2013) was aimed at assessing the extent of the application
of quality standards, and quality assurance at the Amman National University in
Jordan and to reveal the impact of the college and experience variables in the
estimates of teaching staff members. The results showed that quality standards
and quality assurance at the Amman National University was high. But it also
showed a lack of impact on the experience and college variables in the opinions
of faculty members and the adoption of inadequate incentive measures.
A study by Tarabulsieh (2011) was aimed at identifying the availability, the

application of the areas of self-evaluation and quality standards in the Syrian
higher education and scientific research institutions, based on views of a
representative sample of faculty members and postgraduate students at Syrian
government universities. The results showed that a low level of application of the
self-evaluation areas and quality standards by faculty members and students.
An accreditation and quality control model for higher educational institutions in

the Arab World was proposed by Al-Khatib & Al-Khatib (2010). It was hoped that
his model would contribute to improve the performances of universities, align
their outputs with the requirements of the labor market and meets the needs of
sustainable development plans. The results showed a very high degree of
consensus among the members of the research sample (university presidents and
their deputies, specialists in accreditation and quality control, members of the
accreditation and quality control bodies, etc).
A study by Bouzian (2010) illustrated the advantages and disadvantages of

applying total quality management in learning. The most important focus of the
study was to support quality management, establish its own culture, organise
continuous training for staff and delegation of authority. The study also stated
that one of the obstacles is the lack of compatibility between the organizational
cultures prevailing in educational institutions with quality management
concerning the organizational cultural dimensions such as leadership structures,
the need for continuous improvements and creativity.

50
3. Methodology
A descriptive approach is the most appropriate method for this research.
Population of the study

The community of this research consists of all the faculty members at the
University of Petra, which numbered 283, according to the official statistics issued
by the Department of Higher Education for the year 2017/2018.
Sample of the study

The sample of the study consisted of 103 faculty members who were randomly
selected from the population (Sekaran & Bougie, 2016) but were then categorized
by gender, academic rank and college type. Table 1 shows the distribution of the
sample population according to these demographic variables.
Table 1: The distribution of the study sample
Variables Levels No.

Male 59
Gender
Female 44
Assistant Professor 64
Academic Rank Associate Professor 24
Professor 15
Humanities 62
Type of college
Applied Sciences 41
Total 103
Study scale
Based on the literature review, the researchers have set a questionnaire with 34
items to measure the factors influencing the sustainability of quality performance
for the staff members, using the Likert scale (very high, high, medium, low, very
low).
Questionnaire authority
The questionnaire has been presented to ten arbitrators in the same specialization
to confirm the tool used in terms of construction integrity and clarity of language.
The comments of the arbitrators were then taken into consideration to improve
the questionnaire.
Validity of scales
The research instrument was reviewed in two different languages, English and
Arabic, by academics. Thus, the researchers guarantee the validity of this tool.
Reliability
To assess the authenticity of the measurement scale and to evaluate the
questionnaire internal consistency, a Cronbach Alpha value was calculated. The
value for each area is provided in Table 2.

51
Table 2: Internal consistency factors for each tool area
No. Area Rank of paragraphs Cronbach’s Alpha

1 Governance 9 .89
2 Academic programs 14 .90
3 Job satisfaction 5 .89
4 Job performance 6 .88
Total 34 .96
Study variables
Based on the research objectives and questions, the study variables were: gender
(male and female), academic rank (assistant professor, associate professor, and
professor), college type (humanities and applied sciences).
Statistical tool
The data collected from the questionnaires were analyzed using SPSS v22, along
with the following: the number of times a repeating event occurs per unit of time
(frequency), measures of central tendency, extraction of arithmetic mean and
standard deviation, T-tests to determine the significance and differences between
the independent variables and Cronbach Alpha to verify the stability of the
coefficient for internal consistency. The 5-grade Likert scale for respondents’
scores was used as the following: very weak (1.00 to 1.80), weak (1.81-2.60),
medium (2.61-3.40), high (3.41-4.20) and very high (4.21-5.00).
4. Results
Question 1: What are the factors influencing the sustainability of the quality
performance of the University of Petra according to staff opinion?
To answer this question arithmetic means and standard deviations for factors
influencing the sustainability of quality performance of the University of Petra,
were calculated. The results reveal that governance was ranked first with an
average of 4.54 and a standard deviation of 0.53, followed by academic programs
with an average of 4.41 and a standard deviation of 0.51. In contrast, job satisfaction
ranked third with an average of 4.39 and a standard deviation of 0.72. However,
the fourth place was occupied by job performance with an average of 4.30 and a
standard deviation of 0.73, as shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Arithmetic means and standard deviations of the factors influencing the
sustainability of quality performance of the University of Petra
Rank Area Mean Standard deviation Degree

1 Governance 4.54 .53 Very high
2 Academic Programs 4.41 .51 Very high
3 Job satisfaction 4.39 .72 Very high
4 Job Performance 4.30 .73 Very high
Scale as a whole 4.42 .52 Very high

52
Governance
Arithmetic means and standard deviations were used to determine the impact on
governance on the quality performance sustainability at the University of Petra.
The results demonstrate that item 1, which states that "work on issuing regulations,
instructions and policies", ranked first with an average of 4.74 and a standard
deviation of 0.52. Item 5 which states that "the existence of the governance councils
and defining their tasks and responsibilities" ranked second with an average of 4.70
and a standard deviation of 0.58. Item 9 which states that "the existence of procedures
for awarding, penalties and follow-up of grievances" ranked last with an average of
4.35 and a standard deviation of 0.83. However, the mean for this domain as a
whole was 4.54 and the standard deviation was 0.53, which equals a "very high"
rating, as shown in Table 4.
Table 4: Mean and standard deviations of the study sample estimates of the impact of
governance on quality sustainability in the performance of the University of Petra
Standard
No. Paragraphs Mean Rank Degree
deviation
Working on the promulgation
1 of regulations, instructions, and 4.74 .52 1 Very high
policies.
The existence of the governing
5 councils and the definition of 4.70 .58 2 Very high
their tasks and responsibilities.
Work on evaluation, review,

2 4.60 .65 3 Very high
and development.
Working on documentation and

3 4.59 .66 4 Very high
publishing.
Application of transparency in
7 the implementation of all the 4.53 .78 5 Very high
work of the enterprise.
Existence of performance
6 appraisal and accountability 4.53 .75 5 Very high
procedures.
Adoption of organizational
4 structures and mechanisms for 4.42 .86 6 Very high
their construction and review.
Existence of justice and equal

8 4.40 .87 7 Very high
opportunity procedures.
Existence of procedures for

9 granting incentives, sentencing, 4.35 .83 8 Very high
and follow-up of grievances.
The area as a whole 4.54 .53 Very high

53
The researchers attribute this finding to the fact that the University of Petra
depends on governance for the sustainability of is quality. It takes organizational
and administrative structures that correspond with its mission and objectives to
develop operational plans, regulations, instructions, and policies, as well as
defining the tasks and responsibilities and actions to assess performance and
accountability. All these are within the framework of equal opportunities and
justice for all employees of the university. Nevertheless, specific procedures for
awarding incentives or penalizing through transparency exist.
This result is in contrast with the findings of Tadesse, Manathunga and Gillies
(2018), who showed that quality improvement efforts are separated, and most of
the quality and evaluation concerns and administration practices lead only to the
preparation and execution of randomly placed official reports. However, the
results are in agreement with Bouzian (2010), who showed that the most critical
focus of research is to support quality management, establish a culture of
continuous training in individuals and to delegate authority. Our results are also
in agreement with Al-Nukari and Al-Tarawneh (2018).
Academic programs
Arithmetic means and standard deviations were calculated to determine the
impact of educational programs on the sustainability of quality at the University
of Petra. The results show that item 15, which states that "clearness of the study plans
for the programs offered”, has ranked first with an average of 4.72 and a standard
deviation of 0.49. Item 10, which states that “foundation, development, and cessation
of academic programs”, ranked second with an average of 4.55 and a standard
deviation of 0.70. Item 1), which states that “an interactive relationship between
faculty members and staff of database and library” ranked last with an average of 4.17
and a standard deviation of 0.94. However, the mean for this domain as a whole
was 4.41 and the standard deviation was 0.51, which equals a "high" rating, as
shown in the Table 5.
Table 5: Mean and standard deviations of the study sample on the impact of academic
programs on the durability of quality in the performance of University of Petra
Standard
deviation
Clarity and complementarity of Very

15 4.72 .49 1
study plans for the programs. high
Establishment, development, and

Very
10 discontinuation of academic 4.55 .70 2
high
programs.
The existence of policies and
Very
11 procedures for student transition 4.48 .64 3
high
and equivalency of courses.
An adequate number of teachers
Very
18 with appropriate qualifications and 4.48 .77 3
high
disciplines for programs and levels.

54
Standard
deviation
The harmony between the
Very
16 applications presented with the 4.47 .65 4
high
university vision, mission, and goals.
The existence of policies and
Very
21 procedures for evaluating student 4.44 .79 5
high
performance.
Providing the necessary educational Very

19 4.42 .79 6
resources for academic programs. high
Policy and procedures for the

Very
22 performance appraisal of faculty 4.40 .73 7
high
members are available.
Working on the publication of
Very
14 expected learning outcomes for all 4.40 .83 7
high
academic programs offered.
Commitment to the time allotted for Very

20 4.38 .76 8
the plans presented. high
Continuous improvement of Very

12 4.31 .85 9
teaching and learning processes. high
The existence of academic guidance Very

17 4.31 .83 9
programs for students. high
Learning outcomes align with labor Very

23 4.25 .97 10
market requirements. high
An interactive relationship between

13 faculty members and staff of 4.17 .94 11 High
databases.
Very
The area as a whole 4.41 .51
high
The researchers attribute this ‘very high’ result for the quality of academic
programs at Petra University due to the clarity of vision in these programs, the
knowledge of resource persons, the presence of learning outcomes, measurable
skills, and that the objectives of these programs are international known. The
continuous educational development for faculty members through participation
in research, training in the latest scientific education and keeping up with the
recent advancements in the different fields of specialization has also helped the
University of Petra achieved this ‘very high’ result. It should also be noted that
there is constant communication between faculty members and technical &
administrative staff. Moreover, there is a fluid communication between faculty
members and students, with an integrated information system being to evaluate
the work of faculty members so that they can improve their performances.

55
This result agrees with Belash et al. (2015), who showed that higher education
institutions can adopt a methodology to measure the satisfaction of
undergraduates, graduates and other stakeholders in order to ensure the quality
of academic programs. The added value approach confirms the validity of the
graduate satisfaction for the education they are receiving.
C. Job satisfaction
impact of job satisfaction on the sustainability of quality at the University of Petra.
The results show that items 27 and 24, which respectively states that "the
participation of faculty members in the process evaluation of educational outcomes" and
"the staff member's sense of job security at the university", have together occupied the
first place with a common average of 4.46 but with standard deviations of 0.85
and 0.88, respectively. Item 26, which states that “the participation of faculty member
in decision-making concerning education and learning policies", has ranked in the
second place with an average of 4.38 and a standard deviation of 0.81. Item 25,
which states that “the faculty member is supported when exposed to an administrative
problem”, ranked last with an average of 4.31 and a standard deviation of 0.88.
However, the mean for this area as a whole was 4.41 and the standard deviation
was 0.51, which equals a "very high" assessment rating, as shown in Table 6.
Table 6: Mean and standard deviation for the sample estimates of the impact of
functional satisfaction on quality sustainability at the University of Petra
Standard
No. Paragraph Mean Rank Degree
deviation
Involvement of faculty members in
Very
27 the process evaluation of educational 4.46 .85 1
high
outcomes.
The staff member's sense of job Very

24 4.46 .88 1
security at the university. high
The participation of a member of the

teaching staff to make decisions to Very
26 4.38 .81 2
develop education and learning high
policies.
The satisfaction of the teaching staff
about the services provided Very
28 4.35 .92 3
(appointment, training, scholarship, high
attendance at conferences, etc).
The faculty member received support
Very
25 when exposed to an administrative 4.31 .88 4
high
problem.
Very
high

56
The views of the teaching staff on the job satisfaction were in the ‘very high’
category, which confirms that the working environment and the organizational
climate at the university are very comfortable, and that their job provides them
with an appropriate social status. The researchers also attribute this result to the
fact that the improvement of the work environment had a vital role in increasing
the employee’s loyalty with their organizations. When faculty members work in
an appropriate and comfortable work environment, they will provide the
organization with all their energies they can. The positive work environment,
such as the freedom in making decisions, participation in the evaluation
processes, clarity of responsibilities, appropriate rules and regulations, and
organizational support contribute to raising the level of efficiency of the scholars
and increasing job satisfaction, which automatically increase productivity. The
University of Petra also encourages opportunities for professional development,
and self-development, which can guarantee job security. However, our results are
not in agreement with Bouzian (2010), as his results showed that one of the most
critical constraints towards quality practices is the inadequacy of the
organizational culture at the educational institutions. And this is to the following
obstructions: the centralization of decision-making, staff weakness and inability
in the field of quality management, inadequate quality of the educational service
offered to students to meet their expectations and needs, the lack of association
between the university and the relevant sectors of the labor market, and the
resistance to change by specific employees or whole departments.
Job performance
impact of job performance on the sustainability of quality at the University of
Petra. The results showed that item 29, which states that "the commitment of faculty
members to the areas of continuous improvement”, ranked first with an average of 4.50
and a standard deviation of 0.74. Item 30, which states that "the presence of open
channels of communication between different administrative levels”, ranked second
with an average of 4.36 and a standard deviation of 0.84. Item 33, which states that
"the university adopts reference of comparisons to measure job performance", ranked last
with an average of 4.18 and a standard deviation of 1.06. Thus, the mean on this
domain as a whole was 4.30 and the standard deviation was 0. 73, which equals a
"very high" rating, as shown in Table 7.
The researchers attribute this ‘very high’ result for the job performance variable to
the constant improvements that are done in this area at the University of Petra.
The results have also shown that the more the university improvements increase,
the more the job performance increase. Hence, universities should work on an
ongoing growth in their staff. Also, the application of quality management and its
role in improving the performance of employees will help in the employment of
the concept of quality assurance system. These results are in agreement with the
study done by Badrakhan (2013), in which the application of quality standards
and quality assurance at Amman National University came first. Badrakhan
(2013) study focused on the need to adopt adequate incentive systems for workers
in order to increase their productivity.

57
Table 7: Mean and standard deviations for the study sample estimates of the impact of
job performance on the sustainability of quality at the University of Petra
Mean Standard
No. Paragraph Rank Degree
deviation
The commitment of faculty members
Very
29 to the areas of continuous 4.50 .74 1
high
improvement.
The presence of open channels of
Very
30 communication between different 4.36 .84 2
high
administrative levels.
The university adopts standards for Very

32 4.32 .94 3
the measurement of job performance. high
Faculty members benefit from

Very
31 feedback in continuous improvement 4.21 .98 4
high
processes.
Participation of faculty in follow-up
34 committees for the development of 4.19 .93 5 High
quality assurance management.
Observance by the University of
33 benchmarking for the measurement 4.18 1.06 6 High
of functional performance.
Very
high
Question 2: Are there significant differences at the level of significance (α ≤

0.05) in the factors influencing the sustainability of quality performance of the
University of Petra according to faculty staff due to the variables (gender,
academic rank, and college type)?
A multivariate analysis of variance was used to measure the demographic

variables of gender, academic rank, and college type. Table 8 shows the relevant
statistics for each of the demographic variable.
There were no significant differences at level (α ≤ 0.05) between the study groups
in the factors influencing the sustainability of quality performance of the
University of Petra attributed to the academic rank variable and all areas of the
tool. There were also significant differences at level (α ≤ 0.05) between study
groups in the factors influencing the sustainability of quality in the performance
of the University of Petra attributed to the variable of the college type and all areas
of the tool.
However, the study revealed that there were significant differences at the level (α
≤ 0.05) between the study groups averages in the factors influencing the
sustainability of quality performance of the University of Petra and all areas of the
tool in favor of females. The detailed results are provided in Table 9.

58
Table 8: Results of multivariate analysis of variance for sample estimates of factors

influencing the sustainability of quality in the performance the University of Petra
Sum of Mean of Sig.

Variables Areas Freedom Degrees F Ratio
squares squares level
Governance 1.832 1 1.832 6.955 .010*
Gender Academic Programs 1.206 1 1.206 4.682 .033*

Hoteling
2.522 1 2.522 5.174 .025*
value = .805 Job satisfaction
Job Performance 3.716 1 3.716 7.484 .007*
Governance .741 2 .370 1.406 .250

Academic
rank Academic Programs .070 2 .035 .136 .873
Wilks value
Job satisfaction 2.991 2 1.495 3.068 .051
= .909
Job Performance 1.229 2 .614 1.237 .295
Governance .256 1 .256 .972 .327

College type Academic Programs .188 1 .188 .728 .396
Hoteling .002 1 .002 .004 .950
Job satisfaction
value = .037
Job Performance .715 1 .715 1.440 .233
Governance 25.814 98 .263
Academic Programs 25.249 98 .258

Error
Job satisfaction 47.759 98 .487
Job Performance 48.658 98 .497
* Statistical significance level (α ≤ 0.05)
Table 9: Mean and standard deviation of sample estimates in all areas depending on
the differences in gender
Area Gender No. Mean Standard deviation

Male 59 4.44 .59
Governance
Female 44 4.68 .41
Male 59 4.32 .51
Academic Programs
Female 44 4.53 .50
Male 59 4.28 .77
Job satisfaction
Female 44 4.53 .62
Male 59 4.15 .80
Job Performance
Female 44 4.49 .58
The researchers attributed the existence of the statistically significant difference

assigned to the gender variable in favor of females due to the fact that females are
more eager to maintain quality standards, and more interested in the continuous
development, quality sustainability and the upgrading of their job performances.
The researchers also attributed the absence of significant differences in the level

59
of academic rank and the type of college to the administrative burdens that are
too often assigned to faculty members despite the fact that they are too often
overloaded with teaching and research activities. Some tasks are allocated
according to their academic rank (Professor, Associate Professor, Assistant
Professor) while many other tasks have to be completed by all of them,
irrespective of their rank. These results are in agreement with those of Badrakhan
(2013), who also showed the lack of impact of college type on quality standards
and quality assurance at the Amman National University from. Furthermore, the
function of faculty members is very specific regardless of the type of college they
work in. This explains the lack of impact of ‘college type’ as a factor in the
maintenance of quality in the above universities.
5. Conclusions and Recommendations

The response of the sample members to the factors influencing the quality
sustainability of the performance of Petra University has been "very high". And
that the area of governance was ranked first for the other areas mentioned in the
study. And that there are statistically significant differences for the study
variables, namely the type of college and the sex in favor of females. Further to
these findings, this paper presents a set of recommendations that shall contribute
to the identification of factors influencing the sustainability of quality
performance of the University of Petra. Since the responses of the faculty members
to the factors influencing the sustainability of quality performance at the
University of Petra were “very high”, we recommend the following: researchers
shall take care of these factors and work on developing them regularly based on
the quality standards and their usage at universities along with other factors, the
development of a rewarding system for excellence in teaching & research and/or
distinctive performances in administrative duties or other university-related
matters, the adoption of a fair and measurable evaluation system which can
integrate the various processes of the university and the adoption of transparent
and accountable standards in all administrative and technical duties at the
university.
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62

Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 62-77, April 2020
Teachers’ Instructional Components of Warm-up

Rehearsal in Elementary School Chorus in South
Korea
Seungyoun Hong
Gwangju National University of Education
Seoul, Korea
Abstract. The preliminary purpose of the study is to find out the

instructional components of choral warm-up rehearsal for teachers in
Korean elementary school. For the study, Focused Group Interview
Method was used, and the participants were eleven Korean primary
school teachers who have had school chorus conducting or instructing.
This survey shows that the teachers in primary schools who have
experienced instructing a school chorus do not feel satisfied with warm-
up techniques in their rehearsal. The reason why the teachers are not
happy or confident about warm-up routine was various, but mostly they
are supposed to teach all subjects, including school chorus. They have
not enough time to prepare or practice for warm-up contents. They feel
something to be equipped with proper skills of the warm-up in the
rehearsal to help their students sing in more enjoyable ways in school
chorus. Through the study, it suggests that the regional education office
must provide a proper and practical training course to the teachers who
are scheduled to lead a school chorus. Besides, it suggests that several
elements to consider for establishing a warm-up model and its necessary
skills, which can be applied and improve musical aptitude for students
who participate in the school chorus.
Keywords: warm-up rehearsal; warm-up techniques; warm-up

components; elementary school chorus; school choir instruction
1. Introduction
In Korea, most students, including primary school students, are exposed to
popular music too much, which may not be helpful for them, in terms of music
educational development. Most experienced music teachers and conductors
agree with that point. It is believed that phenomena focusing only on popular
music does not form a healthy music culture. For the primary school students,
should experience as many areas of music as possible. Music education at school
should be the driving force for the development of this balanced music culture.
In general music education, singing and playing instruments are necessary, but

63
they are not enough for students’ musical aptitude development. School chorus,
in terms of music education, is one of the best ways to learn and experience the
beauty of harmony (Hong, 2013). School chorus with general music education
can provide an opportunity to accelerate the development of musical aptitude.
Sight-singing skills through participating the choral music programs can be
taught, and the teaching of music reading becomes a more central part of choral
music education (Norris, 2004).
Gordon (2007) states that for musical aptitude development kids must be
exposed to any type of music and genres and be taught both informal and
formal ways. Abeles, Hoffer and Klotman (1994) emphasize that music should
be introduced students in anytime but avoiding from binding students in a strict
manner. Along with Germany and Australia, many countries gain great success
without the formal style of a music concert. It implies that various forms and
measures in school music, including chorus, should be applied. Each piece of
chorus music has different chords and harmonization and using it in a school
chorus is valuable.
Despite many studies on the positive educational effects and social roles of
choral activities, unfortunately, the school chorus activities and the number of
the students have been decreased. It was the background of the survey. The
question of the study was what the problem of diminishing the school chorus
activities might be. In order to find out the general reasons for declining the
choral activities in schools, especially in South Korea, the related books and
papers were subject to search. And the participants of the survey were
interviewed with F.G.I. (Focused Group Interview) Method. The findings are
that there were several fundamental causes for the reduction of choral activities
in Korea.
Focusing on the matter, researcher was very interested in the warm-up

components and techniques, that the teachers in the school chorus frequently
use. The researcher finds that the teacher’s warm-up techniques affect the
students’ attitude toward the rehearsal time or chorus activity. It was the warm-
up techniques in rehearsal that the teachers are worried about, which means the
teachers are not fully ready to lead their school chorus. Through the findings,
the researcher tries to provide several suggestions for school chorus teachers and
educational administrator, in terms of warm-up components.
Thus, the questions of the study are mainly two; one is what the main
components of the warm-up rehearsal should be, which directly apply to the
elementary school chorus in Korea. The other one is what the main reasons to
hinder the teachers having time to prepare the warm-up rehearsal.
2. The values of choral activity

Jordon (1999) states that music is the binding stuff of community and the
community nourished by music, and tells that music is the vehicle by which
souls individually examined and explored speak to the world at large. Jordon
believed that a choir or an orchestra are all composed of all of us, that gives a

64
powerful and compelling voice that speaks through beauty. In light of this,
elementary school choir can be the beginning of the community to nourish with
the beauty of music, especially harmony made by the human voice.
A study of Bell (2004) shows that the community choir singers (adult amateur
singers) had a public-school choral experience from elementary school (40~60%)
to high school (59~82%) musical programs as young students in the United
States. Unlike adult chorus, teaching singing elementary school chorus requires
the teachers (or conductors) to prepare not only in musical elements but in
educational and developmental psychology ways (Lee, 2014; Hargreaves, 1986).
Teaching and conducting in elementary school chorus is an exhilarating and
inspiring experience. However, a teacher needs to be well equipped in many
ways (Swears, 1984).
The elementary school choir provides students many invisible merits in and out
of the school-level curriculum. Through the choir activities, communicative
competency is one of the benefits. Harmony in the choir helps students to feel
more refined and grow into a more stable and harmonious person (Hong, 2017).
The chorus allows students develop sociality. The chorus creates a sense of
solidarity and solidarity with each other and acts as a decisive element in the
school life class (Chang, 2015).
The elementary school choir provides the best opportunity for students at their
childhood time to develop their singing ability. Students can recognize their
singing skills without feeling competing or failing in a large group, and they
think that they belong to a group and eager there (Kim, 2018).
Furthermore, the attention and concentration participating in the chorus

influence other learning (Yoon, 2012). They experience beauty through the
melody and lyrics of the chorus, which leads to the formation of musical
emotions. Choral experiences generally help to develop necessary music skills
(Beckers & Oezdemir, 2010).
Students in a school choir become responsible for the school community and
even understand the values and culture of their own. The competency that
school choir children can achieve in the process is the cultural community
competency. This meaningful experience will lead the students to a lifetime of
music. They also recognize the aesthetic value of music through various forms of
a chorus to experience the joy of expression and to develop musical talent.
Because of expressing and singing in collaboration as a member of the whole
rather than individual expressions in the form of the chorus, students learn the
relationship with the whole through choral activities, which helps students
develop sociality and learn more about themselves (Roinson & Winold, 2000).
Through choral activities, students develop a sense of harmony, improve

aesthetics, creativity, and responsibility, reduce stress, and purify and stabilize
their emotions to form a harmonious personality (Parker, 2010). Choral activities
have a positive effect on the development of musical emotions by providing

65
students with beautiful chords, impressive melodies, and accurate lyrics. Choral
activities, including performance on the stage, help them feel beautiful before
their audience perceives their beauty (Trousdale & Willis, 2010). Choral activities
help students develop essential musical areas by allowing them to more
accurately grasp pitch, vocal fluctuations, and harmonies than in instrumental
ensemble or piano performance (Mursell & Glenn, 1995).
3. Various warm-up in choral activities

There are numerous ways of warm-up procedures in choral rehearsals,
according to the individual conductor's intention. Warm-up in teachers'
instruction Hale (2018), the conductor of the Dixie State University Chamber
Singers, demonstrates the choral warm-up exercise in several ways. His warm-
up consists of 3 parts and starts with relaxation, posture, and breath. Next, he
continues making sounds related to vowel shape and range. Finally, he ends
with balance, blend, intonation, and vowel shape.
Leach (2014), professor of music and music education at the Pennsylvania State
University divided his choral warm-up exercises into nine parts; 1. Physical and
breathing exercises; 2. Speech to a song; 3. Song 1 descending; 4. Song 2
ascending; 5. Diction warm-up; 6. Part singing; 7. Range extension; 8. Four-part;
9. Choral warm-down.
Pedde (2011), conductor of the Indianapolis Children's Choir shows a good

example of the warm-up just before the concert begins. He has the students sing
using 5-note descending passages with "hee-ee-ee-ee-ee", "Ooh", "Ah" and a
physical motion imitating the direction of the vowel. He also uses ascending and
descending rapid 5-note pattern on "doo-bee" and "hee-ho, hee-e-e-e-e" using
several half-step scales with a physical motion for each scale. Part singing
follows, and it starts with chord I (do, mi, so), and as the conductor directs the
part with his finger, the part pointed sings half note up or half note down which
makes the choir keep their part.
Leck (2014), director and conductor of Aloha Children's Choir Festival,

demonstrates rehearsal warm-up starts with a physical motion making "chee"
sound in several different styles. He has the students sing using 5-note
descending passages with "Ooh-oo-oo-oo-oo", "Hee", "Ah” and a physical
motion imitating the direction of the vowel. Based on "do-do-do-do-do-mi-so-
mi-do" scale, students sing it with neutral vowel sound like "yah-ha-ha, yah-ha-
ha, ya-ha-ha-ha-ha" moving to the right and left or turning around.
Lana (2016), founder and artistic director of Cincinnati Children's Choir, starts
choral warm-up with physical preparation, stretching and aligning the physical
body for singing. Vocal preparation is the next step for choral warm-up, echoing
siren sound warming up the head voice, chest voice and middle voice. After
vocal preparation, vowel unification exercise is followed using 5-note
descending passages with a pure vowel sound. She adds a physical motion to
imitate and reinforce the shape and direction of the vowel. The next step for
warm-up exercise is vocal agility and upper range, using ascending and

66
descending rapid 5-note pattern on "doo-bee". The lower range follows, and it is
3-note (do re mi) based descending exercise that helps transition from head to
chest voice. Along with the exercises, Lana uses Zinga Zah song with motion
and interval training. Finally, the director has students sing part-singing using
solfege and major scale.
Jordan (2012), professor and director of Westminster Conducting Institute and

co-director of Choral Institute at Oxford, emphasizes that choral singing
especially getting energizing sound could get through 17 physical gestures; 1. up
and over gesture with the heel of hand on the forehead; 2. pointing gesture; 3.
finger toss into forehead; 4. forward spin; 5. breath kneading gesture; 6. body tip;
7. breath anchor and space umbrella; 8. finger twirl over the head; 9. hand dab
for energy; 10. hand smoothing gesture; 11. congealing sound mixing gesture; 12.
linguine pull gesture; 13. upward cheekbone brush; 14. toss open leg lift; 15.
sound rolling gesture (for piano and pianissimo dynamics); 16. consonant wisp
gesture; and 17. upward toss for sound weight reduction. Jordon (1993) also
suggested that preparing and marking the score and breathing with and for the
singers are essential for rehearsal, providing warm-up planning template for a
conductor to prepare for it. His warm-up procedure follows; 1. works to
rehears; 2. relaxation activity; 3. establish six points of balance; 4. body mapping
for inhalation and exhalation; 5. body mapping reinforcement phrases to be used
to support above activity; 6. resonance exercise; 7. legato exercise; 8. legato
exercise with a leap; 9. range extension; 10. alignment and breath reinforcement
phrases for use in range extension exercise; and 11. choral ensemble warm-
up(Jordon, 2005).
Kim (2018) suggests 16 warm-up scales for teachers who instruct elementary
school chorus in Korea. Her case study undertakes that three excellent choral
instructors who have more than 15-year experience in the teaching school chorus
and got awarded for their achievement as schoolteachers. Chang (2015) develops
a 24-hour choral class program and divides it into six sequences; being familiar
with choral music through listening training, vocalization with body movement,
singing a chorus in music textbooks in various ways, an extension of choral
repertoire in daily lives, and performance in chorus style.
Kim (2017) introduces a useful and practical rehearsal method using an

application for smartphone, called “TeamPl”, which is provided only for
primary school teachers and students in Korea. She designs this for elementary
school chorus practice tool. Her choir divided into three groups, uses the
application for log on, participation, vocalization practice, and the rate of
mission completion. Students upload their recorded practising files and pictures
on the web through the application so that teacher can notify and see what they
are doing. Using this method, the researcher was quite satisfied with the result.
It was reported that the method was a way for students to be more active and
autonomous in participation and capable of mastering the score work and
reduce the rate of absence.
Although there are many warm-up rehearsal methods for choirs in previous

67
studies, there is no certain way of warm-up components for elementary school

chorus, which can directly apply to the elementary choral situation in Korea. The
previous studies show that body moving with vocalization is a very effective
way for the elementary school chorus. The participants of the survey responded
that they had not used the method when they lead their school chorus.
4. Data and methods
4.1. Study design

This study was carried out as a personal research project called music education
issues in elementary schools in South Korea. The data for this research were
collected with F.G.I. (focused group interview) Methods.
The questionnaire for the interview was designed into two parts; 1. The
interviewees’ school chorus experience, their main components of the warm-up
rehearsal, and their choral rehearsal procedure in a whole. 2. Multiple-choice
questions, leading questions and yes or no items are not used. The interviewees’
recognition degree toward warm-up techniques for the school chorus. One
interpretive question (students’ reactions to the teacher’s warm-up), one
directive questions (preparing time for warm-up rehearsal) and one hypothetical
question (anything to share, in terms of main content-compositions of the warm-
up and elementary school chorus) are used for the interview.
The interviewees were graduate students in the department of music education,

Gwangju National University of Education. The responders were elementary
school teachers and experienced school chorus instructors as well.
The schoolteachers(n=11) were asked about their experience of instructing

school chorus, attitude toward warm-up rehearsal, their warm-up preparation,
students’ reactions to the teacher’s warm-up, the amount of time for warm-up,
and main content-composition of the teacher’s warm-up.
From the fourth question to the sixth one, they were to respond their attitudes
on an applied five-point Likert scale in three different ways; first, (1= absolutely
necessary, 5= waste of time), second, (1= very well prepared, 5= hardly
prepared), third, (1= very positively, 5= very negatively). The last question, main
content-composition of the teacher’s warm-up and anything about elementary
school chorus, was open to answering.
On the questionnaire, the first question was how many years you have in school
chorus instruction(it did not question if you have any experience in teaching
elementary school chorus, because the interviewees who were the graduate in
the researcher’s class already known as they have the experience). The second
question was what you think of the attitude toward warm-up rehearsal. The
third question was how you prepare for the warm-up in each rehearsal. The
fourth question was what the students' reactions to the teacher’s warm-up. The
fifth question was that how long you spend time for warm-up in each rehearsal.
The sixth question was what the main content-composition of your warm-up in
each rehearsal.

68
Table 1: The questionnaire used for the survey
Part 1.
How many years of experience conducting or instructing elementary school

1 chorus?
① under five years, ② more than six years
What were your main components of the warm-up rehearsal?
2
(for example; stretching, singing some scales)
What was your choral warm-up rehearsal procedure?

3
(for example; stages divided for whole rehearsal)
part. 2.
What was your attitude toward the importance of warm-up in rehearsal?

4 ① absolutely necessary, ② necessary, ③ average, ④ not necessary, ⑤ waste
of time
How much did you put your energy into the preparation of warm-up in
rehearsal?
5
① well prepared, ② prepared, ③ average, ④ not much prepared, ⑤ hardly
prepared
What was your students' reactions to your warm-up contents or techniques?
6
① very positive, ② positive, ③ average, ④ negative, ⑤ very negative
How much time did you use for warm-up in your rehearsal?
7
① under 5 minutes, ② 5 to 9 minutes, ③ more than 10 minutes
Do you have anything to share, in terms of the elementary school chorus,
8
especially warm-up techniques and rehearsals?
4.2. Data collection and analysis

The data for the study were collected with F.G.I. Methods. The researcher
arranged to have each interview with the elementary school teachers who have
an experience instructing or conducting school chorus, including children’s choir
in Gwangju Metropolitan City, South Korea. Gathering the data as possible as
the interview was undertaken. Each meeting took 20 to 30 minutes to question
and listen to the teachers. For the interviewees as teachers, the interviews took
place between August and December 2018 and January 2019. The researcher
interviewed and queried individually.
Out of the 11 interviewees, five teachers have some experience of instructing and
conducting elementary school chorus under five years, while six teachers more
than six-year experience. Out of them, two teachers still involve with a school
choir; nine teachers are not. Eight teachers were graduated from elementary
music education while three teachers graduated from other primary training.

69
Table 2: The participants of the survey
teachers' undergraduate
instructing school chorus experience
background
under five years 5 music education 8
more than six years 6 non-music education 3
sum 11 sum 11
5. Results
5.1. Results
Teachers’ mind-set toward warm-up practice in choral rehearsal is shown as the
below <figure 1>. It shows that teachers believe warm-up is not a waste of time
but a necessary process in the choral rehearsal. Seven teachers respond that
warm-up is necessary or absolute procedure for chorus preparation.
Figure 1: Teachers’ attitude toward the importance of warm-up in rehearsal
Besides, teachers tell that managing school chorus is not an easy job because of
the other many jobs to do in school. From establishing school choir in March
every year is a big task for teachers and arranging practice time with students is
also another troublesome. They say that making a practice time for their choir is
about 3 to 9 hours a week. Sometimes they have to schedule for practice after
school or even on Saturdays. Elementary school teachers in Korea are to teach at
least 7 hours a day, which is very tough in terms of preparing for all subjects in
the school curriculum. It is understandable to prepare warm-up techniques or
contents in each rehearsal for the teachers in that situation is not an easy job at
all.

70
Figure 2: Teachers’ preparation of warm-up in rehearsal
In <figure 2>, seven teachers believe that warm-up is necessary as early

mentioned. And here none of them is hardly prepared nor very well prepared in
terms of warm-up rehearsal. Out of them, only seven teachers answer that they
tend to develop for warm-up contents and its orders.
As we already see in <figure 1>, it tells that the teachers' attitude toward the
importance of warm-up in rehearsal is apparent. They feel that warm-up is a
necessary process in each rehearsal, but they are not entirely confident about the
technique. Even though they think that they need to equip with warm-up
techniques, they do not put much time on warm-up preparation here.
None of the responders is in “well prepared” with warm-up technique; in the

meantime, seven teachers are trying to prepare the warm-up materials for their
choir and rehearsal. Also, when the teachers prepare the warm-up materials,
they usually focus on the contents thinking about vowel sound practice with
several scales. Interestingly they did not use any physical motions when their
students sing for warm-up scales.
Figure 3: Students’ reactions to the teachers’ warm-ups
Interestingly the reflection of the students, as we see in <figure 3>, who

participate in a choral rehearsal with their teachers is not good enough for the
teachers’ expectation. There is no ‘very negative reaction’ of the students toward
the warm-up time with their teachers and ‘very positive reaction’ as well. Only

71
four teachers see that their students are ‘positive reaction’ toward the warm-up
time. It seems that the students who have experienced their teachers’ warm-up
technique tend to be reluctant to join in the warm-up process.
Figure 4: The amount of time for warm-up
In the <figure 4>, all teachers in the survey use warm-up time within 10 minutes,
which is short amount of time. While seven teachers spend under 5 minutes for
their warm-up rehearsal, four teachers answer that they spend more than 5, but
less than 10 minutes. Again, teachers did not use any physical motions in their
warm-up time, especially vowel and consonant, using scale practice. They use
only one or two vowel(s) or consonant(s) singing scales, which is very
monotonous.
With the question of having anything to share, in terms of the elementary school
chorus, especially warm-up techniques and rehearsals, the response of the
teachers was various. The warm-up stage and rehearsal procedure they use,
however, were so similar that it could be categorized into two parts in warm-up
and into three parts in rehearsal procedure.
As we see in <Table 3> all teachers, both the under five-year experienced
teachers and more than six-year experience ones answer that their warm-up is
consist of mainly two things; body warm-up and scale singing. For the body
warm-up, teachers have their students stretch out to relax their necks, shoulders,
and legs. Right after body warm-up, teachers have the students sing some scales
using 3 to 8 musical notes, half or whole tone upward and downward steps,
which is fundamental. Besides, they plan from 15 to 30-week course for school
chorus and have 1 or 2 performance(s) in school festival or for some special
occasion.

72
Table 3: Main components of the teacher’s warm-up in rehearsal
Warm-up stages Main content-composition of

warm-up in a choral rehearsal
Stage 1 To have students stretch, relaxing
To have students sing some 3-note to 8-

Stage 2
note scales (half or whole tone)
One teacher, however, who has three-year experience of instructing elementary

school choir specifies his warm-up procedure that his warm-up takes about 10
minutes talking about whether to open students’ mind, stretching a little bit, and
vocalizing with vowels like ‘eeh’, ‘e’, ‘ah’, ‘oh’, and ‘oo’. After that, he has
students sing in harmony for balancing and blending with tonic, dominant and
subdominant chords.
The six-year experienced teacher explains her warm-up procedure that her
warm-up takes about 10 minutes greeting with each other and warming up with
body stretching, posture, breathing, expression, and thrills on diction. A female
and 3-year experienced teacher describes her experience with the rehearsal,
especially warm-up timetable. She had two times a day; morning at 8 to 8:40,
afternoon at 12 to 12:30.
Her warm-up usually takes less than 10 minutes and begins warm-up with
greeting hi-five and welcoming her students, in which she checks her students’
condition. Right after that, she has the students stretch their body, focusing on
body centralized. After finishing it, breathing and vocalization are following,
checking her students singing with the diaphragm. The rest of the responders
did not explain what they have experienced in detail.
Table 4: The teachers' general choral warm-up rehearsal procedure
Each Rehearsal
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

⇒ ⇒
Part
Warm-up Whole part practice
practice
Generally, the teachers of the study have warm-ups in their choral practice in the
first stage of each rehearsal. And the teachers’ warm-ups consist of basically two
things; 1. body stretching and relaxing, 2. singing some scales using pure vowels
and consonants. Two teachers answer that choral warm-up is the same with
rehearsal, which is a misunderstanding. The nine teachers can distinguish the
difference between rehearsal and warm-up. Choral rehearsal is a practice for
performance on a stage in a required or desired occasion. In each rehearsal, there
is a warm-up procedure.

73
All answer that they have three general stages for each rehearsal. They have
three steps to follow rehearsal that warming up in the first stage, part practice in
the next stage, and whole part practice in the last stage. After less than 10-
minute rehearsal, they have students practice in each and whole parts in a
conventional way.
Although the elementary choir regarded as no special choral, you can expect the
results of good practice when you prepare to be rehearsing carefully considering
the psychological characteristics of children and their feelings. The performances
are very helpful in improving self-esteem and increasing creativity and
expression as well.
Children's choirs are much less focused than adult choirs, so careful preparation
is needed, such as the speed and height of the conductor's speaking, moderation
of unnecessary movements by the conductor, and language distinction. Always
in front of the child, the conductor must realize that it is a mirror to the children.
Another thing to consider to focus on practising with the children is to think

about organizing things, such as the practice room, to tune the piano, to prepare
the scores, and to ensure that the conductor and the teacher adhere to the
timeliness, the unnecessary jokes, the environmental matter, the psychological
matter and the mood. It is sweet, and even if it is not a good practice room, you
can reduce distractions by paying attention to what is said above before practice.
5.2. Discussion
1. Through this survey, we could see that preparing warm-up techniques or
contents in each rehearsal for the teachers is not easy to do. The main reason
for it is that teaching all subjects, as elementary school teachers, makes them
put preparing warm-up techniques or contents aside and even reluctant to
instructing or conducting school choir.
2. School chorus activities, especially in elementary schools, are decreasing. The
cause of the problem is on the side of teachers or the side of students.
Students in a school choir tend to be reluctant to follow the instructions if
their teacher is not ready enough for the rehearsal. They need to be
continuously stimulated during the whole rehearsal procedure and
practising time. The participants of the survey answered, and they seemed to
agree with that point.
3. The amount of time for warm-up in elementary school chorus needs to be
considered. Through the survey, teachers put their time less than 10 minutes
for their warm-up procedure. The warm-up technique, however, was not
obvious for the attendants. They did not use anybody movements when
their school choir members are singing or vocalizing in vowels or some
scales in upwards and downwards.
4. Through the survey, it is clear that teachers' warm-up components are not
enough to stimulate their students to follow the warm-up procedure with
willingness. The assignment of the conductors of the elementary school choir
is to create warm-up components and skills.
5. A limitation of the study was that the number of the participants was too

74
small and that the results of the research come from only a part of South
Korea. So, it is difficult to generalize the results to any school chorus in any
places around the world.
6. Conclusion
In order to find out the general reasons for declining the choral activities in a
school, especially in South Korea, the related books and papers were subject to
search. And the participants of the survey were interviewed with F.G.I. (Focused
Group Interview) Method. The findings are that there were several fundamental
causes for the reduction of choral activities in Korea. After the outcome of the
survey, the research tries to suggest make up the problem, declining the choral
activities in a primary school in Korea.
One of them was that the scope of the events is reduced due to the abolition of
choral competitions. Also, there is no incentive or inducement for teachers to
lead a school chorus. It was hard for teachers to establish school chorus
recruiting the members and getting supports from the principle of their school.
But mostly, teachers are not fully ready to lead and conduct their school chorus.
Focusing on the matter, I was very interested in the warm-up components and
techniques, that the teachers in the school chorus normally use. The researcher
finds that the teacher’s warm-up techniques affect the students’ attitude toward
the rehearsal time or chorus activity. It was the warm-up techniques in rehearsal
that the teachers are worried about, which means the teachers are not fully ready
to lead their school chorus.
As early mentioned, students in choir, especially in elementary school, need to

be continuously stimulated during the whole rehearsal section. Otherwise, they
are reluctant to follow the instructions of their teacher or conductor. Repeating
for just part song practice or same pattern of warm-up cannot give them any
musical inspiration. That would affect students unmotivated and even
hindrance for the whole ensemble rehearsal.
There is no absolute way of the warm-up procedure. This study would not try to
find the complete form of warm-up practise either. This study, however, shows
that teachers who have experienced instructing a school chorus in Korea do not
feel confident about warm-up techniques in their rehearsal. Although the
teachers are aware of being needy to equip the leading and instructing warm-up
rehearsal skills for their choir, they tend to be reluctant to prepare the contents of
the warm-up.
The students’ reflection of their teachers’ warm-up techniques or contents is not

good enough and even unwilling to join their warm-up process within 10
minutes. Through the study, the teachers notice that warm-up time does not
affect much on students’ attitude toward the chorus. Even less than 5-minute
warm-up students cannot pay attention if a teacher’s warm-up technique or its
contents is poor.

75
Based on the study, the components of the elementary choir warm-up should be
considered as follows; 1. warm-up should improve students’ musical aptitude, 2.
warm-up should provoke fun and exciting, 3. warm-up should support in music
educational ways, 4. warm-up should help the choir make balancing and
blending sound. 5. warm-up should help students explore their sound, the
neighbour’s music, their own space and neighbour’s space.
Through the findings, the researcher tries to provide several suggestions and
implications for school chorus teachers and educational administrator, in terms
of warm-up components.
1. Teacher as a choral director should fully be aware of vocalization mechanism.
The principle of voice production is fundamental and essential to any
conductor of the chorus. Mainly three parts of the body are related to
making a sound; respiratory part, phonation part, and resonance part.
2. Teacher as a choral director should acquire children’s vocal timbre characters.
Children’s vocal quality is different from adults’ one. Before young students
facing or experiencing the voice changing, the teacher can help the students
find the most beautiful and unique timbre of their sound through proper
vocalization.
3. The length of warm-up time is less important than the contents. The teacher
should prepare warm-up techniques for students who are quickly losing
their interest in the singing practice to focus on the teacher’s instruction and
the whole rehearsal time.
4. Any pieces of music for performance should be thoroughly studied and
ready to start with students. When the teacher begins with a repertoire for
his or her choir, the collection must be various at least four different styles in
time or moods. Most of all, the level of the repertoire must be suitable for his
or her choir. Not too much natural or difficult to read music and sing in
range.
5. Regional education office must provide a complementary or remedy
education for teachers who wants to lead school chorus, which is needed and
urgent for successful choral instruction.
6. Regional education office music establishes a choral score bank or archive for
elementary school chorus is required so that teachers can easily access and
find suitable chorus piece for preparation. It can be an effective way for
primary school chorus to spread out and more active.
Many music teachers and educators in Korea are worried that students are too
much exposed to popular music, which is not proper material to enhance
students’ musical aptitude or musical development. It is expected that more
students join school chorus activity and enjoy their beauty. A school must
provide students to experience harmonization and art of singing together. At
this point, the teacher’s role as a choral conductor is significant. Through
increasing teacher’s ability to instruct school chorus, students in the choir can
taste real delight and beauty of harmony in music and school life.

76
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78

Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 78-93, April 2020
Intercultural Competence Development of

German Nursing Personnel via Advanced
Training Projects
Natalya Bidyuk
Khmelnytskyi National Univesity
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6607-8228
Halyna Oleskova
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2011-8068
Vitaliy Tretko
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3608-1378
Abstract. This paper describes the advanced training projects to develop

the intercultural competence of German nursing personnel. There are
many German projects, which promote the development of intercultural
competence and other professional competences of doctors and nursing
personnel. Within this paper, the authors analyzed the following
projects: “Migrants in Geriatric Nursing” (MigA project), “German
Professional Language in the Geriatric Nursing” (FaDA Projekt),
“Intercultural Open Nursing Service AWO in Ulm”, “Interprofessional
and intercultural activities in the area of medicine, nursing and social
services” (IPIKA project), IPIKA Plus project, “MIG-COMM-EU ‒
Multilingual Intercultural Business Communication for Europe” (MIG-
COMM-EU project), “Intercultural Medical Communication in Europe”
(IMED-KOMM-EU project). The authors have paid much attention to
the significance of the concept of intercultural competence in nursing
care. Besides, the article highlights the issue of the increase in the
number of people with a migrant background in Germany. This study
also provides another perspective on the advanced training projects for
intercultural competence development of German nursing personnel.
Keywords: advanced training projects; culturally sensitive care;

intercultural competence; migrant background; German nursing
personnel

79
1. Introduction
Nowadays, humanity faces new challenges due to globalization processes. One
of the issues that need a decent solution is the migration issue. The reasons that
make people leave their own homes and seek better luck in another country may
be different, but one thing remains common: these people have to adapt in the
new environment, and the society in which they must react in a certain way to
such changes. This problem has not passed over Germany too. According to the
Federal Statistical Office (Statistische Bundesamt), the number of people with a
migrant background in Germany increased by 4.4 percent in 2018 compared to
last year and amounted to 19.3 million. A person is considered in Germany to
have a migrant background if she personally or her parents were not born with a
German nationality. Currently, about a quarter of the population of Germany
(23.6 percent) has a migrant background (Welt Digitale Zeitung, 2018).
According to the new “German Nursing Professions Act” (“Pflegeberufegesetz”
vom 17.07.2017) of 17 July 2017, part II, article 1, §5, “the training of skilled
nursing professionals promotes the development of the necessary professional
and personal competences for independent, comprehensive and process-
oriented care for people of all ages in acute and permanent inpatient and
outpatient settings, as well as basic methodical, social, intercultural,
communicative and educational competences, including the abilities of
knowledge transfer and self-reflection. Meanwhile, lifelong learning is a process
of professional growth of a person understood, as a signaficant continuous
personal and professional development recognized” (Bundesgesetzblatt, 2017;
Pflegeberufegesetz, 2017). The purpose of the study is to provide a general
overview of advanced projects, which are used to develop the intercultural
competence of nursing personnel in Germany. The sense and significance of the
concept of intercultural competence in nursing care we are going to reveal here.
2. Literature Review
The proper understanding of the intercultural competence development of
German nursing personnel is impossible without a comprehensive overview of
the notion of the concepts of intercultural nursing, intercultural competence,
cross-cultural nursing, cross-cultural competence, transcultural nursing as well
as transcultural competence in nursing care. While researching we have taken
into account various scientific resources. Scholars should select manuscripts that
are to be involved in the theoretical framework of the study extremely carefully
since its success depends on the originality and authenticity of these chosen
ones. We have considered the works of many outstanding scholars, mostly
German, as they were first to cover the problems of intercultural competence
and its development in nursing personnel. Thus, theoretical framework of our
study is based on works by scholars such as Behrens (2011) (fundamental
considerations in the intercultural opening in healthcare), Domenig (2001, 2007)
(transcultural nursing and transcultural competence), Flechsig (2000)
(transcultural learning), Friebe and Zalucki (2003) (intercultural education in
nursing), Habermann and Stagge (2015) (people with a migrant background in
professional nursing), Hellige and Michaelis (2005) (culture-sensitive care in
geriatric nursing), Hundenborn, Heuel, Zwicker-Pelzer, Fendi, Kühn-Hempe,
Mausolf and Scholl (2018) (approaches to cultural sensitivity in healthcare,

80
competence-oriented, science-based and multi-professional education, advanced

and further training), Ilkilic (2017) (the phenomenon of intercultural competence
as a key qualification), Kiel (1996) (transcultural competence), Oldenburger
(2010) (intercultural team & culture-sensitive care in geriatric nursing), Orque
(1983) (approach to the theory of nursing), Plunkte (2017) (some aspects of
communication with patients from other cultures) Reinhardt (2009)
(intercultural competence in nursing), Rommelspacher (2005) (transcultural
advice in nursing), Uzarewicz (2001, 2002) (foundations of professional
transcultural nursing), Visser (2002), Welk (2017) & Zanier (2016) (some aspects
of culturally sensitive care, process of forming cultural sensitivity in healthcare),
von Bose & Terpstra (2012) (caring for muslim patients).
Professional training of nursing personnel in Germany promotes the acquisition

of the necessary competences, but nowadays, the possession of intercultural
competence is vital. Intercultural competence in nursing and its implementation
in education is multifaceted and includes social, ethnological, political, and
pedagogical aspects (Reinhardt & Sahmel, 2009, p. 136). We agree that
“intercultural competence is the ability to act effectively and properly in
intercultural situations; and certain views, emotional aspects, intercultural
knowledge, special skills, and general reflexive competence contribute to
intercultural competence development” (Bertelsmann & Fondazione, 2008).
Intercultural competence is not considered to be isolated from professional
requirements, and therefore it cannot be narrowed to the skills of interaction and
communication. In terms of intercultural competence requirements to a person
are defined in a professional context by the demands of professional practice
(Reinhardt & Sahmel, 2009, p. 144). As part of the health professionals training,
the concept of “intercultural competence” should be understood as skills and
abilities that help to overcome potential conflicts and facilitate understanding of
their origin in an intercultural context, thus providing an orientation of action
based on ethics and needs (Ilkilic, 2017).
Aspects of intercultural competence are readiness: firstly, to accept people of

different regimes, behavior, ways of communication; secondly, to reflect on their
own feelings, models of thinking and reactions; thirdly, to be open to foreign
cultural models; fourthly, to be interested in other cultures or cultural imprints;
fifthly, to be aware and, possibly, to acquire language knowledge; sixthly, adapt
to the peculiarities of communication; seventhly, to the interaction of I-You
(orientation towards personality and lack of restrictions on religion, culture or
nation); eighthly, to focus on constructive mental devices (the concept of
“Double Victory”); ninthly, to cooperate and coordinate conflicts of interests and
needs and compromise. In the area of nursing, there are two concepts (cultural
sensitivity and culturally sensitive care) in connection with intercultural
competence. The idea of cultural sensitivity relates to the ability to be sensitive
to perception, thinking, behavior, and communication with people from other
cultural environments. Several authors, such as G. Hundenborn, G. Heuel,
R. Zwicker-Pelzer, S. Fendi, C. Kühn-Hempe, K. Mausolf, H. Scholl paid
attention to cultural sensitivity at their module handbook, dedicated to the
project “Cultural sensitivity in healthcare”. Now, cultural sensitivity includes

81
the following skills: firstly, the reflection of their personal cultural reflections in
thinking, feelings, and actions; secondly, the adoption of other cultural
influences on behavior as equivalent to their models of life; thirdly, obtaining
knowledge about possible forms of thinking, emotional reactions, and behavior
of people from other cultures;fourthly, the attempt of empathy in the ways of
thinking, feeling and actions of people with different cultural backgrounds;
fifthly, the filtration of similarity/community, as well as contradictions and
differences, in order to develop the starting points for a common strategy of
action (Berufs-Ausbildungs-Zentrum e.V. Selbelang, 2019; Hundenborn et al.,
2018).
Culturally sensitive care aims at ensuring that the person in need of nursing care
can live according to the individual values, cultural and religious characteristics,
and needs despite restrictive conditions (e.g., home care and nursing personnel
with different cultural backgrounds, etc.). It responds to the individual needs of
patients, and not only the ability to cure and treat him or her, like everyone else.
Therefore, culturally sensitive care also means an individual or subject-oriented
care. It sees the patient primarily not only a person in need of nursing care but
an individual in his lifeworld (every health worker also wants to be perceived
and appreciated as a person, not just as an employee of the institution). It is
based on nursing intercourse every time, again on the current situation and
needs of the patient. Nursing personnel introduces themselves to interaction as a
person. It reflects and respects its borders and accepts the opponent.
Implementation of such nursing care is impossible without the intercultural
communication of patients and medical personnel (Berufs-Ausbildungs-
Zentrum e.V. Selbelang, 2019).
Plunkte (2017) thinks that culturally sensitive care can be achieved if the
subject of intercultural competence is increasingly implemented in education
and training. “To develop culturally sensitive patient care change and
development processes are required at several levels, and must involve all
parties concerned” (Plunkte, 2017). The work “People with a migrant
background in professional nursing” of Habermann and Stagge (2015),
mentioned that “nowadays the attraction of people with a migrant
background to professional nursing practice in Germany became already
a reality” and it will be even more significant in the future because of the
recruitment efforts of professional nursing personnel from abroad
(Habermann & Stagge, 2015, p. 15). The concept of the intercultural
opening is transferred to the medical care facilities and illustrated using
the example of Bad Oeynhausen Clinic in the work “Intercultural opening
in healthcare. Overview - strategy - practice” by Behrens (2011). With the
help of a qualitative research approach, the concrete implementation of
the concept in Bad Oeynhausen is examined. Besides, the concepts of the
migrant background and the culturally sensitive projects are mentioned in this
work (Behrens, 2011).

82
In the chapter “Intercultural competence in nursing” in the book of Reinhardt

and Sahmel (2009), “Promote nursing competences” gives prominent coverage
to the issue of intercultural competence of nursing personnel. The author points
out that “considering the group of foreigners, such terms as migrants,
immigrants, settlers, resettlers or refugees are clearly differentiated.” The EU’s
internal migrants are citizens of the European Union enjoying exclusive rights as
EU citizens. Spouses and family members of third-country nationals are spouses,
children, and possibly also other family members who, under certain conditions,
can enter or join the family unions. Refugees and asylum seekers have a right to
asylum in Germany under Article 16a of the Basic Law. Contractual seasonal
workers and other temporary migrant workers from non-EU countries are
workers recruited from abroad and work temporarily in Germany. International
students travel to Germany to study at the university (Reinhardt & Sahmel, 2009,
pp. 137-138).
In the research “Intercultural competence as a key qualification for healthcare

professionals” of Ilkilic (2017), defines the intercultural competence of healthcare
professionals in Germany and reveals its significance nowadays. It consists of
intercultural communication, general knowledge about different cultures,
avoiding stereotypes, and tolerance. Medical education in Germany concentrates
on treating patients with specific diseases. The fact that these patients might
have a different cultural background is rarely discussed, although intercultural
misunderstandings can influence the outcome of health interventions
considerably. Such an amount and heterogeneity of groups arriving in Germany
require a competent and individual approach to nursing care. The question of
how to set up a culturally sensitive and needs-based medical care for people
with a migrant background includes many aspects, including the
implementation of relevant education, training and continuing education of
healthcare professionals (Ilkilic, 2017, p. 24).
3. Methodology
First of all, a scientific literature review on the problem under study was used in
the research. We processed the accumulated data via the methods of analysis
and synthesis, hermeneutic interpretation and searching, deduction and
induction, individualization, generalization, systematization, and presented our
findings within the scope of this paper. Moreover, we have conducted a
theoretical analysis of data contained in the scientific sources.
4. Findings and Discussion

There are many German projects, which promote the development of
intercultural competence and other professional competences of doctors and
nursing personnel such as “Migrants in Geriatric Nursing”, “German
Professional Language in the Geriatric Nursing”, “Intercultural Open Nursing
Service AWO in Ulm”, “Interprofessional and intercultural activities in the area
of medicine, nursing and social services”, “IPIKA Plus project”, “MIG-COMM-
EU ‒ Multilingual Intercultural Business Communication for Europe”,
“Intercultural Medical Communication in Europe”, etc.

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Let us consider in more detail the project, “Migrants in Geriatric Nursing”

(Migrantinnen und Migranten in der Altenpflege). The duration of this project
was from November 2004 to October 2006. Jürgensen (2015) in her Master’s
thesis “Language support for foreign nurses: Design elements for course design
in nursing education” revealed that “because of the relatively high proportion of
foreign nursing personnel working in the area of geriatric nursing”, more than
ten years ago it was decided to create qualification programs to improve
language proficiency. Thus, in North Rhine-Westphalia and Bavaria, for
example, which has a relatively high share of foreign nursing personnel, two
well-documented projects were carried out, in which nursing personnel with a
migration background increased its qualifications. In the MigA project, the
German Institute for Adult Education first identified the need for qualifications
and, in particular, the need for language support of migrants working in 97
permanent and 16 ambulatory institutions in North Rhine-Westphalia. In order
to be able to develop an address-oriented and activity-oriented program, both
management institutions and participants were asked about their language
needs. Course modules were designed in such a way that actual content and
authentic conversational situations were related to their use of words, linguistic
intentions, and their context”. The content of the four core modules content was
based on the requirements of the “Social Long-Term Care Insurance Act”
(“Pflegeversicherungsgesetz” vom 26.05.1994), quality standards and current
discourses of nursing science and gerontology. Modules “Communicating with
residents, collecting information”, “Planning and Caring”, “Nursing
Documentation and Nursing Personnel Report”, and “Discussion of a Clinical
Case in a Multicultural Nursing Team” consisted of four hours during four
training sessions. At the end of each refresher course, lists of relevant words and
grammar rules were made, interviews were analyzed using interviews, and
linguistic reflections were practiced. The modules are comprehensively
presented in the guide “Migrants in Geriatric Nursing”, along with educational
materials and methodological guidelines (Jürgensen, 2015, pp. 37-38).
Friebe (2006) described this project, notes in his work “Migrants in geriatric
nursing” that “the concept of linguistic and intercultural support for immigrant
carers with a migrant background should take into account numerous levels of
learning and action”. “Therefore, the comprehensive qualifications’ concept
contains at least three elements: firstly, individual educational activities (self-
studying with media, German as a foreign language), on-the-job-training
(support through placement supervision, educational tandems, discussion), in-
house learning (addressee-specific and intercultural advanced training)” (Friebe,
2006, p. 55).
Our attention deserves consideration of the project, “German Professional

Language in the Geriatric Nursing” (Fachsprache Deutsch in der Altenpflege) as
an example of specialized German language courses for geriatric nursing
personnel with a migrant background who worked in stationary charitable
institutions AWO (Arbeiterwohlfahrt). The duration of the project was from
May 2011 to April 2014. It contained eight training modules of 100 hours. The
modules were developed on the basis of the assessment of language needs in

84
inpatient geriatric care. Besides, they were thematically related to the tasks and
fields of activity in the area of geriatric nursing, namely: production and work
processes, multicultural personnel, nursing and support of residents in everyday
life, nursing care and help in treatment, cooperation with relatives, cooperation
with external actors, quality assurance, self-service (AWO Bundesverband e.V.,
2014).
Just as in the MigA project, language requirements were determined in advance.

It was based on the various interaction settings in the nursing practice and took
a “multi-perspective needs analysis” before. The learners’ individual linguistic
needs were stemmed from their expectations and motives, from which they
participated in the educational activity. It also focused on personal study habits
and subjectively perceived deficits. As a result, the AWO was able to establish
that nurses have to cope with highly complex linguistic requirements in their
daily work with different participants. Communication in nursing thus takes
place firstly, with various communication partners; secondly, on different levels
of relationship; thirdly, in different technical languages or codes; fourthly, on
different communication channels; fifthly, at different language levels. On this
basis, the AWO has developed the above-mentioned modules that correspond to
eight professional areas of nursing, e.g., “Nursing care for residents” or
“Cooperation with external actors”. Nurses act in these areas of action from
various professional roles, e.g., as a member of the team, as a reference person
for residents or as responsible for quality assurance. Depending on their role and
function, they are entrusted with different tasks that require appropriate
communicative and intercultural skills. To this end, the AWO has developed a
matrix in which the professional situation with the role of the employee and his
tasks as well as the required competences, are depicted (Jürgensen, 2015, pp. 38-
39).
Let us turn our attention to a more detailed model project, “Intercultural Open
Nursing Service AWO in Ulm” (Interkulturell geöffneter Pflegedienst der AWO
in Ulm). Currently, 26 percent of all residents of Ulm over 65 have a migration
background. The target group of the intercultural open outpatient nursing
service is senior immigrants from different social groups. The purpose of this
project was to open an existing outpatient nursing service for representatives of
diverse cultures in 2014 and 2015. For intercultural open nursing services, it is
essential that their employees have professional intercultural competences.
It was necessary to take various measures to ensure that the nursing personnel
became an intercultural competence team. In the question “What is professional
intercultural competence, or what does it do?”, the project participants were
guided by Benner’s novice-to-expert competence model (Figure 1), according to
which nursing personnel professionally grows through its professional activities
from beginners to nursing experts (Pflegeexperten). Within the framework of
this project, was considered the issue of qualification improvement of nursing
personnel to obtain professional intercultural competence (Fortbildungen zur
Erlangung von Interkultureller Handlungskompetenz) (Figure 2).

85
Figure 1: Benner’s Stages of Clinical Competence.
Figure 2: Intercultural competence development of German nursing personnel
An eight-module advanced training program (modulares

Fortbildungsprogramm) was created in November 2014 to develop the
professional intercultural competence of outpatient nursing personnel. The
concept of this program was developed jointly with the nursing team. In
particular, the nursing personnel was headed by a lecturer on culturally
sensitive geriatric nursing who united wishes, ideas, and problems in an
intercultural context. These topics included: general migration issues; conflict
resolution as well as possible solutions in a multicultural team; photos of older
people in different cultures; the emergence of biases and discrimination;
culturally sensitive care; culturally sensitive attitude to dying and death.
Based on this, were developed a unique series of advanced training courses at

the Steering Committee, and appropriate teachers were selected. The series of
advanced training courses consisted of eight modules: introduction ‒ the basis of
intercultural care, language + intercultural communication (overcoming
linguistic barriers), religion ‒ Islam for care, body care in a cultural context,
rituals in different cultures, types of dementia in people with a migration origin,
conflict resolution in intercultural care, terminal care and attitude towards dying
and death in an intercultural context.

86
Each module lasted from 1.5 up to a maximum of 3 hours. The modules were
independent of each other and could be visited separately. However, the goal of
the project was to ensure that every nurse employee attends all modules.
Nursing personnel was allowed to participate in a language course to withstand
the possible language barriers between nursing personnel and patients with a
migrant background. The nursing personnel developed their intercultural
competences by attending other advanced training and specialized conferences
in parallel with the internal series of training. Nursing personnel always had
access to modern specialized literature for the development of professional
intercultural competence. For this reason, the literature on intercultural care
(cross-cultural care, transcultural care) was acquired and was available to
nursing personnel. On the other hand, a collection of magazines and newspaper
materials as well as scripts of a series of training sessions were collected during
the project. Nursing personnel could always access this.
The nursing team consisted of workers with different backgrounds, and

therefore it could be called “colorful”. Besides, it had extensive experience of its
biographical migrant origin. To develop the intercultural team professionally
supervision and concomitant counseling were offered in various cases.
It should be noted that various measures developed the intercultural
competence of German nursing personnel. The methodical triad of purposeful
training, team support, and constant access to specialized literature were
helpful. In addition to the formation of culturally sensitive knowledge and
intercultural competence among workers, it is also necessary to develop the
language skills of the appropriate multi-ethnic nursing personnel via additional
language training (AWO Bundesverband e.V. Württemberg, 2013).
Consider the following project ‒ the IPIKA project, “Interprofessional and

intercultural activities in the area of medicine, nursing, and social services”
(Interprofessionelles und Interkulturelles Arbeiten in Medizin, Pflege und
Sozialdienst). It is important to emphasize that due to migration, the flow of
refugees, and demographic changes, the number of patients with a migrant
background in German clinics is steadily increasing. Therefore, Charité
University Hospital ‒ Berlin committed itself to provide medical care in its three
central locations in Berlin. It offered a low threshold for access to medical care
and treatment for many immigrants and refugee patients. Thus, there was a
great need for medical personnel to develop intercultural competences to ensure
the quality of medical care. The IPIKA project aims to develop the intercultural,
and inter-professional capabilities of doctors, nursing personnel, and social
workers. During its implementation, with the support of the Robert Bosch
Foundation, within the framework of the “Operation Team” in Charité
University Hospital ‒ Berlin (Charité Universitätsmedizin), during 2016 ‒ 2017, a
series of training was developed and conducted, which consisted of five
modules. One of the main directions was the care of chronically ill and
polymorbid patients. As a partner of this project, along with Charité University
Hospital ‒ Berlin, namely Charite gynecological clinic, the integrated oncology
center, Charité nursing sector, Charité international cooperation department,
and Charité Health Academy was Alice Salomon University of Applied Sciences
Berlin (ASH Berlin, 2019; Charité, 2019).

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We found out that the IPIKA advanced training program consisted of five
modules (75 topics) with the following content: the relationship between
migration and health, socio-cultural factors; intercultural sensitization in the
professional sphere: intercultural background knowledge about chronic
diseases, the role of physicians-patients-relatives; bypassing language barriers,
working with translators (language and cultural mediators); conflict resolution
and de-escalation in the clinic (in intercultural conditions); improvement of
inter-professional cooperation and inter-professional communication; self-
reflection and change of perspective. Doctors, nursing personnel, social workers,
teachers, and clinical linguists from various departments and clinics in Charité
attended a series of training. The IPIKA advanced training program
(Fortbildungscurriculum) was of high practical importance: in particular,
cultural-sensitive and interprofessional activities were practiced on the basis of
prototypical clinical situations and procedures, using simulated patients
(Simulationspatient) and working with professional translators. In addition,
experts working in the area of counseling and care of patients with migrant
backgrounds and refugee patients within and outside Charité university
hospital ‒ Berlin were involved in the modules. Participants also developed
proposals for improving the care of immigrant patients in their immediate
working environment, for example, by translating information about patients
into several different languages, using icons, creating an intranet platform for all
Charité personnel members on intercultural issues, and improving college
qualifications (Charité, 2019).
Let us now turn to the IPIKA Plus project (duration of project: 2018 ‒ 2019). The
current IPIKA Plus project aims to institutionalize the content of training courses
at the universities of Charité University Hospital ‒ Berlin and Alice Salomon
University of Applied Sciences Berlin. Thus, the advanced training program for
the development of cross-cultural and inter-professional competences for the
hospital personnel is offered at Charité Health Academy. Next, the IPIKA Plus
project also carries out intercultural training and training of trainers
(Interkulturelle Fortbildungen und Train-the-Trainer Einheiten) in the area of
integration management (Integrationmanagement) in the nursing sector of
Charité. In addition, Alice Salomon University of Applied Sciences Berlin
develops a professional certification course (berufsbegleitender Zertifikatskurs)
that will be available to representatives of various medical professions from the
Winter Semester of the 2019/20 academic year at the Center for Advanced
Training (Zentrum für Weiterbildung) at Alice Salomon University of Applied
Sciences Berlin (Charité, 2019).
We should not ignore in our study the EU-funded project LEONARDO, “MIG-
COMM-EU ‒ Multilingual Intercultural Business Communication for Europe”
(MIG-KOMM-EU ‒ Mehrsprachige interkulturelle Geschäftskommunikation für
Europa). The main result of this project was the Blended-Learning-Courses for
business communication in German, Estonian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Romanian,
Slovak, Slovenian, Czech, and Hungarian languages (EU-Projekt MIG-KOMM,
2019).

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Among them, there are Blended-Learning-Courses for medical professionals,

“Blended-learning-Course Medical Communication” (Blended-learning-Kurs
Medizinische Kommunikation), which can be found on the educational web
portal IMED-KOMM-EU. It consists of German courses for communication with
patients (die Deutschen Sprachkurse zur Patientenkommunikation), foreign
doctors (Deutsch für ausländische Ärztinnen und Ärzte), and nursing personnel
(Deutsch für ausländische Gesundheits- und Krankenpflegerinnen / -pfleger).
These Blended-Learning-Courses are behind the photos of the main page of the
web portal. “The EU funded IMED-KOMM-EU project” (Intercultural Medical
Communication in Europe) was produced under the leadership of the IIK
Institute for Intercultural Communication Inc. (Ansbach, Berlin, Jena, Erfurt)
within the framework of the LEONARDO ITP program of the European
Commission, with partners from Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Hungary, and
Slovakia. The main products of the project are five modern, interconnected Web
portals and teacher’s guides in German, Bulgarian, Hungarian, Slovak, and
Czech, with practical modules that provide complex exercises for medical
communication for doctors on the one hand and nurses on the other hand both
online and offline. Later there were added exercises concerning the medical
aspects of modern tourism. The modules of the courses are enhanced by private
tests, podcasts/videocasts, blogs as well as links, all of which are freely
accessible on the web portal. Examples of tests can be accessed by clicking the
ECL button. These tests can be taken at any of our partner institutions.
Additional and more in-depth information for teachers and students can be
found in the special glossaries/guides on medical language (online-reference
books, -dictionaries, -glossaries; books on intercultural communication, etc.)”
(IMED-KOMM-EU, 2019).
By studying the issue of nursing education in the context of culture, certain

theoretical studies on this topic and discussion cannot be overlooked. For
example, as the first nurse theoretician, Leininger (1998) presented work on
nursing theory, which integrated specific aspects of culture. In 1978, she
published her second book, “Transcultural Nursing: Concepts, Theories, and
Practices”, in which she described the basic notions and proximity of nursing
and anthropology. In theoretical assumptions, Leininger (1998) has two main
concepts. On the one hand, the concept of caring for a person who divides her
into general and professional care, and which varies according to culture. On the
other hand, theoretically, the phenomenon of culture is significant, putting
forward the traditional anthropological concept of Leininger’s students
Andrews and Boyle, who developed the theory and the concepts of transcultural
nursing, have a different approach. Instead of the concept of culture, they put
interaction in the center of their work (Domenig, 2001, p. 145; Reinhardt &
Sahmel, 2009, pp. 146-147).
Orque (1983) offers another approach to the theory of nursing. In this theory,
two groups, an ethnic group or an ethnic minority and a dominant group, which
has authority and power in society, are in contrast. Culture includes such areas
as eating habits, linguistic and communication processes, family processes,
interactive processes within the social group, art, religion, history, value

89
orientations, attitudes to health, and healthy habits. For Orque (1983), the
interaction between patients and their carers or nursing personnel plays a
central role. Only then you can take into account the individuality of the patient
and determine the specific benefits offered (Reinhardt & Sahmel, 2009, p. 148;
Visser & de Jong, 2002, p. 103). Also, Domenig (2001) believes in his work
“Professional transcultural nursing: Handbook for teaching and practice in
nursing and obstetrics” that transcultural competence focuses on the interaction
between nursing personnel and migrants, not culture. In essence, for them,
“transcultural competence consists of the transcultural ability to interact in a
migratory context” (Domenig, 2001, p. 148; Reinhardt & Sahmel, 2009, p. 149).
The basic knowledge required for the interaction between nursing personnel
and migrants relates to less experience pertaining to culture and general
concepts. Domenig (2001) explains what topics or ideas she considers necessary,
which we should understand as general concepts in nursing. These concepts
include the concept of personality and socially oriented society, ethnomedical
concept, socio-cultural ideas of health and disease, knowledge of the
background of migration, knowledge of the living conditions of migrants, the
connection between migration and health, accessibility and barriers to health
systems, knowledge of communication and manner of expression. In addition to
the knowledge gained at the cognitive level, Domenig (2001) includes the
experience of nursing personnel involved with migrants. As the third element of
interaction, Domenig (2001) calls empathy and understanding. The focus of
intercultural learning is the understanding of foreigners. It means that we
should understand, accept, and respond to foreign cultures and behaviors of
people from other countries. The focus of intercultural learning is the
understanding of foreigners. The aim is to understand, accept and react
appropriately to foreign cultural orientations and the behavior of people from
other countries (Flechsig, 2000, p. 4; Reinhardt & Sahmel, 2009, p. 154).
There are three different levels to be taken into account when gaining
transcultural competence. The first level is focusing on specific situations or
contexts of care. The second level is an action that is important since the nursing
personnel works independently in everyday practice, decides, and bears
responsibility. The third level is the theoretical foundation of nursing
interventions in a medical institution in accordance with the cultural sensitivity
of individuals (Reinhardt & Sahmel, 2009, p. 154; Uzarevich, 2001, p.6). von Bose
and Terpstra (2012), in their practical book for care and communication
“Caring for Muslim patients”, asserted that “according to E. Kiel, transcultural
competences consist of a general readiness for communication and interaction.
Transcultural competences are independent key qualifications, consisting of four
areas of competence: professional, social, personal, activity as well as related
individual competences” (von Bose & Terpstra, 2012, p. 16). According to Kiel
(1996), transcultural competence is a fundamental skill necessary for life, work
and learning in a globalized world. Ability to behave in cross-cultural situations
in such a way that representatives of different cultures can openly interact and
present their national culture, while each person tries to understand the
positions of another. This also applies to situations of intercultural nursing,

90
which is the main requirement of successful intercultural relations. A

fundamental cultural sensitization is required to initiate the individual
development of intercultural competence. After this sensitization, one should
develop the capacity for cultural analysis. Cultural and analytical skills provide
an interpretative basis for those who are interested in the true understanding of
cultural aspects to understand their cultural activities and, therefore, to
understand the actions of representatives of other cultures. They also allow you
to harmonize a wide variety of experiences. An essential feature of the model of
transcultural competence is a deep reflection of their own culture as a basis for
understanding foreign cultures (Kiel, 1996).
5. Conclusions
Demographic changes and global migration processes have sharply put before
the German nursing personnel the problem of its intercultural competence.
Intercultural competence covers the concepts of multicultural, intercultural,
international education, and is an important area of nursing personnel training.
In the area of nursing, there are two concepts (cultural sensitivity and culturally
sensitive care) in connection with intercultural competence. In the professional
activity, German nursing personnel grows from beginners to nursing experts
and, accordingly, its intercultural competence is developing. Currently, the
development of the intercultural competence of nursing personnel is being
performed in Germany through the organization of various projects and courses.
They improve the interpersonal interaction at the intersection of cultures,
increase the ability to work in a team, to tolerate cultural differences, to resolve
intercultural conflicts and to apply intercultural knowledge in medical practice.
These projects also promote the development and display of intellectual interest
in other cultures, formation of intercultural literacy and intercultural interaction,
the ability to tolerate relations with representatives of other cultures.
Consequently, we can conclude that these advanced training projects, blended-
learning courses, on-the-job training, intercultural group training, studies of the
native German personnels of both ethnic and migration backgrounds facilitate
the development of its intercultural competence. The German experience in
applying advanced training projects to develop the intercultural competence of
nursing personnel can be interesting and valuable for use in other countries.
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Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 94-109, April 2020
Comparative Study on the Use of the

Educational Resources of PeruEduca by Teachers
from Arequipa and Moquegua
Anyela Bejarano, Steve Pareja and Marco Córdova

Universidad Católica de Santa María
Arequipa, Perú
Teresa Ramos-Quispe
Universidad Continental
Arequipa, Perú
Antonio Silva Sprock

Universidad Central de Venezuela
Caracas, Venezuela
Klinge Orlando Villalba-Condori

Universidad Nacional de San Agustín de Arequipa
Arequipa, Perú
Abstract. PeruEduca is an educational platform implemented by the

Ministry of Education of Perú for providing free resources for teaching
at different educational levels. This research presents the analysis of the
use of PeruEduca in the teaching-learning process. This study began
with a survey carried out with two groups of teachers belonging to the
regions of Moquegua and Arequipa, using the criteria of mandatory
Educational Quality Examination of the Ministry of Education, which is
applied annually. The teachers are graduates of the master’s degree
course in the management of virtual learning environments offered by
the Catholic University of Santa María. The analysis was carried out
considering two aspects: digital competencies and the teaching-learning
process. The results of this survey indicate that students from the
Moquegua region are having better performances in their learning than
students of the Arequipa region. This difference could be attributed to
the extensive use of digital resources from the PeruEduca platform in
the teaching-learning process. Thus, teachers must be sensitized at the
local level to reflect on their pedagogical practices and incorporate
methodological strategies in which they can use virtual environments in
the development of their learning sessions.
Keywords: educational resources; open resources; virtual learning

environment; PeruEduca; Arequipa; Moquegua

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1. Introduction
The education system of Peru needs to be reviewed because children can no
longer be educated in the same way as they have always been. It is necessary to
understand that the traditional forms of education have been a direct
consequence of the industrial revolution and, consequently demanded a certain
type of organization following the industrialized society in which division of
labor, specialization and mass production are the main driving factors.
However, we are now already in the 21st century and we are living in the so-
called information society or knowledge society, which has seen some notable
changes in the educational and cultural transmission processes. In this sense, it is
necessary to train students so that they can contribute to present society.
However, there is a feeling that with the current educational system, the
students are being prepared for a society of the past. In the new social space,
there are no scenarios specifically designed for education, or if there are, these
are very few. This is one of the tasks that must be done immediately, although it
is not the only one (Echevarría, 2000).
New technologies, warns Silva (2011), are giving way to the emergence of new
educational scenarios; meanwhile, traditional spaces are undergoing profound
transformation and restructuring processes, hand in hand with the advent of
virtual learning and communication environments (Arencibia, 2020). These
virtual learning environments (VLE) emerge as particularly ideal scenarios for
training, coaching, practice, and capacity building in the educational field.
However, it is necessary to take into account the difference in the effective use of
resources, the digital tools that teachers and students consider in the educational
process, according to the different pedagogical and didactic models in which
these environments are framed (Monereo & Badia, 2013).
Along the same lines, Fernández and Vázquez (2017) explain three gaps that
have prevented the total massification of new technologies. Firstly, there is the
primary gap related to access (cost of equipment), which has prevented many
schools from acquiring new equipment. The second refers to the user that
allows, in theory, adequate management of these technologies, but which is not
fully realized. Finally, the third is which separates schools from society. The first
gap is almost overcome, mainly because acquisition costs have been
considerably reduced. The second persists even though many of today's users
live connected to the network or use it from their homes, schools, or workplaces.
The third is the most serious of all since it involves two large institutions that
have always had a reciprocal relationship throughout history, i.e., schools and
society.
There are different proposals on what the profile of the 21st century teacher
should look like. In this regard, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO) published a document called the ICT
Competency Standards for Teachers (UNESCO, 2008) which was intended to be
a guide for teacher training institutions, to contribute to the creation or revision
of their training programs. For its part, the European Commission states that
digital competence implies the critical and safe use of Information Technologies

96
for work, leisure, and communication. To achieve this, it must rely on necessary
ICT skills such as the use of computers to retrieve, assess, store, produce, present
and exchange information, and to communicate and participate in collaborative
networks over the Internet (European Union, 2006).
Within the Good Teaching Performance Framework, the Ministry of Education

of Peru establishes that all teachers who carry out their pedagogical practice in
Regular Basic Education (initial, primary and secondary levels) must develop
teaching skills to achieve the results specified in performance 8 and 23, which
refers to the use of technology and which allows them to recreate innovative
methodologies to promote the development of a digital culture that will make it
possible for students to learn more appropriate contentn in a better way
(Ministerio de Educación, 2012). Facing the uncontrollable changes that society
presents and the influence that technological means have on the mind, culture,
and education of students, it becomes urgent to rethink pedagogical practices
and the choice of these. A separate analysis is required on the theme of strategies
and resources used to develop digital competencies, since they are the entire set
of elements, tools, or procedures that teachers use, or can use, as support,
complement, or help in their teaching tasks (Díaz, 1994). This concept highlights
the usefulness of this "set of elements" that complements the teaching task
(Salinas, 2011).
On the other hand, Corrales and Sierras (2002) define academic means and
resources as the set of elements or instruments that aim to help trainers in their
teaching task and also to facilitate students in the achievement of learning
objectives. These resources are made up of all the digital strategies which are
offered for free for non-commercial use by teachers and students for teaching,
learning, and research (Miravalles, 2012).
However, Open Educational Resources (OER) are either in the public domain or
have been published under an intellectual property license that allows them to
be used, adapted and distributed free of charge, that is, anyone can consult
them, reuse them and create new materials (Velázquez et al., 2014). This is how
educational portals arise as tools to help teachers, since they simplify planning,
facilitate the selection and publication of content and familiarize students with
the tools and information management in the new media, which drives the
teaching and learning process (Gros & Contreras, 2006).
Educational portals appear as part of the interest of governments in extending

their educational policies and bringing together the educational community in
the same virtual space (Romero, 2010). Educational portals then become the
gateway to a large amount of information and content that is strictly
pedagogical, and that teachers and students can use without restriction. Such
educational platforms can be regarded as an ecosystem for teaching and learning
(Frango et al., 2013; Frango, Ochoa, Silva, Notargiacomo & Hernández, 2011).
Bedriñana (2005) defines an educational portal as any webspace that offers
multiple services to the members of the educational community (teachers,
students, managers, and families), such as information, data search tools,

97
academic resources, tools for interpersonal communication, training, advice,

entertainment, etc. In addition to being able to freely use it, it is important that
the teacher can find resources suitable to his intention (Maldonado & Pérez,
2018; Villalba-Condori et al, 2019; Yadav & Berges, 2019; Pérez).
2. Educational Portals
There are nineteen educational portals in the Latin American Network of
Educational Portals (RELPE). Eight of them require prior registration to access
the resources. This is the case of PeruEduca, TiCrupive (Paraguay), Educa
Panama, Educatrachos (Honduras), Educar Chile, Colombia Aprende, Portal do
Profesor and Educar (Argentina). However, the remaining eleven portals do not
require registration and these are Mundo Escolar (Venezuela), Uruguay Educa,
Educando (Dominican Republic), Nicaragua Educa, the Secretaría de Educación
Pública - SEP (Mexico), the Portal Educativo del Ministerio de Educación de
Guatemala, Mi Portal (El Salvador), Educar (Ecuador), Cuba Educa, Educatico
(Costa Rica) and Educa Bolivia. Another essential regional portal is the Latin
American Federation of Learning Object Repositories (LAFLOR). This federation
brings together more than 50,000 educational materials in Spanish, Portuguese
and English. Another such portal is the World Federation of Repositories of
Learning Objects (GLOBE) (Velázquez et al., 2014).
PeruEduca's closest precedents are the EDURED programs, which aimed to

guarantee the connection of different urban schools to the network. Also
outstanding is INFOESCUELA, a program aimed at developing activities in the
field of robotics at the primary education level, which reached 400 public schools
in 17 cities of the country. The third program was a pilot initiative in distance
education approved in 1998 and launched only in 2000, whose purpose was to
improve the coverage of primary education in rural areas, contribute to the
universalization of the supply of quality basic education at the national level and
expand the number of secondary schools in the rural and border areas (Balarin,
2013). Each of these programs was created during the government of Alberto
Fujimori and they managed to improve the conditions and opportunities for the
use of ICTs and the Internet.
After many years, the government of Alejandro Toledo created the Huascarán
program, which consisted of the inclusion of ICTs in public educational
institutions through the Pedagogical Innovation Classroom (AIP – Aula de
Innovación Pedagógica). Its general objective was to expand the quality and
coverage of education through the use of ICTs and promote higher levels of
decentralization, democratization, and equity. Iit also covered the pre-school,
primary and secondary levels in urban and rural areas of Peru, benefiting
2,527,045 students and 48,267 teachers (Ascarza, 2003).
The Huascarán project operated until the end of the Toledo Government, and in
2007 its functions were absorbed by the General Directorate of Educational
Technologies (DIGETE), created during the government of Alan García (DS. No.
16-2007-ED). By 2016, as a result of a restructuring of the Ministry of Education
(MINEDU), DIGETE became the Directorate of Technological Innovation in

98
Education (DITE). PeruEduca was born as a portal in 2001 as part of the

Huascarán Project, and in 2004, it became a full member of the Latin American
Network of Educational Portals (RELPE). In 2011, it was rebranded as a digital
learning system, after a total re-engineering. By 2015, PeruEduca had 715,000
registered users, of which 430,000 were teachers, and 200,000 were students.
Likewise, 18 million visits were registered and through its virtual classrooms,
242 courses were held, serving more than 280,000 users.
The results of a 2013 survey (INEGI, 2013) confirmed that the 53% of educational
institutions were using in PeruEduca and that it had a total of 513,987 users
(373,383 teachers and 140,604 students). Currently, PeruEduca has progressively
increased its pedagogical support for teachers and students. Through
PeruEduca, users can find articles, forums, videoconferencing facilities,
educational games, texts, simulators, computer graphics, audio resources, video
resources, images and stories, which can be downloaded for free and used
pedagogically in the classroom with students for better learning.
3. Methodology
This section describes the instruments, the study design, the data collection and
the sample used in this study.
3.1 Population
This research was carried out at the Graduate School of the Catholic University
of Santa María which, with teachers who had graduated from the master’s in
management of Virtual Learning Environments program. This university is
located in the region of Arequipa in Peru. A total of 1,400 teachers were available
to participate in this study. Five hundred of them were teachers from the
Program Master 3.0 Scholarship for Arequipa teachers and 900 were teachers
from the 600 Scholarship program for Moquegua teachers.
3.2 Instruments
The objective of this instrument was to measure the degree of ‘Use of the
PeruEduca’ platform by teachers and students from Arequipa and Moquegua
(two regions from Peru). This variable was further subdivided into two
dimensions: teaching skills and pedagogical practices. The survey instrument is
provided in Appendix 1. It is essential to point out that this instrument was first
validated by a group of teachers (who were not part of the survey participants)
before it went through another validation process by five experts. Some
corrections were made after this process. Furthermore, the mean of the Aitken's
validity factor was found to be 0.896 for these two dimensions. There was also a
high degree of consistency among the different experts. For Cronbach's Alpha,
the tool was reliable, since the coefficient is a value close to 1 (0.840 < 1). Values
higher than 0.7 normally indicate that the instrument is reliable.
3.3 Study design and data collection

The present research has a quantitative nature, of a similar descriptive type, and
to carry it out, quantitative techniques were applied that allowed the selection
and comparative analysis of data provided by the teachers from the 3.0

99
Scholarship program from Arequipa and 600 Scholarship program from

Moquegua. Teachers' e-mails were used to send them the survey link, which
consisted of a form developed with the e-survey software (http://www.e-
encuesta.com). Once all the relevant data were gathered, they were tabulated for
analysis and interpretation.
3.4 Sample
The sample for this study was 238 teachers which was divided into two groups:
165 teachers from Arequipa from the 3.0 Scholarship program, and 73 teachers
from Moquegua from the 600 Scholarship program.
4. Results
The results were analysed using the SPSS statistical package, with which the
value of the statistic and the p-value of contrast probability were calculated. We
used the Kolgomorov-Smirnov test with Lilliefors' correction to verify if the data
were typically distributed. According to the analysis of normality and
comparing the levels of significance (the p-values), it can be seen that in the
digital competences of teachers, there are parametric behaviors (p-value is
0.200>0.005); therefore, it is homogeneous. In the other two cases, i.e., Teaching
Practice and Use of PeruEduca, non-parametric behaviors are found, since their
p-values are very low; in this case, Teaching Practice (0.000<0.005) and Use of
PeruEduca (0.006<0.005). Once the normality test was performed, the criteria for
the validation of the proposed hypotheses were determined.
As the normalization of the ‘Use of PeruEduca’ and ‘Pedagogical Practice’

dimensions were rejected, it was decided to apply non-parametric tests where
the tests are done on the median of the distribution. The Mann-Whitney U test
was used, which allowed the application of these criteria for two independent
samples. This test is the non-parametric version of the Student "T" test, which is
an appropriate one to apply to the ‘Use of PeruEduca’ and P’edagogical Practice’
dimensions. Table 1 shows the results of the analysis of the variables grouped
under the ‘Use of PeruEduca’, while Table 2 shows a comparison of the medians.
Table 1: Clustering variable - Use of PeruEduca
Statistic Use of PeruEduca

Mann-Whitney U 5182.500
Significance (2-tails) 0.086
According to the significance (0.086>0.05), the ‘Use of PeruEduca’ in both

regions (Arequipa and Moquegua) is similar.
Table 2: Comparison of medians
Statistic Arequipa use Moquegua use

N 165 73
Median 74.00 81.00

100
Because it is non-parametric, the medians are compared. In Arequipa, this value

is located is smaller because in this city the teachers do not yet recurrently use
the platform either for their pedagogical practice or to develop their teaching
skills while in Moquegua the results show a normal level of use. This is because
these teachers have benefited from training in Information Technologies, as well
as a process of intervention by the regional government of Moquegua. This has
allowed teachers to take advantage of virtual resources and insert them in their
pedagogical practice. Thus, they are better able to develop their teaching skills
using educational platforms platform which the government has implemented
for them. Table 3 shows the results of the analysis of the variables grouped
under Pedagogical Practice (PP).
Table 3: Clustering variable - Pedagogical Practice
Statistic Pedagogical Practice

Mann-Whitney U 4947.000
Significance (2-tails) 0.028
Depending on the significance, the value is less than 0.05 (0.028<0.05). Therefore,
the use of PeruEduca for pedagogical practice is different in the regions of
Arequipa and Moquegua. The comparison of medians can be seen in Table 4. In
Arequipa, the median is smaller than Moquegua.
Table 4: Comparison of medians
Statistic Arequipa Practice Moquegua Practice

N 165 73
Median 50.0000 55.0000
Next, the homoscedasticity of the sample has been verified using the Levene's
test. This test indicates that the variances are equal. Therefore, the t-value for
equal variances are chosen. It can be seen from Table 5 that the digital
competences are similar (0.93>0.05) for the teachers of both regions.
Table 5: Independent sample testing
Levene test t-test for equality of means
95%
Confidence
Standard
Sig. Means interval of the
F Sig. t Df error
(2-tailed) difference difference
difference
Lower Higher
Equal
deviations 2.84 0.093 -0.85 236 0.39 -1.23 1.45 -4.08 1.62
Digital assumed
competence
Equal variances
-0.80 120.40 0.25 -1.23 1.54 -4.27 1.81
not assumed

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5. Discussion
The importance of an educational portal does not lie in the number of registered
users but the quality of access, that is to say, how long users stay on the
platform, how much resources they view/download, whether they publish
content or propose improvements for student learning (RELPE, 2013). At this
point, it is essential to note that all the portals that make up the Latin American
Network of Educational Portals (RELPE) offer a large number of educational
resources in various formats and allow the downloading of these resources
without any restrictions. Teachers use these resources as a means to facilitate
communication and access to information and to help in their teaching practice.
However, these online educational portals are not a panacea and an all-inclusive
solution in themselves as it is often seen that they do not encourage in-depth
learning as many students tend to remain passive and receptive only. Currently,
the way in which educational resources are provided in these platforms does not
allow for new ways of interacting with information, but rather persists in
responsive and traditional behaviors. Improving pedagogical practices and
making good use of these resources require developing educational strategies to
acquire multiple skills, managing life-long learning, designing meaningful
learning experiences, and using ICT reflectively and critically.
5.1 Digital Competences

Regarding the dimension related to Digital Competences in Teachers, UNESCO
defines digital competencies as a spectrum of competencies that facilitate the use
of digital devices, communication applications, and networks to access, and
better manage information. From a pedagogical point of view, UNESCO
classifies these competencies at three levels, from the simplest to the most
complex: Level of Integration, Level of Reorientation and Level of Evolution. In
this regard, UNESCO (2016) points out that these competencies enable the
creation and exchange of digital content, communication, and collaboration, as
well as problem-solving for productive and creative development in life, work,
and social activities in general.
In this sense, the vast majority of teachers in both programs (3.0 Scholarship and
600 Scholarship) have shown skills to search, download or save the appropriate
resources (videos, audios, simulators, computer graphics, learning objects, texts,
animations, educational games, etc.) that they find in PeruEduca. This is known
as content healing. Due to the enormous amount of resources that are available
today on the Internet, it is necessary for teachers to have these set of skills.
However, this is not sufficient to affirm that the levels of digital competencies of
teachers in both regions are ideal, since taking as a reference what UNESCO has
proposed we can say that teachers in both programs are more at the Level of
Integration, that is, teachers are making use of ICTs for the transmission and
storage of information (Martí, 2003). This means that teachers can use ICT
services, but they only do so only for reference or to show content in their
learning sessions. Still, they do not modify or contextualize this content to their
reality. Most of them are still not generating any new content. Thus, the present
investigation concludes that the use of educational resources in PeruEduca in the
Digital Competences dimension is similar for the teachers from both regions.

102
5.2 Participation of teachers

A majority of teachers have participated in virtual courses on the PeruEduca
platform. However, they have very little experience with the various
synchronous and asynchronous communication services (forums, blogs, chats,
wikis, groups, educational communities) which are available on the platform.
Digital competencies are a set of skills, functions, and abilities necessary for the
use of information and communication technologies and are evidenced in the
strategic mastery of five major capacities associated with the different
dimensions of digital competency: access, adoption, adaptation, appropriation,
and innovation (Díaz and Picón, 2016). Teachers in both programs have only
reached the first two capacities (access and adoption) since they do not
experience any difficulty in accessing and adopting these resources in their daily
activities. However, when it comes to using these supports in their pedagogical
work through modifying, contextualizing or creating new resources, they find it
very difficult to do so. Digital competencies in teachers seek to enrich their
pedagogical work and contribute to student learning as long as they are used
strategically and creatively. Thus, teachers must have an adequate level of
knowledge and an excellent attitude towards the adoption of new technologies.
5.3 Pedagogical practice dimension

The teaching work is analyzed to see whether it has the capacity to support
meaningful learning and the integral development of students. This can be done
through the creation of exercises and activities which are full of meaning for
those who participate in them. The recognition of disciplinary or environmental
problems, the generation of experiences that promote particular relations with
the identified problems, the promotion of reflection and critical thinking and the
integral assessment of learning are also important elements of good pedagogical
practices. Thus, in both programs, the tendency is to use these resources
regularly (audios, simulators, computer graphics, learning objects, animations,
educational games, etc.) with a few exceptions, such as, the videos and texts of
the Ministry of Education (MED). Consequently, these results confirm that
teachers in both programs are at the Integration Level, that is, they use ICT as a
tool to optimize content presentation, communication, and information
transmission. The use of educational resources in PeruEduca in the practical
pedagogical dimension was found to be different for teachers from both regions.
6. Conclusions
The digital competencies and pedagogical practice of teachers in two different
regions in Peru were analysed through a survey on the way they use the
PeruEduca educational platform. We found that Moquegua teacher make more
frequent use of the educational resources in PeruEduca than Arequipa teachers.
Educational portals such as PeruEduca are not in themselves a guarantee of
improvement in student learning. Instead, they should be seen as tools whose
potential has not yet been fully exploited. Teachers must be sensitized at the
local level to reflect on their pedagogical practices and incorporate
methodological strategies in which they can use virtual environments in their
learning sessions. Finally, more dissemination must be made at the level of
educational institutions to inform them about the resources that available on
PeruEduca so that teachers and students can use it to its full extent.

103
7. References
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K. (2020). Developing computational thinking with a module of solved
problems. Computer Applications in Engineering Education, 2020.
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Ascarza, A. (2003). Las nuevas tecnologías de información y comunicación (NTIC) en el
diseño de proyectos nacionales para la modernización de la educación
iberoamericana: bases para el programa Huascarán [The new information and
communication technologies (NTIC) in the design of national projects for the
modernization of Ibero-American education: bases for the Huascarán program.
Management in the third millennium]. Gestión en el tercer milenio, 5(10), 13-17.
Balarín, M. (2013). ICT policies in Latin American education systems: Case of Peru. Buenos
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Appendix 1
SURVEY
USE OF PERUVIAN EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES
The following survey has been prepared for research purposes, so please answer
truthfully, as the information we wish to obtain is very important for a large
study that will benefit teachers. The survey is anonymous and we guarantee
absolute confidentiality in the processing and dissemination of the results.
Thank you very much for your collaboration.

Universidad Católica de Santa María
Graduate School
I. GENERAL DATA
1. Region
a. Arequipa
b. Moquegua
2. Sex
a. Male
b. Female
3. Age
a. Less than 25 years old
b. Between 25 and 30 years
c. Between 31 and 35 years old
d. Between 36 and 40 years old
e. Between 41 and 45 years old
f. Between 46 and 50 years old
g. Between 51 and 55 years old
h. Between 56 and 60 years old
i. More than 61 years old
4. EBR level
a. Initial
b. Primary
c. Secondary
5. UGEL
a. UGEL North
b. UGEL South
c. UGEL La Unión
d. UGEL Castilla
e. UGEL Camaná
f. UGEL Caravelí
g. UGEL Condesuyos

106
h. UGEL Islay
i. UGEL Caylloma
j. UGEL La Joya
k. UGEL General Sanchez Cerro
l. UGEL Mariscal Nieto
m. UGEL Ilo
6. Scope of your EI
a. Urban
b. Rural
7. Time of service
a. Less than 5 years
b. From 5 to 10 years
c. From 11 to 15 years old
d. From 16 to 20 years old
e. More than 20 years
f. Nothing
8. Area of expertise
a. Initial
b. Primary
c. Communication
d. Mathematics
e. CTA
f. ER
g. EF
h. EPT
i. Art and culture
j. Social Sciences
k. Others
9. Teacher's Scale
a. I
b. II
c. III
d. IV
e. V
f. VI
10. Employment status

a. Named
b. Hired
11. Scholarship Promotion

a. First promotion Scholarship 600 (entry 2015)
b. Second promotion Scholarship 600 (entry 2016)
c. First promotion Scholarship 3.0 (entry 2016)
d. Second promotion Scholarship 3.0 (entry 2017)

107
II. ON THE USE OF THE PERUVIAN PLATFORM
12. DO YOU KNOW THE PERUVIAN PLATFORM?

a. Yes
b. No
13. ARE YOU REGISTERED IN PERUVIAN?

a. Yes
b. No
14. HOW OFTEN DO YOU ACCESS PERUEDUCA?

a. Once or twice a week
b. Internally
c. Every day
d. Never
15. Indicate on the scale how often you perform the following actions (where 0
is none, and 5 is very often)
15A. DO YOU KNOW HOW TO SEARCH FOR THE EDUCATIONAL

RESOURCES THAT PERUEDUCA OFFERS?
0 1 2 3 4 5
15B. DO YOU EASILY FIND RESOURCES TO WORK IN YOUR AREA OR

LEVEL?
0 1 2 3 4 5
16. HOW OFTEN DO YOU USE THESE PERUVIAN SERVICES AND

RESOURCES?
No. Service/Resource 0 1 2 3 4 5
16A Animations
16B Audios
16C Fascicles
16D Infographics
16E Games
16F Books
16G Modules
16H Learning Objects

108
16I Stories
16J Simulators
16K Recommended sites
16L Software
16M Videos
16N MED texts
17. Indicate on the scale how often you perform the following actions (where 0
is none, and 5 is very often)
17A. DO YOU PROMOTE THE USE OF THESE RESOURCES AND

SERVICES WITH YOUR STUDENTS?
0 1 2 3 4 5
17B. HAVE THE RESOURCES AND SERVICES PERUEDUCA OFFERS

HELPED YOU IN YOUR PEDAGOGICAL WORK?
0 1 2 3 4 5
17C. DO YOU STORE IN AN ORGANIZED WAY THE PERUVIAN

RESOURCES YOU ARE INTERESTED IN IN YOUR COMPUTER?
0 1 2 3 4 5
17D. DO YOU PLAN YOUR LEARNING SESSION TAKING INTO

ACCOUNT THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES DOWNLOADED FROM
PERUVIAN THAT YOU STORED ON YOUR COMPUTER?
0 1 2 3 4 5
17E. HAVE YOU PARTICIPATED IN ANY COURSE PROMOTED BY

PERUEDUCA?
0 1 2 3 4 5
17F. DO YOU USE PERUEDUCA'S BLOG TO PUBLISH YOUR

EXPERIENCES IN THE CLASSROOM?
0 1 2 3 4 5

109
17G. HAVE YOU CREATED OR PARTICIPATED IN A FORUM IN

PERUEDUCA?
0 1 2 3 4 5
17H. HAVE YOU CREATED OR PARTICIPATED IN A GROUP IN PERU?
0 1 2 3 4 5
17I. DO YOU PARTICIPATE IN ANY PERUVIAN VIRTUAL COMMUNITY?
0 1 2 3 4 5
17J. WOULD YOU RECOMMEND THE USE OF PERUEDUCA TO YOUR

COLLEAGUES?
0 1 2 3 4 5

110

Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 110-129, April 2020
Leadership Types and Digital Leadership in

Higher Education: Behavioural Data Analysis
from University of Patras in Greece
Hera Antonopoulou, Constantinos Halkiopoulos,

Olympia Barlou and Grigorios N. Beligiannis
University of Patras
Patras, Greece
Abstract. The effective leadership of digital transformation in higher

education has become an emerging issue that is needed to also integrate
the board of directors in University departments. The main purpose of
the study is to investigate the leading skills of heads of university
departments analyzing their point of view in the digital leadership, to
analyze the leadership types that they adopt and the associations with
leadership outcome and also to describe profoundly the views of
participants as far as the basic components of leadership types such as
transformational and transactional. For the implementation of the present
study, 28 heads of departments from University of Patras participated
replying the Multi-factor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) and data were
collected and then analyzed using SPSS statistical software. The findings
of the study among others, indicate that the leadership outcome has a
strong positive correlation with transformational leadership and a large
negative correlation with passive - to avoid leadership, it was confirmed
that the higher degree of transformational leadership implies greater
efficiency and satisfaction for workers, and the high degree of
transformational leadership co-exists with the great degree of
implementation of digital leadership.
Keywords: digital leadership; higher education; behavioral data analysis;

transformational leadership; outcome leadership
1. Introduction
1.1 Literature review of leadership

Leadership and its exercise have run and occupied every organized human
society. But the science of management is systematic and organized and made its
appearance in the early twentieth century, focusing primarily on area of Business
Administration. Gradually this scientific space it was embedded, grafted and
developed, taking advantage of the synergy and other sciences such as

111
Psychology and Sociology, creating several 'branches', one of which is the field of
Education Leadership-Management.
Many theorists (Cuban, 1988), define that the term of leadership means the
influence on the actions of others when trying to achieve desired goals. The role
of leadership is to achieve innovation in the way the organization operates, the
transformation of existing structures and processes taking place within it, as well
as the effort to change the working culture and behavior of its employees (Fullan,
2002). On the contrary, management in an organization looks forward to the
implementation and maintenance of existing structures and their optimal
operation within the frameworks specified. Another theorist (Bennis, 1990), quite
rightly points out that “the manager does things right while the leader does the
right things “. In addition, it is mentioned in philosophy terms that "Leadership
is like beauty: it's hard to define, but you understand it immediately when you
meet it".
1.2 Types of leadership (transactional vs transformational)

During the decade of ’70 and specifically in 1978, Burns theory discriminates
leadership in two principal types: transactional and transformational leadership.
More specifically, Burns (1978) identified the transactional leader as one who
recognizes the needs of his subordinates and tries to continue to fulfill them,
provided that their performance is worthwhile for rewarding.
The transactional leader seeks to maintain the stability of the organization,

constantly striving to achieve set goals, despite promoting change (Bryant, 2003;
Lussier & Achua, 2004). The means used to implement them is to use them fees
and penalties, mainly in the form of financial exchanges (Barnett, 2003; Gellis,
2001). Bass & Bass (2008) consider that these rewards can be either psychological
(e.g. positive feedback, praise and applause), or tangible (e.g. promotion, salary
increase / bonus).
Furthermore, transactional leadership includes four dimensions: Contingent

reward leadership, active management by exception, passive management by
exception and avoidant (laissez faire) leadership (Bass, 1985).
a. Contingent reward leadership: Leader provides various types of rewards

to its affiliates, in order to fulfill their contractual obligations. Partners
offer “in return” their good services and their commitment to achieving
the determined goals of the organization. According to Bass (1997),
business leaders clarify expectations, exchange for promises and pay for
support in their work, they reach mutually acceptable agreements, they
negotiate resources, they exchange help with effort and provide applause
in return for the successful attempt. From this perspective, this is a
constructive one transaction (Bass & Bass, 2008).
b. Active Management by exception: The leader who uses that particular
style of administration, monitor the performance of its subordinates and
take corrective action when this deviates from expectations (Bass & Bass,
2008).

112
c. Passive Management by exception: The difference of this particular style

of administration from the previous one, it is the time for the leader to
solve the problems (Howell & Avolio, 1993). In Active Exception
Management the leader acts before problem become serious, while in
Passive Exception Management, action on the part of the leader manifests
itself when it has already emerged (Judge & Piccolo, 2004).
d. Avoidant leadership: Following this particular style of administration,
these leaders simply avoid leadership responsibilities. It is considered the
most ineffective form into the extent that some may not even regard it as
a form of transaction leadership (Judge & Piccolo, 2004).
The transactional leadership model often leads to no desirable results because

employees tend to be lacking interest in doing their work which is beyond them
narrow limits on their employment contract, or the formal limits of their
employment
(Bryant, 2003). Although, contingent reward leadership can have positive impact
on the performance of employees, active, passive and avoidant leadership tend to
have a negative impact the above indicators, especially, when the leader passively
expects problems to arise (Waldman, Atwater & Bass, 1992).
The transformational leader is the one who together with his associates is
involved to outrun the personal interests, motivating them to go beyond the
benefit of the organization. Transformational leaders focus on higher needs, such
as appreciation, the recognition and self - actualization as defined by classification
of Maslow's human needs (1943). Inspire their partners through the interest they
show for them, their mental stamina, their tendency to take risks and their
constant commitment to achieving the goals. They don't complain either believe
in continuous improvement. They try to design and implement significant
changes in goals, strategy, structures and activities of the organization while
trying to satisfy and the needs of their partners (Balvant, 2016).
Additionally, they try to make use of them their previous successes, building a
climate of trust and confidence in the organization. Transformational Leadership
is characterized as the most active and effective form of leadership (Bass & Avolio,
1994), as it provides fans a sense of purpose and mission, improves self-awareness
and suggests a vision (Lowe et al., 1996). Also, the Transformational Leader's
behavior is positively correlated with his effectiveness and increased team
performance (Judge & Piccolo, 2004; Lowe et al., 1996). Research still shows that
partners Transformational leaders tend to feel more satisfied and more productive
than transactional partners (Carless et al, 2000). Also, according to Bass (1985), the
leadership of the great historical figures over time, it was transformational, not
transactional.
Burns (1978) considered the concepts of transactional and transformational

leadership as the opposite ends of the same dimension, the leader or the
transactional, either as a transformer. In contrast, Bass and his colleagues (Avolio,
Bass & Jung, 1999; Bass, 1985) regarded the two above forms of leadership as
complementary to each other, and the leader as capable of displaying evidence

113
and behaviors from both of these forms of leadership (Bass, 1998). These
researchers promote a unified theory according to which Transformational
leadership is seen as an extension of transactional as the relationship between
leader and subordinate evolves (Howell & Avolio, 1992; Howell & Hall-Merenda,
1999). The key to this transformation is the positive and constructive feedback
from the leader. Acceptance by the fact that his fans' efforts are appreciated,
encourages them the latter to seek further investment and deepening in their
relationships with the leader. This, in turn, results in a gradual evolution between
them of a transactional relationship, in a relationship governed by trust and
honesty, two crucial components of a close partnership (Northouse, 2016).
1.3 Leadership outcome

The leadership style in an organization (transformational/transactional) is related
with the success of the team as a whole. One of the most important tools
measuring success is the MLQ (Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire). The three
elements that make up the outcome of leadership are the following: a) The degree
of motivation according to which rater consider that their leader is motivating
them (Extra effort), b) The effectiveness with which they perceive their leader to
interact at the various organizational levels (Effectiveness), c) the degree of
satisfaction they derive from the leader's working methods (Satisfaction with the
Leadership). (Avolio & Bass, 2004). Extra effort motivates others to do more of
themselves they thought they would and incites others to succeed and increases
also the desire for others to strive harder. (Avolio & Bass, 2004). The effectiveness
has to do with the leader and with the questions that poses to himself for feedback
about degree of representation of his team in higher organizational levels, the
level of satisfaction of work needs and also about the leading of an effective team.
The satisfaction with the leadership associates with the use of appropriate
methods of leading and with the collaboration with others (Avolio & Bass, 2004).
In conclusion, research based on Multifactorial Multi-factor Leadership

Questionnaire (Avolio & Bass, 2004), have shown that employees who give their
leaders a high rating on the transformation components, they rate them at the
same time as extremely effective, in contrast to those who score highly on the
transactional components and are considered less effective (Bass, 1985; Avolio &
Bass, 1988).
1.4 Literature review of digital leadership

According to the latest empirical data of Eurobarometer survey, digital
technology has been proven as being beneficial in economy because has offered
privileges in people’s everyday lives and businesses. In addition, digital
technologies, in the last years, have modified information, value and management
and incite organizations, except for businesses but also education settings to
transform their work processes and adopt radical and innovative changes in their
structure and function (Cortellazzo, Bruni & Zampieri, 2019). Digital leadership
in education refers to the integration of a portfolio of technologies, tools and
instruments like: Internet of Things (IoT), e-platforms (webinars) social media,
Artificial Intelligence, Big Data, Machine Learning. Higher education is without
doubt a type of organization that can be promoted by digitalization not only with
the integration of new technologies but also by the transformation of traditional

114
workplaces into digital workplaces. Under the previous perspective of

digitalization, job requirements need to be profoundly transformed and as a result
leaders ought to be highly aware of all demanding challenges from investing in
upskilled employees and deeply know how to motivate and inspire them till the
knowledge to break conventional leadership from task-oriented to project-
oriented leading. Digital leadership can be beneficial for educational settings and
it is a crucial parameter that is necessary to be promoted among educational
leaders in higher education (Antonopoulou, et al., 2019) and in particular among
heads of university departments which is the main purpose of the present study.
1.5 Research Questions

Research cases can be summarized as follows:
• Which leadership style prevails?

• Are the style and leadership outcome differentiated according to the
leader's gender and years of service in administrative position?
• Does the leadership style relate to the knowledge and application of
specific e-skills?
• Does the direction of the School (Theoretical - Applied - Other) relate to
the presence of digital leaders?
1.6 Research Scope

If Members of the Senate in Higher Education who have the Digital Leader (e-
Skills) profile, follow a specific type of Leadership.
Figure 1: Conceptual Model of the Research Project

115
2. Methods
2.1 Data Collection

The method to be followed for collecting data is to fill in an anonymous
questionnaire. This is a method that is considered to be the most appropriate for
collecting data about opinions, attitudes, beliefs and values. The data to be
collected will be quantified, statistically analyzed and deduced from the analysis
of conclusions, which are generalizable in larger population groups. The
anonymity of responses may contribute to the honesty of the subjects' responses
(Cohen, et al., 2008, Vambuka, 2007).
2.2 Sample
A questionnaire with closed-ended questions, consisting of three parts, will be
used to collect the survey data. The first part contains questions related to the
demographic data of the sample, such as gender, age, years of service in a
university position, category of subject, class (theoretical, applied, etc.).
The performance of the questionnaire to members of the Senate (N=28) will be

implemented through a unique completion link through Google's Google Form
application. The information to be collected will be coded and analyzed using a
statistical program, namely the SPSS program. The comparison of demographic-
descriptive data will be done either by spreading analysis or by Pearson's Χ2
analysis. The correlation between the variables will be done with regression
analysis.
2.3 Data Collection Tool

As a measure of the leadership style of the a fore mentioned executives, the
Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire was used Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ)
and more specifically the MLQ Form (Form 5X Short) developed by Bass and
Avolio (2004). That particular one formula, MLQ (5X-Short), according to Avolio
& Bass (2004), is structured from 45 questions, of which 36 explore the 9 leadership
components included in Full Range Leadership (FRL) - (4 questions /
leaderboard), namely: i. Transformational (5 Leadership Ingredients) ii.
Transactional (Contingent Reward & Management by Exception-Active) - (2 Lead
Components) iii. Passive-Avoiding Leadership (Management by Exception -
Passive & Avoidant/Laissez-Faire Leadership) - (2 Leadership Ingredients) Also,
the remaining 9 questions of this scale explore the leadership outcomes:
a) Extra effort - (3 questions)
b) Effectiveness - (4 questions)
c) Satisfaction with the leadership - (2 questions)
The measurement and evaluation of the above nine leading factors, such as and
the outcome of leadership is made by appropriately matching – utilizing 45 total
questions that make up the MLQ (5X-Short). Respondents were asked to rate the
extent to which they exhibited specific behaviors, on a Likert type scale from 1
(Not at all) to 5 (Almost always) by answering 45 questions. Digital leadership
was similarly measured, using 5 related questions. For each respondent, the
average of the answers for each leadership style is calculated and an individual

116
average score can range from 1 - 5. The higher the score, the more the respondent
exercises that particular leadership style.
ICT trends are expected to affect the demand for more specialized digital skills
and skills related to Digital Leadership over the next decade. The key question
now is whether technological advances impact the digital skills of a Digital Leader
(Shafer, 2016). The selection of the most important trends was based on the
following criteria (Lighton, 2018; Jenkins & Andenoro, 2016; Bolden et al., 2008):
a) Mobility, b) Cloud Computing, c) Big Data Analysis, d) Social Media
Technologies, e) Internet of Things, f) Customer Experience, g) IT Security
2.4 Measures and Data Analysis

The responses of the survey participants were appropriately coded appropriately
and entered into a database where they were processed and analyzed using
specifically SPSS v.22. Statistical questionnaires were classified into categorical
and ordinal variables. Different descriptive and inductive statistical methods of
statistical analysis were applied to each category of variables. Specifically,
descriptive methods were applied to the categorical variables (demographic
characteristics, digital skills), such as Frequency - Percentage Tables, Percentage
Charts and Pie Charts, and more inductive methods such as X2 test to investigate
possible relationship between two categorical variables. Descriptive methods
such as minimum value, maximum value, mean value, standard deviation, mean
bars and in addition inductive methods were used for non-parametric variables
(leadership style, leadership outcome, number of digital skills). comparison of the
means of two independent samples), Kruskal-Wallis (to compare the means of
three or more independent samples) and the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test (to
compare the means of two related samples).
The possible correlation between the various ordinal variables was investigated
through the Pearson linear correlation coefficient. Also, the possible dependence
between the various layout variables was investigated through simple linear
regression. Reliability of the different scales of questions regarding leadership
types and leadership outcome was measured with the Cronbach's alpha reliability
index. Indicator values above 0.7 (or above 0.6 according to various researchers)
show satisfactory reliability. For all hypothesis tests of statistical tests, correlations
and linear regressions, a significance level of α = 0.05 was used.
3. Results
The majority of the participants are males (75.0%), while ¼ are females (25.0%).
As members of the Senate, 42.9% of respondents belong to the age group of 60+
years and 39.3% are 51-60 years. However, there is also a 17.9% share in the 41-50
age group. Sample members have many years of service in higher education, with
75.0% serving more than 20 years. Also, 53.6% have been in management
positions for more than 9 years. Finally, most participants came from the Natural
and Applied Sciences Direction (67.9%) and 28.6% came from the Humanities and
Social Sciences Direction.

117
Table 1: Demographic characteristics (Ν=28)

Frequency Percentage
(N) (%)
Male 21 75,0
SEX
Female 7 25,0
41-50 5 17,9
AGE 51-60 11 39,3
>60 12 42,9
YEARS OF 6-10 1 3,6
SERVICE IN 11-20 6 21,4
HIGHER
>20 21 75,0
EDUCATION
YEARS OF 0-3 6 21,4
SERVICE IN 4-6 4 14,3
ADMINISTRATIVE 7-9 3 10,7
POSITION >9 15 53,6
Humanities and Social Sciences Direction 8 28,6
SUBJECT FIELD Natural and Applied Sciences Direction 19 67,9
Other 1 3,6
SEX AGE
75 39.3 42.9
100 50
25 17.9
%
50
%
0 0
Male Female 41-50 51-60 >60
YEARS IN HIGHER
6-10 EDUCATION YEARS IN ADMINISTRATIVE
4% 11-20 POSITION 0-3
>20 21%
>9
75% 54% 21%
4-6
14%
7-9
11%
SUBJECT FIELD
100 67.9
28.6
50 3.6
%
Figure 2: Demographic Characteristics (Ν=28)

118
3.1 Leadership Types Overview

Reliability of all scales is satisfactory as Cronbach's alpha ranges from 0.530 (in
the case of passive leadership) to 0.849 (in the case of leadership outcome).
Particularly in the case of digital leadership, Cronbach's alpha stands at 0.819. This
fact allows to consider that the 5 questions that measure this particular leadership
style belong to the same conceptual unit and can be represented by a new variable
as the average of these 5 questions.
Table 2: Examined variables

Cronbach’s
Ν Min Max Mean SD
Alpha
Transformational leadership 28 3,45 4,85 4,05 0,329 0,697
Transactional leadership 28 3,14 5,00 3,89 0,521 0,712*
Passive to avoid leadership 28 1,00 3,20 1,60 0,563 0,530**
Outcome leadership 28 3,11 5,00 4,01 0,522 0,849
Digital leadership 28 2,00 5,00 3,92 0,789 0,819
* Excluded question 1 which was found to be negatively correlated with the other questions for this style
Leadership
** Excluded were questions 3, 28 and 33 that were not related to the other questions for this particular
leadership style
Respondents (table 3) have a high degree of transformational leadership (Mean

4.05) and Transactional leadership (Mean 3.89) with a slightly lower frequency.
The difference in the degree of performance of these two (2) leadership types is
not statistically significant (p> 0.05). On the contrary, participants avoid practicing
passive - avoiding leadership (Mean 1.60). In fact, this style is practiced to a lesser
degree than transformational and transactional leadership (p <0.05).
Table 3: Differences between leadership types

P-
MEAN SD Test
value
Transformational leadership 4,05 0,329 Wilkoxon
Signed Ranks 0,054
Transactional leadership 3,89 0,521 Test
Transformational leadership 4,05 0,329 Wilkoxon
Signed Ranks 0,000**
Passive to avoid leadership 1,60 0,563 Test
Transactional leadership 3,89 0,521 Wilkoxon
Signed Ranks 0,000**
Passive to avoid leadership 1,60 0,563 Test
Mean 4.01 in leadership outcome shows great effectiveness and satisfaction with
the leadership style followed, while respondents appear to be heavily practicing
digital leadership (Mean 3.92).

119
3.2 Demographic based leadership types

In order to determine if demographic characteristics influence statistically
significant leadership style, non-parametric Mann-Whitney and Kruskal-Wallis
tests were performed (table 4).
Table 4: Leadership style per Sex
Leadership style SEX MEAN SD Test P-value
Transformational Male 4,11 0,344

Mann-Whitney 0,031*
leadership Female 3,86 0,195
Transactional Male 4,04 0,468

Mann-Whitney 0,004**
Passive to avoid Male 1,61 0,611

Mann-Whitney 0,756
Male 4,15 0,522

Outcome leadership Mann-Whitney 0,004**
Female 3,60 0,247
Male 4,17 0,643

Digital leadership Mann-Whitney 0,007**
Female 3,17 0,743
Initially, gender influences the degree to which each member of the senate
involved in the research develops each leadership style. Male respondents
reported significantly higher transformational leadership (p <0.05), transactional
leadership (p <0.05) and digital leadership (p <0.05) than women. Also, male
participants were statistically significantly more satisfied with the outcome of
leadership followed (p <0.05).
Table 5: Leadership types per Age
Leadership types AGE MEAN SD Test P-value
41-50 3,81 0,222

Transformational
51-60 4,06 0,218 Kruskal-Wallis 0,129
leadership
>60 4,14 0,411
41-50 3,60 0,341

Transactional
51-60 3,79 0,488 Kruskal-Wallis 0,220
leadership
>60 4,10 0,559
41-50 1,84 0,654

Passive to avoid
51-60 1,49 0,677 Kruskal-Wallis 0,300
leadership
>60 1,60 0,409

120
41-50 3,93 0,186
Outcome leadership 51-60 3,88 0,383 Kruskal-Wallis 0,784
>60 4,17 0,690
41-50 4,16 1,23
Digital leadership 51-60 3,84 0,612 Kruskal-Wallis 0,447
>60 3,90 0,779
Table 6: Leadership types per Years of Service in Higher Education

Years of
Leadership types MEAN SD Test P-value
Service
Transformational <20 3,89 0,245

Mann-Whitney 0,113
leadership >20 4,11 0,339
Transactional <20 3,76 0,427

Mann-Whitney 0,640
Passive to avoid <20 1,66 0,629

Mann-Whitney 0,917
<20 3,87 0,244

Outcome leadership Mann-Whitney 0,640
>20 4,06 0,584
<20 4,11 1,006

Digital leadership Mann-Whitney 0,249
>20 3,86 0,722
Table 7: Leadership style per Years of Service in Administrative position

Years of
Leadership types MEAN SD Test P-value
Service
Transformational <=6 3,93 0,232

Mann-Whitney 0,160
leadership 7+ 4,12 0,360
Transactional <=6 3,74 0,314

Mann-Whitney 0,332
Passive to avoid <=6 1,52 0,559

Mann-Whitney 0,436
<=6 3,97 0,189

Outcome leadership Mann-Whitney 0,796
7+ 4,04 0,642
<=6 4,18 0,846

Digital leadership Mann-Whitney 0,099
7+ 3,78 0,742

121
Table 8: Leadership style per Years of Service in Object Direction
Leadership types Object Direction MEAN SD Test P-value

Humanities and Social
4,00 0,280
Transformational Sciences Direction Mann-
0,856
leadership Natural and Applied Whitney
4,09 0,352
Sciences Direction
3,73 0,290
Transactional Sciences Direction Mann-
0,389
3,94 0,597
Sciences Direction
1,60 0,828
Passive to avoid Sciences Direction Mann-
0,389
1,59 0,454
Sciences Direction
3,92 0,277
Outcome Sciences Direction Mann-
0,696
4,06 0,608
Sciences Direction
4,15 0,707
Digital Sciences Direction Mann-
0,418
3,93 0,716
Sciences Direction
Based on the above tables, leadership types per Age (table 5), leadership types per
Years of Service in Higher Education (table 6), leadership style per Years of Service
in Administrative (table 7), leadership style per Years of Service in Object
Direction (table 8), they do not seem to affect the degree to which the various
leadership styles are performed.
3.3 Leadership outcome

The possible relationship of different leadership types with leadership outcomes
is investigated using the Pearson correlation coefficient.
Table 9: Correlation Outcome leadership vs Leadership style

Transformational Transactional Passive to avoid
leadership leadership leadership
R1 R1 R1
Leadership Outcome 0,631** 0,548** -0,028

1 Coefficient correlation Pearson
* Correlation is statistically significant at level 0,05
** Correlation is statistically significant at level 0,01
Leadership outcome showed a significant positive and statistically significant

correlation with transformational leadership (R = 0.631) and transactional
leadership (R = 0.548) at α = 0.01. This means that a great degree of practicing
these leadership types coexists with the effectiveness and satisfaction of exercising
leadership. On the contrary, the correlation between leadership outcome and

122
passive - to avoid leadership is negligible. The emergence of statistically

significant correlations lays the groundwork for the application of simple linear
regression in order to see if there is a particular dependence of the leadership
outcome on each leadership style individually. The multiple regression solution
was not preferred due to the strong correlations between the independent
variables. In the following regressions, leadership outcome is defined as a
dependent variable and each leadership style as an independent variable. The
relevant table 10 shows the basic parameters β, R2 and p-value.
Table 10: Outcome leadership according to Leadership style (Simple Linear

Regression)
Parameters
Passive to
Dependent of Simple Transformational Transactional
avoid
Variable Linear leadership leadership
leadership
Regression
Coefficient β 1,003 0,549 -0,026
Outcome
p-value 0,000** 0,003** 0,888
leadership
R2 0,399 0,300 0,001
* Influence is statistically significant at level 0,05
** Influence is statistically significant at level 0,01
As it is obvious, transformational leadership has a positive and statistically

significant (p = 0.000 <0.05) impact on leadership outcomes, that is, the greater the
application of that leadership style the greater the effectiveness and satisfaction of
employees. Indeed, this independent variable interprets a relatively large
proportion of the leadership outcome variability (R2 = 0.399). Leadership outcome
was statistically significantly dependent on transactional leadership (p = 0.003
<0.05). The more leaders exhibit this leadership style, the greater the effectiveness
and satisfaction shown. This independent variable accounts for 30.0% of the
leadership outcome variability (R2 = 0.300). As for passive leadership, this does
not seem to have a statistically significant impact on leadership outcomes.
3.4 Association of digital leadership with leadership types

The possible relationship of different leadership types with digital leadership is
investigated using the Pearson correlation coefficient (table 11).
Table 11: Association of Digital Leadership with Leadership Style

Passive to
Transformational Transactional Outcome
avoid
leadership leadership leadership
leadership
R1 R1 R1 R1
Digital
0,090 -0,069 0,087 0,459*
leadership
1 Coefficientcorrelation Pearson
* Association is statistically important at level 0,05

123
Digital leadership showed a significant positive and statistically significant

correlation with leadership outcome (r = 0.459) at α = 0.05 level. This means that
a high degree of effectiveness and satisfaction coexists with a high degree of
implementation of digital leadership. The existence of a statistically significant
correlation enables us to apply simple linear regression to see if there is a specific
dependence on digital leadership for each leadership style. In the following
regressions digital leadership is defined as a dependent variable and each
leadership style as an independent variable. The relevant table shows the basic
parameters β, R2 and p-value.
Table 12: Dependence of Digital Leadership on Leadership Style

Parameters
Passive to
Dependent of Simple Transformational Transactional Outcome
avoid
Variable Linear leadership leadership leadership
leadership
Regression
Coefficient
0,217 -0,104 0,121 0,694
β
Digital
leadership p-value 0,647 0,729 0,661 0,014*
R2 0,008 0,005 0,008 0,211
* Influence is statistically significant at a level 0,05
According to Table 12, leadership outcomes had a positive and statistically

significant (p = 0.014 <0.05) digital leadership, that is, the greater the effectiveness
and satisfaction of practicing leadership, the greater the degree of digital
leadership. Indeed, this independent variable interprets a significant percentage
of digital leadership volatility (R2 = 0.211). Regarding transformational,
transactional and passive leadership, these do not seem to have a statistically
significant impact on the degree of digital leadership.
3.5 Required digital skills

Subsequently, the research participants were asked to list the digital
characteristics that they could exploit and consider it more necessary for a leader.
Respondents were able to state more than one choice.
Table 13: Digital skills for a leader

ΣΥΧΝΟΤΗΤΑ ΠΟΣΟΣΤΟ
(N) (%)
Social Media 17 60,7
Cloud Computing 17 60,7
Mobile App 15 53,6
Web Development and Tools 12 42,9
Digital
Big Data 10 35,7
Characteristics
ERP Systems 8 28,6
Security Skills 5 17,9
Digital Architecture 2 7,1
Complex Business Systems 1 3,6

124
The widespread digital skills of Social Media, Cloud Computing and Mobile App
are also the ones that received the majority of responses (60.7%, 60.7% and 53.6%
respectively). However, a significant proportion of respondents can take
advantage of Web Development and Tools (42.9%) and Big Data applications
(35.7%). Digital architectures and Complex Business Systems are exploited by few
respondents.
Digital skills for a leader
Cloud Computing 60.7

Social Media 60.7
Mobile App 53.6
Web Development and Tools 42.9
Big Data 35.7
ERP Systems 28.6
Security Skills 17.9
Digital Architecture 7.1
Complex Business Systems 3.6
0 20 40 60 80
Figure 3: Digital skills that can be considered as necessary for a leader
To determine if demographic characteristics had a statistically significant effect

on the declared digital skills, an X2 test was performed. The table 14 shows only
the statistically significant differences.
Table 14: Mobile App per Demographic Characteristics

Demographic
% Test P-value
Characteristics
41-50 100,0
AGE 51-60 72,7 Χ2 0,002**
>60 16,7
YEARS OF SERVICE IN <20 100,0

Χ2 0,004**
HIGHER EDUCATION >20 38,1
YEARS OF SERVICE IN <=6 90,0
ADMINISTRATIVE Χ2 0,004**
POSITION 7+ 33,3

125
Based on Table 14, we find that the higher the age of respondents and the longer
their years of service in higher education and administration, the less likely they
are to exploit and consider Mobile App significant (p <0.05). It is also noted that
ERP Systems were only reported by Natural and Applied Sciences Direction
participants, Digital Architectures only by Natural and Applied Sciences
Direction women over 60, and Security Skills by male only. Alternatively, the
number of digital skills stated by research participants that can be exploited and
considered important for a leader was examined.
Table 15: Number of digital skills
Ν Min Max MEAN SD
Number of digital skills 28 1 6 3,11 1,524
On average, respondents reported about 3 of the 9 existing skills. There were

participants who stated only one (1) but also participants who stated up to six (6).
No respondent stated more than 6 skills.
In order to determine if demographic characteristics had a statistically significant

effect on the number of declared digital skills, non-parametric Mann-Whitney
statistical tests were performed.
Table 16: Number of digital skills per demographic feature

P-
Number of Skills SD Test
value
Male 3,05 1,532 Mann-
SEX 0,756
Female 3,29 1,604 Whitney
41-50 3,20 1,643

Mann-
AGE 51-60 3,09 1,640 0,993
Whitney
>60 3,08 1,505
YEARS OF <20 3,14 1,345
SERVICE IN Mann-
0,917
HIGHER >20 3,10 1,609 Whitney
EDUCATION
YEARS OF <=6 3,40 1,578
SERVICE IN Mann-
0,464
ADMINISTRATIVE 7+ 2,94 1,514 Whitney
POSITION
3,13 1,642
Sciences Direction Mann-
SUBJECT FIELD 0,979
Natural and Applied Whitney
3,16 1,537
Sciences Direction
Based on Table 16, it appears that demographic characteristics did not affect the
number of digital skills reported by respondents.

126
Subsequently, the relationship of different leadership types with the number of

declared digital skills was investigated.
Table 17: Number of Digital Skills associated with Leadership Style

Passive to
Transformational Transactional Outcome Digital
avoid
leadership leadership leadership leadership
leadership
R1 R1 R1 R1 R1
Number of
-0,296 -0,398* -0,009 -0,162 0,352
Digital Skills
1 Coefficient correlation Pearson
* Association is significant in statistic level p <0,05
Based on Table 17, there was a statistically significant negative correlation

between the number of declared digital skills with transactional leadership (R = -
0.398). That is, a high degree of transactional leadership practice coexists with a
low number of declared digital skills.
Finally, the variable of the number of digital skills was recoded to show the
percentages of respondents who stated few or many skills.
Table 18: Number of digital skills useful for a leader

ΣΥΧΝΟΤΗΤΑ ΠΟΣΟΣΤΟ
(N) (%)
Number of Digital Low (1-3) 17 60,7

Skills Intermediate (4-6) 11 39,3
3/5 of the respondents stated that a small number of digital skills can be exploited,
and they think they are more needed for a leader.
Table 19: Levels of Digital Leadership Skills

Digital
Leadership SD Test P-value
Levels
Number of Low (1-4) 3,72 0,837 Mann-

0,091
Digital Skills Intermediate (4-6) 4,24 0,619 Whitney
Respondents with an average number of declared digital skills show a higher

degree of digital leadership (Mean = 4.24) than those who reported a low number
(Mean = 3.72). However, this difference is not statistically significant (p = 0.091>
0.05).

127
4. Discussion
In conclusion, the results of the present study identified gender as a key factor in
practicing any leadership style. Specifically, male participants have
Transformational Leadership, Transactional Leadership, and Digital Leadership
to a statistically significantly higher extent than female participants. Also, male
participants appeared to be more satisfied with the outcome of the leadership they
followed. Leadership outcome has a significant positive and statistically
significant relationship with transformational leadership as well as transactional
leadership. This means that a great degree of practicing these leadership types
coexists with the effectiveness and satisfaction of exercising leadership. Finally,
digital leadership positively correlates with leadership outcomes. This means that
effectiveness and satisfaction with leadership practice coexist with the high
degree of implementation of digital leadership. Leadership outcomes have a
positive impact on Digital Leadership, as the greater the effectiveness and
satisfaction of practicing leadership, the greater the degree of Digital Leadership.
Complementary to the MLQ tool used as a data collection tool in the present
research work is a tool that has been used incessantly over the last 28 years to
evaluate and categorize educational organization leaders regarding their
effectiveness index (Bass & Avolio, 2004). The results of the present study are in
line with previous studies conducted in a variety of educational settings and
report, inter alia, that transformational leadership components are positively
correlated with the effectiveness and satisfaction of their existing leaders.
Therefore, and in the light of the foregoing, the consolidation of educational

leadership in structures, mindsets and situations of the past without incorporating
the characteristics of digital leadership does not promote higher education and
the work of the human resources that lead it. Educators need to be vigilant,
striving, up to date on new technologies and capabilities of digital tools,
participating in quality training / retraining programs to gradually integrate them
into educational leadership. Similarly, the central leadership mechanism requires
to give motivation, a substantial reward for excellent professors, and the launch
of meaningful assessment processes if the current situation is really a priority.
5. Conclusion
In summary, we find that the issue of digital leadership in educational settings is
particularly interesting and essential because its proper practice has beneficial
effects on all aspects of the functioning of an educational organization. The
present research could potentially provide a further reason for the scientific
community to engage other researchers in Greece with the field of integrating
digital culture into higher education educational leadership issues.
Limitations
The study has some limitations. The sample of the study is quite small due to the
fact that the Senate of the Higher Education Institutions consists of a limited
number of members. In addition, there was a considerable difficulty in direct
contact with the members of the Senate in order to participate in the research, due
to the heavy workload and obligations of the Institutions. In this phase, the

128
researchers' direct communication with the members of the Senate was activated,
via personal interviews, in order to complete the present research study.
Recommendations
The study highlighted the specific characteristics of the leadership style of the
members of the Senate of the University of Patras. Due to the limitation of the
small sample, the generalization of conclusions is a matter for further
investigation. In the next period, samples are expected to be evaluated by other
Universities in order to collect extended sample that could yield statistically
significant results, which may contribute to the generalization of the conclusions
regarding the thematic field of digital leadership in Higher Education.
Acknowledgments
Special Thanks to the Members of the Senate of the University of Patras for the
contribution in the implementation of the current research project.
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13/5/2020 Leadership in Higher Education
Leadership in Higher Education

This questionnaire (Multi-leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) from Bass and Avolio (1995)) is
anonymous and is addressed to Department Presidents / Deans / Vice-Deans of Academic
Foundations.
The answers are completely confidential and the resulting information will only be used for
research purposes.
It does not take more than 10 minutes to complete.
Thank you in advance for your cooperation.

* Required
Demographics:
1. Gender: *
Mark only one oval.
Male
Female
2. Age group: *
Mark only one oval.
<30
31-40
41-50
51-60
>60
https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1yxzqRI51QHXSZ-uOeQ0ewnglrgL7CAPe_bXrnAOr1FI/edit 1/20
3. Years of Service in Higher Education: *
Mark only one oval.
0-5
6-10
11-20
>20
4. Years of Service in Management Position: *
Mark only one oval.
0-3
4-6
7-9
>9
5. Your Academic Field belongs: *
Mark only one oval.
Theoretical Direction
Positive Direction
Other:
This questionnaire is designed to help you describe your leadership style as you
Leadership perceive it. Please answer all items on the questionnaire by circling the appropriate
response on the rating scale from 0 to 4 the format is given below.
Questionnaire
To what extent do you exhibit the following behavior:

The word "other" means Colleagues of the Academic Foundation
6. 1. I provide others with assistance in exchange for their efforts *
Mark only one oval.
Not at all
Once in a while
sometimes
fairly often
frequently if not always
7. 2. I re-examine critical assumptions to questions whether they are appropriate *
Mark only one oval.
Not at all
Once in a while
sometimes
fairly often
8. 3. I fail to interfere until problems become serious *
Mark only one oval.
Not at all
Once in a while
sometimes
fairly often
9. 4. I focus attention on irregularities, mistakes, exceptions and deviations *
Mark only one oval.
Not at all
Once in a while
sometimes
fairly often
10. 5. I avoid getting involved when important issues arise *
Mark only one oval.
Not at all
Once in a while
sometimes
fairly often
11. 6. I talk about my most important values and beliefs *
Mark only one oval.
Not at all
Once in a while
sometimes
fairly often
12. 7. I am absent when needed *
Mark only one oval.
Not at all
Once in a while
sometimes
fairly often
13. 8. I seek differing perspectives when solving problems *
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Not at all
Once in a while
sometimes
fairly often
14. 9. I talk optimistically about the future *
Mark only one oval.
Not at all
Once in a while
sometimes
fairly often
15. 10. I instill pride in others for being associated with me *
Mark only one oval.
Not at all
Once in a while
sometimes
fairly often
16. 11. I discuss in specific terms who is responsible for achieving performance targets
*
Mark only one oval.
Not at all
Once in a while
sometimes
fairly often
17. 12. I wait for things to go wrong before taken action *
Mark only one oval.
Not at all
Once in a while
sometimes
fairly often
18. 13. I talk enthusiastically about what needs to be accomplished *
Mark only one oval.
Not at all
Once in a while
sometimes
fairly often
19. 14. I specify the importance of having a strong sense of purpose *
Mark only one oval.
Not at all
Once in a while
sometimes
fairly often
20. 15. I spend time teaching and coaching *
Mark only one oval.
Not at all
Once in a while
sometimes
fairly often
21. 16. I make clear what one can expect to receive when performance goals are
achieved *
Mark only one oval.
Not at all
Once in a while
sometimes
fairly often
22. 17. I show that I am a firm believer in “If it isn’t broke, don’t fix it” *
Mark only one oval.
Not at all
Once in a while
sometimes
fairly often
23. 18. I go beyond self-interest for the good of the group *
Mark only one oval.
Not at all
Once in a while
sometimes
fairly often
24. 19. I treat others as individuals rather than just as a member of a group *
Mark only one oval.
Not at all
Once in a while
sometimes
fairly often
25. 20. I demonstrate that problems must become chronic before I take action *
Mark only one oval.
Not at all
Once in a while
sometimes
fairly often
26. 21. I act in ways that build others’ respect for me *
Mark only one oval.
Not at all
Once in a while
sometimes
fairly often
27. 22. I concentrate my full intention on dealing with mistakes, complaints, and
failures *
Mark only one oval.
Not at all
Once in a while
sometimes
fairly often
28. 23. I consider the moral and ethical consequences of decisions *
Mark only one oval.
Not at all
Once in a while
sometimes
fairly often
29. 24. I keep tracks of all mistakes *
Mark only one oval.
Not at all
Once in a while
sometimes
fairly often
30. 25. I display a sense of power and confidence *
Mark only one oval.
Not at all
Once in a while
sometimes
fairly often
31. 26. I articulate a compelling version of the future *
Mark only one oval.
Not at all
Once in a while
sometimes
fairly often
32. 27. I direct my attention toward failures to meet standards *
Mark only one oval.
Not at all
Once in a while
sometimes
fairly often
33. 28. I avoid making decisions *
Mark only one oval.
Not at all
Once in a while
sometimes
fairly often
34. 29. I consider an individual as having different needs, abilities, and aspirations from
others *
Mark only one oval.
Not at all
Once in a while
sometimes
fairly often
35. 30. I get others to look at problems from many different angles *
Mark only one oval.
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Once in a while
sometimes
fairly often
36. 31. I help others to develop their strengths *
Mark only one oval.
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Once in a while
sometimes
fairly often
37. 32. I suggest new ways of looking at how to complete assignments *
Mark only one oval.
Not at all
Once in a while
sometimes
fairly often
38. 33. I delay responding to urgent questions *
Mark only one oval.
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Once in a while
sometimes
fairly often
39. 34. I emphasize the importance of having a collective sense of mission *
Mark only one oval.
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Once in a while
sometimes
fairly often
40. 35. I express satisfaction when others meet expectations *
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sometimes
fairly often
41. 36. I express confidence that goals will be achieved *
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sometimes
fairly often
42. 37. I am effective in meeting others’ job-related needs *
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sometimes
fairly often
43. 38. I use methods of leadership that are satisfying *
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sometimes
fairly often
44. 39. I get others to do more than they expected to do *
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sometimes
fairly often
45. 40. I am effective in representing others to higher authority *
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sometimes
fairly often
46. 41. I work with others in a satisfactory way *
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sometimes
fairly often
47. 42. I heighten others’ desire to succeed *
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sometimes
fairly often
48. 43. I am effective in meeting organizational requirements *
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sometimes
fairly often
49. 44. I increase others’ willingness to try harder *
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sometimes
fairly often
50. 45. I lead a group that is effective *
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sometimes
fairly often
51. 46. I can take advantage of the opportunities offered by ICT, especially the Internet
*
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sometimes
fairly often
52. 47. I can ensure more efficient performance of different types of digital
organization (ERP, e-Protocol, CRM) *
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sometimes
fairly often
53. 48. I can identify, research and exploit opportunities for new ways of conducting
educational processes (eg e-learning, video conferences, webinars) *
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sometimes
fairly often
54. 49. I can create research-educational partnerships with corresponding structures

abroad, taking advantage of the opportunities provided by the European Union *
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Once in a while
sometimes
fairly often
55. 50. I can manage innovative ideas and inventions (eg patents) by leveraging ICT
developments *
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Once in a while
sometimes
fairly often
56. 51. Which of the following digital skills can you take advantage of and consider
them essential for a Leader: *
Check all that apply.
Big Data
Cloud Computing
Mobile App
Complex Business Systems
Web Development and Tools
Digital Architecture
Security Skills
ERP Systems
Social Media
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130

Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 130-149, April 2020
Formation of Lifelong Learning Competences in

the Process of Professional Training of Future
Lawyers
Uliana Z. Koruts
Ternopil National Economic University
Ternopil, Ukraine
Valerii P. Petkov
Alfred Nobel University
Dnipro, Ukraine
Ehor S. Nazymko
Donetsk Law Institute of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Ukraine (Kryvyi Rih)
Kryvyi Rih, Ukraine
Tetiana A. Denysova
International University “MITSO”
Gomel, Belarus
Uliana M. Oliinyk
Khmelnytsky University of Management and Law named after Leonid Yuzkov
Khmelnytsky, Ukraine
Abstract. The purpose of this study was to design and experimentally test
the effectiveness of a model for the formation of lifelong learning
competencies in future lawyers in higher educational institutions. The
study presents the author’s vision of the structure of lifelong learning
competencies for lawyers identifies pedagogical conditions for the
formation of lifelong learning competencies for lawyers. It is proved that
the efficiency of formation of lifelong learning competences of future
lawyers is considerably increased, provided that the basic types of active
teaching methods and the latest information and computer technologies
are used in the process of professional training. It is established that the
most important pedagogical conditions for effective formation of lifelong
learning competences are pedagogically-driven motivation of future
specialists in the field of the right to formation and development of
lifelong learning competences; introduction of methods that promote the
formation and development of lifelong learning competences into the
process of professional training; formation of professional qualities in
future lawyers on the basis of conscious perception of the system of

131
universal and professional values. The authors argue that an effective link
between employers and higher educational institutions is needed to
collect and analyse structural and functional changes in professional
activity. Establishing and maintaining such a link will enable higher
educational institutions to respond more effectively to changes in the
labour market requirements and to ensure a high level of training for their
graduates.
Keywords: competence approach; lifelong learning competences;

structure of competences; competence formation model; active teaching
methods
1. Introduction
The determining characteristics of the current stage of development of the world
educational space is that it is considered as a single organism, where separate
educational systems are combined based on the manifestation of general global
tendencies, while preserving national and linguistic differences, with traditions of
cultural heritage being the ground. That is why nowadays, theorists and
educators increasingly refer to international experience as a source of ideas for
improving national educational policies in their search for effective ways of
providing quality training for specialists in different areas. The term “lifelong
learning” is undoubtedly one of the most commonly used terms in discussing
problems of today’s education and training. The very idea of lifelong learning as
a tool for human capital development emerged in the second half of the last
century (Becker, 1962). Although this educational approach was immediately
criticized (Preston, 1999), the idea was actively discussed at various discussion
sites, detailed and developed (Hager, 1998). The understanding of career
development as “an evolution of the employee’s consistent work experience over
a period of time” is gradually being established in the world (Brown et al., 2010).
1.1. Literature Review

Since the end of the last century, EU Member States have aimed to develop the
most competitive and dynamic common economy. In line with this objective, it
was decided to strengthen cooperation in the field of initial professional training
by supporting the widespread adoption of continuing professional education, and
the European Qualifications Framework for lifelong learning was subsequently
developed a (European Commission, 2008). Since then, the term “lifelong
learning” does not leave the pages of scientific journals, varying slightly
depending on the author’s accentuation and focus – lifelong learning (Jakobi,
2009), lifewide learning/lifewide education (Jackson, 2012), lifelong
education/lifelong learning (Barros, 2012), lifelong learning/adult education
(Nemeth, 2015), etc. Lifelong learning has now become a key element in the
determination of the European Union’s strategies for building a developed
knowledge-based society.
Research on a wide range of lifelong learning/education issues is being conducted
worldwide (Zaitseva, 2009; Ng’asike, 2019; Zhou, 2019). Continuing education is
seen as a priority factor, target and special value in the context of analysing the
problems and prospects of human development (Gouthro, 2017). Current research

132
shows that continuing education concerns not only the deepening and expansion
of general education, professional competence, but also culture, education, the
system of values and worldviews (Lee, 2019). The introduction of continuing
education is a civilizational challenge to some extent. However, this process is
successful if it is organizationally supported by a system of state and public
institutions (Knight, 2018).
Our study found that at the current stage of development of the higher education
system in Ukraine, the global requirements for the level of professional training
and personality of the specialist are urged, which in turn determines the
peculiarities of the formation of the personality structure of the student as a future
specialist. In order to bring the national higher education system in line with
world standards, reforms are needed, aimed at overcoming the highly specialized
direction of the learning process, developing the personality of the specialist,
creating effective systems for quality education throughout life and applying a
competent approach to determining the quality of professional training of HEI’s
graduate. In Ukraine, current leading educational trends and ideas for the
effective development of human potential are reflected in the Law of Ukraine on
Higher Education (Legislation of Ukraine, 2014) and in a number of government
documents (Karpenko, 2015).
While elaborating the problem of ensuring the quality of professional training of
specialists in higher educational institutions, Ukrainian scholars agree that it is
not enough to consider quality education only as a complex of knowledge, skills
and abilities at the present stage of higher education development (Ziazun, 2001).
Conceptual search ranged from “the graduate’s desire for self-realization in life”
(Gershunsky, 1998) to “self-awareness, moral health, education, active civic
position” (Potashnik, 2000). However, fuzziness of terms and the complexity of
their measurement have hindered their use as indicators of the quality of future
specialists’ training in higher educational institutions.
Bringing the national higher education system in line with world standards
requires the establishment of effective quality lifelong learning systems and the
use of a competent approach to determine the quality of professional training of
a graduate of higher educational institutions. Professional development-oriented
education and a competence-based approach to determining the quality of
professional training of a graduate of a higher educational institution are
currently the most effective means of bringing national higher education systems
into line with world standards in the context of creating effective national lifelong
learning systems (Merkulova, 2007; Isaienko & Ilyina, 2011). In Ukrainian
scientific and pedagogical thought, as well as in the world, readiness to
implement the principles of continuing education is a mandatory criterion for
assessing the quality of training (Holford, Hodge, Milana, Waller & Webb, 2018)
and the level of professional development (MacFarlane, 2019).
The aggregate scientific and theoretical achievements of Ukrainian scholars on the
problems of reforming the national system of professional training of specialists
in the context of changing the paradigm of “lifelong education” is extremely
impressive: at the beginning of the century they developed the issues of bringing
the higher education system of Ukraine in line with world standards (Zhuravsky

133
& Zgurovsky, 2003). However, partial issues of the above general problem are not
sufficiently developed.
Interesting ideas on the introduction of a competence-based approach are
suggested by researchers of ways of solving acute problems of professional
training of modern educators (Khutorskoy, 2011), specialists in the medical field
(Groenwold & Knol, 2013), specialists in the field of engineering (Isaienko, 2007),
physical education (Dereka, 2018), etc. At the present stage of development of
Ukrainian higher legal education there is a need to develop theoretically sound,
practically significant and convincing conceptual approaches to the organization
of the system of continuing education for specialists in the field of law. Although
there have been interesting studies on the implementation of the principles of
continuing education in the training of lawyers (Babacan & Babacan, 2018) over
the past few years, theoretical and practical issues of ensuring an integrated
system of continuing education and the application of a competency approach in
the process of professional training of future lawyers remain insufficiently
explored. At present, the conceptual vision of modern legal education in Ukraine
is demonstrated by the recently drafted Legal Education Reform Concept
(LigaZakon, 2019).
1.2. Research Objective

The high quality of professional training in the field of law is organically linked
to the implementation of the principles and approaches of continuing education
and a competent approach to the evaluation of the results of professional training
in higher educational institutions. Given the paucity of theoretical and lack of
practice-oriented research on the problem identified, the objective of this study is
to design and experimentally test the efficiency of a model for the formation of
lifelong learning competences in future lawyers in higher educational institutions.
To achieve this objectives, the following tasks were set:
- analyze the joint declarations adopted, the resolutions of the EU countries on the
definition of key competences, and clarify the content and structure of lifelong
learning competences of lawyers;
- distinguish pedagogical conditions of formation of lifelong learning
competences, determine pedagogical technologies, methods and techniques
effective for the formation of these competences for specialists in the field of law;
- design a model for the formation of lifelong learning competences in future
lawyers in higher educational institutions and test its effectiveness
experimentally.
2. Research methodology
Continuity of learning in modern conditions appears as the principle of learning,
the quality of the educational process and as a condition of personality formation
(Billett, 2018). The key competences for lifelong learning, as outlined in the
program (European Communities, 2007) and revised in the next recommendation
(European Commission, 2018), are the basis for the reforms of the system of
professional training of specialists in the European educational space. These
competencies include: native language communication competence; foreign
languages communication competence; digital competences; mathematical

134
competence and basic competences in science and technology; learning

competence; social and civic competences; competencies of initiative and
entrepreneurship; competences in cultural awareness and ways of expression
(European Communities, 2007). Based on the analysis of the EU documents in the
field of education and science, scientific publications representing the views of
world experts, scholars and practicing educators, the theoretical and
methodological foundations of the research and the author’s vision of the
structure of lifelong learning competences of lawyers are formulated. In our
study, we consider these key competencies as basic components for determining
the structure of lifelong learning competences. The understanding that changes in
professional structure, market needs, demands and/or wishes of employers have
a huge impact on the structure and essence of lifelong learning competencies is
equally important to us (Regmi, 2015; Kim & Lee, 2020). Statement that the period
of higher professional education is a period of formation of basic lifelong learning
competences does not raise objections (Sachsenmeier, 1978).
The hypothesis of our study is based on the assumption that the use of
pedagogical technologies, methods and techniques identified in the study in
accordance with the specific pedagogical conditions in the process of professional
training, will contribute to the formation and development of lifelong learning
competences in future lawyers.
2.1. Research design

The study was carried out by several stages, each stage aimed at fulfilling the
relevant tasks; the analysis of interim results was conducted after the completion
of the tasks of each of the stages; the overall results were verified using statistical
methods of data processing at the final stage of the study.
According to the research design, an analysis of philosophical, psychological-
pedagogical and legal sources was carried out at the first stage (March-May 2019)
to establish the existing scientific approaches to the consideration of the concept
of “lifelong learning competences” (Webb, Holford, Hodge, Milana & Waller,
2017).
Scientific work on the peculiarities of the process of formation of lifelong learning
competences, their subordination and the relationship with the formation and
development of constituents of student personality structures have made
important theoretical provisions for our study (Rybakina, 2018; Shin & Jun, 2019).
The work of Soares and Dias (2019) reaffirmed our understanding of the required
changes in the content component of educational and professional programs
implemented in higher educational institutions in the context of delivering the
required learning outcomes. We extrapolated the provisions on the need to
distinguish and study technological (Gough, 2017), motivational/value (Ilgaz &
Eskici, 2018) and communicative (Akmanova, Kurzaeva & Kopylova, 2019)
components in the professional training of specialists of different specialities to
the process of professional training of lawyers, given the lack of such studies on
law students.
At the next stage (June-September 2019), the authors formed a vision of the
structure of lifelong learning competencies for lawyers (based on the review of
publications on changes in the labour market, the structure of “skills” of a

135
competitive specialist, the analysis of the requests and requirements of employers

and supervisors of field and pregraduation practices as regards skills, qualities
and level of professional training of future graduates of the universities of law)
(Rappel, 2017; Boyadjieva, 2017). A total of 127 teachers, supervisors of field and
pregraduation practices and employers were interviewed to fulfil the tasks of the
study. Generalized wishes and requirements of employers and supervisors of
field and pregraduation practices can be represented in several directions: 1) deep
theoretical knowledge and practical skills of their application; 2) conscious
perception of the system of universal and professional values; 3) professional and
personal qualities (responsibility, initiative, ability to work in a team, aspiration
for self-development, etc.). A comparison of the generalized wishes and
requirements of employers and supervisors of field and pregraduation practices,
key lifelong learning competences and the author’s vision of the lifelong learning
competency structure for law professionals is presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Comparing employers’ general requirements, key lifelong learning

competences and the author’s vision of the lifelong learning competencies structure
for lawyers
Generalized Annex to the Proposal for
requirements and a Council
Structure of lifelong learning
requests of employers Recommendation on Key
competences for lawyers
(formulated by the Competences for Lifelong
(author’s vision)
authors based on the Learning (European
results of the interview) Commission, 2018)
literacy competence communicative competences
(ability to communicate
languages competence effectively in national, native
and foreign languages)
deep theoretical information competences
knowledge and practical (computer skills; ability to
digital competence
skills for their master the latest information
application technologies)
mathematical competence cognitive competences
and competence in (logical, abstract and critical
science, technology and thinking; ability to analyse,
engineering synthesize, compare)
organizational and activity
competences (ability to
initiative; ability to rationally distribute tasks,
entrepreneurship
work in a team; plan time and activity;
competence
responsibility ability to find and choose
effective ways of fulfilling
tasks)
civic competence
conscious perception of
the system of human cultural awareness and competencies of self-
and professional values expression competence development and self-
realization
aspiration for self- personal, social and
development learning competence

136
At the same stage of the study, pedagogical conditions for the formation of
lifelong learning competencies were identified – pedagogically-driven motivation
of future lawyers to form and develop lifelong learning competencies;
introduction of methods that promote the formation and development of lifelong
learning competences into the process of professional training; formation of
professional qualities on the basis of conscious perception of the system of
universal and professional values in future lawyers. The study identifies
pedagogical technologies, methods and techniques that are effective in the
formation of these competencies, namely – the main varieties of active learning
methods – methods of modelling the features of professional activity during study
(business games and business simulations, project method, case-study method
with the preparation of individual or “team” reporting presentations), a method
of step-by-step designing the process of fulfilling “production” tasks, a method of
“algorithmizing” the decision-making process - and using the latest information
and computer technologies in education. The authors of the study designed a
model for the formation of lifelong learning competencies for lawyers, determined
the criteria (motivational and axiological, content, organizational and
technological, communicative) and levels (basic, secondary, sufficient, high) of the
level of development of the said competences. An experimental model of the
formation of lifelong learning competences in the process of professional training
of future lawyers is schematically presented in Figure 1.
The next stage in the study was a pedagogical experiment conducted according
to the traditional steps for this type of research: summative assessment
(September 2019), realization of the formative assessment (September 2019 -
February 2020), final assessment (February 2020). At the final stage of the study,
an analysis, comparison of the obtained results and verification of their validity
were carried out with the use of the Student’s test.

137
•structural and functional changes in professional activity in the labour

market
•requirements and requests of employers regarding the level and quality of
Preconditions professional training of future specialists
•formation of lifelong learning competences in future lawyers

Objective
•communicative competences
•information competencies
•cognitive competence
Structure of •organizational and activity competences
competencies •competencies of self-development and self-realization
•pedagogically-driven motivation of future lawyers to form and develop

lifelong learning competencies;
•introduction of methods that promote the formation and development of
lifelong learning competences into the process of professional training;
Pedagogical
conditions •formation of professional qualifications on the basis of a conscious
perception of the system of human and professional values of future
•methods of modelling the peculiarities of professional activity during

training (business games and business simulations, project method, case-
study method with preparation of individual and / or "team" reporting
presentations);
Pedagogical • method of step-by-step design of the process of fulfilment of "production"
technologies tasks;
and methods • method of "algorithmization" of decision-making process;
•use of the latest information and computer technologies in education
•the level of development of lifelong learning competences (determined by

criteria and levels of development)
Results
Figure 1: An experimental model for the formation of lifelong learning competences

in the future professional training of lawyers
2.2. Formation of research sample

At the different stages of the study, a total of 276 students of the 2nd year of the
first (bachelor) level of education, Speciality 081 “Law” of the Chernihiv National
University of Technology, Kherson Institute of the Economics and Law and the
Academy of Labour, Social Relations and Tourism (Kyiv) were involved. A valid
sample online calculator was used to generate the sample. For the

138
abovementioned population of respondents (276), the size of a valid sample is 44

persons, which was taken into account in the formation of experimental (EG) and
control (СG) groups. The experimental (EG) and control (CG) groups included 22
persons each. The comparative analysis was carried out within the existing
academic groups, the students of the experimental and control groups studied
according to typical programs. In the control group, lectures, seminars and
practical classes were conducted according to typical methods, and in the
experimental group - with the use of active teaching methods according to the
peculiarities of training courses.
The results of the summative assessment carried out in the experimental and
control groups are presented in Table 2.
Table 2: Comparison of initial levels of lifelong learning competences (summative

assessment)
Lifelong learning competencies and levels of their development (%)
Competencies of
Organizational
Communicative Information Cognitive self-
and activity
competences competencies competencies development/
competences
self-realization
sufficient
sufficient
sufficient
sufficient
sufficient
medium
medium
medium
medium
medium
basic
basic
basic
basic
basic
high
high
high
high
high
EG
32
36
27
36
50
27
32
32
28
45
18
45
27
19
5
9
CG
32
45
18
32
54
32
36
27
28
36
27
54
32
5
9
Comparison of the results of summative assessment in the experimental and 5
control groups shows their similarity prior to the pedagogical experiment. The
largest number of students in both groups showed the average level of
communicative competencies, the second largest group of students with the basic
level of this indicator, the third and fourth groups - students with sufficient and
high level of communicative competencies, respectively. The two-tailed p-value
for communicative competences equals 0.6453. By conventional criteria, this
difference between the experimental and control groups is considered to be not
statistically significant. We find a similar picture regarding the levels of
organizational and activity competences. The two-tailed p-value for
organizational and activity competences equals 0.5483. By conventional criteria,
this difference between the experimental and control groups is considered to be
not statistically significant. More than half of the students in both groups showed
a sufficient level of the development of information competencies, and more than
a third showed a medium level of the development of the said competences. The
share of students in the experimental and control groups with a high level of the
development of information competency was 9%, with a basic of 5% in each
group. The two-tailed p-value for information competences equals 0.5689. By
conventional criteria, this difference between the experimental and control groups
is considered to be not statistically significant. The largest number of students in

139
both groups showed a medium level of cognitive competencies (32% in the

experimental group and 36% in the control group). A sufficient level of the
development of cognitive competencies prior to the pedagogical experiment was
established in 32% of the experimental group and 27% of the control group.
Approximately one third of students demonstrated a basic level of cognitive
competences (27% in EG and 32% in CG). The share of students with high levels
of cognitive competence was less than 10%. The two-tailed p-value for cognitive
competences equals 0.7903. By conventional criteria, this difference between the
experimental and control groups is considered to be not statistically significant.
The pattern of self-development and self-realization competencies in both groups
is quite similar: approximately half of the students showed a basic level (45% in
the EC and 54% in the CG), about a third of the students had a medium level (27%
in the EC and 32% in the CG), sufficient level was found in 19% of the students in
the experimental group and 9% in the control group; the high level was found in
less than 10% of students in both groups. The two-tailed p-value for competencies
of self-development/self-realization equals 0.4457. By conventional criteria, this
difference between the experimental and control groups is considered to be not
statistically significant.
2.3. Tools for collecting and processing statistics

The data on the levels of the development of communicative competences were
obtained through testing: Assessment of Communication Organizational Skills
(Fetiskin, Kozlov & Manuilov, 2012). The levels of the development of information
competencies were determined by means of a survey: Studying the State of the
Development of ICCs in Students (Feshchuk, 2009). Data on the level of the
development of cognitive competencies in future lawyers were obtained through
tests developed by the authors to determine the level of knowledge of students in
special subjects. The questionnaire: Study of Different Types of Organizational
Culture of R. Harrison (Lutens, 1999) was used to measure the level of the
development of organizational and activity competencies. Data on the levels of
students’ self-development and self-realization competencies were determined
with the use of the questionnaires of Zeer (2010).
Quantitative methods, such as evaluating and analysing test results of the
students from both groups, questionnaires for students and teachers were used to
achieve the research objective. STATA Software (n./d.) was used to analyse the
quantitative data.

140
3. Results
Following the pedagogical experiment, the final assessments were performed
according to the diagnostics described above. Their results are presented in Table
3.
Table 3: Levels of the development of lifelong learning competences (after conducting

the pedagogical experiment)
Lifelong learning competencies and levels of their development (%)

Competencies
Organizational
Communicative Information Cognitive of self-
and activity
competences competencies competencies development/
competences
self-realization
32 sufficient
45 sufficient
59 sufficient
45 sufficient
23 sufficient
medium
medium
medium
medium
medium
basic
basic
basic
basic
basic
high
high
high
high
high
CG EG
32
27
23
32
14
18
32
14
27
36
14
9
9
-
45
27
23
18
59
18
18
45
36
18
45
32
41
36
14
5
9
Comparison of indicators of the summative and formative stages of the
pedagogical experiment shows that positive changes occurred in all lifelong
learning competences in the students of both the experimental and control groups.
The most noticeable changes are in the indicators of the levels of the development
of cognitive competences in the experimental group. A share of students with a
basic level decreased to 9% (while in the control group – to 18%); with a medium
level - decreased to 14% (while in the control group the indicator increased by 9%
to 45%); with a sufficient level - increased to 59% (in the control group – only to
36%); the proportion of students with high level of the development of cognitive
competence in the experimental group increased twice (18%) and in the control
group increased by 4%. The two-tailed p-value for cognitive competences equals
0.0245. By conventional criteria, this difference between the experimental and
control groups is considered to be statistically significant.
The dynamics of positive changes in the levels of the development of
communicative competences in the experimental and control groups are
somewhat similar, although the indicators of the experimental group are better:
after the pedagogical experiment, 9% of the students in the experimental group
and 5% of the students in the control group showed the basic level; the proportion
of students with a medium level of competence in the experimental group
decreased by 4% (did not change in CG). The number of students with a sufficient
level of communicative competences in both groups increased by less than 10%,
but students with a high level of communicative competence in both groups
increased by almost 20%. The two-tailed p-value for communicative competences
equals 0.0234. By conventional criteria, this difference between the experimental
and control groups is considered to be statistically significant.
The analysis of changes in indicators of the levels of development of information
competencies revealed a rather interesting picture. In the control group, the main
“shifts” affected only the indicator of the average level of development of these
competences (it decreased by 14%). The indicator of the sufficient level increased

141
by 5%, of the high level increased by 9%, and of basic level remained unchanged.
At the same time, we observe the following dynamics in the experimental group:
the basic level decreased by 5%, the medium level decreased by 13%, the sufficient
level decreased by 5%, and the high-level indicator increased by 23%. The two-
tailed p-value for information competences equals 0.0392. By conventional
criteria, this difference between the experimental and control groups is considered
to be statistically significant.
Regarding the high level of the development of organizational and activity
competencies after the pedagogical experiment, the indicators of the basic and
medium levels decreased (by 18% and 13%, respectively), and the indicators of
sufficient and high levels increased (by 23% and 5%, respectively) in the
experimental group. In the control group, the picture is slightly different: the basic
level indicator lost 9%, the medium and sufficient levels increased (by 9% and 4%,
respectively), and the high level decreased by 4%. The two-tailed p-value for
organizational and activity competences equals 0.0354. By conventional criteria,
this difference between the experimental and control groups is considered to be
statistically significant.
The dynamics of changes in the levels of self-development and self-realization
competencies in the experimental and control groups are similar: the basic level
indicators lost 18% in the experimental and 14% in the control groups; medium,
sufficient and high levels increased in the experimental group by 9%, 4% and 5%,
respectively, and in the control group - by 4%, 5% and 4%, respectively. The two-
tailed p-value for competencies of self-development/self-realization equals 0.0149. By
conventional criteria, this difference between the experimental and control groups
is considered to be statistically significant.
Statistical analysis of the results of the pedagogical experiment using the Student’s
test gave the value texperim = 3.081 at the value of tcrit = 2.0211. Thus, the active
teaching methods used in the experimental group during the pedagogical
experiment have shown greater effectiveness in the formation of lifelong learning
competencies in lawyers.
4. Discussion
After the final assessments, which generally confirmed the hypothesis of our
study, we would like to make some comparison of the expected and obtained
results of the conducted pedagogical experiment.
Figure 2 shows a graphical comparison of the results of the formative and post-
experimental stages of the study.

142
70
60
50 EG (before the experiment)
40
EG (after the experiment)
30
CG (before the experiment)
20
CG (after the experiment)
10
0
basic medium sufficient high
Figure 2: Dynamics of changes in levels of the development of cognitive competences

in EG and CG students
As expected, the most noticeable shifts are recorded in the levels of the
development of cognitive competence of future lawyers (Saccomanno, 2017).
However, it should be noted that for a small period of pedagogical experiment, it
is extremely difficult to develop the ability to analyse, synthesize, compare, or
think logically, abstractly and critically in all students without exception. We can
rather talk about effective improving of previously learned skills, or laying the
foundations for further revealing cognitive competencies in future lawyers
(Babacan & Babacan, 2018). This statement is also supported by the fact that there
were 9% of students with the lowest (basic) level of the development of cognitive
competence after pedagogical experiment in the experimental group, and with
high level of the development of cognitive competence – only 18% (9% before the
pedagogical experiment).
The positive changes in the levels of the development of communication
competence in students of the experimental group were less impressive than we
expected basing our expectations on modern studies (Homolová & Vašašová,
2019). Their dynamics in shown in Figure 3.
50
40
EG (before the experiment)
30
20 CG (before the experiment)
10 CG (after the experiment)
0
Figure 3: Dynamics of changes in levels of the development of communicative

competences in EG and CG students
After analysing the data obtained and discussing it with the lecturers participating
in the experiment, we can express our belief that the development of students’

143
ability to communicate in the state and foreign languages requires more academic
hours than stipulated in the curricula of the speciality. In addition, the indirect
negative impact on the development of communicative competences (in
particular, the ability to communicate effectively in the state language) also shows
a lack of compliance with the legislation on the state language in higher
educational institutions and other institutions (places of field and pregraduation
practices).
The dynamics of changes in the level of the development of information
competences generally coincided with our expectations (see Figure 4).
60
50
30 EG (after the experiment)
0
Figure 4: Dynamics of changes in levels of the development of informational

competences in EG and CG students
However, the continuous improvement of information technologies, the

emergence of new products and opportunities will require future lawyers to
constantly improve their information competencies in order to maintain their
developed level. This statement is no less significant in terms of the formation and
development of organizational and activity competencies in future lawyers,
despite the expected significant changes in the levels of their development in
students of the experimental group. The dynamics of changes in the levels of
organizational and activity competencies are clearly illustrated in Figure 5.
50
40
EG (before the experiment)
30
0
Figure 5: Dynamics of changes in levels of the development of organizational and

activity competences in EG and CG students

144
In our opinion, the competencies of self-development and self-realization are the

most important in the structure of lifelong learning competences. It is this
component of lifelong learning competencies that needs particular attention of
researchers and high school educators (Smith, 2018). The dynamics of changes in
the levels of self-development/self-realization competences are clearly
demonstrated in Figure 6.
60
50
30 EG (after the experiment)

CG (before the experiment)
20
CG (after the experiment)
10
0
Figure 6: Dynamics of changes in levels of the development of self-development/self-

realization competences in EG and CG students
The changes in the indicators of the levels of self-development and self-realization

competences recorded in the students of the experimental group at the final stage
of our study are not very striking at first glance: more than half of the students
showed the basic or medium level of the development of these competences
(although the indicators of the experimental group significantly outperform those
of the control group). We believe that the real “manifestation” of this structural
component of lifelong learning competences is somewhat delayed, since it is at
this stage of professional training of future lawyers (the first semester of the
second year of the educational and professional program) that the competences
of self-development and self-realization are formed in students. In addition, the
limiting factors of this study stated above should also be considered in the analysis
of the results achieved.
An experimental model of the formation of lifelong learning competences in
students confirmed the importance of the pedagogical conditions identified in the
study. However, the pedagogically-driven motivation of future lawyers to form
and develop their lifelong learning competencies has proven to be both extremely
important and extremely effective “lever” of activization of the students’ position
as regards the development of their lifelong learning competencies.
The greatest difficulty at the stage of preparation of pedagogical study was that
there is a lack of convenient and proven effective methods of revealing changes in
the requirements/requests of employers not only in the legal sphere, but also in
other economic sectors. Moreover, feedback between higher educational
institutions and institutions employing graduates is either currently ineffective or
in need of adjustment or renewal. We believe that establishing links between
employers and HEIs, developing similar methods of collecting such information

145
and processing it, broad introducing the analysis of such information into the
practice of higher educational institutions would allow HEIs to “tune” their
educational and professional programs, improve the quality of future
professional training and, ultimately, ensure the high competitiveness of their
graduates. Finding effective approaches, methodologies, conducting systemic
surveys and analysing them now requires the support and coordinated efforts of
government agencies, HEIs and potential employers.
5. Suggestions / Recommendations
As one can see, the application of the experimental model of the development of
lifelong learning competences of future lawyers has the greatest positive influence
on the formation and development of cognitive, informational, organizational-
activity competences and competences of self-development and self-realization in
students. In order to achieve higher levels of the development of communicative
competence, further research is needed to identify ways to more effectively
influence the process of forming and developing this structural component of
lifelong learning competences. Diagnostics of measuring the levels of the
development of individual structural components of lifelong learning
competences also requires further research and development. An effective link
between employers and higher educational institutions is also needed to
collect (or exchange) and promptly analyse structural and functional changes in
professional activity and changes in the labour market requirements for the
professional characteristics (competencies) of the required specialists.
Establishing and maintaining such a connection will enable higher educational
institutions to respond more effectively to such changes and to ensure a high level
of professional training for their graduates.
6. Limitations
It should be acknowledged that the main limiting factor in this study is the short
time period of the pedagogical experiment (one academic semester). In addition,
we have identified a lack of developed diagnostic techniques for the study of
lifelong learning competencies, as well as prompt and effective ways to obtain
information from employers about changing labour market needs.
7. Conclusions
The pedagogical conditions for the development of lifelong learning competences
are distinguished; pedagogical technologies, methods and techniques effective for
the development of these competences are determined; the model of the
development of lifelong learning competences in a field of law is designed. Based
on the analysis of the data obtained before and after the pedagogical experiment,
the hypothesis was confirmed that the effectiveness of the formation of lifelong
learning competences of future lawyers significantly increases provided the
application of the main varieties of active teaching methods in the professional
training process, namely – methods of modelling the peculiarities of professional
activity during training (business games and business simulations, project
method, case-study method with preparation of individual or “team” reporting
presentations), the method of step-by-step fulfilment of “production” tasks, the

146
method of “algorithmization” of the decision-making, and latest information and

computer technologies. It is established that the most significant pedagogical
conditions for the effective development of lifelong learning competences are
pedagogically-driven motivation of future lawyers to form and develop lifelong
learning competences; introduction of methods that promote the formation and
development of lifelong learning competences into the process of professional
training; formation of professional qualities in future lawyers on the basis of
conscious perception of the system of universal and professional values.
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Appendix 1
Questionnaire for Teachers, Supervisors of Internship and Externship
and Employers of Lawyers
Please answer some questions
1. Please specify the current needs of the legal market for the training of
specialists in the field of law.
2. What should be the ideal law school graduate? Offer a list of personal and
professional qualities.
3. Evaluate on the proposed scale, what, in your opinion, are the chances of
law graduates to get the necessary work immediately after graduation (3 points -
the highest chances, 0 points - the lowest):
3-2-1-0
4. We kindly ask you to evaluate the importance of the proposed components

of the culture of professional communication of specialists in the field of law in
future practical professional activities on a three-point scale, taking into account
the degree of necessity of their use in solving professional problems:
3 – “extremely necessary in the legal activity”
2 – “desirable in the legal activity”,
1 – “will not spoil legal activity”,
0 – “a lawyer does not need it”.
Knowledge
Rating
psychological characteristics of an individual and the team 0 1 2 3
factors of efficiency and optimization of professional communication 0 1 2 3 other
possible ways (ways) of resolving conflict situations in professional
0 1 2 3 other
activity of a lawyer;
the concept of etiquette, its role in professional communication,
0 1 2 3 other
features of the etiquette of a lawyer, its basic rules and functions
Skills and Abilities Rating
Information skills
find information 0 1 2 3 other
identify the main point in the message 0 1 2 3 other
find arguments 0 1 2 3 other
formulate questions and answers 0 1 2 3 other
draw conclusions 0 1 2 3 other
express clearly and competently 0 1 2 3 other
control voice 0 1 2 3 other
use non-verbal means of communication 0 1 2 3 other
Perceptual skills
assess one’s own condition at the time of communication 0 1 2 3 other
catch the interlocutor’s mood 0 1 2 3 other
anticipate the partner’s appropriate response 0 1 2 3 other
determine how conditions (time, place) promote or hinder
0 1 2 3 other
communication
restrain emotions 0 1 2 3 other
Interactive skills
establish contact with the interlocutor 0 1 2 3 other
maintain contact during communication 0 1 2 3 other
convince the interlocutor 0 1 2 3 other
formulate orders 0 1 2 3 other
subject the position of the interlocutor to argumentative criticism 0 1 2 3 other
organize a group solution to the problem 0 1 2 3 other
General legal skills
knowledge of the rules of law 0 1 2 3 other
operate with legal terminology 0 1 2 3 other
know the basics of public speaking 0 1 2 3 other
draw up procedural documents 0 1 2 3 other
Specialized legal skills
knowledge of forms of documents (depending on the type of legal
0 1 2 3 other
activity)
enclosing the necessary content in the wording 0 1 2 3 other
make accents depending on the position 0 1 2 3 other
knowledge of medical, accounting, technical, economic terminology 0 1 2 3 other
ability to speak abstractly 0 1 2 3 other
ability to express oneself clearly, in essence 0 1 2 3 other
knowledge of procedures (court hearings, forms of concluding
0 1 2 3 other
agreements, conducting investigative work, examinations)
5. We kindly ask you to evaluate the level of professional legal knowledge,

skills of young specialists with experience in the legal field of up to 3 years on a
three-point scale.
3 – “perfectly”
2 – “sufficient level”,
1 – “weak level”,
0 – “do not know”.
Knowledge Rating
psychological characteristics of an individual and the team 0 1 2 3 other
factors of efficiency and optimization of professional
0 1 2 3 other
communication
possible ways (ways) of resolving conflict situations in
0 1 2 3 other
professional activity of a lawyer;
the concept of etiquette, its role in professional communication,
0 1 2 3 other
features of the etiquette of a lawyer, its basic rules and functions
Skills and abilities Rating
Information skills
find information 0 1 2 3 other
identify the main point in the message 0 1 2 3 other
find arguments 0 1 2 3 other
formulate questions and answers 0 1 2 3 other
draw conclusions 0 1 2 3 other
express clearly and competently 0 1 2 3 other
control voice 0 1 2 3 other
use non-verbal means of communication 0 1 2 3 other
Perceptual skills
assess one’s own condition at the time of communication 0 1 2 3 other
catch the interlocutor’s mood 0 1 2 3 other
anticipate the partner’s appropriate response 0 1 2 3 other
determine how conditions (time, place) promote or hinder
0 1 2 3 other
communication
restrain emotions 0 1 2 3 other
Interactive skills
establish contact with the interlocutor 0 1 2 3 other
maintain contact during communication 0 1 2 3 other
convince the interlocutor 0 1 2 3 other
formulate orders 0 1 2 3 other
subject the position of the interlocutor to argumentative criticism 0 1 2 3 other
organize a group solution to the problem 0 1 2 3 other
General legal skills
knowledge of the rules of law 0 1 2 3 other
operate with legal terminology 0 1 2 3 other
know the basics of public speaking 0 1 2 3 other
draw up procedural documents 0 1 2 3 other
Specialized legal skills
knowledge of forms of documents (depending on the type of
0 1 2 3 other
legal activity)
enclosing the necessary content in the wording 0 1 2 3 other
make accents depending on the position 0 1 2 3 other
knowledge of medical, accounting, technical, economic
0 1 2 3 other
terminology
ability to speak abstractly 0 1 2 3 other
ability to express oneself clearly, in essence 0 1 2 3 other
knowledge of procedures (court hearings, forms of concluding
0 1 2 3 other
agreements, conducting investigative work, examinations)
Skills Rating
Psychological rapid diagnosis of personality traits of citizens; 0 1 2 3 other
Effective communication; 0 1 2 3 other
Resolving conflict situations that arise in professional activities; 0 1 2 3 other
Evaluation of one’s actions and the actions of others in terms of
0 1 2 3 other
ethics and morality
Behaviour in the team and communication with citizens in
0 1 2 3 other
accordance with the rules of etiquette;
Psychological (legitimate) influence on an individual. 0 1 2 3 other
Thank you for participating!

150

Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 150-169, April 2020
Strategies for Facilitating Listening Skills among

Foreign Language Learners in US Universities
Dishari Chattaraj
Indiana University Bloomington,
USA
Christ (Deemed to be University),
Bangalore, India
Abstract. Developing from the thesis that understanding is the key to any
and all meaningful conversation/s, this study focuses on the facilitation
of listening skills among foreign language learners. It is conducted with
the objective to find out the most effective ways in which an instructor
can enable the development of listening skills among the learners of a
foreign language. This paper reports the findings of an empirical study
which followed a cross-sectional research design and employed a survey
method to elicit the data. Twenty-seven Foreign Language Instructors/
Associate Instructors teaching around thirteen different foreign
languages across sixteen different universities in the United States of
America participated and reported to a survey on effective pre-listening,
listening, and post-listening tasks, activities, and strategies which they
found to be the most powerful in their respective classrooms. Thirteen of
the Seventeen strategies and or/ tasks which were provided in the
Strategies for Facilitating Listening (SFL) questionnaire were rated to be
highly effective in the facilitation of the development of listening skills
among the learners. The paper after discussing the efficacies of the
strategies and tasks at hand ends by analyzing the pedagogical
implications of the findings.
Keywords: comprehension skills; foreign language teaching; higher

education; listening skills; listening strategies
1. Introduction
Mastering a language has always been about mastering the four key skills i.e.
Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing (Burns & Siegel, 2017). Though
Listening forms the basis of acquisition of further skills in the domain of language
acquisition and/or learning, not much focus has been paid to the teaching of this
skill in the domain of either Second or Foreign language learning and teaching.
While there have been language teaching approaches like Silent Way which
provided learners a stipulated period of time just to observe and absorb linguistic
inputs without the stress of producing any output (Gattegno, 2010), and the Total

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Physical Response (TPR) that focused on explaining and communicating in a

strictly non-verbal way using just gestures and physical movements (Astutik &
Megawati, 2019), they lack popularity and significance in the field of language
teaching. There exists an alternative method of language teaching known as
Comprehension Approach grounded in the theories of language acquisition and
learning propounded by Krashen (2004) and Asher (2000) both of whom wanted
to teach the second language in the model of the first language. However, this
approach definitely did not enjoy the popularity which Communicative Language
Teaching (CLT) enjoys in the field in the contemporary language teaching and
learning contexts; while CLT is widely implemented in classes and represented in
literature (Richards, 2005), the same can’t be said about the Comprehension
Approach.
With the focus on communication and production, listening and comprehension

have definitely not taken a lead in language classes. One of the main reason why
listening is not a favorite skill to teach is because it is non-tangible and not directly
assessable/measurable; the other quasi-psychological justification to not teach
listening in the foreign language classroom is the idea learners acquire the skill in
their first language without much fuss, and given this logic, the foreign language
learners are bound to pick up the skill sooner or later (Field, 2008). The
interpretive skill of listening, though important in its own right, has also been
considered by researchers and language instructors as a passive skill (Johnson,
2008; Vandergrigt, 2011). It has always been treated as a subsidiary to spoken
skills and the main motivation behind teaching listening skill was not to improve
understanding and comprehension but to improve pronunciation in the target
language (Vandergrift, 2011). However, the interpretive skill of listening not only
provides the structure or base for the growth and development of performance
oriented interpersonal and presentational skills but it also enhances the linguistic
competence in the learners. Thus, it is important not only to focus on the linguistic
product or output but on the process in which acquisition of listening skill takes
place (Vandergrift & Goh, 2009).
This study, thus, is a shift from the recent studies in product-oriented language
teaching approach which focus only on communicative tasks and performances.
The main objective of the study is to document and analyze the effective strategies
and tasks that facilitate the growth and development of listening skills among the
learners of multiple foreign languages. The study specifically reports the findings
of an empirical study in which 27 Foreign Language Instructors/ Associate
Instructors across 16 different universities in the United States of America
participated. The study seeks to answer the following research questions:
i) Are Foreign Language Instructors across institutes of higher education in the

United States of America using pre-listening, listening, and post-listening
tasks/activities/strategies to facilitate the development of listening skills among
the learners?
ii) Is there a balance in the use of these?
iii) What are the most popular strategies/activities/tasks for the development of
listening skills?

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iv) Is there a possibility of implementing the Comprehension Approach to

teaching by adding the dimension of interpretive listening to it?
The testing hypothesis for the study is: The Foreign Language instructors will
have a balanced approach in employing pre-listening, listening, and, post-
listening strategies while teaching listening skills to Foreign Language learners.
Though listening comprehension according to Vandergrift (1999) plays a key role
in facilitating language learning, Nunan (2002) points out that for long, listening
skill has been ignored by language teachers. In fact, listening skills have so far
been overlooked as compared to reading, writing and speaking skills in the
domain of language teaching and learning (Mendelson, 2000; Vandergrift & Goh,
2012). Listening skill became a focus-area of study only in the 1960s when the
focus of language teaching shifted to the development of oral skills (Nunan, 2002).
It further gained importance in the ’80s after Krashen developed his theory of
Input Hypothesis and was reinforced by Ashers’ (1988) Total Physical Approach
method of language teaching. Gary (1975) observes that if attention is given to
listening comprehension at the early stages of language learning/teaching, it
provides advantages of four kinds i.e. cognitive, efficiency, utility and affective.
This in turn holistically provides a comprehensive understanding of the target
language for the learner thereby making the experience of foreign language
learning meaningful and fulfilling.
There a significant body of research has been conducted to understand the

cognitive and psycholinguistic aspects of listening (Clark & Clark, 1977;
Demyankon, 1983). However, research in the field of teaching or facilitating
listening skills among the learners in a language classroom is only a handful. This
section on literature review is thus divided into three parts. The first part provides
a comprehensive and brief overview of the few significant and popular
psycholinguistic models of listening. The second part provides an overview of
studies conducted specifically in the domain of teaching or facilitating listening
skills among the learners in a language classroom, more specifically in foreign
language classrooms. The third and last part of this section briefly discusses the
Foreign Language teaching scenario in institutes of higher education across the
United States of America.
Understanding and Comprehending Listening

Rost (1991) points out that understanding and comprehension is a multi-layered
task and he makes reference to the Relevance Theory postulated by Sperber and
Wilson, (1982, 1986) which conceives communication to be a collaborative process
that involves the process of ostension i.e. the production of signals by a speaker
and inference i.e. the contextualization of signals by a hearer. Rost further
elaborates that both the acts of locution and illocution are important in order to
infer and construct meaning in order to meaningfully conduct the act of
perlocution by the interlocutor. He then discusses how it is significant to train the
learners in ways in which they not only understand the denotative meaning of a
word or a phrase but have a clear idea of the connotative meaning as well.

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Listening is often perceived to be a simple task; however, literature shows that in

order to be an efficient listener one needs to have a deep knowledge of not only
the language but also the culture otherwise the process of meaning-making
becomes highly restrictive and shallow. Demyankov (1983) proposed a model of
understanding which comprised six stages. Acquisition of the linguistic
framework of the target language, construction and verification of hypothetical
interpretations of what is heard, deciphering the speaker’s intentions, assimilation
of the spoken message, coordination of the speakers’ and the listener’s motivation
to participate in the conversation, and, discernment of the tone of the message.
The model, though structured, has been criticized for not considering the fact that
a listener always involves in a conversation with a purpose and often the purpose
is not ideal i.e. the interlocutor doesn’t listen with the intention to comprehend
what the speaker is saying. Another model, given by Clark and Clark (1977), is
rooted in cognitive linguistics, based on empirical evidence, this model is credited
with the ability to provide a comprehensive psychological description for verbal
understanding. The stages of this model are provided below:
1. The hearer receives the raw speech and retains its phonological representation
in their working memory.
2. An attempt is made on the part of the language processor to organize the
phonological representation into constituents, identifying their content and
function.
3. As the act of identification of constituents is carried on, the language processor
uses it to construct underlying propositions, thereby incessantly constructing
a hierarchical representation of propositions.
4. After having identified the proposition for a constituent, they retain them in
working memory and at one-point purge memory of the phonological
representation. As a result of this, the language processor forgets the exact
word and retains just the meaning.
This model is criticized because it conceives the hearer/ interlocutor to be a

language processor thereby dissociating her/him from the context of the speech
i.e. the interactive context and denying the transactional nature of human
communication and rendering it a mechanized connotation better suited for the
purpose of machine-learning and communication. The idea that emerges out of
all the cognitive and psycholinguistic models of listening is that it is a complex
process that requires a multilayered understanding of language and culture. One
becomes an efficient interlocutor only by being a part of the linguistic community
and culture; a formal classroom set-up thus becomes highly limiting in this
context. However limiting it is, a significantly large number of learners across the
United States of America and the world learn foreign languages within the formal
classroom set-ups and it is in such a scenario that the findings of the current study
become extremely important as it provides insights into the effective ways of
facilitating the faculty of listening among foreign language learners in a typically
restricted formal set-up.

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Listening in the Language Classroom

Brown (2006) while discussing the hacks of teaching effective listening skills
points out that building on learners’ prior knowledge is a key factor which leads
to success among the learners as “Prior knowledge is organized in schemata (the
plural form of schema): abstract, generalized mental representations of our
experience that are available to help us understand new experiences.” (pp 37).
Graham (2017) reports a study where 78% of the foreign language instructors in
England agreed upon reminding learners previously-learned vocabulary items
which relates to the new topic. Other important strategies that promote effective
listening skills among learners according to Brown (2006) are first, systematic
presentation of main ideas i.e. the learners should have a clear idea of what they
are learning if the learning objective is clearly stated and the keywords
highlighted, the learners will learn better and faster. Secondly, the learners must
be encouraged to look for details and thirdly they must be encouraged to make
inferences by listening between the lines. Brown (2006) also suggests that
integrating authentic materials in teaching like videos and interviews enhances
the motivation and interest of the learners and makes them listen closely to the
audio-visual material. He concludes his paper with the assertion that an effective
listening exercise will incorporate both open and close-ended tasks and should be
followed by exercises and tasks in the domain of speaking thereby providing a
context for recycling and reusing the lexical/syntactic structures learned during
the listening session. What Brown (2006) is pointing over here is that the
interpretive task should be followed by activities in the domain of interpersonal
and/or presentational modes thereby providing the students a range of arenas to
practice what they have learned; a similar thread of thoughts also originates in
Nation (2009) that focuses on the reciprocal skills of listening and speaking skills
in foreign and second language learning contexts which are understood to be
interconnected skills that compliment each other in the present context of
language learning (Newton, 2016).
Field (2008) provides a format for a listening lesson for teaching English as a
Second Language. However, the model he provides can be replicated to teach any
language and hence deserves a mention in this section. The model proposed by
Field (2008) is definitely comprehensive and combined with task-based activities
and incorporation of authentic materials would lead to an effective lesson in the
foreign language classroom using the Comprehension Approach to language
teaching. However, Field (2008) points out that efforts must be made so that the
lesson doesn’t turn highly teacher-centric or an isolating endeavor and the learner
should be provided limited input and provided time to process the information.
The lesson should be process-oriented and not product-oriented which means
emphasis should be given to pre-listening and listening tasks as much as post-
listening tasks. Sendag et al. (2018) while mentioning the importance of repetition
in teaching listening skills also mention the effort must be made to limit the
content and provide the learners with extracurricular listening activities. It is also
important to note here that it is a popular strategy to focus more on socially
motivated contexts while planning listening activities than just on the linguistic
aspects of the target language (Brown, 1998).

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Rost (2011) mentions that there exist six different types of listening practices; they
are Intensive (focus on phonology, syntax, lexis), Selective (focus on main ideas,
pre-set tasks). Interactive (focus on becoming active listener, attempt to clarify
meaning or form), Extensive (focusing on listening continuously, managing large
amount of listening input), Responsive (focus on learner response to input),
Autonomous (focus on learner management of progress, navigation, task
selection, etc.). After a comprehensive analysis of literature on listening
instruction, Rost concluded that balanced listening instruction should include all
these six types of practices. Incorporation of all these practices would require the
instructors to design tasks and implement strategies. Along with tasks and
strategies, the literature is also replete with the importance of providing
scaffolding materials to make the process of listening more effective (Ahmadi &
Rozati, 2017).
Vandergrift has most extensively worked on strategy use in the domain of

listening. Vandergrift (1999) devises a performance checklist for pre-listening,
listening and post-listening tasks. The questionnaire consists of 8 questions
(yes/no) each in the pre and post-listening checklist groups and 6 questions in the
listening comprehension group; also there are 4 open-ended questions in the
checklist. Graham (2006) also conducted a study on the perceptions held
regarding listening comprehension by 595 English students learning French aged
16-18 years. Providing feedback, discussing task-discrepancies, and setting future
goals of learning fall under the domain of post-listening. These are in fact effective
language teaching strategies in general (Vattøy & Smith, 2019), but so far, there
has been no study in the domain of teaching listening that throws light on these
strategies. Contemporary studies in the domain of listening mostly focus on the
learners and their abilities to develop the faculty of listening (Kok, 2018) and not
much emphasis is put on the facilitation of the skill in a formal setup and this is
exactly where the findings of the present study become important. However,
before reporting the findings of the study, the subsequent paragraphs focus on
the Foreign Language Teaching scenario in the United States of America which is
where the present study is situated.
Foreign Language Teaching in the US Higher Education System

In an increasingly neoliberal world, where mobility is highly fluid, Foreign
Language Teaching gained impetus and prominence mostly in the first decade of
the 21st century in the context of higher education in the United States of America.
While the United States of America has a prominent history of teaching Foreign
Languages (FL) since the early 1960s, globalization and 9/11 attacks furthered the
need for teaching FL in the higher education institutes as there was a general
consensus among scholars and administrators that there is a need to understand
other cultures and languages (Yankelovich, 2005). In a study conducted in 2006
by the Modern Language Association (MLA), 2654 institutions of higher
education across the states reported having enrolments for languages other than
English (Furnam et al. 2007). The study grouped the languages into two groups
on the basis of the number of enrolments i.e. Most Commonly Taught Languages
and Less Commonly Taught Languages. While the Most Commonly Taught
Languages list includes 14 languages, the Less Commonly Taught Languages list
includes as many as 204 languages. The report also notes that a growing trend is

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noticed both in the number of languages taught and in the enrolment of students.
A similar study was conducted by the MLA in 2016 (Looney & Lusin, 2019) in
which 2547 institutions of higher education participated and a total of 15 Most
Commonly Taught Languages and 310 Less Commonly Taught Languages were
reported to be taught. Thus, clearly, an exponential growth in the number of
Foreign Languages offered by higher educational institutes across the USA can be
noticed in a period of the last ten years.
The Modern Language Association released a memorandum based on the

aforementioned report in 2006 on their website urging universities across the
states to make Foreign Language learning compulsory across undergraduate,
graduate and Ph.D. programs. They also emphasized that the teaching of FL
should be situated in cultural, historical, geographic and cross-cultural frames
incorporating transcultural and translingual reflection at every level of learning
and teaching. Students and faculty exchange in the context of FL learning is also
vehemently advocated for in the document. Support in the domain of instructors
is provided by The United States Department of State’s Bureau of Educational and
Cultural Affairs by funding the Fulbright Foreign Language Teaching
Assistantship (FLTA) Program in which native speakers in multiple languages
across 50 different countries obtain a chance to bring their native speaker
competence to institutes of higher education across the United States of America
as they join these institutes for one academic year as an instructor or associate
instructor. Thus, it can be seen that there is increasing recognition for the need of
teaching Foreign Languages across higher educational institutes in the United
States of America and, it is furthered by associations such as the MLA and the
American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL).
The gap in Literature

The gap that emerges from the analysis of literature so far is that though the need
for teaching Foreign Languages is well established, there is a discrepancy between
the theory and practice when it comes to research in the domain of Listening Skill
as can be seen in the first two sections of literature review. Listening is a teacher-
oriented activity and in the present paradigm of teaching that completely focuses
on the learners, none of the studies so far could be located that directly address
the instructors’ perception of the use of various listening tasks and/or strategies
in a Foreign Language teaching context as the one the present study deals with.
All the works that discuss the aspect of teaching listening, as can be seen in the
second section of literature review, are mostly reflective research, unlike the
present study which reports the findings of an empirical study about best
practices in facilitating listening faculty among the learners.
3. Methodology
Research Design
The study at hand follows a cross-sectional research design; the cross-sectional
approach is a very popular approach in language teaching-learning studies as it
is an economical way to obtain information in a short period of time (Phakiti,
2015). It is a quantitative study based on primary data that employed a survey
methodology to collect the data. The data for the study was elicited by means of

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a questionnaire (Appendix 1) named Strategies for Facilitating Listening (SFL)

which was designed for this study. The SFL consisted 17 items (6 pre-listening, 4
listening, 7 post-listening) and is highly reliable as a data eliciting instrument as
it generated a value of 0.89 in Cronbach’s Alpha test.
Setting and Participants
The research instrument was circulated among foreign language instructors/
associate instructors across different 16 universities that among many other
universities in the United States of America hosts Fulbright Foreign Language
Teaching Assistants (FLTA) (Indiana University Bloomington, University of Utah,
Yale University, University of Michigan, Central State University Ohio, Wake
Forest University, University of Kansas, University of Arkansas, Northern Illinois
University, Webster University, University of Texas at Austin, University of
Louisville, New York University, Gardner Webb University, Agnes Scott College,
and, University of Texas at San Antonio). The instructors/associate instructors
were all native speakers of the languages they were teaching and were part of a
Fulbright Foreign Language Teaching Assistantship (FLTA) program in the
academic year 2019-2020, an academic community of which the researcher was
also a part. They were personally approached by the researcher through email and
requested to complete the questionnaire. The languages which were taught by
these instructors were Arabic, Bangla, Bahasa Indonesia, Burmese, French,
Finnish, Hindi, Kazakh, Spanish, Swahili, Thai, Turkish, and, Urdu.
4. Results
This section is subdivided into three sub-sections. The first subsection deals with
pre-listening instruction, the second subsection deals with listening instruction,
and the third subsection deals with post-listening instruction related activities and
strategies.
Table 1. Pre-listening Instruction
Strategies Mean SD
I provide my learners with audio-visual content by native speakers on the 3.4 1.08
new topic
I orally revise what I have taught in the previous class before introducing 4 1.07
a new topic
I provide an oral list of questions relating to the topic before I start 3.51 1.34
teaching it
I provide a written list of questions relating to the topic before I start 3.22 1
teaching it
I provide an oral list of vocabulary items before I start teaching a new 3.59 1.5
topic
I provide a written list of vocabulary items before I start teaching a new 3.89 1.25
topic
Average 3.6 0.86
Note. This table provides information on the mean and standard deviation on the use of
pre-listening strategies by foreign language instructors.

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As the table shows, the most frequently reported pre-listening strategy is the
strategy of revision which also has a comparatively lower SD value. Providing a
list of vocabulary items before introducing a new topic is also reported to be a
frequently used strategy and this provides the learners with clarity and better
comprehension as once the instruction on listening starts, they know exactly what
to look for. Providing an oral list of questions is also marked to be a strategy used
frequently; however, the strategy of providing a written list is not popular.
However, the high SD of the former strategy points to the fact that it is not an
unanimously popular pre-listening strategy. The question of providing audio-
visual content, however, did not generate a response that was expected and it also
has a comparatively lower SD indicating that it is generally unpopular among
instructors. Audio-visual aids are deemed to be highly useful in the context of
teaching a foreign language and the instructors did not respond to it with absolute
enthusiasm. Overall, the instructors have reported using the pre-listening
strategies frequently and the responses are also not varied as is indicated by a low
SD, thereby, confirming that this stage is very important for the advancement into
and the progress of the next two stages.
Table 2. Listening Instruction
Strategies Mean SD
I repeat the listening exercise at least 3 times before I provide 3.55 1
any kind of assignment
I encourage the learners to demonstrate new words physically 3.18 1.7
before they actually speak it out loud
I make the learners repeat new sounds/ words after I finish 3.92 0.95
reading the text in class
I provide the learners with the group/ pair activities to practice 4.51 0.8
the new sounds/ words
Average 3.79 0.72
listening strategies by foreign language instructors.
The table above shows that the instructors have overall reported using three of
the four listening instruction-related strategies quite frequently. The most
frequently used strategy was providing the learners with group/pair activities to
practice the new sounds/words. This strategy is actually an integrative strategy
that combines the interpretive mode with interpersonal mode. The low SD in the
response also points out that it is a unanimously popular strategy in teaching
listening skill. Repetition is crucial when it comes to teaching new sounds/words
and no wonder both the strategies related to repetition generated a positive
response. The only strategy which was reported to be used less frequently is the
use of gestures to convey new words. Though it is an efficient strategy for teaching
listening, this strategy can be really time-consuming and that could be one of the
reasons why it is not popular among the instructors. However, it is interesting to
note that this strategy generated the most diverse response among the

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respondents as the high SD indicates thereby establishing the fact that there are
some instructors who exhaustively use this strategy.
Table 3. Post-Listening Instruction
Strategies Mean SD
I provide the learners with a listening comprehension exercise 4 0.9
once the teaching and practicing session is over
I provide the learners with a reading comprehension exercise 3.88 1
once the teaching and practicing session is over
I provide my learners with scaffolding materials (cheat sheet etc.) 3.48 1.31
for the tasks/assignments
I provide the learners with exercises like information-gap, 3.7 0.95
true/false, multiple-choice etc. after I complete teaching the piece
on listening
I provide the learners with role-playing or task-oriented/ 4.22 0.75
problem-solving activities after I complete teaching the piece on
listening
I discuss the discrepancies I notice during the tasks immediately 3.92 0.95
after the task is over
I discuss/ set future learning goals with regards to the mode of 3.96 1.12
listening as we complete the episode/ lesson on listening
Average 3.88 0.69
post-listening strategies by foreign language instructors.
This section on post-listening which had seven questions endeavors to find out
the most frequently used assessment strategies instructors implement in order to
understand the comprehension of their learners as well as make the teaching more
interactive. As the table shows, the practice of providing a listening
comprehension exercise immediately after the lesson is a very frequently used
practice and both have SDs in similar range. What is interesting here is to note
that providing learners with a reading comprehension exercise is also a popular
approach and this approach can be taken if the language has a script the learners
are already familiar with. The tasks of role-play/problem-solving activities are
more popular compared to info-gap and true-false exercises to measure learners’
listening skills. The strategy of providing scaffolding materials is not popular
among the instructors. Discussing the discrepancies immediately after the task
and setting future learning goals are also popular strategies as has been reported
by the instructors. However the task of discussing discrepancies show a lower SD
as compared to the other strategy thereby indicating that it is more popular among
the instructors. The strategy on scaffolding has yielded a lower response though
it has a higher SD which shows that it is used frequently by some of the
instructors. Overall, the instructors thus have reported using the post-listening
tasks/ strategies highly frequently.

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Other strategies which the instructors reported to be useful for facilitating the
development of listening skills as a part of the open-ended question in this survey
in the domain of Listening were providing built-in helps for difficult words in the
audio that help learners save time and move on to the listening task without
breaking the flow and pace of comprehension, providing audio textbooks; and in
the domain of Post-listening were organizing conversation tables and cultural
festivals to provide an environment as would be found in the target linguistic
community, incorporating artistic expression by encouraging the students to
draw/doodle their responses after a listening activity instead of speaking.
Table 4. Anova: Single Factor

SUMMARY
Groups Count Sum Average Variance
Column 1 27 97.33333 3.604938 0.74818
Column 2 27 102.5 3.796296 0.524217
Column 3 27 104.8571 3.883598 0.478865
ANOVA
Source of
SS df MS F P-value F crit
Variation
Between
1.097016 2 0.548508 0.939622 0.395153 3.113792
Groups
Within
45.5328 78 0.583754
Groups
Total 46.62981 80
Note. This table provides information on the ANOVA test result for pre-listening,
listening, and, post-listening strategies enlisted in the SFL questionnaire.
The study which focuses on pre-listening, listening and post-listening tasks show
that on an average the instructors reported using all the three categories of
listening strategies i.e. pre-listening (m=3.6), listening (m=3.79), and, post-
listening (m=3.88) frequently. The table produced above, from the ANOVA test
conducted to understand whether there is a statistically significant difference
between the three categories, shows that there isn’t any statistically significant
difference (p=0.3). Thus, it can be said that the instructors are providing a
balanced instruction when it comes to imparting listening skills thus proving the
testing hypothesis of the study to be true.
5. Discussions
The popularity of the pre-listening strategy of revision (m=4) is in sync with the
literature discussed (Brown, 2006) above which asserts that it is always better to
build on existing knowledge. The contrast in responses between the strategies of
providing an oral list (m=3.51) and a written list (m=3.22) shows that while
teaching listening, the instructors prefer providing an oral list of questions which
in turn enhances the amount of input in the target lesson. This activity also

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initiates the learners to think and question what they are learning thereby making
them aware as learners. This finding is in alignment with the Comprehension
Approach by Krashen (2004) which emphasizes on comprehensible oral input.
Though audi-visual aids have been noted in literature to be effective in enhancing
interpretive skills by exposing the learners to the target culture and language
(Brown, 2006), the comparatively lower response of the same among the
respondents of this study (m=3.4) provides the need to initiate further enquiry.
However, it is not justified to draw a conclusion about the same without knowing
how much content is available on the internet in the target language.
It has been seen in the literature that listening instruction has the potential to
become highly teacher-centric and isolating (Field, 2008); the enormous
popularity of the strategy of providing the learners with group/pair activities
(m=4.51) proves that the instructors actually focus on making the learning
experience highly engaging for the learners. The popularity of both the strategies
of repetition is in alignment with the literature (Sendag et al., 2018) and points out
the importance of memory skills in the domain of foreign language learning. The
strategy of demonstrating words physically before speaking it aloud is inspired
by the TPR approach (Asher, 2008). This strategy with a low mean (m=3.18) and
high SD (1.7) provides confusing responses that seek further investigation.
Literature shows that an effective lesson in listening instruction is always

followed by a range of open/close-ended activities that provides instances for
recycling or reusing the structural/lexical items learned in the process (Field,
2008) and the overall high frequency reported for the use of post-listening
strategies is indicative of that (m=3.88). However, the popularity of providing
reading comprehension exercises after providing training in listening (m=3.88)
raises questions about the way instructors map assignments with skills taught.
The popularity of both the methods of the assessment i.e. listening comprehension
(m=4) and reading comprehension show that the instructors are not
differentiating between the two interpretive approaches of listening and reading
but how successful the approach of testing a skill different from the one that has
been taught deserves further investigations. Further, the popularity of socially
motivated role play and task-oriented problem-solving activities (m=4.22) over
linguistically oriented information-gap and multiple choice questions (m=3.7)
show that the findings of the study are in alignment with the literature (Brown,
1998). The low use of scaffolding strategy (m=3.48) which otherwise is a very
popular strategy in teaching listening and comprehension skills (Ahmadi &
Rozati, 2017) seeks further enquiry. The popularity of both the strategies of
discussing discrepancies and gaining feedback on listening tasks (m=3.92), and,
setting future goals (m=3.96) shows that these strategies are useful for teaching
listening skills, just as they are for teaching any of the language skills (Vattøy &
Smith, 2019).
6. Conclusion
This study shows the instructors of Foreign Languages across multiple
universities in the United States of America have a balanced approach for
imparting listening skills to the learners. Besides successfully documenting and

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analyzing the effective strategies and tasks that facilitate the growth and
development of listening skills among the learners of multiple foreign languages,
the study raises questions about whether there is a scope to apply the
Comprehension Approach to language teaching. Though further investigations
are required in the area to understand how much time is spent to teach the
interpretive mode of communication under the present approach which is highly
driven by the act or the production of communication rather than the process of
the same, the findings of the study provides an impetus for the initiation of the
practice of Comprehension Approach for the facilitation of listening skills among
foreign language learners. Though there has not been a rich body of research in
the field of listening instruction and strategies because of the contemporary
paradigm in language learning which is highly conversation oriented, the study
at hand shows that foreign language instructors across the country are actively
involved in the teaching of the skill. The Comprehension Approach to language
teaching, which is chiefly centered around providing an impetus for the
development of listening skills, was highly criticized for not involving the learners
and making them non-participant individuals whose goal is to just comprehend
and not respond in any way. In spite of its limitation, it is an effective approach
as it provides importance to comprehension which is the base for the development
of the rest of the linguistic skills in a language. By incorporating the interactive
aspect to listening and combining the interpersonal and presentational modes to
this interpretive mode of teaching, the overall practice of teaching a foreign
language would attain completion. In fact, Comprehension Approach could
operate along the sides of the Communication Approach to enable the learners to
attain a holistic competence in the field of foreign language learning.
7. Practical Implications, Research Limitations and Future Projections

The findings of this study provides impetus to Foreign Language instructors
across the United States of America with a set of effective strategies that can be
applied to facilitate the development of Listening Skills among the learners. The
findings of this study is, in fact, useful for Foreign Language instructors from
across the globe who are teaching adult learners the language outside the
linguistic community where it is actually spoken. Foreign Language instructors
can use the findings of this study to make their lessons pertaining to listening
skills more impactful by integrating the interactive listening approach. Further,
the findings of the study could be used by teacher-trainers who conduct various
orientation programs and provide instructors with strategy-training for
enhancing the quality of teaching.
The present study covers a range of Foreign Languages across language families
as well as a number of universities, however, the number of participants are not
high. Moreover, the reporting of strategy by a survey method has its own
limitations and this limitation can be overcome by coupling the survey with
observation and interview method. A longitudinal approach can be taken to
understand how instructors apply listening strategies differently to suit the needs
of their learners. Research interventions are also required to categorize and
understand teaching strategies and tasks that have the potential to make listening
interpretive. Further, the findings of the study throws light on how certain

163
strategies which enjoy general popularity in the literature pertaining to teaching

listening skills are not used exhaustively. This opens up possibilities for future
research in the area. Interventions are required in the domain of use of gestures
and providing scaffolding materials for teaching of listening skills by Foreign
Language instructors. The effective use of audio-visual aids in the context of
teaching listening, especially in the recent context of language teaching which is
globally affected by the pandemic, could be an emerging area of research in its
own right. In this ever-changing-world, where communication is being redefined
by the changing realities brought upon by the global pandemic, the
Comprehension Approach deserves a serious reconsideration as more than ever,
the world needs to listen and comprehend more than it communicates.
8. References
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Brown, S. (1998). Experienced and Inexperienced ESL Teachers' Lesson Planning for a
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Brown, S. (2006). Teaching listening, 5(1), 36-39. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Burns, A., & Siegel, J. (Eds.). (2017). International Perspectives on Teaching the Four Skills in
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3-319-63444-9
Clark, H., & Clark, E. (1977). Psychology and Language. New York: HBJ.
Demyankov, V. Z. (1983). Understanding as interpreting activity. The problems of
linguistics, 6, 58-76.
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English in United States Institutions of Higher Education, Fall 2006. MLA Web
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26.

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Appendix 1
Strategies for Facilitating Listening (SFL)

Questionnaire
All the questions are mandatory.
There are no right or wrong answers to the questions.
Choose the option that describes your teaching style the best.
* Required
1. I provide my learners with audio-visual content by native speakers on the new

topic before I introduce it in class *
Mark only one oval.
1 2 3 4 5
Never Always
2. I orally revise what I have taught in the previous class before introducing a new
topic *
Mark only one oval.
1 2 3 4 5
Never Always
3. I provide an oral list of questions relating to the topic before I start teaching it *
Mark only one oval.
1 2 3 4 5
Never Always
166
4. I provide a written list of questions relating to the topic before I start teaching it *
Mark only one oval.
1 2 3 4 5
Never Always
5. I provide an oral list of vocabulary items before I start teaching a new topic *
Mark only one oval.
1 2 3 4 5
Never Always
6. I provide a written list of vocabulary items before I start teaching a new topic *
Mark only one oval.
1 2 3 4 5
Never Always
7. I repeat the listening exercise at least 3 times before I provide any kind of
assignment *
Mark only one oval.
1 2 3 4 5
Never Always
167
8. I encourage the learners to demonstrate new words physically before they
actually speak it out loud *
Mark only one oval.
1 2 3 4 5
Never Always
9. I make the learners repeat new sounds/ words after I finish reading the text in
class *
Mark only one oval.
1 2 3 4 5
Never Always
10. I provide the learners with the group/ pair activities to practice the new sounds/
words *
Mark only one oval.
1 2 3 4 5
Never Always
11. I provide the learners with a listening comprehension exercise once the teaching
and practicing session is over *
Mark only one oval.
1 2 3 4 5
Never Always
168
12. I provide the learners with a reading comprehension exercise once the teaching
and practicing session is over *
Mark only one oval.
1 2 3 4 5
Never Always
13. I provide my learners with scaffolding materials (cheat sheet etc.) for the
tasks/assignments *
Mark only one oval.
1 2 3 4 5
Never Always
14. I provide the learners with exercises like information-gap, true/false, multiple-
choice etc. after I complete teaching the piece on listening *
Mark only one oval.
1 2 3 4 5
Never Always
15. I provide the learners with role-playing or task-oriented/ problem-solving

activities after I complete teaching the piece on listening *
Mark only one oval.
1 2 3 4 5
Never Always
169
16. I discuss the discrepancies I notice during the tasks immediately after the task is
over *
Mark only one oval.
1 2 3 4 5
Never Always
17. I discuss/ set future learning goals with regards to the mode of listening as we
complete the episode/ lesson on listening *
Mark only one oval.
1 2 3 4 5
Never Always
18. Kindly mention any other strategies you found to be typically useful for
promoting/ facilitating listening skills in the language you teach among the
learners
This content is neither created nor endorsed by Google.
Forms
170

Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 170-187, April 2020
The Effectiveness of Using Three-Dimensional

Visualization Tools to Improve Students’
Understanding of Medicinal Chemistry and
Advanced Drug Design Concepts
Heba Abdel-Halim
Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy,
Faculty of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences,
University of Petra, Amman, Jordan
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1619-1740
Abstract. Computer technology is an integral part of modern research.

Most undergraduate pharmacy students are not aware of the use of these
techniques in the drug design process. Understanding drug-target
interactions plays a vital role in the drug design process, however,
teaching the molecular basis of drug action is one of the major challenges
we face in medicinal chemistry courses. The increase in the availability of
three-dimensional macromolecule crystal structures and computer
visualization software have provided better tools to study the drugs effect
at the molecular level. This study evaluates the effectiveness of using
three-dimensional macromolecule visualization tools in medicinal
chemistry lectures on the students understanding of the molecular basis
of drug action and drug design concepts. The different examples
presented in this work are part of the teaching material that were
developed to suite the learning objectives of the course. In addition, the
“macromolecular drug targets assignment” was introduced to the course
in order to allow the students to have practical experience using the new
in silico techniques. Two hundred seventy students were surveyed over
the past five years, the result showed that the new teaching tools have
increased students’ interest in medicinal chemistry and allowed them to
develop better understanding of the effect of structural modification on
compounds’ activity and structure activity relationship. In addition, it
gave them an insight into the advanced methods used in drug design.
Keywords: three-dimensional visualization; macromolecular crystal

structure; medicinal chemistry; drug design; drug-target interactions
1. Introduction
A plethora of three-dimensional (3D) models of biological macromolecules bound
to natural substrates, and/or drugs have been elucidated, and are available for
download from the RCSB protein data bank (PDB) (Berman et al., 2000). In
171
addition, the increase in computer processing power has dramatically improved

and allowed for the development of many advanced drug discovery software and
hence, an increase in the use of computer-aided drug design (CADD) techniques
has been observed over the past years (Ferreira, Dos Santos, Oliva, &
Andricopulo, 2015). The availability of genomic, proteomic, and structural
information of macromolecular drug targets has established the role of rational
drug design techniques in the identification, and development of novel
compounds (Yu & MacKerell, 2017).
Medicinal chemistry is a core course in the pharmacy degree curricula around the
world that focus on teaching a group of therapeutic agents with the focus on their
chemistry, chemical structure requirements, mechanism of action, potency,
selectivity, and structure activity relationship. Understanding the drug action at
the molecular level is essential in deciding the optimum therapeutic approach for
any clinical case (Fernandes, 2017). The binding of any drug to its target is highly
dependent, not only on the drug’s chemistry, but also on its 3D structure. In order
for a drug to be active, its functional groups and the 3D shape should complement
the site of action (Satyanarayanajois & Hill, 2011). The affinity and the type of
interactions between the drug and the target would determine the effect and
activity of this drug, any modification of the drug’s 3D structure that result in an
increase in its affinity and binding is expected to improve activity (Copeland,
Pompliano, & Meek, 2006; Satyanarayanajois, 2010). Teaching the molecular
aspects of drug-target interactions is not an easy task especially to undergraduate
pharmacy students, and is considered one of the major challenges of teaching
medicinal chemistry (Tavares et al., 2017). Students’ usually do not correlate the
importance of the interactions at the molecular level to the therapeutic effect of
the drug (Venkataraman, 2009). Visualizing the drug bound to its active site and
correlating its specific binding interactions to activity has been previously shown
to improve students learning experience (Kurup & Sakharkar, 2019; Tavares et al.,
2017).
1.1. 3D Visualizations of Macromolecular Systems

The recent improvements in experimental macromolecular structure
determination provided increased information available about structural biology,
which resulted in an increment accumulation of information about drug and/or
natural substrates binding sites, and protein function (O'Donoghue et al., 2010).
Studying the different types of drug-target interactions is necessary for
understanding the biological effect of the drugs and is becoming increasingly
important in the drug design process. (Günther, Boto, Contreras-Garcia,
Piquemal, & Tierny, 2014). 3D Visualization is the essential tool required to study
these systems. The visual inspection of different macromolecular systems is now
more accessible than ever with the availability of a wide range of advanced
software tools (Olson, 2018). The different software platforms and the increased
computer power have allowed the scientists to visualize, study, understand
complex structures (Chavent et al., 2011).
Drug design is becoming an increasingly important aspect of medicinal chemistry
(Anderson, 2012). Taking advantage of the available information and the
functionalities imbedded in different software more (CADD) techniques has been
172
used in the search of new drugs (Ferreira et al., 2015). Many software that exhibit
imperative tools are available and used in the different phases of drug design
process. A license is required to use the full functionalities of molecular modeling
software; however, many software developers have a visualization interface
freely available for academic use. Moreover, the new generation of students have
increased affinity for technology that should be considered when developing new
teaching methods.
2. Methods
3D visualization software was introduced as a teaching tool in the medicinal
chemistry course lectures. The main aim of this newly adapted method is to
increase students understanding of the molecular basis of drug action, and hence
acquiring a better correlation between drugs’ chemistry, and the therapeutic
outcome.
2.1. 3D Visualization Teaching Tools

3D visualization tools have been shown to improve students’ learning in
medicinal chemistry (Ferk, Vrtacnik, Blejec, & Gril, 2003; Hayes, 2014). By moving
from the traditional methods of teaching the molecular basis of drug action using
two-dimensional (2D) structure activity relationship (SAR), students were getting
better understanding of the drug effect and the influence of any changes in the
chemical structure on activity, and hence, on the therapeutic outcome.
The work described herein focus on the use of 3D visualization in teaching the
medicinal chemistry course. The improvement in teaching methods started by the
use of the 3D software only to show the students the ligand bound within its
binding site. Further improvements in the course has seen an increase in
information extracted from the 3D protein structure to include: protein structure
and function, binding site features, ligand 3D shape, ligand-target interactions,
and functional groups of the ligand and target.
2.2. Active-learning Examples

The following active-learning examples are extracted from medicinal chemistry
course teaching tools. The “discovery studio visualizer software”(Dassault
Systèmes BIOVIA) was used to prepare structures downloaded from the protein
data bank PDB (Berman et al., 2000), to suite the learning objective for each topic.
Depending on the type of information available in the macromolecule file, it was
used to understand and predict:
• The molecular basis of drug action
• The nature of the ligand-target complex
• Intermolecular interactions, and/or
• SAR principles
β-lactam Antibiotics
Peptidoglycan layer in the bacterial cell wall is essential for cell survival under
normal conditions. The enzyme involved in peptidoglycan synthesis is penicillin-
binding protein (PBP). This enzyme catalyzes the final stages of bacterial cell wall
biosynthesis to preserve cell integrity. β-lactam antibiotics function by inhibiting
173
PBP that result in the inhibition of peptidoglycan synthesis leading to cell rupture
and bacterial death (Nicola, Tomberg, Pratt, Nicholas, & Davies, 2010).
For a compound to bind to any active site, the functional groups and chemistry of
this compound should complement those of the active site. Furthermore, the size
of the molecule is controlled by the available volume of this binding site. Β-lactam
antibiotics are structural analogues of the D-Ala-D-Ala moiety present on
peptidoglycan precursors. The PBP active site accommodates both substrates,
Figure 1 is shown to students and they are asked to find similarities and
differences between the two structures, most students would recognize the
resemblances in the 3D shape in general, and the presence of carboxylic acid
groups, and amide bonds (lactam ring in the antibiotic). This would establish the
similarities that should be observed between the natural substrate and drug in
general, β-lactam antibiotics in this example.
Acyl-D-Ala-D-Ala Penicillin
Figure 1: Structural similarity between Acyl-D-Ala-D-Ala and penicillin
A serine residue in the PBP binding site is responsible for the enzyme’s activity,
this residue undergoes nucleophilic attack on the carbonyl carbon of the β-lactam
ring or of the penultimate D-Ala of the pentapeptide substrate to form a covalent
acylenzyme complex (Figure 2) (Beadle, Nicholas, & Shoichet, 2001). The bicyclic
system ring system is very stained which result in the high susceptibility of the
ring’s carbonyl group to nucleophilic attack. The relief of this strain after
enzymatic β-lactam bond cleavage result in covalent bond formation and the
opening of the β-lactam ring (Figure 2) (Lemke & Williams, 2007). The acylenzyme
complex formed is structurally different from the hydrolysis intermediate and the
enzyme’s active site becomes unavailable to react with its peptide substrate,
blocking further catalytic activity.
Cloxacillin
PBP PBP
Figure 2: Mechanism of action of β-lactam antibiotics. Cloxacillin binding to the
penicillin binding protein (PBP) active site
174
The 2D mechanism of action shown in Figure 2 is confirmed by studying the 3D

structure of cloxacillin bound to PBP from Escherichia coli (Figure 3, PDB code:
3MZD (Nicola et al., 2010)). The binding interactions are shown to the students,
an electrostatic interaction is observed between the carboxylic acid group and a
basic amino acid (Arg248) in the PBP active site (Kishida et al., 2006; Nicola et al.,
2010). This interaction will place the β-lactam ring in a position optimum for the
nucleophilic attack by the serine residue (Ser44) resulting in covalent bond
formation and ring opening. From the interactions formed in the PBP binding site,
students can conclude the essential groups for the SAR of β-lactam antibiotics: a
free carboxylic acid residue, intact β-lactam ring, optimum distance between the
carboxylic group and the ring, and acylamino side chain.
Ser44 Arg248
Covalent
Bond
Electrostatic
Interaction
π-π
Figure 3. 3D crystal structure of cloxacillin in the PBP binding site (PDB code:
3MZD,(Nicola et al., 2010)). A) Cloxacillin interactions showing the covalent bond
with Ser44, and electrostatic interactions with Arg248. B) 2D binding interactions. Not
all interactions are shown, and hydrogens were removed for simplicity
Mineralocorticoid Receptor Agonists and Antagonists

Mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) is a steroid hormone-regulated receptor found
in the distal nephron of the kidney, colon, and many tissues, including the brain
and heart. MR regulates fluid and electrolyte (primarily sodium and potassium
175
ions) levels in the body and have a large influence on blood pressure.(Hasui et al.,
2011) Aldosterone (Aldo, Figure 4), the primary natural ligand for MR, is reported
to be synthesized in the heart, and blood vessels. Elevated levels of aldosterone
are associated with the development of congestive heart failure, renal
dysfunction, and hypertension (Vecchio, Procaccio, Viganò, & Cusi, 2007). MR
antagonists, such as spironolactone (Figure 4) show antihypertensive effects in
patients with essential hypertension and can be used in heart failure therapy (Pitt
et al., 2003; Struthers, Krum, & Williams, 2008).
Aldosterone Spironolactone
Figure 4: Chemical structures of aldosterone and spironolactone
Upon Aldo binding to the MR structural changes occurs in the receptor leading to
its activation, a correct positioning of the agonist within the binding site is
essential for activity. Conversely, once MR antagonists bind to the same binding
site they would prevent MR from adopting the active conformation thus
inhibiting the receptor (Bledsoe et al., 2005). In this lecture students are shown
Figure 5 for the superimposition of MR in complex with Aldo (PDB code:
2AA2,(Bledsoe et al., 2005)) and spironolactone (PDB code: 2AB2,(Bledsoe et al.,
2005)). The differences between the agonist and antagonist bound receptor (i.e.
active and inactive receptor) forms are explained and related to their different
therapeutic effects.
Figure 5: The superimposition of mineralocorticoid receptors in complex with

aldosterone in line ribbon (PDB code: 2aa2,(Bledsoe et al., 2005)) and spironolactone
in solid ribbon (PDB code: 2ab2,(Bledsoe et al., 2005)). The two ligands are bound in
the same binding site; structures of the ligands are shown in CPK
176
To further explore the difference in the chemistry of the two compounds that
would make such difference in the conformation of the receptor, Aldo and
spironolactone binding within the MR binding site were studied. The role of the
C3 keto group in the binding of Aldo, and other steroids, within the receptor
binding site have been established (Kauppi et al., 2003). Spironolactone is
characterized by a C17 γ-lactone ring which is characteristic to MR antagonist and,
in contrast to Aldo, spironolactone has C7 thioester group. Mutation studies
showed that the amino acid methionine (Met852) plays an important in MR
activation, interaction of unsubstituted C7 in the MR agonists with Met852 is
essential for the receptor to accommodate the agonist, and to acquire its active
state. On the other hand, the steric hindrance of the C7 substation in competitive
MR antagonists prevents the receptor from reaching the active form thus result in
receptor inhibition (Fagart, Seguin, Pinon, & Rafestin-Oblin, 2005). Figure 6 shows
the binding positions of Aldo and spironolactone in the MR active site with
respect to Met852. Accordingly, students develop better understanding of the
chemistry of MR antagonists from the interactions observed at the molecular.
A B
Met852 Met852
Figure 6: The ligand binding within mineralocorticoid receptor active site showing
the amino acid methionine 852 (Met852). A) Aldosterone (PDB code: 2aa2,(Bledsoe et
al., 2005)), and B) spironolactone (PDB code: 2ab2,(Bledsoe et al., 2005))
Cisplatin
Cisplatin, cis-diamminedichloroplatinum (II), is a chemotherapeutic drug used for
the treatment of different human cancers including bladder, head and neck, lung,
ovarian, and testicular cancers (Dasari & Tchounwou, 2014). Cisplatin crosslinks
with the DNA purine bases, thus interfering with the DNA repair mechanism
resulting in DNA damage leading to apoptosis of cancer cells.
Cisplatin, and other organoplatinum anticancer agents on the market, are
platinum (PtII) complexes with square planar geometry (Figure 7). The net charge
177
of the organometallic complex is zero despite the Pt electron deficiency due to the
electron-donating effect of chloride. For cisplatin to interact with DNA, the
electron-donating chlorides are displaced through nucleophilic attack by cellular
water to generate the active hydrated form with a net positive charge that makes
it susceptible to nucleophilic attack by DNA bases (Figure 7).
2 2
DNA
Cisplati Cisplatin diaquo form Cisplatin Cross-linked
(Active) DNA
Figure 7: Activation of cisplatin and cross linking of the active form with DNA strand.
Nucleophilic attack of N7 of the DNA guanine base on positively charged platinum
and the formation of covalent bonds
The two ammine (N7) groups bind irreversibly to the Pt atom and the DNA bases
become fixed to the compound in its cis configuration (Figure 8). Once bound to
the DNA strand it blocks the H-bond interactions between the DNA strands and
therefore hinders the repair mechanism resulting in cell death (Ohndorf, Rould,
He, Pabo, & Lippard, 1999)
The students gain better understanding of the need for cisplatin activation to the
positively charged molecule that can be readily attacked by nucleophilic DNA
bases (Figure 7). The orientation of the organometallic compound requires the cis-
isomer to be able to bind to the DNA strand in the right orientation (Figure 8).
DNA
H-Bond
Pt
DNA
Figure 8: The 3D structure of cisplatin bound to DNA strand preventing H-bond

formation between the two DNA strands (PDB code: 1ckt,(Ohndorf et al., 1999))
178
Topoisomerase Inhibitors
Topoisomerases are enzymes that control the degree of DNA supercoiling. These
enzymes can be found in all cell types, and are essential for cell survival (Bates &
Maxwell, 2005). Topoisomerases relax the supercoiled DNA strands during DNA
replication and transcription to RNA. Due to their important mechanism of action,
topoisomerases are key drug targets both for antibacterial and anticancer
chemotherapy (Pommier, Leo, Zhang, & Marchand, 2010).
There are two types of topoisomerases: topoisomerase I (TopI) that cuts and
religates a single DNA strand, and topoisomerase II (TopII) that catalyze the
cleavage of double-stranded DNA (Bates & Maxwell, 2005). Anticancer drugs
target different topoisomerase subtypes; for example camptothecins act on the
eukaryotic TopIB topoisomerases (Venditto & Simanek, 2010), while human
TopIIA are the targets of etoposide, anthracyclines (doxorubicin, daunorubicin),
and mitoxantrone (Hevener, Verstak, Lutat, Riggsbee, & Mooney, 2018). On the
other hand, TopII, DNA-gyrase, and topoisomerase IV, are found in all bacteria
and are the targets of quinolone antibiotics. Humans TopIIA, an analogous
enzyme to DNA-gyrase, does not bind quinolones at normal antibiotic
concentration and thus maintain the selectivity to bacteria over host cells (Drlica
& Zhao, 1997).
All topoisomerase enzyme inhibitors stabilize the topoisomerase‐DNA complexes
and hinder DNA religation step, leaving damaged DNA strands that are unable
to replicate and, thus trigger cell death. The students are shown the interaction of
the anticancer drug, etoposide, in human topoisomerase (TopIIB) in complex with
DNA (PDB code: 3QX3,(Wu et al., 2011), Figure 9A), and of the antibacterial,
ciprofloxacin, in the DNA-gyrase binding site (PDB code: 5BTC,(Blower,
Williamson, Kerns, & Berger, 2016), Figure 9B). Students develop better
understanding of the molecular mechanism of topoisomerase inhibition as they
observe the chemotherapeutic agents interacting with the DNA and the enzyme,
and blocking the DNA strand.
A B
Figure 9: The interaction of: A) etoposide, in human topoisomerase (TopIIB)-DNA

complex (PDB code: 3QX3,(Wu et al., 2011)), and B) ciprofloxacin in the DNA-gyrase
binding site (PDB code:5BTC,(Blower et al., 2016)). Ligands are shown in CPK
179
2.3. Macromolecular Drug Targets Assignment

Computer aided drug design (CADD) techniques have played a major role in the
development and optimization of novel bioactive compounds over the last three
decades. CADD methods includes: ligand docking, molecular modeling,
structure-based drug design, virtual screening, quantitative structure activity
relationship (QSAR), and computational chemistry.
Although in medicinal chemistry, CADD are now considered routine approaches,
there are still deficiency in teaching these fundamental concepts to undergraduate
pharmacy students (Carvalho, Borges, & Bernardes, 2005). The dramatic increase
in the number of biological macromolecular crystal structures elucidated and
deposited in the PDB (Berman et al., 2000) has facilitated the CADD process.
The “macromolecular drug targets assignment” was added to the course in order
to allow the students to have practical experience using new in silico techniques.
The use of advanced software can be troublesome even for postgraduate students
and researchers. With the introduction of the assignment to the course, we were
faced with the challenge of training large numbers of students on using the 3D
interface especially since students were not exposed to the use of modelling
software. As a result, a comprehensive step-by-step manual (Appendix 1, can be
used after the permission of the author) was made available to students that
included an introduction into the PDB, and the 3D visualization software, as well
as to figures showing all the steps required for use of the software effectively.
Training sessions on the use of PDB and the software were held, students were
offered a one to one help on how to deal with any problem in their work. Copies
of the “discovery studio visualizer, 2017 R2”(Dassault Systèmes BIOVIA)
software were installed in the all computers in the pharmacy building computer
laboratory, and the software has been made available for students to download to
their personal computers.
Each student group was asked to select a target, of their interest, from the PDB.
At the end of the course, students are expected to report a complete description of
the bonds formed between the drug and the binding site amino acid residues, the
changes on the structure that are expected to affect activity, and to determine SAR
from the bound drug conformation.
2.4. Survey
Survey statements were designed to assess the student feedback after the
incorporation of the 3D visualization software as part of the teaching methods of
medicinal chemistry course, in addition to evaluating their perspective on their
experience using the software.
The survey was developed based upon initial positive feedback from many
students’ in the lectures to measure the level of the effect of using the new tools.
In addition, we aimed at measuring students’ experience in using the 3D software,
it was not surprising that in the training sessions most of the students showed
some discomfort and some showed their discontent. This was expected, as it was
their first exposure to a very new and even no easy subject.
There were 23 statements, as listed in Table 1, that evaluated students in a three-
point Likert scale using ‘agree’ to ‘disagree’ where answer ‘3’ was considered
180
neutral. Since no previous studies were reported on the topic, the questionnaire
has been developed based on perceptions of students throughout the course, and
the help given to students in their assignments. At the end of the course and after
presenting their assignments, students completed the survey anonymously.
All medicinal chemistry students at the end of six semesters after implementing
the new tools were asked to fill in the questionnaire. Students had full freedman
to refuse to participate in the study, and no incentives were offered to them.
However, students were encouraged, and some were inspired, by the fact that
finding of this survey will be taken seriously and, in the future, will help improve
the medicinal chemistry course.
The average number of students in the medicinal chemistry course is 130 student
per semester. From a total of around 780 students, the questionnaire was
answered by 270 students. A sample size of 258 was needed to find sense in our
study at a confidence level of 95% with a margin of error of 5%. The sample was
diverse, as students responding to the survey were with a range of GPAs.
2.5. Student Performance

Students’ performance was measured using students’ marks in the different
assessments, such as quizzes and exams; end of semester course evaluation
questioner; and the course intended learning outcomes (ILOs) achievement.
Marks for the questions covering topics where 3D examples were used were
compared to the marks of questions of the lectures that only depended on
conventional 2D SAR explanation.
Table 1: Results of Medicinal Chemistry Course Evaluation Survey
Student Response: N: 270 (%)

Question
Agree Neutral Disagree
The following questions are about the medicinal chemistry course:

The layout of the course is suitable 183 (67.7%) 24 (9.0%) 63 (23.3%)
The course increased your interest in medicinal 92 (34.1%) 130 (48.1%) 48 (17.8%)
chemistry
The course increases your ability to identify functional 260 (96.3%) 3 (1.1%) 7 (2.6%)
groups important for drug activity
The course improved your critical thinking and problem- 176 (65.2%) 39 (14.4%) 55 (20.4%)
solving skills
The knowledge gained from this course will be help me 263 (97.4%) 6 (2.2%) 1 (0.4%)
relate the chemistry of the drug to its pharmacological
effect
The examples covered in the lectures were relevant to 264 (97.8%) 6 (2.2%) 0 (0.0%)
other courses in the Pharmacy curriculum
The course helped you understand some concepts 201 (74.4%) 8 (3.0%) 61 (22.6%)
covered in other courses in the Pharmacy degree
curriculum
181
The following questions are about the 3D tools used in the lectures:
Before I took this course, I knew about RCSB PDB protein 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 270 (100%)
database
Before I took this course, I saw a protein 3D structure 3 (1.1%) 0 (0.0%) 267 (98.9%)
Before I took this course, I knew that computer software 7 (2.6%) 0 (0.0%) 263 (97.4%)
are used in the drug discovery process
3D visualization should be integrated in other medicinal 255 (94.4%) 10 (3.7%) 5 (1.9%)
chemistry courses
3D visualization, where appropriate, should be 263 (97.4%) 0 (0.0%) 7 (2.6%)
integrated in other courses in the Pharmacy curriculum
The following questions are about using the 3D visualization software in the assignment:
It was easy to learn how to use the 3D software 43 (15.9%) 80 (29.6%) 147 (54.4%)
The training on using the software was a good start to 269 (99.6%) 1 (0.4%) 0 (0.0%)
using the software
The one to one help from the lecturer was helpful in 167 (61.9%) 103 (38.1%) 0 (0.0%)
facing issues of using the software.
Having the software installed in the Pharmacy computer 262 (97.0%) 8 (3.0%) 0 (0.0%)
Lab./ home computer improved your 3D software use
experience
The use of 3D software has helped you better understand 198 (73.3%) 20 (7.4%) 52 (19.2%)
the structural elements of macromolecules
the drug-target interactions within the binding site
SAR of drugs
You enjoyed using 3D visualization software 97 (35.9%) 122 (45.2%) 51 (18.9%)
You feel that you are now familiar with the 244 (90.3%) 0 (0.0%) 26 (9.6%)
developments of drug design techniques
At the end of the assignment your viewpoint about using 203 (75.2%) 16 (5.9%) 51 (18.9%)
the 3D software was more positive than at the begging
3. Results
The results of the survey, Table 1, showed that more than half the students were
satisfied with the course layout. The new methods appeared to increase the
popularity of the medicinal chemistry course for some students, although the
majority were neutral in this regard.
Some of the students verbally expressed their increased interest in the topic and
some are now considering the topics of medicinal chemistry and drug design for
their future postgraduate studies.
One of our best achievements was the unanimous answer that the course has
increased the students’ ability to identify functional groups important for drug
activity. During the lectures, when asked about the importance of any functional
group, students answered that it is important for activity and “it should be there”.
The different examples stressed that any essential functional groups present in the
182
drug is important for the drug action and any changes in the drug structure would
have a great impact on its activity.
According to students’ responses, 65% found that the course improved their
critical thinking and problem solving skills. However, other more detailed tools
may be used in the future to measure the effect of the new changes on students’
abilities.
The majority of students found that medicinal chemistry was helpful while
studying other pharmacy courses. For a student to be able to relate information of
the chemical structure to the drug action was one of the driving forces to improve
the course teaching methods.
Most students, prior to this course, had no familiarity with RCSB PDB protein
database nor the availability of 3D tools and their utility in the drug design
process. For most of them, it was the first time they have seen a protein 3D
structure and were able to relate it to the information they studied in the
biochemistry courses. Later in the course, they started to relate different concepts
they learned in medicinal chemistry to the pharmacology courses. This have
influenced them to want to have 3D visualization integrated in other medicinal
chemistry and pharmacy courses.
As expected, most students did not find it easy to use the software. However, the
training, one to one help offered, and availability of the software on university
computer labs and on their personal computers have improved their experience.
The main aim of the macromolecular drug targets assignment” was to allow
students to have practical experience in using new in silico techniques. The
difficulty students faced using the software was expected especially that this was
the first time they are using any drug design tool. Although most students did
not enjoy using the software, it helped most of them to better understand the
drug-target interactions within the binding site and SAR of drugs, and improved
their view of the assignment once completed.
Adding to the survey results students’ performance was shown to improve
progressively in each semester. More correct answers were observed in questions
of the 3D explained topics. In general, as more examples were added to the course
material, we observed an increase in the overall students’ marks in the different
assessments. An improvement was also reported in the end of semester course
evaluation questioner; and the course intended learning outcomes (ILOs)
achievement values.
4. Discussion
One of the major challenges facing medicinal chemistry lecturers is to find a
suitable teaching method to make the understanding of molecular aspects of
drug-target interactions easier to undergraduate pharmacy students (Tavares et
al., 2017). The incorporation of new teaching tools to medicinal chemistry courses
have been shown to increase the students understanding, and interest in the
course (Kurup & Sakharkar, 2019).
Using computational techniques to visualize 3D structures has been found
successful in helping students understand the basics of macromolecules structure
183
and function (Abreu, Carvalho, Rabelo, & Castro, 2019). Furthermore, the
transition to use 3D models and visualization tools to study these structures was
fundamental to increase the students understanding of drug-target interactions
(Cooper & Oliver-Hoyo, 2017).
The incorporation of laboratory experiments that aimed at teaching students the
basic techniques of drug design has been found to increase the students’
awareness of the roles of pharmacists in the drug design process.(Szarecka &
Dobson, 2019; Tantillo et al., 2019).
The development of the methods used in teaching medicinal chemistry is
becoming necessary, now more than ever. In the examples presented in this work,
the molecular basis of drug action was introduced to students. The functional
groups and the 3D requirements for binding any drug within its target active site
were clearly detected by the students while discussing the bound conformation of
the drug in the 3D interface. The different types of bonds formed between the
drug and the binding amino acids were discussed. The changes of drug affinity,
as reflected by the type of bonds formed, was made clearer to them. Students were
able to identify the drug’s functional group types and their position required for
activity. The effect of the differences in strength between reversible and
irreversible bonds to drug activity, side effects, and duration of action was
experienced firsthand by students. The comparison between the majority of drugs
in the market, that are involved in the weaker reversible interactions, to those of
drugs with covalent bonds confirmed what students observed in the 3D structure.
By comparing the structural features of agonists and antagonists and the effects
observed in the overall 3D conformation of the receptor, students were able to
differentiate the different SAR parameters required for the agonists and
antagonists action at the molecular and effect levels. As we moved from
traditional teaching and with the start of using the 3D visualization software,
many students were overwhelmed by the experience, and most importantly, they
were surprised to know of the availability of such technology.
The survey distributed at the end of the course has helped to obtain the students
insight and perspective on the newly used teaching methods and the assignment.
The success of using these newer methods had created a more interactive
classroom environment. Most of the student, if not all, were interested in
visualizing and discussing the 3D structure presented to them. A very positive
response was reported, as well as an increase in marks of the students and in
different course assessments. As expected most students found it hard to learn to
use the software, but most agreed that the training offered was a good start. The
one to one help was offered to all students, however, in all six semesters, not all
students would seek such help. Students views about the assignment were
generally positive once they became familiar with the fundamental tool of drug
design process.
Adding to the survey results students’ performance was shown to improve
progressively in each semester. As expected students performance was better
when answering questions covering topics where 3D examples were presented.
In general, as more examples were added to the course material, we observed an
increase in the students’ marks in the different in class activities, such as quizzes
184
and exams; end of semester course evaluation questioner; and achievement of the
course intended learning outcomes (ILOs). Using 3D protein visualization tools in
lectures has improved students understanding of medicinal chemistry and other
pharmacy curriculum topics. In addition, many students indicated that they want
more advanced tools to be used in different courses in the pharmacy curriculum.
5. Conclusion
The use of 3D visualization tools in teaching undergraduate medicinal chemistry
has been shown to be a very valuable tool. A large positive outcome in students’
understanding of the subject has been reported. Although the free interface of
“Discovery Studio Visualizer” software lacked any advanced modelling tools, it
was sufficient to reach our teaching objective. However, many online tools are
freely available for use, and can be used for teaching and/or research. It comes as
no surprise that most students faced some difficulties when they started using the
software, especially that they were not previously exposed to 3D macromolecular
structures nor to any visualization tool.
The medicinal chemistry course is usually perceived as difficult, hard to
comprehend, and clinically irrelevant to pharmacy students. With the new tools,
students gained a better understanding of the molecular basis of drug action and
were able to understand, rather than just memorize, the SAR. In addition, the
assignment has helped to integrate their chemistry knowledge to the other
Pharmacy curriculum topics. In addition, some students showed increased in
CADD.
6. Compliances with the Ethical Standards

Conflict of Interest: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
The article is the authors' original work, has not received prior publication and is
not under consideration for publication elsewhere.
Research involving Human participants, but the ethical standards are followed.
The Permission Note has been received to use any material in the manuscript
such as figures etc. which is not original content.
7. Acknowledgments
The author wishes to thank the developers for the free software that was described
in this work. In addition, the author thanks all the scientists who put their time
and effort on the identification, purification, and crystallization of
macromolecules deposited to the Protein Data Bank, without whom this work and
our efforts to improve the students’ learning experience would be impossible.
185
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Appendix 1
Medicinal Chemistry
Macromolecular Drug Targets

Assignment
Dr. Heba Abdel-Halim
Faculty of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences

University of Petra
1
Medicinal Chemistry
Macromolecular Drug Targets Assignment
Introduction
The maintenance of life largely depends on the appropriate functioning of a range of macromolecular
biopolymers that includes structural proteins, enzymes, receptor proteins and nucleic acids (DNA and
RNA). These biomolecules particularly play an important role in the transfer of information between
and within cells (signal transduction) that is essential for the coordinated functioning of the whole
organism. A general mechanism for signal transduction involves the binding of a small molecul e
(ligand) to a macromolecular partner (receptor). This binding triggers a change in the 3-dimensional
(3D) shape (conformation) of the receptor that leads to a specific biological effect. Examples of this
type of system include the interaction of a hormone with its receptor and antigens with T-cell
receptors. The binding interaction between a ligand and its receptor is required to form a tight and
specific association in order for the induced biological effect to be controlled effectively. As these
conditions require the receptor and ligand to be able to specifically recognize each other, the whole
process of ligand binding to a receptor is termed “molecular recognition”.1
Generally, when a ligand binds to its receptor no chemical bonds are formed and the binding is
described as being non-covalent in nature. The strength and specificity of the interaction then
depends on the accumulation of a large number of weak interactions such as hydrogen bonds, va n der
Waals and charge-charge attractions. The strength of these interactions depends on the structural
complementarity existing between the ligand and its binding site. The original structural binding
model for this interaction was proposed by Fischer in the latter part of the 19 th century and described
the ligand as a key being inserted into the macromolecular lock. This model for the interaction of a
ligand and its receptor is still applicable today with the added refinement that both the ligand and the
macromolecule are flexible in nature and so have some ability to mold to the structural features of
the binding partner. This type of interaction is termed “induced fit” and is the currently most accepted
model for the interaction of a ligand and its receptor.2
In recent times dramatic advances have been made in the structural characterization of both ligands
and macromolecules and the structure of their complex. Experimental techniques such as nuclear
magnetic resonance spectroscopy and x-ray crystallography have been developed to the point that
determination of structures of complex biomolecules can be determined often in a matter of weeks.
Additionally increases in computational power have allowed the development of powerful software
capable of both developing model structures of macromolecular receptors and the graphical display
of these structures on computer terminals. To facilitate the distribution of structural information
regarding biopolymers international data bases have been developed to provide structure coordinate
files for free download via the internet. The largest of these is the Protein Data Bank (PDB) that is
operated through a number of mirror sites worldwide. The growth in structural information is
exemplified by the growth in the number of structures deposited in the PDB with the first structure
deposited in 1976 and by July 2019 greater than 154015 biological macromolecular structures are
currently available for download.3
2
Macromolecular Biopolymer Structure
Macromolecular biopolymers fall primarily into 3 categories; proteins, nucleic acids or
carbohydrates. Like all polymers each of these molecules consists of a long sequence of covalently
linked monomeric units. For proteins these monomeric units are amino acids while for DNA and
RNA they are nucleotide base units and for carbohydrates the monomers are sugars. For each
biopolymer the monomeric units are linked together by specific covalent bonds: in proteins these are
the peptide bonds and the full protein is also known as a polypeptide chain. This leads to the first
structural characterization of biopolymers known as their primary structure. Primary structure is the
linear sequence of monomeric units that make up the biopolymer thus for a protein the primary
structure is the specific sequence of amino acids that constitute the polypeptide chain. Generally the
primary sequence for the biopolymer is determined by sequential chemical degradation of the
molecule followed by chemical analysis to identify the removed monomeric unit. So for a protein
this constitutes sequential hydrolysis of the peptide bonds along the protein chain and chemical
analysis to identify which of the 20 naturally occurring amino acids has been removed. Biopolymers
on the other hand have various energetic forces that result in the molecules adopting an overall
specific 3D shape (tertiary structure). These shapes are generally made up from collections of what
is known as secondary structural elements including α-helices and β-sheets. A number of ways to
depict the secondary structure elements exist when visualizing the protein structure.1
Macromolecules Ligand Binding

Ligand (natural substrates or drug molecules) binding by macromolecules are critical both to the
healthy functioning of the human body and the therapeutic and toxic effects of drugs. The principles
that control ligand binding by biological receptors are known as molecular recognition and depend
critically on general complementarity in shape and chemical properties such as charge between the
small molecule and the ligand binding site on the macromolecule.2
Research Project
This research project will use 3D visualization software to examine the structure of a macromolecular
receptor molecule and the interaction of this receptor with specific ligand, which may be a natural
compound or drug molecule.
Your results will be submitted in the forms:
1. Figure file sent by email.
2. Poster:
Poster should be written in a scientific language and includes:
I. Introduction: the implications of the macromolecule in health and/or disease states and
the effect of the ligand binding on the protein.
II. Discussion should include figures showing all interactions of ligand. Student should not
copy material from reference sources including web sites and journal articles without
proper referencing.
Software Used:
 Discovery Studio Visualizer, 2017 R2.4
Software is installed in all Faculty of Pharmacy computer lab and a copy is available for students to
install to their personal computers.
3
Assignment Guide
Visualization of receptor alone and in complex with the ligand molecule to examine overall structural features of the receptor, specific structural basis
for interaction between the receptor and the bound molecule.
1. Search and select protein structure:
1.1 Visit the webpage: www.rcsb.org

1.2 Search for target.
1.3 Select target and click to open webpage.
4
2. Target page:
2.1 Visit the target webpage.
2.2 Download the target file.
5
3. Small ligands information
Different small molecules and ligands crystalized within the different protein binding sites are listed on the webpage:
6
4. Open the *.pdb file using DS Visualizer 2.0 (Accelrys ®):
4.1 On the left panel you can select amino acids, water or ligand: Use “Ctrl” and H to show the left panel.
4.2 Similar ligand codes found on this list and on the webpage.
4.3 Protein or ligand can be selected by left mouse click. Use “Ctrl” to select more than one entry.
Selected items will be highlighted in yellow.
7
5. Working with the protein structure:
5.1 Display Style: change display preferences and background.
5.2 T rotate and move the protein molecule.
6. Receptor - ligand interactions:

6.1 Add hydrogens to the Protein and Ligand
8
6.2 Select the ligand form the left panel.
6.3 Define the ligand by clicking Define Ligand.
6.4 Show the ligand interactions from Show 2D Diagram.
11
9
6.5 Record residue names and numbers involved in interactions with the receptor:
7. Reporting the results:

Reported results should include:
a) Amino acids involved in ligand binding
b) Figures for the ligand interactions.
c) Figures can be saved as images:
8. Poster:
8.1 Assignment poster should be:
a) written in a scientific language
b) follow the format of a journal article:
Introduction, Results, Discussion, Conclusion, and References.
c) discussion should include figures for the secondary structural elements of the studied protein,
and the different ligand interactions
d) proper referencing of information, diagrams, and figures.
10
References:
1. Harvey, R. A. P. D., Lippincott Illustrated reviews: Biochemistry. Fifth edition. Philadelphia : Wolters
Kluwer Health, : 2011.
2. Metz, G.; Ottleben, H.; Vetter, D., Protein-Ligand Interactions: From Molecular Recognition to Drug
Design. 2005; Vol. 19.
3. Berman, H. M.; Westbrook, J.; Feng, Z.; Gilliland, G.; Bhat, T. N.; Weissig, H.; Shindyalov, I. N.;
Bourne, P. E., The Protein Data Bank. Nucleic Acids Res 2000, 28, 235–242.
4. Dassault Systèmes BIOVIA, BIOVIA Discovery Studio Visualizer. Release 2017 R2, San Diego:
Dassault Systèmes, 2017.
11
188

Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 188-205, April 2020
Probing the Differences Caused by Cognitive

Variables on LET Performance:
An Embedded Mixed Method Study
Michael B. Cahapay
College of Education, Mindanao State University,
Fatima, General Santos City, South Cotabato, Philippines
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0588-0022
Abstract. The purpose of this study is to probe the differences caused by

selected cognitive variables such as entrance test scores (ETS) and grade
point average (GPA) on the performance of the graduates in the
Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET). It entailed a causal-
comparative embedded mixed method research design. The study
followed a cohort of 42 purposively sampled graduates of Bachelor of
Elementary Education (BEEd), College of Education (CoEd), Mindanao
State University (MSU), General Santos City (GSC). Descriptive statistics
and inferential statistics were used to determine the differences in the
LET performance when grouped according to arbitrary categories of the
cognitive variables. A presentation of case narratives and thematic
analysis was further used to explore the significant differences. The
result disclosed that the ETS of the graduates grouped as passed and
conditional cause a significant difference in the LET performance. It
further uncovered that the GPA of the graduates grouped as high,
average, and low causes a significant difference in the LET performance.
The qualitative probes revealed themes such as access to review
materials, metacognitive strategies, motivational experiences, and
efficacy to succeed. These themes provide explanatory context to the
differences in the performance of the graduates in the LET. The
implications are further discussed in the study.
Keywords: entrance test scores; grade point average; Licensure

Examination for Teachers; embedded mixed method
1. Introduction
The expectation of a high passing rate in the teacher licensure examination
intends to ensure a base of competence for public protection (Pitter, Lanham, &
McGalliard 1997). It also holds teacher education institutions accountable for
their programs (Knowles, Plake, Robinson, & Mitchell, 2001). Thus, success in
the teacher licensure examination serves two purposes. It does not only indicate
that the person holding the license possesses the entry capacity to perform the
©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

189
duties covered by professional teaching, but also confirm the quality of a teacher
education program.
The Republic Act No. 7836, also known as the Philippine Teachers
Professionalization Act of 1994, mandated the promotion, development,
professionalization, supervision, and regulation of the practice of teaching in the
Philippines. Recognizing the significant role of the teachers in the process of
building solid foundations of the nation through education, a primary provision
of the said law is the conduct of the LET. It is a measure to ensure the quality of
the teachers and teacher education institutions in the entire country. Thus,
teacher education graduates are required to pass the licensure examination
before they can be allowed to practice as professional teachers in the field.
A cumulative record of the national passing rates in the LET elementary level
released by the Commission on Higher Education, however, indicates an erratic
trend over the past few years. The national passing rate was documented at
31.18% in 2013. The figure went higher at 35.74% in 2014. However, it did not
drastically improve in the following years with 31.36% in 2015, 30.18% in 2016,
and 26.33% in 2017 respectively. This trend suggests that a large majority of
elementary teacher education institutions in the country produce a considerable
number of graduates who are not qualified to practice in the field after
graduation.
This matter appears to be unique in the BEEd, CoEd, MSU, GSC. The passing
rates for its first-time takers were recorded as follow: 75.91% in 2013; 71.14% in
2014; 68.35% in 2015; 69.51% in 2016; and 78.98% in 2017. While these numbers
signify a performance that is above the national passing rate, the department
administration voiced concern about the annual cohort of graduates below the
passing rate. This cohort can be traced back to some disadvantaged students
admitted to the program (J. Pantao, personal communication, October 24, 2017).
Though differences in the cognitive abilities seem to be the meat of the
department discussions on this issue, there appear to be other covert
perspectives that need to be illuminated.
A vast body of recent scholarly works (e.g. Hegman, Roscoe, & Statler, 2015;
Bennett, Bormann, Lovan, & Cobb, 2016; Rabanal, 2016; Cameron, MacKeigan,
Mitsakakis, & Pugsley, 2017; Huhn & Parrott, 2017; Labastilla, 2017; Meiners &
Rush, 2017; Bellen, Abela, R., & Truya, 2018; Havrilla, Zbegner, & Victor, 2018;
Kume & Horbacewicz, 2018; Wolden, 2018) has continued the tradition of
determining the predictive power of different cognitive variables on the
licensure examination performance of the graduates. However, a closer look at
these studies reveals a scarcity of effort that attempts to further probe the
differences caused by the cognitive variables on the licensure examination
performance.
The present inquiry retrospectively suggests that, when looking at the LET
performance of the graduates, it is important not only to determine the
differences caused by selected cognitive variables such as ETS and GPA. It
should be underscored that performance as a human construct is a combination
of an array of confounding systems and interactions accumulated through time.
Drawing upon the notions of ecological systems (Bronfenbrenner, 1979), this

190
study attempts to address an essential need to explore the themes that

contextually underpin the differences in the licensure examination performance
of the graduates.
Thus, the general purpose of this study is to probe the differences caused by
selected cognitive variables on the LET performance of BEEd graduates. It
specifically answered the following questions:
1. What differences in the LET performance of the passed and conditional
groups are caused by the ETS?
2. What differences in the LET performance of the low, average, and high groups
are caused by the GPA?
3. What themes emerge when the differences in the LET performance are placed
in a broader explanatory context?
The ecological systems theory pioneered by Bronfenbrenner (1979) explores the
biological, emotional, social, and cultural aspects that influence human
development. It calls for the attention of scholars on the process of human
development as being fashioned by the interaction between the individuals and
their environment. This theory posits that interactions, institutions, and systems
have a profound impact on the development of people.
The ecological systems have been likewise used over the years to study human
behavior and performance (e.g. Darling, 2007; Tzeng & Gau, 2012; Culpepper &
Killion, 2016; Rojas-Drummond, 2016; Walker, 2016; Eriksson, Ghazinour, &
Hammarstrom, 2018). The theory has encouraged valid studies in contextual
variations. Thus, it can be redefined in this research to determine the differences
caused by selected cognitive variables and explain the unique themes that
underlie the performance of the graduates.
There is plentiful evidence that proves how admission policies and school
outcomes play a role in the success in the licensure examinations. A review of
relevant researches conducted mostly in the domain of health sciences (Cook,
Engelhard, Landry, & McCallum, 2015; Gresham, Thompson, Luedtke-Hoffman,
& Tietze, 2015; Gullo, McCarthy, Shapiro, & Miller, 2015; Kidder, 2015;
Moniyung, 2015; Ingrassia, 2016; Bayliss, Thomas, & Eifert-Mangine, 2017; Huhn
& Parrott, 2017; Kaddoura, Flint, Van Dyke, Yang, & Chiang, 2017; Meiners &
Rush, 2017; Pelton, 2017; Robi, 2017; Havrilla et al, 2018; Kume & Horbacewicz,
2018; Wolden, 2018; Oducado, Cendaña, & Belo-Delariarte, 2019) reports how
linear combinations of different cognitive outcomes predict the performance of
students in various licensure examinations.
Furthermore, works particularly in the field of teacher education in the
Philippines is likewise replete with predictive validity analyses (Pachejo &
Allaga, 2013; Gerundio & Balagtas, 2014; Hena, Ballado, Dalucapas, Ubane, &
Basierto, 2014; Tarun, Gerardo, & Tanguilig, 2014; Esmeralda & Espinosa, 2015;
Quiambao, Baking, Buenviaje, Nuqui, & Cruz, 2015; Visco, 2015; Mayuga, 2016;
Rabanal, 2016; Rudio, 2016; Dagdag, Sarmiento, Ibale, 2017; Dato-on, Ungui,
Lepon, & Del Rosario, 2017; Labastilla, 2017; Solis-Foronda, 2017; Nool, Ladia,

191
Corpuz, & Embesan, 2017; Bellen et al., 2018). The common result that ETS and
GPA influence LET performance is no longer current.
The present research is related to most of the reviewed studies. It builds on the
relationship between a set of independent cognitive variables and the licensure
examination performance of the students. However, it is also different in a
significant manner. Gaining insights both from the problem in the practice and
the notions of ecological systems, this study extends the discourse to investigate
the unique themes that probe the differences in the licensure examination
performance of the graduates. This aspect has not been well explored in most
researches dealing with the causal power of the different cognitive variables on
the licensure examination performance of the graduates.
3. Method
3.1 Research design
The present work employs an embedded mixed method research design, in
which the embedded nature occurs at the design level. A supportive set of
information in this design is provided to a primary set of information within a
larger research design. (Creswell & Clark, 2011). For example, within the main
correlation framework, the researcher may supplement a narrative strand.
There are initially two known models under this design: correlation and
experimental. The present study is essentially built on these embedded design
models but innovated a causal-comparative design. This main quantitative
framework is embedded with qualitative information gathered through
interviews. This innovation is found to meet the general purpose of this inquiry.
LET
ETS and GPA
Performance Interpretation Based
on the Quantitative
and Qualitative
Results
Themes when differences in LET performance
are placed in broader explanatory context
Figure 1: The embedded mixed method design of the study
3.2 Study sample

This research followed the cohort of students who enrolled and graduated from
the BEEd Department, CoEd, MSU, GSC. There are two specific considerations
for selecting the participants. First, they must have taken the system admission
examination and entered the program in 2012. Second, they must have
graduated from the program by completing all the course requirements to
eventually take the LET in 2016.

192
The population is the best sample for the study which consists of one 134 (100%)
officially graduated students. However, only 102 (76.12%) of them positively
responded to participate. With this initial number at hand, only 42 (31.34%) were
purposefully selected to be included in the final pool of the study sample. The
selection was made by matching student characteristics to equally distribute
them into the groups required in this research.
Moreover, from this final pool, the participants for the interview were selected
by the researcher based on their exceptional cases that can help explain the
differences observed. Four graduates were originally selected with the following
combination of cases: conditional ETS and passed LET; conditional ETS and
failed LET; passed ETS and passed LET; passed ETS and failed LET.
3.3 Research context

The study was conducted in the context of the BEEd Department, an academic
unit that grants a degree for prospective elementary school teachers in the field.
It is under the CoEd of MSU located at Fatima, GSC, South Cotabato,
Philippines. It recently gained attention for garnering most of the top places in
the LET including the first and second places (Estabillo, 2019).
3.4 Data sources

The data for this inquiry were gathered from different sources. First, the
quantitative data were accessed from secondary sources upon permission. The
ETS were retrieved through the online admission database while the GPA was
requested from the college secretary. The ETS deals with four types of tests:
aptitude, math, language, and science. The GPA is based on the weighted mean
of grades from general and professional education courses. On the other hand,
the certified LET ratings were obtained individually from the participants. With
these quantitative data, the researcher assembled a master list that included the
ETS, GPA, and LET ratings of the participants.
Moreover, the qualitative data of this paper were collected from structured
interviews with selected participants. The researcher prepared an interview
guide that contained common procedures and key questions to ensure each
participant experience a consistent interview design. The questions specifically
intended to navigate the experiences of each participant related to ETS, GPA,
and LET rating. The said questions were evaluated by two colleagues of the
researcher and three former students with similar characteristics as the target
participants. It was done to ensure the appropriateness of the questions.
3.5 Ethical considerations

Following the ethical considerations in conducting a study, the participation of
the graduates in this work was initially sought. A formal letter was sent to them
online. It articulated the general purpose of the research, the importance of their
voluntary participation, and data that it will entail. It was also stressed that
confidentiality will be maintained throughout the process.
3.6 Data collection

The researcher followed two main stages of data collection corresponding to the
two sets of data types needed for this study. These stages reflect the embedded

193
nature of the mixed method design innovated specifically for the attainment of
the purpose of this inquiry.
First, the researcher asked permission from the appropriate authorities and
offices to obtain the ETS and GPA of the participants. When all the needed
information has been furnished, the researcher organized them. Then, the data
were computed, analyzed, and interpreted. The quantitative results were used
as bases for framing the focus questions in the second stage.
After the interview tool has been prepared, the researcher arranged schedules
with the identified participants for separate interviews. Each interview lasted on
average between thirty minutes and one hour. The utterances of each participant
were recorded in a master transcript. The data were coded, analyzed, and
interpreted. Then, the qualitative results were structured to explain the
differences uncovered initially in the causal-comparative framework.
3.7 Data analysis

A series of preliminary tests were performed to assess the normality and
homogeneity of the data. This initial process helped the researcher determine the
most suitable statistical tests to apply. Since the groups showed normal
distributions and homogeneous variances, the parametric tests were found to be
appropriate.
The t-test for independent samples was used to determine the difference caused
by the ETS of the graduates grouped into passed and conditional categories. The
test was done at 0.05 level of significance. Furthermore, the researcher carefully
selected and presented interesting narrative cases of the graduates to confirm the
difference caused by the ETS.
On the other hand, ANOVA was performed to answer the difference caused by
the GPA of graduates grouped into low, average, and high. Tukey test further
provided for the identification of the specific differences between the groups. All
tests were done at 0.05 level of significance. Selected narrative cases were also
presented to expound the differences caused by the GPA.
The descriptive statistics provided the mean and standard deviation for each
category. All the tests were performed using SPSS version 17.
Finally, the researcher conducted a thematic analysis. The qualitative data were
examined to discover the contextual insights of the participants about the
differences caused by ETS and GPA on the LET performance. The utterances
were analyzed, then grouped into categories and themes to explain the
differences uncovered in the causal-comparative framework. The theme is the
main product of this data analysis technique (Green et al., 2007).
4. Results
4.1 Differences in LET performance caused by ETS

This study first sought to find out the differences in the LET performance when
the graduates are grouped according to their ETS as passed and conditional. The
results are shown in Table 1.

194
Table 1: LET performance by ETS

ETS 95% CI for
Mean t p df
Passed Conditional Difference
LET
M SD n M SD n
4.02 4.18 0.00* 40
80.17 3.01 21 76.15 3.21 21
The results of the independent samples t-test show that the means of LET
performance are significantly different between the graduates whose ETS is
passed (M = 80.17, SD = 3.01) and conditional (M = 76.17, SD = 3.21); t (40) =
4.18, p = 0.00. It can be inferred from the results that, on average, graduates with
passed ETS performed better in LET than graduates with conditional ETS.
Confirming these quantitative findings with the qualitative probes, however,
results seem to tell otherwise. The narrative case of Participant 1 who got passed
ETS and obtained high LET performance is presented. He reasoned out that:
“My MSU entrance test score, which is a product of my high school

education, did not fully contribute to my LET performance. Even though
the topics in high school and the entrance test were also taught in
college, however, remembering the concepts will not help that much.
You need to have a good understanding of the concept to come up with
the best answer in LET” (Participant 1).
For Participant 1, his ETS is a product of good education during his high school
years. He further cited that his high school experiences prepared him to
remember concepts which are also the skill tested in the entrance test. However,
he made a distinction between the skills tested in the entrance test and the LET,
saying that the entrance test entails remembering while LET needs
understanding. He elaborated that taking the LET requires training in
understanding concepts to be able to correctly answer the problems. Therefore,
for him, ETS and his high school education by extension did not directly
contribute to his LET performance.
On the other hand, Participant 2 got conditional ETS but interestingly passed the
LET with higher rating compared to others who got passed ETS. Participant 2
narrated that:
“Taking the LET is different from taking the entrance test. I got a low
score during the entrance test because I was not able to review due to
being busy having different activities way back in our high school days.
On the other hand, takers in the LET are given ample time of review and
even the CoEd helped through the provision of review materials”
(Participant 2).
Based on the statements of Participant 2, ETS is not an indication of LET

performance. His low score in the entrance test, as he enlightened, was caused
by a lack of preparation before the entrance test, which subsequently resulted in
him obtaining conditional ETS. It can be implied that his ETS is not a reflection

195
of his real performance at that time and he could have gained passed ETS. He
claimed that by the time he would take the LET, he had enough time to prepare
through review. It is interesting to note that he performed in the LET with a
higher score compared to most of those who got passed ETS.
Lastly, Participant 3 got conditional ETS and obtained low LET performance.
She told in the interview that:
“No, because in the LET, my mindset is already different from the

admission examination that I took. I got low scores on my admission
examination because at that time when I took it, our family had a big
problem and it affected my concentration. But now I already have the
confidence that I can pass the LET with faith” (Participant 3).
As can be discerned from the statements of Participant 3, she does not relate her
low ETS to her eventual low LET performance. When she took the entrance test,
she cited personal reasons such as family problems that affected her
concentration, which resulted in her low ETS. This implies that her ETS does not
reflect her ability to perform well in the LET. Although she got a low score in the
LET, she claimed to have later gained knowledge to perform well.
4.2 Differences in LET performance caused by GPA

This study also sought to find out the differences in the LET performance when
the graduates are grouped according to their GPA as high, average, and low
categories. The results are shown in Table 2.
Table 2: LET performance by GPA

GPA Tukey Comparisons
Categories M SD n p High Average
LET High 80.72 2.28 11
Average 78.15 4.00 17 .006* .126
Low 76.15 3.04 14 .004* .228
A one-way ANOVA was conducted to compare the significant difference in the

first time LET performance of graduates grouped according to high, average,
and low GPA categories. The results showed that there is a significant difference
in the LET performance of the graduates for the three categories (p = 0.006).
Tukey test further indicated that the LET performance mean score for graduates
with high GPA (M = 80.72, SD = 2.28) was significantly different from the
students with low GPA (M = 76.15, SD = 3.04), p = 0.004. On the other hand, the
LET performance of the graduates with average GPA (M = 78.15, SD = 4.00) was
not significantly different from graduates with high GPA, p = .126, and
graduates with low GPA, p = .228.
Probing these quantitative findings to the qualitative findings, results
complement each other. For example, Participant 1 stated about GPA that:

196
“My GPA reflects the way our professors urged us to study, asked us
baffling questions, and motivated us to be very critical in every
information or situation given. They taught us to learn things
independently which helped me in the LET because most of the questions
in the LET would measure your decision making in the real scenario or
the actual classroom” (Participant 1).
Participant 1 described that the GPA and its contributory factors helped him
pass the LET. These contributory factors are mostly the ways he was trained
during his college years. He cited these factors as being urged by his professors
to study well, motivated to read beyond what is shown, asked critical questions
that he does not have an idea, and critical in analyzing given situations. These
factors helped him answer the questions in the LET, which according to him,
required a deep understanding and critical thinking about given actual teaching
situations.
Participant 2 likewise supported the result that GPA made a difference. He

detailed his context that:
“The main factor that helped me or challenged me to obtain a good GPA

and to pass all of my subjects during my college years in MSU is that
my other siblings are all MSU graduates and all of them are
professionals. It challenged me in a way that I should also graduate. I
cannot find a great school to which I only pay 3000 pesos in a semester. I
might as well give justice to what I pay and have a good GPA. Yes, GPA
made a difference in my performance in the LET” (Participant 2).
For Participant 2, GPA is an indicator of passing the LET. Looking further into
the driving force of his good GPA in college, it can be revealed that indirect
family pressure prompted him to academically achieve higher and eventually
pass the LET. He said that his siblings are all graduates of the same state
university where he was also studying and all of them have become
professionals. These forms of expectations challenged him in a way that he saw
the expectation to graduate also from the same university and become a licensed
professional teacher.
Moreover, Participant 3 shared a very personal case. She recounted experiences
related to GPA by saying that:
“I believe that my GPA, a reflection of my 5 years of studying at MSU,

is enough for me to pass the LET. One of the reasons that inspired me to
strive for a good GPA is that I wanted to show to people who
underestimated me that I can graduate in the university. I admit that
since when I was a child, I used to be asthmatic. The people in my
surrounding knows my past situation well, which is the reason why they
underestimated me when I entered university. They said that I cannot
graduate because of my situation, that I chose a school that does not fit
me because the buildings are scattered. It is very hot, very dusty, plus
the fact that my father died. People judged me easily and it hurt a lot.

197
But then I did not care what the people said. I continued my dream to
graduate with a degree” (Participant 3).
Participant 3 believed that her GPA is a factor that helped her in the LET. But
exploring deeper into her motivation, she disclosed that her desire to prove her
worth to other people inspired her to study well in college and pass the LET. She
expressed that many people underestimated her capabilities to finish college
because she used to be frail and people thought she will not survive given the
university environment. However, she used those experiences as inspiration to
reach her ultimate dream to graduate from college and pass the licensure
examination.
4.3 Themes when differences in LET performance are explained

This study ultimately intended to probe the themes that explain the differences
in the LET performance of the graduates when placed in a broader context. The
results are shown in Table 3.
Table 3: Themes when differences in LET performance are explained

Codes Categories Themes
Even the CoEd helped through the provision Reviewer from the Access to
of review materials, especially in the college as a resource review
professional education courses. material materials
Some of the questions in the LET are very Reviewers to
familiar to me because some of them are in familiarize with the
the reviewers that I read. types of questions
I read the different reviewers as much as I Reviewers as sources
could and then I answered their test of test contents and
questions. questions
I just made sure that I have a deeper Awareness of relevant Metacognitive
understanding of the concepts in education thinking skill for the strategies
and did not memorize everything. examination
The only thing that I relied on was the Selection of
lessons that were taught particularly those appropriate contents
topics in the teaching profession. for review
I check it myself if I got a high or low score Internal monitoring of
and see to it that I give time to study the own performance in
mistakes that I made. the test
My other siblings are all MSU graduates and Positive pressure from Motivational
all of them are professionals. It challenged me indirect family experiences
in a way that I should also graduate. experiences
I decided to myself that I will use those people Inspiration from
who looked me down as a motivation to strive undesirable external
hard, to achieve all the dreams in my life. experiences
Aside from the learning, you need to have the Confidence that one Efficacy to
confidence in yourself that you can indeed can pass the succeed
conquer the examination. examination

198
I always set in my mind that I must pass the Conditioning of the

licensure examination for me to become an mind to pass the
officially certified teacher. examination
Thematic analysis was used to analyze the utterances of the participants. This
process involved the generation of codes, categories, and themes. The following
themes emerged from the analysis:
Theme 1: Access to review materials. The graduates have access to different
review materials including the one developed by their department. Other
reviewers were from review centers and stores. These review materials helped
them become exposed to different types of questions that are like the ones in the
LET. The reviewers also usually have practice tests. It assisted the participants in
honing their skills in taking the test.
Theme 2: Metacognitive strategies. Some thinking strategies were used by the
participants to train their minds in answering LET questions. They prepared
their mind by familiarizing with the kind of questions asked in the LET which
required application rather than just knowledge. They were also selective with
the type of topics for focus in the review. They monitored their test performance.
They took mock tests by themselves, checked where they went wrong and
studied it to improve.
Theme 3: Motivational experiences. An interesting theme as revealed by the
participants is their personal motivational experiences which they used as
inspiration to succeed in the LET. The participants mentioned personal
experiences such as unspoken pressure brought by family achievement and
personal struggle against the negative perceptions of other people around. What
made these experiences more interesting is the fact that they used the
circumstances as positive motivations to succeed in their studies and the LET.
Theme 4: Efficacy to succeed. The graduates also expressed a form of efficacy to
succeed, a strong conviction in themselves that they will pass the LET. They
cited that aside from what they have learned, they conditioned their minds that
they should succeed to reach their goals. They developed a kind of confidence in
themselves, claiming optimistically that they will pass the LET.
5. Discussion
The initial quantitative result of this study is not surprising. It supports the
general notion about the influence of the ETS on the board examination
performance. For example, the results of the research of Moniyung (2015)
demonstrated that a point increase in ETS increases the odds of being successful
in the nursing licensure examination by almost five times. When it comes to the
field of teacher education, the result of this paper also coincides with the results
of Dagdag et al. (2017) which accounted for a medium influence of ETS on the
general education and professional education components of the LET.
Amidst the extensive discourse in other numerous quantitative studies,
however, the contextual reasons for the differences in the licensure examination
performance of the students based on ETS have not been well explored. It is

199
particularly interesting that, in the qualitative probes of this study, ETS did not
consistently appear to be a contributor to the LET performance.
A participant articulated this dissociation between ETS and LET by saying that
ETS and LET are different. He expounded that ETS measures stock knowledge
while LET mostly requires the application of knowledge in educational
situations. This way, ETS did not influence his LET performance. Feeley,
Williams, and Wise (2005) critiqued the validity of some admission tests in
predicting the future performance of the students. They pointed out that some of
the admission tests do not measure higher thinking abilities such as application
of knowledge which is usually tested in licensure examinations.
The other participants justified that they have matured in the process such that
ETS was not significant by the time they took the LET. The concept of
maturation is a learning process characterized by an increase of competencies. It
enables a person to perform something that he or she cannot previously perform
(Thakker, 2019). Thus, based on the premise of the participants, maturation has
control in the possibility that ETS has no causal role in the LET performance of
the participants.
Moreover, the result of this study when it comes to the influence of GPA on the
LET performance is consistent with the trends found in the previous studies.
Hence, for instance, Bayliss et al. (2017) determined the GPA to be the greatest
predictor of the first pass rate on the national physical therapy examination. This
result is also not new in the field of teacher education. Labastilla (2017)
uncovered a substantial relationship between GPA and the ratings of the
students in the professional education component in the LET.
On the other hand, qualitative studies are still to be desired with regards to the
association between the GPA and success in licensure examinations. The
qualitative result of the present inquiry offered interesting narratives of GPA as
a predictor variable that is more than just a number. The participants disclosed
that GPA reflects the different experiences that shaped their motivations to earn
a good GPA and perform in the LET. These experiences consist of the practices
of their professors, expectations of their families, and behaviors of other
individuals in the environment.
Such qualitative result elucidated by the participants appears to be captured in
the psychological construct known as motivational climate. Based on the early
works of Ames (1992), the motivational climate is a social situation in which
significant others like teachers, coaches, and parents facilitate motivational
achievement. It occurs through the expectations, values, and behaviors
demonstrated to the students (Weigand, Carr, Petherick, & Taylor, 2001). This
construct precisely mirrors the premises indicated by the participants.
Finally, this study significantly proposes evidence about the themes that
contextually explain the differences caused by ETS and GPA on the LET
performance. The participants conveyed unique themes such as access to review
materials, metacognitive strategies, motivational experiences, and efficacy to
succeed. These themes emulate the nature of human performance as a result of
diverse systems, interactions, and factors in the environment.

200
The basic notions of ecological systems (Bronfenbrenner, 1979) can be used to

reinforce the themes that underpin the differences in the LET performance of the
graduates. The ecological systems theory deals with the biological, emotional,
social, and cultural aspects of the environment. It conceives that human
interactions, institutions, and systems have a profound impact on the
development of a person. The themes illustrate the graduates as part of their
selves, families, and institutions. Their interactions with other people,
connections with institutions in education, and their relationships with the entire
system provided them the resources, strategies, and experiences. These all
contributed to their LET performance.
6. Conclusion
This study was guided by its general purpose. It attempted to probe the
differences caused by selected cognitive variables such as ETS and GPA on the
LET performance of the graduates.
It was disclosed that the ETS of the graduates grouped as passed and conditional
cause a significant difference in the LET performance. However, this
quantitative result did not appear to be corroborated in the qualitative result.
The participants clarified that ETS and LET are two different tests measuring
different knowledge types and levels. They must have also matured in between
ETS and LET such that ETS did not define their performance by the time they
took the LET.
This current research offers an alternative interest to the readers regarding the
absolute validity of ETS as a predictor of LET performance. The result of this
study drew different quantitative and qualitative outcomes. It can be maintained
that ETS is still an essential admission criterion. However, it should be
underscored that comprehensive screening approaches require two or more
valid instruments. Some emerging tools recommended in education are teaching
aptitude tests and multiple mini interviews. These instruments qualitatively
appraise students in other important aspects that may be predictive of future
performance in the licensure examination.
Moreover, this study revealed that the GPA of the graduates grouped as high,
average, and low causes a significant difference in the LET performance. The
GPA further proved to be more than just a number. It is mediated by the
motivational climate that forms an important factor in the LET performance of
the graduates. The participants indicated that the practices of their professors,
expectations of their families, and behaviors of other individuals shape their
motivation to obtain a good GPA and ultimately pass the LET.
This scholarly work allows educators to make informed decisions when dealing
with students concerning their GPA and future LET performance. The result
provides a set of tentative notions that map students in terms of their GPA, a
variable that is found to be sensitive to motivational climate. There is a need to
prospectively validate this convoluted result to be able to develop a
comprehensive and responsive intervention program that will improve the
performance trajectory of the students in the future licensure examination.

201
Lastly, following an embedded mixed method research design, this study

effectually unearthed essential themes that explain the differences caused by the
ETS and GPA on the performance of the graduates in the LET. These themes
include access to review materials, metacognitive strategies, motivational
experiences, and efficacy to succeed.
This innovation paper provides a wider and newer insight about the covert
aspects that underpin the differences in the performance of the graduates in the
LET. The result reveals themes that are not typically given attention in the
tradition of largely quantitative works. Thus, the qualitative aspect of the study
is proposed to be replicated as an extension of the typically statistical analysis of
the relationship between the cognitive variables and licensure examination
performance of the graduates.
There are also restrictions encountered in this study. It was principally
conducted in a single research venue. The selected cognitive variables were the
ETS and GPA only. Though the tests of normality and homogeneity were
satisfied, the sample was still relatively dismal. The conduct especially of the
qualitative portion was constrained by the fact that it only included three cases
from the original four cases that represent the maximum variation of possible
cases that can be included. Hence, the conclusions drawn in this study should be
carefully applied with consideration to the current context.
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Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 206-222, April 2020
Cognitive Domain Performance for Non-

Laboratory Embedded and Laboratory
Embedded Course
Rohaya Alias1, Noraida Mohd Saim2,

Nur Asmaliza Mohd Noor3 and Siti Hawa Rosli4
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA Pahang
26400 Bandar Tun Razak Jengka, Pahang, Malaysia
1https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2129-2677
2https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1600-7720
3https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7185-1628
4https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2955-9778
Abstract. This paper describes the students’ performance in terms of the

cognitive domain for non-laboratory embedded courses and laboratory
embedded courses. The study sample consisted of the students enrolled
in the non-laboratory embedded courses (Hydraulics and Soil Mechanics)
and laboratory embedded courses (Basic Hydraulics and Basic Soil
Mechanics) for Diploma in Civil Engineering programme. The cognitive
assessment based on the level of cognitive of Bloom's Taxonomy which
composes of knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis,
and evaluation. Methods of cognitive assessment for non-laboratory
embedded courses differ from laboratory embedded courses. The
cognitive assessment for non-laboratory embedded courses comes from
60% of the final exam, 30% of the test, and 10% of the assignment.
Meanwhile, the cognitive assessment for laboratory embedded course is
only through 60% of the final exam. The other evaluations for this course
are 30% of practical tests (psychomotor domain) and 10% of laboratory
observation (affective domain). Since the assessment methods are
different, this study was carried out to evaluate the students' performance
on the cognitive domain for both courses. The percentage of students’
marks in the coursework and final exam were analysed using a
descriptive statistic to measure the students’ performance. The results
revealed that the students who through non-laboratory embedded-
courses scored a good result in final examination compared to laboratory
embedded-courses. Hence, the findings of this study might help
educators identifying the reliable and effective assessment method to
improve the achievement of learning outcomes.
Keywords: assessment; cognitive domain; descriptive statistic; students’

marks; students’ performance

207
1. Introduction
Education management in Malaysia has evolved progressively to achieve
Malaysia’s aspiration to be a developed country. Due to the rapid and sustainable
transformation of the education system by 2025, the Education Blueprint has been
designed by the government to provide a comprehensive plan (MOE, 2013).
However, the education system has been criticized by the industries due to the
low performance of graduates and unable to apply the knowledge and skill
learned into the job task (Muniapan, 2007).
Evaluation on the way of the teaching process is widely conducted in higher

educations as this approachable to contribute to the researchers to identify the
factors that undermine the learning process. Numerous factors are influencing the
learning process starts with students' expectation, teaching material such as
course material, method of teaching, instructor/lecturers' competency and the
environment of the class (Cho & Cho, 2017). All these factors contribute
significantly to the performance of students either in the school or higher
institution. Hence, it is very important to conduct students' evaluation to provide
important and useful information thus this will help to improve teaching quality
among the educators/lecturers. Findings from the students' evaluation may help
the instructors/ lecturers and university to improvise their weakness according
to the comments given by students (Cho & Baek, 2019).
Currently, there are various assessment methods for courses developed and
implemented in higher education to produce more graduates who meet the
market demand. The assessment methods are one of the elements that can impact
the students' academic performance. However, the results of research that
measures their impact on performance are inconclusive (Sacristán-Díaz et al.,
2016).
Assessment is an essential element in any educational process. The definition of

assessment in education consists of the methods and procedures required by the
instructor to measure and evaluate the developmental stages of student learning
as well as achievement of skills (Glossary of Education Reform, 2015). The
assessment is a dynamic and multi-faceted process with variable aims (Anaf &
Yamin, 2014). The knowledge and skills that students have acquired from the
learning session can be evaluated (Vergis & Hardy, 2009). According to Brown et
al. (2013), the assessment can determine what students think is important and how
they spend their time and effort in reviewing and studying. Suskie (2004) argues
that assessment can prove measurable student learning outcomes and
provisioning an adequate measure of learning to reach these results. Also, the
implementation of well-organized methods of assessment with complete analysis
can provide the evidence to determine the requirement for learning. Moreover,
assessment is necessary to plan further steps for the improvement of teaching and
learning.
1.1. Engineering Courses in Malaysia University

The assessments of engineering students in Malaysia are based on the learning
outcome achievement as stated in the Engineering Technology Accreditation

208
Council (ETAC) 2019 Manual that requires diploma graduates to satisfy the
minimum academic and practical requirement in enabling them to register as an
engineering technician/ inspector. Therefore, the university has aligned all the
subjects according to the stated requirement by ETAC (BEM, 2019). The design of
the assessment was according to the Bloom Taxonomy, which comprises of 3
domains; cognitive (C), psychomotor (P) and affective (A) within the specific
criteria and standards. However, these tasks are quite challenging as they have to
align to achieve meaningful learning experience (Shelena et al., 2017 & University
of New South Wales, 2017).
Bloom's taxonomy is a different set of targets and abilities that educators use to
achieve learning objectives. Chung (1994), Lewy & Bathory (1994) and
Postlethwaite (1994) agreed to stated that the Bloom's taxonomy of the cognitive
domain is one of the basic systems for categorizing the aims of educational,
curriculum, and it also uses for test preparation around the world. The cognitive
domain acquires processes and utilizes the knowledge, focuses on intellectual
skills, and it is more to thinking domain. This domain is the core domain in the
learning system. The level involved in this domain is knowledge, comprehension,
application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation (Bloom, 1956). The development of
a curriculum that increases the level of cognitive skills may encourage the
academic performance and long-term success of the students (Finn et al., 2014).
The cognitive domain can be delivered through lecture using online or face to face
method. The measurement of this domain achievement was by exams, tests,
assignments and quizzes. The cognitive domain is simple to assess compared with
psychomotor and affective domains. The psychomotor domain depicts physical
and kinesthetic skills. The level of progressive behaviour defines it from
monitoring to mastery of physical skills. Commonly, the development of
psychomotor skills is in the laboratory setting, and by carrying out practical tests
would measure those skills. Furthermore, the affective domains are related to
feelings or emotions (attitude) throughout the learning experience. It expressed
through views, opinions or beliefs (Smith & Ragan, 1999). Group project,
competition, report and presentation are kind of assessments to measure the
attainment of the affective domains. According to Bednar & Levie (1993), actions
and behaviours can reflect a person's attitude.
Course Outcome (COs) is a target learning and teaching process for the courses.
The COs highlighted the outcomes that students should able to understand
throughout the semester. Normally, students' ability will be evaluated based on
the listed COs at the end of the semester. According to Gowrishankar et al. (2014),
good performance students can be produced by educators through incorporating
all domains of cognitive, psychomotor and affective into the course, especially for
courses offered in higher education such as universities. Students who passed that
course should gain all the knowledge and achieved the designated COs. Thus, it
is essential to conduct the assessment on the COs to see the results (Kasilingam et
al., 2014).
Meanwhile, the programme outcomes is a students' expectation and their

performance upon graduation. Generally, the students' performance related to the

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skills, knowledge and attitude that they had gained throughout the study period.
As required by BEM through ETAC Manual 2019, there are 12 Programme
Outcomes (POs) need to be delivered to the student upon their graduation(BEM,
2019). The 12 Programme Outcomes are as follows;
PO1: Students should have fundamental knowledge related to science and

mathematics.
PO2: Students should be able to analyse the specific problem related to the
application of engineering.
PO3: Students should occupy with the design of the solution for a specific
problem by considering the health and safety, environment and social
aspect.
PO4: Students should able to know how to conduct the investigation using
the catalogues, standard test and measurement on given problems.
PO5: Students should able to use the appropriate modern techniques,
resources and information technology to solve the specific engineering
problem.
PO6: Students should able to know about the safety, legal and social. Thus,
this can help to solve a specific problem related to the application of
civil engineering.
PO7: Students should have knowledge and understanding of the
environment and sustainability. Thus, this to help them to solve any
given problem that related to the environment and societal.
PO8: Students should understand their role and should adhere the
professional ethics as a civil technician.
PO9: Students should have the skill to act efficaciously as an individual and
as a member of a team.
PO10: Students should able to have effective communication skill; thus, this
leads them to communicate on the given problem, give and receive the
instruction when involved with the engineering project.
PO11: Students should have an understanding of how to manage the
engineering project and finance and able to manage projects in various
disciplinary. They should able to have the skill as a technical team or as
a leader in the assigned project.
PO12: Students should be able to have the skill to participate in independent
learning and able to engage with the latest information or techniques
in civil engineering.
This 12 POs divided into the cognitive, psychomotor and affective domain. PO1,
PO2 and PO3 can be classified under the cognitive domain as they are used to
measure the knowledge and problem solving, which closely related to the
cognitive. Meanwhile, the psychomotor domain contributed through PO4 and
PO5, which related to the skills and practices used by the students to solve the
given problem. Moreover, PO6, PO7, PO8, PO9, PO10, PO11 and PO12 are related
to the affective domain because these POs related to the students' attitude and
feelings.

210
1.2. Literature Review

Many of existing papers discussed on students’ performance according to the
domains (cognitive, psychomotor or affective) (Gregory, 2019; Anaf & Yamin,
2014; Tam, 2014; Martone & Sereci, 2009) but only a little-discussed on the
embedded course (Schuijers et al., 2013). The discussion on the embedded course
by Schuijers et al. (2013) on the effectiveness of separating the theoretical part and
practical part in physiology courses. Hairuddin et al. (2018) state that embedded
courses greatly influence the achievement of culinary arts students. The results of
his study have found that the students cannot achieve good performance if they
only show cooking skills, but lack in terms of cognitive level. To achieve good
performance, the ability to think, understand and apply must also be given.
According to Ajumunisha Ali Begam & Tholappan (2018), overall assessment
incorporating all learning domains for each course is essential to produce skilled
and knowledgeable graduates of any higher education programme. Since there
were two different cohorts with two different nature of courses (embedded and
non-embedded course) involved for Diploma of Civil Engineering programme, it
is a good chance to make the comparison on the cognitive domain between the
embedded and non-embedded courses. Thus, the study aims to evaluate the
students’ performance in terms of the cognitive domain for non-laboratory
embedded courses and laboratory embedded courses. The initial drive was to
validate which type, of course, perform well in term of the cognitive domain.
Besides, findings from this paper can be part of continual quality assessment for
faculty level for better improvement in the future.
1.3. Description of Course

Hydraulics (ECW241)
This course covers the application of the energy equation on in-compressible pipe
flow, analysis of pipe network and the design of the open channel based on
uniform flow condition. Also, this course included the application of specific
energy concept and momentum equation for the analysis of non-uniform flow and
analysis of pump operation and performance. This course addresses the
programme outcome which related to the fundamental and application solution
and problem-solving using well-defined engineering problem.
Soil Mechanics (ECG243)

Soil Mechanics deal with the basic principles of soil that related to the concept of
effective stress, the process of consolidation and soil shear strength behaviour.
The topic of physical properties and classification of soil, the flow of water
through soil, shear strength, and soil compaction and consolidation are discussed
in this course as well. This course addresses the programme outcome related to
the fundamental and application solution in a well-defined engineering problem.
Basic Hydraulic (ECW321)

The Hydraulic Engineering explains fluid behaviour such as steady
incompressible flow in a pipe, flow uniformly and non-uniformly in an open
channel and types of machinery such as turbine and pump. This course addresses
the programme outcome which related to the fundamental and application
solution, problem-solving using well-defined engineering problem, conducting

211
the standard laboratory test for soil engineering and having knowledge on the
safety issues with accordance the engineering technician practices.
Basic Soil Mechanics (ECG303)

This course deals with the basic principles of soil mechanics. It covers topics on
physical properties and classification of soil, shear strength, the flow of water
through soil, soil compaction and consolidation. Besides, this course also provides
exposure to students on procedures of standard laboratory for soil tests. This
course addresses the programme outcome which related to the fundamental and
application solution, problem-solving of a well-defined engineering problem,
conducting the standard laboratory test for soil engineering and having
knowledge on the safety issues with accordance the engineering technician
practices.
1.4. Assessment Method

According to the different cohort, there are two different types of assessment
known as non-laboratory courses embedded in the main course (Group 1) and
laboratory courses embedded in the main course (Group 2). The contact hour for
the course under Group 1 is 4 hours which comprises of 3 hours lecture and 1-
hour tutorial while as the contact hour for the course under Group 2 is 5 hours
which includes lecture (2 hours), tutorial (1-hour), and laboratory activities (2
hours). The courses under Group 1 are Hydraulic (ECW241), and Soil Mechanics
(ECG243), and the assessment comes from 60% of the final exam (cognitive
domain) and 40% of the coursework. The coursework assessments divided into
30% of the test (cognitive domain) and 10% of assignment (cognitive domain).
Meanwhile, the courses under Group 2 are Basic Hydraulic (ECW321) and Basic
Soil Mechanics (ECG303) where the assessment contributed through 60% of the
final exam (cognitive domain) and 40% of the coursework. The assessment of
coursework consists of 30% of practical tests (psychomotor domain) and 10% of
laboratory observation (affective domain). The summary of the assessment
methods for all the courses shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Assessment method for courses under Group 1 and Group 2
Group Course Method of Assessment Domain
Hydraulic
1
(Non-laboratory (ECW241) 60% of Final exam C
30% of Test C
embedded
Soil Mechanics 10% of Assignment C
courses )
(ECG243)
Basic Hydraulic
2
(Laboratory (ECW321) 60% of Final exam C
30% of Practical tests P
embedded
Basic Soil Mechanics 10% of Laboratory observation A
courses )
(ECG303)

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Meanwhile, the cognitive level among these courses should follow the allocation
that already specified through the table of difficulties (Table 2). The cognitive level
has divided into three segments which are low level comprises of knowledge (C1)
and comprehension (C2), intermediate level consists of application (C3) and
analysis (C4), and higher-level comprises of synthesis (C5) and evaluation (C6).
The assessments of courses mentioned in this paper have designed following the
table of difficulties. The allocation marks for assessment involved such as
assignment, tests and final examination.
Table 2: Cognitive Level and Percentage Level of Difficulty (%)
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6
Year
Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation
1 30-45 45-65 10-25
2 20-35 40-60 20-35
3 10-25 45-55 30-45
Since the methods of assessment and approach are different between the courses
of Group 1 and Group 2, therefore this study presents the students’ performance
on the cognitive domain for all courses of both groups.
1.5. Research Questions

Research questions can be summarized as follows;
i. What is the trend of students’ performance for the different courses in the
non-embedded course and embedded course?
ii. What is the failure rate of students in the non-embedded course and
embedded course?
iii. Is there any significant difference in the performance between the non-
embedded course and embedded course?
iv. What is the students' perception of teaching and learning for all the courses
in the non-embedded course and embedded course?
2. Research Method
The courses of Group 1 and Group 2 have designed for second-year of Diploma
in Civil Engineering programme, Universiti Teknologi MARA. The study has
conducted for TWO (2) different cohort of students which was in June 2017 for
Group 1 (G1) and in June 2016 for Group 2 (G2) to achieve the objectives of the
study. These cohorts are taught by the same lecturer, which were four (4),
instructors/lecturers, for ECG243 and ECG 303 and 3 instructors/lecturers for
ECW241 and ECW321.
A total of 275 students of ECW241, 336 students of ECW321, 375 students of

ECG243 and 406 students of ECG303 are the sample in this study and the selection
of these students according to the total number of students who registered of these
courses. The enrolment of these courses was subjected to the students must pass
the pre-requisite courses thus, indicated only students who take these courses for
the first time are involved in this study. The students' results were obtained from

213
the Academic Affairs Division (Examination Unit) and as such, were assumed to
be valid and reliable. The collected students' results were analysed to evaluate the
students' performance, and the analysis is made based on the overall achievement
comprising the percentage (%) of marks obtained for the courses. Descriptive
statistical analysis of the data involving simple frequency counts of the score has
applied for each performance results. Also, the significant test using t-test method
has carried out to evaluate whether any significant difference of the achievement
for non-embedded and embedded courses. Besides, the comparison of the result
between gender also conducted to identify the difference of performance between
male and female students.
At the end of the semester, students' evaluation survey has been conducted to
gauge the students' perception of these courses which related to the learning
activities and overall perception on the subjects and the results have been rate
according to the Table 3.
Table 3: A rating system for students’ perception
Students’ evaluation Rating
3.60-4.00 Excellent
3.20-3.59 Very good
2.80-3.19 Good
2.40-2.79 Average
Below 2.40 Weak
3. Result and Discussion

Samples of the study
Table 4 shows the details of the samples in this study. All the students enrolled in
those courses was selected in this study to produce a precise analysis of overall
performance. Around 50%–54% of the students were male students enrolled in
ECW241, ECG243 and ECG303, while 53.27% of female students dominated the
course of ECW321. Hence, the distribution of the enrollment between male and
female seem to balance for all the courses.
Table 4: The total number of students enrolled in courses under Group 1 and Group 2
Group Course Male Percentage (%) Female Percentage (%) Total
ECW241 140 50.91 135 49.09 275

Group 1
ECG243 202 53.87 173 46.13 375
ECW321 157 46.73 179 53.27 336

Group 2
ECG303 204 50.25 202 49.75 406

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Students’ Performance on the Cognitive Domain

Figure 1 indicates the students’ performance on the cognitive domain for the
course ECW241 and ECW321 according to the grade obtained. The results
indicated, 81.8% of students for ECW241 had passed this course with the
minimum grade was C, meanwhile, as for ECW321, around 13.7% from the 336
total number of students had passed this course with the minimum of the grade
was C as well. Furthermore, Figure 2 displays the students’ performance for the
course of ECG243 and ECG303. The results show that 80.5% of students passed
ECG243 compare to ECG303, which only 58.6% of students had passed the course.
From both figures, the findings indicated that the students who enrolled in non-
embedded courses score higher results for cognitive domain compare the students
who enrolled in the embedded courses.
120
ECW241 ECW321
100
Number of students
80
60
40
20
0
A+ A A- B+ B B- C+ C C- D+ D E F
Grade
Figure 1: Students’ performance on the cognitive domain for ECW241 and ECW321
80
ECG243 ECG303
70
Number of students
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Grade
Figure 2: Students’ performance on the cognitive domain for ECG243 and ECG303
Figure 3 summarized the percentage of failure for all the courses in Group 1 and
Group 2 that show the distribution of failure grade which are C-, D+, D, E and F.
The trend clearly show that the cognitive assessment of non-embedded courses
(G1) contributed a low percentage of failure which are less than 8%. Compared

215
with the embedded courses (G2) that the cognitive domain shows the failure rate
up to 32%.
35
ECG243 (G1)
30
ECW241 (G1)
25
Percentage (%)
ECW321 (G2)
20
ECG303 (G2)
15
10
0
C- D+ D E F
Grade
Figure 3: Percentage of failure on the cognitive domain for Group 1 and Group 2
courses
The main contributing factor of such finding for non-embedded courses is that
students have already experienced other cognitive assessments such as test and
assignment in their continuous coursework evaluation. Therefore, these
assessments indirectly enhance their understanding and performance of cognitive
assessment in the final exam. Compared to the embedded-courses, the cognitive
domain assessment solely depended on the final examination. Thus, only a small
number of students able to cope with it and score good results during the final
exam. Therefore, this way indirectly able to segregate a good and focus student
who always consistently try to understand and study with the students who did
not. However, this result slightly differences with the study conducted by Antoni
et al. (2019) where the finding indicated students who enrolled embedded subjects
score higher mark in final exam compared to students who did not.
Table 5 shows the descriptive analysis for ECW241, ECW321, ECG243 and
ECG303. The median for ECW241 and ECW321 are 54.5 and 38.5, respectively.
While the descriptive analysis for ECG243 and ECG303 also shows that the
median and standard deviation for both courses differ slightly. Based on the
overall standard deviation, maximum and minimum, it indicates that the marks
attained vary widely around the mean for all the courses. The t-test also confirmed
that the achievement of ECG243 and ECG303 differ significantly with the p-value
less than 0.05. A similar t-test finding between ECW241 and ECW321 showing the
significant difference with the p-value is 0.018 (also less than 0.05).
Table 5: Descriptive analysis marks attained by the students
Course Total Standard t-test

Mean Median Maximum Minimum
Code Students Deviation (p-value)
ECW241 275 54.50 54.00 10.14 92.35 27.00
0.018
ECW321 336 37.51 38.50 10.98 68.00 0

216
ECG243 375 57.10 57.83 13.57 87.54 14.05

1.6x10-5
ECG303 406 52.65 53.00 15.11 86.50 4.50
From this finding, it shows the students who sit for ECW241 and ECG243
demonstrated an excellent achievement on the cognitive level compared to the
students who sit for ECW321 and ECG303. The reason behind this, the students
who sit for ECW241 and ECG243 had experienced the cognitive level from
coursework assessment until final exam stage compared to the students who sit
for ECW321 and ECG303 who just go through the cognitive level in the final exam
stage. The training attained by ECW241 and ECG243 students had contributed to
the excellent achievement grades compared to ECW321 and ECG303.
Students’ Performance on the Cognitive Domain based on Gender

Figure 4 and 5 show the performance of students for both courses; ECW241 and
ECW321 based on gender. The result indicated that 37.4% (103/275) of male
students for ECW241 who had passed this course. Meanwhile, 44.7% (123/275) of
female students had passed. As for ECW321, 2.98% (10/336) of male students and
10.71% (36/336) of female students had passed this course. Moreover, Figure 6
and 7 also show the students’ performance based on gender for ECG243 and
ECG303. From the chart, it exposes that 41.8% of male students and 38.7% of
female students had passed the ECG243 course. Meanwhile, 36.5% of female
students and 22.2% of male students had passed the ECG303 course.
From these findings show, the female students score better achievement in the
cognitive domain compared to the male students. The factors that contribute to
this finding due to female students are more hardworking in doing exercise and
more focus during the class compared to the male students. The study conducted
by Jones et al. (2013) on the first-year university students found that female
students were more to get better results in engineering and math courses to
compare than the male student. These finding also supported by Burns & Bracey
(2001); Clark, Oakley & Adam (2006) were found that the female students'
achievement was prominent than the male student in some of the school success.
However, these findings might contradict with the study conducted by Joscha &
Thomas (2012), where boys did as well or better than girls in mathematics.

217
ECW241
60
Male Female
50
Number of students
40
30
20
10
0
Grade
Figure 4: Students’ performance for ECW241 based on gender
ECW321
60
Male Female
50
Number of students
40
30
20
10
0
Grade
Figure 5: Students’ performance for ECW321 based on gender
45 ECG243
40 MALE FEMALE
35
Number of students
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Grade
Figure 6: Students’ performance for ECG243 based on gender

218
40 ECG303
35
MALE FEMALE
Number of students
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Grade
Figure 7: Students’ performance for ECG303 based on gender
Students’ Perception
Despite students’ assessment, Gregory (2019) also highlighted the teaching and
learning activities importance to influence the students’ performance. Table 6
displays the students’ overall perception of the course and the learning that they
involved during the process of teaching and learning. The results show all courses
attained very good remark with the score around 3.29 until 3.43 and it indicates
that they have undergone the same process in the teaching and learning activities.
These findings significantly showed, even though the approaches and methods of
teaching were similar, still it depends on the ability of the students to cope with
the assessments and nature of the course either embedded or non-embedded.
Nevertheless, the instructor/lecturer need to encourage students to do more
exercises to enhance their understanding of these courses. Therefore, to achieve a
good grade and increase the performance of the cognitive domain, especially in
embedded courses, concerted efforts between instructor/lecturer and students
should be further enhanced.
Table 6: Students’ perception of the ECW241, ECW321, ECG243 and ECG303
Subject Items Score Remarks
The overall perception of the subject 3.33

ECW241 Very good
Learning activity 3.29

ECW321 Very good

ECG243 Very good

ECG303 Very good

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4. Conclusion
This study indicates that the students’ performance on the cognitive domain for
non-laboratory course-embedded (Group 1) better than laboratory course-
embedded (Group 2). Simultaneously, the percentage of students with good
grades (A+, A and A-) in the final examination for courses under Group 1 is higher
than Group 2. Additionally, the proportion passing for courses under Group 1 in
the final exam is also higher than courses under Group 2. Based on descriptive
analysis, it shows Group 1 demonstrated an excellent achievement on the
cognitive level compared to the Group 2 meanwhile the t-test also confirmed that
the achievement of Group 1 and Group 2 differ significantly with the p-value <
0.05. To summarize the findings, the assessment method plays a prominent role
in the education process as it affects the students' performance. The implemented
assessment method of coursework using a test (cognitive domain) and assignment
(cognitive domain) for courses under Group 1 was found more appropriate to
improve the students’ performance in the final exam. The reason is, the students
have an understanding of the steps to respond to the final exam questions based
on the test or assignment questions. In contrast to courses under Group 2, which
is the assessment method of coursework using practical tests (psychomotor
domain) and laboratory observation (affective domain). The laboratory is more
than just gaining knowledge. It is about doing and learning through experiences.
Therefore, to improve students achievement in the cognitive domain for
laboratory-embedded courses, the current assessment method can be revised.
Perhaps, the test also could be included in the coursework assessment. The study
also revealed that the female students score better accomplishment in the
cognitive domain contrasted with the male students. Hence a few improvements
must make to increase the male student awareness about the importance of the
academic performance of the cognitive domain. In conclusion, the findings of this
study can serve as a reference to help educators identifying the most reliable and
advantageous assessment method regarding the educational process.
5. Limitation and Recommendation

This study only focuses on two courses for non-laboratory embedded-courses and
two courses for laboratory embedded-courses. Thus, it does not represent the
whole courses of non-laboratory embedded and laboratory embedded course for
Diploma in Civil Engineering programme. Based on the limitation of this study,
it strongly advised increasing the number of other courses for data analysis. This
study was also limited to the courses for Diploma in Civil Engineering
programme.
From this study, there is evidence that the students’ performance on the cognitive
domain for non-laboratory course-embedded was better than laboratory course-
embedded. However, there is a need for further research. Future research may
address:
i. Focus on factors that influence students' performance on the cognitive
domain better for non-laboratory course-embedded compare with laboratory
course-embedded.

220
ii. To investigate in-depth the effective teaching and learning approaches based
on gender by interviewing the students.
iii. To design a guideline on how to develop an effective cognitive learning
process.
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Appendix 1
Survey questions for students’ perception
Part A: Overall perception of the course

1) This course has increased my knowledge related to the field of my study
2) The content of this course is relevant to the field of my study
3) The method of assessments has enhanced my ability to study
Part B: Teaching and Learning Activities

1) The lecturer/instructor actively encourage the students' involvement in the
learning process.
2) The lecturer/instructor know how to deliver the lecture/ knowledge in an
interesting way
3) The lecture/instructor help students to grasp the knowledge and understanding of
the content of the course

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Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 223-247, April 2020
A Correspondence Analysis of Fifty-Five

Japanese Historical First-to Fifth-Year
English-as-a-Foreign-Language Textbooks
Tomoo Asai1, Ryohei Honda2 and Kiyomi Watanabe3

Fukuyama Heisei University
Fukuyama, Japan
1https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2627-2883
2https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7488-2403
3https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6520-8115
Toshiaki Ozasa
Hiroshima University (Professor Emeritus)
Higashi-Hiroshima, Japan
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5358-2660
Abstract. The present paper aims to quantitatively analyze the features of

fifty-five Japanese historical English-as-a-Foreign-Language textbooks,
Books 1-5, by using a correspondence analysis, focusing on their
homogeneities / differences, and to compare the results with those of the
correspondence analyses of the Book-1, Book-3 and Book-5 textbooks. The
following were the obtained results. First, the correspondence analysis
results proved capable of differentiating the features of the fifty-five
historical textbooks. In particular, the bipolar map indicated that the two
dimensions, difficult (+) vs. easy (-) (Dim 1) axis and artificial- (+) vs. natural-
sounding (-) (Dim 2) axis contributed to differentiating their inter-
relationships. Second, their inter-relationship was explained 80.4 percent by
the seven dimensions, i.e., (1) difficult/easy texts (Dim 1), (2) artificial-/natural-
sounding discourse (Dim 2), (3) dialogue-/passage-based textbooks (Dim 3), (4)
teacher-/non teacher-dominance (Dim 4), (5) strictly / loosely controlled (Dim 5),
(6) redundant/concise (Dim 6) and (7) connected/disconnected (Dim-7). Third,
the differences of the fifty-five Books-1-5 textbooks were explained by the
same dimensions as those of the Book-3 and Book-1 results up to the seventh
dimension. The results of the present correspondence analysis were
graphically represented by two methods, coordinate (bipolar) representation
and dendrogram. Concerning the theoretical implications and practical use
of the present study, it was proved that CA is a powerful tool for the
quantitative analysis and evaluation of EFL textbooks and that difficulty vs.
easiness and artificial-sounding vs. natural-sounding are useful viewpoints for
EFL teachers and educators in describing and grasping EFL textbooks.
Keywords: correspondence analysis; English as a foreign language; historical

textbooks; coordinate representation; dendrogram

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1. Introduction
Following several qualitative and quantitative analyses of Japanese historical
English-as-a-foreign-language (Henceforth EFL) textbooks such as Ozasa (2003),
Ozasa 2005) and Ozasa & Erikawa (Eds.) (2004), the correspondence analysis
(Henceforth CA) of their corpora started in Japan with Sakamoto, Watanabe, and
Ozasa (2017), which, computing a CA using seven historical and current
textbooks, identified four explaining dimensions, i.e., (1) natural vs. drill-centered
(Dim 1), (2) concise vs redundant (Dim 2), (3) difficult vs. easy (Dim 3) and (4)
monologue vs. multilogue (Dim 4). Watanabe, Asai, and Ozasa (2017) also
computed the same type of CA-based textual analysis, using seven historical or
current EFL textbooks, identifying four explaining categories, i.e., (1) easy vs.
difficult (Dim 1), (2) story vs. collection (Dim 2), concise vs. redundant (Dim 3)
and (4) monologue vs. multilogue (Dim 4). Both of the two studies (Sakamoto et
al.,2017, Watanabe., 2017) concluded that CA was a useful tool for interpreting
and diagnosing the features of the EFL textbooks.
In Honda, Watanabe and Ozasa (2017), the same type of CA-based multivariate
analysis was computed using ten historical or current Book-1 EFL textbooks,
identifying five explaining dimensions, i.e., (1) difficult vs. easy (Dim 1), (2) drill-
centered vs. natural (Dim 2), (3) multi-viewpoints vs. single viewpoint (Dim 3)
and (4) redundant vs. concise (Dim 4). The results also revealed that the bipolar
map comprised of the two major dimensions successfully classified the ten
textbooks into four groups and that it was only Dim 1 or difficult vs. easy texts that
differentiated the two major groups. Ozasa, Kawamura, Umamoto and Matsuoka
(2018) also computed a CA-based textual analysis of five Japanese historical or
current EFL textbooks, with the same aim as in the above analyses. The results of
this multivariate analysis identified four explaining dimensions, i.e., (1) natural
vs. drill-centered (Dim 1), (2) easy vs. difficult (Dim 2), (3) focused vs. unfocused
(Dim 3) and (4) varied vs. single practice (Dim 4). These findings were displayed
100 percent by a four-dimension-based radar gram and 64.1 percent by a bipolar
coordinate representation, which was comprised of a horizontal axis and a vertical
axis.
Honda, Asai, Watanabe and Ozasa (2018) computed the same type of CA-based
multivariate analysis of eighteen Japanese historical or current Book-1 EFL
textbook corpora under the same scheme as in the above CAs. The interpretation
of this textual analysis result identified seven explaining dimensions, i.e., (1)
difficult vs. easy (Dim 1), (2) natural- vs. artificial-sounding (Dim 2), (3) passage-
vs. dialogue-based (Dim 3), (4) teacher dominance vs. non teacher dominance
(Dim 4), (5) strictly- vs. loosely-controlled (Dim 5), (6) concise vs. redundant (Dim
6) and (7) connected vs. disconnected (Dim 7).
Asai, Honda, Watanabe and Ozasa (2019) computed the same type of multivariate
analysis of categorical data, using seventeen Japanese Book-3 EFL textbook
corpora, both historical and current, with the same aim as in the above analyses.
The interpretation of this textual analysis result successfully identified seven
explaining dimensions, i.e., (1) difficult vs. easy (Dim 1), (2) natural- vs. artificial-
sounding (Dim 2), (3) dialogue- vs. passage-based (Dim 3), (4) teacher dominance
vs. non teacher dominance (Dim 4), (5) strictly- vs. loosely-controlled (Dim 5), (6)
redundant vs. concise (Dim 6) and (7) connected vs. disconnected (Dim 7). In

225
particular, it was interesting to note that the features of the seventeen Book-3
textbooks were explained by the same dimensions of the Book-1 result up to Dim
7. It was also reported that the interrelationships of the seventeen variants were
successfully explained by the two graphic representations of the analysis results,
i.e., the bipolar coordinate representation and the CA-based dendrogram based
on all of the sixteen dimensions.
Following Asai et al. (2019), Honda, Asai, Watanabe and Ozasa (2019) also
computed the same type of CA under the same scheme as the above ones, using
twelve historical and one current EFL textbooks, with an aim to identify
features/categories that differentiate the textbooks in focus and to compare the
differentiators among the Book-1, Book-3 and Book-5 results. This analysis
identified four dimensions: speech-oriented vs. exposition-oriented discourse
(Dim 1), easy vs. difficult texts (Dim 2), variety-rich vs. variety-poor (Dim 3), and
teacher-assistance vs. non-teacher-assistance (Dim 4).
Based on their own CA findings as these, Honda et al. (2019) compared the
differentiating categories among the results of the Book-1, Book-3 and Book-5
CAs, as in the following tables (Table 1) (Honda et al., 2019). This comparison
revealed several interesting points regarding the holistic approach to the CA-
based multivariate analysis of all of the Japanese historical EFL textbooks covering
all of the volumes (years) of the books. It was found that the nature of the
dimensions identified proved to be very similar or basically the same among the
three solutions, i.e., the Book-1, Book-3 and Book-5 solution, which means that the
results of the three independently conducted CAs yielded almost the same results,
i.e., almost the same dimensions in almost the same order.
Table 1: Dimensions of 3 CAs
(Honda et al., 2019)
This could also suggest that this approach, i.e., CA-based multivariate textual
analysis, could be applied in principle to the interpretation and classification of

226
the other volumes (years) such as Book-2 and Book-4, and that their resultant
dimensions could be explained by the same set of categories/features as those of
the Book-1, Book-3 and Book-5 CAs, as graphically represented in Table 2.
Table 2: Theoretical framework of the present CA

Dim Book-1 Book-2 Book-3 Book-4 Book-5
speech/exposition-
1 difficult/easy difficult/easy difficult/easy difficult/easy
oriented
natural-/artificial- natural-/artificial-
natural-/artificial- natural-/artificial-
2 easy/difficult
sounding sounding sounding sounding
passage-/dialogue- passage-/dialogue-
dialogue/passage- dialogue/passage- variety-
3
based based based based rich/variety-poor
teacher teacher teacher teacher teacher
4
dominance/non td dominance/non td
dominance/non td dominance/non td assistance/non ta
strictly/loosely strictly/loosely
strictly/loosely- strictly/loosely-
5
controlled controlled controlled controlled
redundant/concis
6 concise/redundant concise/redundant redundant/concise
e
connected/ connected/ connected/ connected/
7
disconnected disconnected disconnected disconnected
In practical terms, however, the use of these identified dimensions could not be
so operational in the classifications of the Book-2 or Book-4 EFL textbooks as in
those of the Book-1, Book-3 and Book-5 textbooks since there were no values of
these textbooks available in terms of these dimensions. Furthermore, even the
data of the Book-1, Book-3 and Book-5 textbooks would be limited in use for their
classification and quantitative comparison since their statistic data were obtained
through the independent computation using different sets of textbook data.
“Clearly, this was not an ideal solution as it had been expected since all of the
textbooks, Book-1, Book-3, and Book-5 could not be interpreted and classified
from one set of perspectives.
To solve this problem, new attempts have to be made to develop a new method,
technique or model for the CA with a large corpus” (Honda et al., 2019, p. 97).
The basic hypothesis in the present CA, based on these considerations concerning
the results of the previous analyses, is that present fifty-five historical EFL
textbooks could be explained and classified by one set of seven
categories/features and that the seven categories would be the same as those
identified in the CAs of the Book-1, Book-3 and Book-5 textbooks.
The present CA, motivated by the above hypothesis and considerations, aims to
statistically classify relatively large corpora of fifty-five Japanese historical Book-
1 to -5 EFL textbooks from a broader perspective. Through this multivariate
textual analysis, educators and/or teachers interested in EFL teaching would have
chances to understand the key concepts that affects English language teaching in
the textbooks and classrooms in and outside Japan, and make good use of them
in their classroom practice.

227
2. Aim
The present paper aims to quantitatively describe the features of fifty-five
Japanese historical EFL textbooks (eleven sets comprised of five volumes, i.e.,
Book-1, Book-2, Book-3, Book-4 and Book-5 textbooks) and to statistically classify
them based on their differences described in the results of the CA computed.
The following three research questions (RQs) were set in the present analysis:
(1) How similar / different in contents are the fifty-five Japanese historical EFL
textbooks (Books 1-5) to / from each other?
(2) What kinds of dimensions explain the homogeneities / differences among
the fifty-five textbooks?
(3) How similar / different are the solution of the fifty-five Japanese first- to
fifth-year EFL textbooks to / from those of their first-, third- and fifth-year
textbooks?
The present CA is primarily concerned with and focused on what kinds of criteria
explain the homogeneity / differences among the fifty-five textbooks and on how
they are related to the dimensions identified in the previous results of the Book-1,
Book-3 and Book-5 CA, in terms of the nature of their features.
The textbooks used in the present CA were eleven sets of historical EFL textbooks,
totalling fifty-five volumes, published during the period from 1867 to 1953. The
following are the titles and bibliographical data of the fifty-five textbooks, which
are primarily based on Ozasa and Erikawa (Eds.) (2004). For more detailed
information on the authors and characteristic features of these textbooks, refer to
Ozasa and Erikawa (Eds.) (2004) and Honda et al. (2018).
(1) Standard Choice Readers, 1-5 (Shobido Editorial, 1902, Shobido, 5 Vols.)
(Henceforth Choice-1 to -5.)
(2) English Readers: The High School Series, 1-5 (Education Department, Japan [W.
Dening], 1887-88, Education Department Publishing, Japan, 6 Vols.)
(Henceforth Dening-1 to -5.)
(3) New English Drill Books, 1-5 (Kenjiro Kumamoto, 1907, Kaiseikan, 5 Vols.)
(Henceforth Drill-1 to -5.)
(4) The Globe Readers, 1-5(Yoshisaburo Okakura, 1907, Dainippon Tosho, 5 Vols.
(Henceforth Globe-1 to -5.)
(5) New Jack and Betty: English Step by Step, 1-3 (K. Hagiwara, M. Inamura & K.
Takezawa, 1951, Kairyudo, 1-3Vols) (Henceforth Jack&Betty-1 to -3)). New High
School English: Step by Step, 1-2 (K. Hagiwara, M. Inamura & K. Takezawa, 1953,
Kairyudo, 3 Vols.) (Henceforth Jack&Betty-4 to -5.)
(6）New National Readers, 1-5 (C. J. Barnes, 1883-84, A. S. Barnes & Co., 5 Vols.）
(Henceforth National-1 to -5.)
(7) Girls’ Pacific Readers, 1-5 (Torajiro Sawamura, 1939, Kairyudo, 5 Vol.)
(Henceforth Pacific-1 to -5.)
(8) The Standard English Readers, 1-5 (H. E. Palmer, 1927, Institute for Research
in English Teaching, Japan, 5 Vols.） (Henceforth Standard(p)-1 to -5.)

228
(9) The Standard English Readers, 1-5 (Tsuneta Takehara, 1932, Taishukan, 5 Vols.)
(Henceforth Standard(t) -1 to -5.)
(10) Girls’ New Taisho Readers, 1-5 (Umeko Tsuda & Kenjiro Kumamoto, 1916,
Tokyo Kaiseikan, 5 Vols.) (Henceforth Taisho-1 to -5.)
(11) Sanders’ Union Readers, 1-5 (Charles Walton Sanders, 1861-67, Ivison,
Blakeman, Taylor & Co., 5 Vols.) (Henceforth Union-1 to -5.)
Among the above eleven sets, (5) Jack&Betty-4 to -5 needs some supplementary
explanation. In (5), there were no Books 4 nor 5 of New Jack and Betty available,
since it was a junior high school textbook consisting of three volumes only, Book-
1, Book-2 and Book-3. To solve this problem, newly added as the replacements or
supplements of New Jack and Betty, 4 and 5 were New High School English: Step by
Step, 1 and 2, two senior high school textbook volumes, which were authored by
the same authors and published by the same publisher as those of New Jack and
Betty series, (abbreviated as Jack&Betty-4 &-5).
It has also to be noted concerning the selection of the textbooks for the present CA
that the two textbooks used in the previous ones, i.e., Seisoku-1 to -5 and Sunshine-
1 to -5 were excluded from the present corpora. This judgment was based on the
experience in the CA of the seventeen historical textbooks (Asai et al., 2019), which
resulted in an extremely skewed distribution, making its interpretation difficult,
due to the extremely strong negative influence of Seisoku-3. Sunshine-1 to -5 were
also excluded from the CA corpora since these current textbooks were essentially
different in nature from the other historical textbooks. This decision was also
made by the present researchers’ wish to reduce the number of the variants as
much as possible.
3. Method
The present study employed a one-way CA model with fifty-five categorical
variants, in order to explore the interrelationships of the Japanese historical Book-
1 to -5 EFL textbooks and their explaining criteria.
First, a contingency table consisting of the fifty-five textbooks (row) and the
frequency of their most frequently used 100 words (column) was prepared as a
basic datum for the present CA. This is strictly a word-frequency table for each
textbook, which was made using a vocabulary processing tool. In this cross
tabulation table the most frequent 100 words (only content words and function
words counted) were picked up from the frequency list and their frequency values
were placed for each of the textbooks. Then, using the this categorical datum of
the cross tabulation table, a CA, a type of multivariate analysis, was computed by
using College Analysis, a statistics tool developed by M. Fukui.
In computing the present CA and interpreting its results, some of the ideas and
techniques used and/or described in the following books and papers were
consulted for reference where they were deemed relevant to the purpose of the
present analysis. They were: Beh and Lombardo (2014), Clausen (1998), Fukui
(2011), Fukui and Watanabe (2019a), Fukui and Watanabe (2019b), Greenacre
(2017), Greenacre (2010), Tabata (2005), Takahashi (2018), Tono (2000), Uenish

229
(2018), Van de Geer (1993), Watanabe and Fukui (2018a) and Watanabe and Fukui
(2018b) (Honda, et al., 2019).
4. Results and discussion

Table 3 shows the basic statistics of the present CA, i.e., the eigenvalues,
correlation coefficients, contribution rates and cumulative contribution rates of
the analysis. As the contribution rates indicate i, the fifty-five categorical variants
(textbooks) were explained 46.9% by Dim 1, 12.0% by Dim 2, 6.00% by Dim 3,
5.00% by Dim 4, 4.10% by Dim 5, 3.60% by Dim 6 and 2.90% by Dim 7, the
cumulative contribution rate being 80.40% on Dim 7. This means that Dim 1 is the
most powerful discriminator that explains almost half of the features identified
and that the seven Dims should be considered in the interpretation of the present
results.
Table 3: Basic CA Data, 55 Textbooks (Books 1-5)

Dim 1 Dim 2 Dim 3 Dim 4 Dim 5 Dim 6
Eigenvalue 0.102 0.026 0.013 0.011 0.009 0.008
Correlation 0.32 0.162 0.115 0.104 0.095 0.088
Contribution rate 0.469 0.12 0.06 0.05 0.041 0.036
Cumulative contribution
0.469 0.589 0.649 0.699 0.739 0.775
rate
Eigenvalue 0.006 0.005 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.003
Correlation 0.08 0.073 0.066 0.062 0.06 0.056
0.804 0.829 0.848 0.866 0.882 0.897
rate
Eigenvalue 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.001
Correlation 0.049 0.048 0.044 0.043 0.039 0.036
0.908 0.918 0.927 0.935 0.942 0.948
rate
Eigenvalue 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001
Correlation 0.032 0.03 0.03 0.029 0.028 0.026
0.953 0.957 0.961 0.965 0.968 0.971
rate
Eigenvalue 0.001 0.001 0.001 0 0 0
Correlation 0.025 0.024 0.022 0.021 0.021 0.019
0.974 0.977 0.979 0.981 0.983 0.985
rate
Eigenvalue 0 0 0 0 0 0
Correlation 0.019 0.018 0.017 0.016 0.015 0.015
0.986 0.988 0.989 0.99 0.991 0.992
rate
Dim 37 Dim 38 Dim 39 dim 40 Dim 41 Dim 42
Correlation 0.015 0.014 0.013 0.012 0.011 0.011
0.993 0.994 0.995 0.996 0.996 0.997
rate
Correlation 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.009 0.008 0.009
Contribution rate 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.997 0.998 0.998 0.999 0.999 0.999
rate
Correlation 0.008 0.007 0.006 0.004 0 0
Contribution rate 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
rate

230
Table 4 shows the values of the fifty-five textbooks on Dim 1. As it is clear in Table
4, on Dim 1, the value is the highest for Dening-5 (1.26), the second highest for
National-5 (1.053) and the third highest for Globe-5 (1.023), while it is the lowest for
Jack&Betty-1 (-2.411), the second lowest for Pacific-1 (-2.374) and the third lowest
for Drill-1 (-2.312). In decreasing order, the fifty-five textbooks were: Dening-5 >
National-5 > Globe-5 > Choice-5 > Union-5 > Standard(p)-2 > Dening-3 > Union-4 >
Choice-4 > Dening-4 ….. Taisho-2 > Standard(t)-1 > Globe-1 > National-1 >Choice-1
> Standard(p)-1 > Taisho-1 > Drill-1 > Pacific-1 > Jack&Betty-1.
The difference of the values among the fifty-five textbooks on Dim 1 could best be
explained by the category of difficult (+) vs. easy (-) texts. As it is clear in the
following examples, in Dening-5 (the highest) and National-5 (the second highest)
and the other high-scoring ones, all the texts sound difficult. In contrast, in
Jack&Betty-1 (the lowest), Pacific-1 (the second lowest) and the other low-scoring
ones, the texts sound all easy.
Table 4: Values on Dim 1

Dim 1 Dim 1 Dim 1 Dim 1
Dening-5 1.26 Pacific-5 0.717 Standard(t)-2 0.263 Taisho-2 -0.878
National-5 1.053 Globe-3 0.713 Pacific-4 0.244 Standard(t)-1 -1.016
Globe-5 1.023 Dening-1 0.712 National-3 0.214 Globe-1 -1.398
Choice-5 0.998 Standard(t)-4 0.697 National-4 0.214 National-1 -1.413
Union-5 0.949 Standard(p)-5 0.692 Taisho-4 0.168 Choice-1 -1.573
Standard(p)-2 0.908 Jack&Betty-5 0.674 Jack&Betty-3 0.009 Standard(p)-1 -1.722
Dening-3 0.857 Drill-5 0.664 Pacific-3 -0.009 Taisho-1 -2.225
Union-4 0.849 Taisho-5 0.63 Taisho-3 -0.009 Drill-1 -2.312
Choice-4 0.819 Drill-4 0.572 Choice-2 -0.034 Pacific-1 -2.374
Dening-4 0.81 Standard(p)-4 0.562 National-2 -0.131 Jack&Betty-1 -2.411
Dening-2 0.807 Jack&Betty-4 0.497 Pacific-2 -0.363
Standard(t)-5 0.799 Choice-3 0.396 Union-1 -0.388
Globe-4 0.774 Union-3 0.363 Jack&Betty-2 -0.589
Standard(t)-3 0.74 Union-2 0.345 Drill-2 -0.794
Standard(p)-3 0.722 Drill-3 0.341 Globe-2 -0.794
For example, when the following two pieces taken from the two contrasting
textbooks, Dening-5 (the most difficult) and Jack&Betty-1 (the easiest), are
compared, it is obvious that Dening-5 uses more difficult vocabulary and grammar
in the texts and so its readability is contrastively high, while Jack&Betty-1 favors
easier vocabulary and grammar, making its readability lower. For this reason, the
Dim 1 was termed difficult (+) vs. easy texts (-), just as in the Book-1 (Honda et al.,
2018) and Book-3 (Asai et al., 2019) results. The contribution rate of Dim 1 was
0.469, covering the 46.9% of the whole contribution.
To verify the accuracy of this CA estimation, the readability of the fifty-five
textbooks was actually measured using a readability measuring tool developed
specifically for the Japanese educational context, Ozasa-Fukui Year Level, Ver.
3.5nhnc1-6 1 and the results were compared with the present CA results. The
1
The development of Ozasa-Fukui Year Level, Ver. 3.5nhnc1-6 was financially supported
by the Grant-in-aid for Scientific Research (KAKENHI), Japan Society for the Promotion

231
function equation (NewDiff) of Ozasa-Fukui Year Level, Ver. 3.5nhnc1-6 was as

follows, where Words stands for number of words in a sentence, Syllables number
of syllables in a word, WordDiff difficulty of a word, and IdiomDiff difficulty of an
idiom, and its prediction rate turned out to be .8912 (Ozasa, Watanabe, & Fukui,
2016, p. 392).
NewDiff = 5.2565*exp(-19.1656*0.4398^Diff) + 1 (r^2=0.8912)
Diff=0.0924*Words+0.5862*Syllables+1.8296*WordDiff+0.0615*IdiomDiff-0.3073
(r^2 = 0.4986)
Words: number of words in a sentence
Syllables: number of syllables in a word
WordDiff: difficulty of a word
IdiomDiff: difficulty of an idiom
In this system, WordDiff was defined as the year of a textbook in which a particular
word appeared for the first time and IdiomDiff as the year of a textbook in which
a particular idiom appeared for the first time. Its prediction rate (r^2) proved to
be .8912, which the present authors believe was a satisfactorily high validity value.
(Ozasa, Watanabe, & Fukui, 2016, p. 392; Ozasa et al., 2016, p. 392; Honda, et al.,
2018; Asai, et al., 2019; Honda et al., 2019).
Table 5 shows the readability values of the fifty-five textbooks as measured by
Ozasa-Fukui Year Level, Ver. 3.5nhnc1-6. In order to measure the degree of
correspondence between the two kinds of values, a rank correlation coefficient
(Spearman's ρ) was computed between the Dim 1 estimation and the Ozasa-Fukui
Year Level measurement. The correlation coefficient computed proved to be 0.878
(p< .005), a satisfactorily high correlation. This means that the computed
correlation was as high as the same kind of coefficient in the CA with the eighteen
Book-1 textbooks, .804 (p<.001) (Honda et al., 2018).
of Science (JSPS), 2007-9, Basic Research (C)(1)19520535. Its program copy right is
registered in Japan. It is open for access for free on the net.

232
Table 5: Readability Measured by OFYL
OFYL OFYL OFYL OFYL

Union-5 8.05 Dening-1 6.62 Drill-4 5.45 National-1 3.39
Pacific-5 7.69 National-4 6.61 National-3 5.32 Choice-1 3.33
Dening-5 7.62 Standard(p)-5 6.56 Choice-2 5.31 Globe-1 3.26
Choice-5 7.49 Standard(t)-4 6.51 Taisho-4 5.3 Jack&Betty-2 3.21
Choice-4 7.44 Standard(p)-2 6.50 Pacific-3 5.03 Standard(t)-1 3.16
Union-4 7.41 Taisho-5 6.42 Standard(t)-2 4.42 Standard(p)-1 3.12
National-5 7.39 Drill-5 6.41 Globe-2 4.00 Taisho-1 3.04
Dening-4 7.21 Union-2 6.40 Jack&Betty-4 3.99 Pacific-1 2.52
Dening-2 7.10 Standard(p)-4 6.39 National-2 3.98 Drill-1 1.91
Union-1 6.99 Choice-3 6.04 Taisho-3 3.91 Jack&Betty-1 1.58
Dening-3 6.94 Standard(p)-3 5.95 Pacific-2 3.89
Standard(t)-5 6.89 Globe-4 5.92 Jack&Betty-3 3.75
Union-3 6.71 Jack&Betty-5 5.91 Drill-3 3.69
Globe-3 6.63 Standard(t)-3 5.91 Taisho-2 3.51
Globe-5 6.63 Pacific-4 5.86 Drill-2 3.40
I could be argued that the indirect estimation of the present CA of the fifty-five
corpora are accurate enough to satisfy the goal of the present study (Honda et al.,
2017; Honda et al., 2018; Asai et al., 2019; Honda et al., 2019). This level of accuracy
could be generalized to the estimations of the other six Dims (Dims 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and
7). This estimation could also be reinforced by the fact that the top five of the most
difficult textbooks were all Book-5 textbooks, i.e., textbooks for the fifth-year
students, while the top five of the easiest textbooks were all Book-1 textbooks, i.e.,
textbooks for the first-year students.
For this reason, Dim 1 was termed difficult (+) vs. easy (-) texts, just as in the Book-
1 CA results (Honda et al., 2018), the Book-3 CA results (Asai et al., 2019) and the
Book-5 CA results (Honda et al., 2019). The contribution rate of Dim 1 was 0.469,
covering the 46.9%, almost half of the whole contribution.

Pacific-1 1.885 National-5 0.553 Taisho-5 0.02 National-3 -0.934
Standard(p)-1 1.717 Globe-3 0.53 Drill-2 -0.105 National-4 -0.934
Taisho-1 1.558 Standard(t)-3 0.448 Globe-2 -0.105 Jack&Betty-2 -1.015
Jack&Betty-1 1.413 Globe-4 0.44 Jack&Betty-3 -0.203 Union-3 -1.104
Standard(p)-5 1.391 Globe-1 0.435 Taisho-4 -0.302 Choice-2 -1.176
Drill-1 1.294 Dening-2 0.431 Drill-4 -0.316 Union-2 -1.33
Standard(p)-4 1.197 Standard(p)-2 0.416 Standard(t)-1 -0.323 Union-1 -1.46
Union-5 1.177 Drill-5 0.377 Standard(t)-2 -0.351 National-2 -1.638
Standard(t)-5 0.946 Choice-5 0.361 Jack&Betty-4 -0.391 Choice-1 -2.568
Standard(t)-4 0.835 Dening-3 0.306 Choice-3 -0.41 National-1 -2.793
Dening-5 0.696 Jack&Betty-5 0.193 Pacific-2 -0.46
Globe-5 0.666 Pacific-5 0.139 Pacific-3 -0.57
Standard(p)-3 0.664 Dening-1 0.116 Taisho-2 -0.642
Dening-4 0.599 Choice-4 0.085 Drill-3 -0.649
Union-4 0.584 Pacific-4 0.042 Taisho-3 -0.702

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On Dim 2, as it is clear in Table 6, the value was the highest for Pacific-1 (1.885)
and the second highest for Standard(p)-1 (1.717) , while it is the lowest for National-
1 (-2.793) and the second lowest for Choice-1 (-2.568), Taisho-5 being around the
zero point. In decreasing order, the fifty-five textbooks were: Pacific-1 >
Standard(p)-1 > Taisho-1 > Jack&Betty-1 > Standard(p)-5 > Drill-1 > Standard(p)-4 >
Union-5 > Standard(t)-5 > Standard(t)-4 > ….. > National-3 > National-4 > Jack&Betty-
2 > Union-3 > Choice-2 > Union-2 > Union-1 > National-2 > Choice-1 > National-1.
The differences of the fifty-five textbooks on Dim 2 could best be explained by the
category of artificial-sounding (+) vs. natural-sounding (-) discourse. As it is clear in
the following examples, in Pacific-1 (the highest) and Standard(p)-1 (the second
highest), and the other high-scoring ones, the texts tended to sound more artificial
in the sense that they observe the ‘pattern drill first’ principle, while National-1
and the other low-scoring ones observe the ‘free communication first’ principle as
a basic strategy for the textbook organization, seldom using narrative styles or
dialogues in or related to the core pieces.
Mention must be made concerning the definition of ‘artificial-/natural-sounding’
on Dim 2. In the higher-scoring Book 4 or Book 5 textbooks such as Standard(p)-
5 (the fifth highest), Standard(p)-4 (seventh highest) Union-5 (the eighth highest),
Standard(t)-5 (the ninth highest), Standard(t)-4 (the tenth highest), the artificial-
sounding should be interpreted as “exposition-oriented texts” meaning few
narratives with direct speech quotations inserted and/or the passages followed
or preceded by the dialogues connected to the core piece, while its antonym,
natural-sounding as “speech-oriented” meaning more narratives used with direct
speech quotations inserted and/or the passages followed or preceded by the
related dialogues (Honda et al., 2019).
Table 7 shows the values of the fifty-five textbooks on Dim 3. On Dim 3, the value
was the highest for Choice-1 (2.059), the second highest for National-1 (2.032), while
it is the lowest for Drill-1 (-3.835) and the second lowest for Jack&Betty-2 (-2.006).
In decreasing order, the fifty-five textbooks were: Choice-1 > National-1 >
Standard(p)-1 > Globe-1 > Union-5 > Taisho-1 > Standard(p)-5 > Standard(p)-4 > Globe-
5 > Globe-4 > ….. > Jack&Betty-4 > Dening-3 > Drill-3 > Union-3 > Drill-2 > Globe-2
> Jack&Betty-1 > Jack&Betty-3 > Jack&Betty-2 > Drill-1.
Choice-1 2.059 Standard(t)-3 0.463 Dening-5 -0.101 Jack&Betty-4 -0.642
National-1 2.032 Standard(t)-4 0.409 Drill-5 -0.166 Dening-3 -0.69
Standard(p)-1 1.895 Union-4 0.393 Dening-4 -0.201 Drill-3 -0.691
Globe-1 1.882 Standard(p)-3 0.336 Choice-2 -0.306 Union-3 -0.72
Union-5 1.365 Union-1 0.242 National-2 -0.321 Drill-2 -1.061
Taisho-1 1.291 Pacific-1 0.24 Dening-2 -0.402 Globe-2 -1.061
Standard(p)-5 0.877 Pacific-2 0.201 Choice-3 -0.428 Jack&Betty-1 -1.062
Standard(p)-4 0.869 Choice-5 0.117 Jack&Betty-5 -0.443 Jack&Betty-3 -1.162
Globe-5 0.775 Taisho-2 0.086 Taisho-3 -0.466 Jack&Betty-2 -2.006
Globe-4 0.718 Taisho-5 0.069 Dening-1 -0.487 Drill-1 -3.835
Standard(t)-1 0.707 Standard(p)-2 0.048 Union-2 -0.489
Standard(t)-5 0.653 Pacific-5 -0.033 National-3 -0.499
Pacific-4 0.545 Standard(t)-2 -0.036 National-4 -0.499
Globe-3 0.538 Choice-4 -0.059 Drill-4 -0.525
National-5 0.503 Taisho-4 -0.092 Pacific-3 -0.634

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The differences of these fifty-five textbooks on Dim 3 could best be explained by

the category of dialogue-based (+) vs. passage-based (-) textbooks. As it is clear in the
following examples, Choice-1 (the highest), National-1 (the second highest),
Standard(p)-1 (the third highest) and the other high-scoring ones favor dialogues
more frequently throughout their lessons. On the contrary, Drill-1 (the lowest),
Jack&Betty-2 (the second lowest), Jack&Betty-3 (the third lowest) and the other low-
scoring ones favor expository passages more frequently throughout their texts,
without exceptions. For example, Choice-1 and National-1, the two most high-
scoring ones, prefer and adopt dialogue-based discourses, while Drill-1 and
Jack&Betty-2, the two most low-scoring ones, prefer and adopt passage-based
discourses. The extract from Drill-1 below does look like a dialogue between
Teacher and Pupil, but closely examined, it is essentially a Teacher’s ‘teacher talk,’
in which Teacher controls hundred per cent of the discourse. For this reason it
could and should be categorized as a kind of expository passage, not a
conversation in the true sense of the word.
It is interesting to note that dialogue-based, higher-year textbooks such as Union-
5 (the fifth highest), Standard-(p)-5 (the seventh highest) and others are rich in
variety in the sense that in their lessons the main bodies (core expository passages)
are usually preceded by the introductory questions, dialogues, or hints and/or
followed by the post-reading comments, proverbs, related poems or dialogues on
the passages (Honda et al., 2019). For example, in Union-5, the first unit consists
of main bodies (two expository passages), i.e., “Achievements and Dignity of
Labor” and “Power of the Hand,” and they are followed by the two poems related
to the contents of the main expository passages, i.e., “There’s Work Enough to Do”
and “Fields for Labor.” This variety in style or linguistic activity seems to be
intended to help the learners understand and discuss the contents of the topics
dealt with in the core pieces. On the contrary, lower-year textbooks generally
value expository passages, only carrying them, nothing else (Honda et al, 2019).
It has to be noted in this respect that the feature of Dim 3, dialogue-based (+) vs.
passage-based (-) textbooks has to be interpreted from a broader perspective
including the category of “variety-rich vs. variety-poor.” The contribution rate of
the third dimension was 0.06, covering only the 6% of the whole contribution.

Choice-1 2.584 Dening-3 0.47 Drill-4 0.009 Pacific-1 -0.992
National-1 2.326 Standard(t)-4 0.458 Drill-3 -0.087 Choice-2 -1.061
Drill-1 2.258 Standard(p)-3 0.455 Globe-3 -0.121 National-3 -1.071
Union-5 1.033 Dening-2 0.45 Taisho-5 -0.128 National-4 -1.071
Union-1 0.992 Globe-5 0.449 Standard(t)-2 -0.152 Taisho-4 -1.099
Jack&Betty-1 0.828 Drill-2 0.385 Jack&Betty-2 -0.153 Union-3 -1.15
Dening-5 0.781 Globe-2 0.385 Taisho-2 -0.201 Taisho-3 -1.231
Standard(t)-5 0.735 Standard(t)-3 0.35 Choice-3 -0.231 Taisho-1 -1.278
Dening-4 0.7 Dening-1 0.213 Standard(t)-1 -0.469 Pacific-2 -1.633
Standard(p)-5 0.7 Choice-4 0.191 Jack&Betty-3 -0.526 Globe-1 -3.067
Union-4 0.687 Standard(p)-1 0.184 Pacific-5 -0.783
Standard(p)-4 0.683 Globe-4 0.098 Pacific-4 -0.788
Drill-5 0.565 Standard(p)-2 0.072 National-2 -0.902
National-5 0.535 Jack&Betty-5 0.065 Union-2 -0.931
Choice-5 0.505 Jack&Betty-4 0.022 Pacific-3 -0.977

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On Dim 4, as it is clear in Table 8, the value is the highest for Choice-1 (2.584), the
second highest for National-1 (2.326) and the third highest for Drill-1 (2.258), while
it is the lowest for Globe-1 (-3.067), the second lowest for Pacific-2 (-1.633) and the
third lowest for Taisho-1 (-1.278), the other textbooks being between them. In
decreasing order, the thirteen textbooks were: Choice-1 > National-1 > Drill-1 >
Union-5 > Union-1 > Jack&Betty-1 > Dening-5 > Standard(t)-5 > Dening-4 >
Standard(p)-5 >…..> Pacific-1 > Choice-2 > National-3 > National-4 > Taisho-4 >
Union-3 > Taisho-3 > Taisho-1 > Pacific-2 > Globe-1.
The differences of these fifty-five textbooks on Dim 4 could best be explained by
the category of teacher-dominance (+) vs. non-teacher-dominance (-). As it is clear in
the following examples cited from Choice-1 (the highest), not a few texts are
comprised of dialogs in which a teacher (superior) dominates pupils (inferiors) in
the linguistic activity, while in Globe-1 (the lowest) and other low-scoring
textbooks there were few such features observed in the texts. For this reason, the
Dim 4 was termed teacher-dominance vs. non-teacher-dominance, just as in the Book-
1 and Book-3 results (Honda et al., 2018, Asai et al., 2019). The contribution rate
of Dim 4 was 0.05, covering only the 5% of the whole contribution.
It has to be noted in this respect that in the Book-5 interpretation, Dim 4 was
termed teacher-assistance vs. non-teacher-assistance, which was closely related to but
slightly different from the names of Dim 4 in the Book-1 and Book-3
interpretations, i.e., teacher-dominance (+) vs. non teacher-dominance (Honda et al.,
2018; Asai et al., 2019). For this reason, the feature of Dim 4, dominance (+) vs. non-
teacher-dominance (-) should be interpreted from a broader perspective including
the category of teacher-assistance vs. non-teacher-assistance.
Drill-1 3.482 Jack&Betty-3 0.34 Choice-3 0.064 Choice-1 -0.383
Taisho-1 1.446 Standard(t)-5 0.335 Jack&Betty-2 0.017 Union-2 -0.384
Globe-1 1.305 Globe-3 0.3 National-1 -0.01 Union-3 -0.734
Pacific-3 1.126 Union-1 0.297 Choice-4 -0.045 Dening-4 -0.94
Pacific-2 0.946 Jack&Betty-5 0.249 Choice-2 -0.067 Dening-5 -1.054
Standard(p)-1 0.859 Union-4 0.212 Taisho-2 -0.074 Dening-2 -1.214
Standard(p)-4 0.7 Globe-5 0.211 Standard(t)-2 -0.105 Dening-1 -1.23
Pacific-4 0.62 Standard(t)-1 0.189 Standard(t)-3 -0.136 Dening-3 -1.464
Union-5 0.612 Choice-5 0.178 Taisho-3 -0.182 Pacific-1 -3.193
Standard(p)-3 0.558 Standard(p)-2 0.145 Drill-2 -0.215 Jack&Betty-1 -3.201
Globe-4 0.524 National-3 0.095 Globe-2 -0.215
National-5 0.523 National-4 0.095 Taisho-5 -0.265
Standard(p)-5 0.439 Taisho-4 0.091 Drill-3 -0.269
Jack&Betty-4 0.401 National-2 0.081 Pacific-5 -0.312
Standard(t)-4 0.383 Drill-5 0.079 Drill-4 -0.367
On Dim 5, as it is clear in Table 9, the value is the highest for Drill-1 (3.482), the
second highest for Taisho-1 (1.446), and the lowest for Jack&Retty-1 (-3.201) and the
second lowest for Pacific-1 (-3.193), the others coming in between them. In
decreasing order, the fifty-five textbooks were: Drill-1 > Taisho-1 > Globe-1 >
Pacific-3 > Pacific-2 > Standard(p)-1 > Standard(p)-4 > Pacific-4 > Union-5 >

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Standard(p)-3 > ….. > Choice-1 > Union-2 > Union-3 > Dening-4 > Dening-5 > Dening-
2 > Dening-1 > Dening-3 > Pacific-1 > Jack&Betty-1.
The difference of the fifty-five textbooks on Dim 5 could best be explained by the
category of strictly-controlled (+) vs. loosely-controlled (-) texts. In Drill-1 (the
highest), Taisho-1 (the second highest), Globe-1 (the third highest) and the other
high-scoring ones, linguistic items were strictly selected or controlled from the
teaches’ (superiors’) viewpoint, while in Jack&Betty-1 (the lowest), Pacific-1 (the
second lowest), Dening-3 (the third lowest) and the other low-scoring ones, this
kind of linguistic control was not generally observed, with more freedom given
for natural communicative activity. In other words, Drill-1 and the others observe
the principle of grammar and vocabulary control as a basic strategy for EFL
textbook organization, while Jack&Betty-1 and the others value the principle of
natural communicative activity. For this reason, Dim 5 was termed strictly-
controlled vs. loosely-controlled texts, just as in the Book-1 results (Honda et al., 2018)
and the Book-3 results (Asai et al., 2019). Thus, in the present CA, the name,
feature and axis of Dim 5 were basically the same as those of the results of the
Book-1 and Book-3 CAs. The contribution rate of Dim 5 was 0.041, covering only
4.1% of the whole contribution.

Taisho-1 2.116 Drill-1 0.573 Standard(p)-1 -0.122 Drill-3 -0.574
Union-1 1.777 Taisho-2 0.475 Standard(p)-4 -0.124 Globe-4 -0.584
Pacific-1 1.692 Pacific-5 0.44 Choice-1 -0.134 Dening-2 -0.672
Union-2 1.686 Jack&Betty-5 0.284 Standard(t)-4 -0.147 Standard(p)-2 -0.766
Pacific-2 0.958 National-2 0.21 Dening-5 -0.158 Dening-1 -0.77
Union-4 0.953 Choice-3 0.109 Drill-5 -0.216 Dening-3 -0.925
Taisho-3 0.933 Choice-2 0.1 Pacific-3 -0.262 Drill-2 -1.666
Union-5 0.923 Jack&Betty-3 0.083 Standard(t)-3 -0.262 Globe-2 -1.666
National-3 0.882 Globe-5 0.057 Standard(p)-3 -0.326 Jack&Betty-2 -1.836
National-4 0.882 Standard(p)-5 0.018 Jack&Betty-4 -0.351 Globe-1 -4.102
Taisho-5 0.843 Choice-5 -0.02 National-1 -0.433
Union-3 0.818 Standard(t)-5 -0.026 Dening-4 -0.494
National-5 0.692 Choice-4 -0.046 Jack&Betty-1 -0.496
Pacific-4 0.666 Globe-3 -0.057 Standard(t)-1 -0.507
Taisho-4 0.601 Standard(t)-2 -0.087 Drill-4 -0.57
On Dim 6, as it is clear in Table 10, the value is the highest for Taisho-1 (2.116), the
second highest for Union-1 (1.777), the third highest for Pacific-1 (1.692), and the
lowest for Globe-1 (-4.102) and the second lowest for Jack&Betty-2 (-1.836), the
others coming in between them. In decreasing order, the fifty-five textbooks were:
Taisho-1 > Union-1 > Pacific-1 > Union-2 > Pacific-2 > Union-4 > Taisho-3 > Union-5
> National-3 > National-4 > ….. > Drill-3 > Globe-4 > Dening-2 > Standard(p)-2 >
Dening-1 > Dening-3 > Drill-2 > Globe-2 > Jack&Betty-2 > Globe-1.
category of redundant (+) vs. concise (-) texts; in Taisho-1 (the highest) and other
high-scoring ones, a considerably large parts of the texts tend to be long and

237
redundant in the sense that the dialogues and expository passages are interwoven
with other related drill-based repetitive activities such as grammar, structure,
Japanese into English translation, spelling, etc. or some of the discourses are
longer and somewhat desultory, while in Globe-1 (the lowest) and other low-
scoring textbooks the passages and dialogues were generally brief and concise
without tedious drill-like activities.
For this reason, Dim 6 was termed redundant vs. concise texts, just as in the Book-1
and Book-3 results (Honda et al., 2018; Asai et al., 2019). It has to be noted in this
respect that the name, feature and axis of Dim 6 were basically the same as the
results of the Book-1 CA and of the Book-3 CA except for the location of the plus-
minus poles in the present CA and the Book-1 CA. The contribution rate of Dim
6 was 0.036, covering only 3.6% of the whole contribution.

Pacific-3 1.999 Standard(p)-4 0.637 Choice-2 -0.063 Dening-4 -1.066
Pacific-2 1.886 Standard(p)-5 0.481 Standard(t)-5 -0.101 Dening-1 -1.094
Jack&Betty-2 1.826 Standard(p)-1 0.419 National-1 -0.2 Union-3 -1.207
Pacific-4 1.683 Union-4 0.386 Drill-3 -0.222 Dening-2 -1.274
Jack&Betty-1 1.55 Globe-3 0.358 Choice-4 -0.281 Union-2 -1.328
Jack&Betty-4 1.187 Standard(t)-1 0.33 Drill-5 -0.306 Dening-5 -1.425
Globe-4 1.137 National-3 0.305 Drill-4 -0.387 Drill-1 -1.645
Union-5 1.105 National-4 0.305 Choice-1 -0.476 Taisho-1 -1.762
Drill-2 0.97 Choice-5 0.3 Taisho-3 -0.484 Dening-3 -1.783
Globe-2 0.97 National-2 0.29 Jack&Betty-5 -0.596 Globe-1 -2.191
National-5 0.932 Standard(t)-2 0.254 Pacific-5 -0.635
Jack&Betty-3 0.847 Pacific-1 0.2 Choice-3 -0.77
Globe-5 0.822 Standard(p)-3 0.182 Taisho-5 -0.817
Standard(t)-3 0.733 Taisho-4 0.115 Union-1 -0.925
Taisho-2 0.674 Standard(t)-4 0.099 Standard(p)-2 -0.982
On Dim 7, as it is clear in Table 11, the value is the highest for Pacific-3 (1.999), the
second highest for Pacific-2 (1.886), the third highest for Jack&Betty-2 (1.826), and
the lowest for Globe-1 (-2.191), the second lowest for Dening-3 (-1.783), the third
lowest for Taisho-1 (-1.762) and the others coming in between them. In decreasing
order, the fifty-five textbooks were: Pacific-3 > Pacific-2 > Jack&Betty-2 > Pacific-4 >
Jack&Betty-1 > Jack&Betty-4 > Globe-4 > Union-5 > Drill-2 > Globe-2 > ….. > Dening-
4 > Dening-1 > Union-3 > Dening-2 > Union-2 > Dening-5 > Drill-1 > Taisho-1 >
Dening-3 > Globe-1.
category of connected (+) vs. disconnected (-) contents. In Pacific-3 (the highest),
Pacific-2 (the second highest), Jack&Betty-2(the third highest) and the other high-
scoring ones, the contents of the passages in the lessons are semantically and
contextually connected; especially in Pacific-3(the highest), Pacific-2(the second
highest), Jack&Betty-2(the third highest) and the others, their main characters and
their families consistently appear throughout the volume, while in Dening-3 (the
second lowest), Taisho-1 (the third highest) and the other low-scoring ones, except

238
for Globe-1 (the lowest), the contents are not connected in any way. (It has to be
noted that Globe-1 (the lowest) has to be treated as an exception since its contents
are semantically and contextually connected throughout the volume.) For this
reason, the Dim 7 was termed connected vs. disconnected contents, just as in the
Book-1 CA (Honda et al., 2018) and the Book-3 CA solutions (Asai et al., 2019).
The contribution rate of Dim 7 was 0.029, covering only 2.9% of the whole
contribution.
It has to be admitted that the naming and characterization of the Dims in the
present CA turned to be a difficult job as it had been expected. This was because
the present CA had to analyze an extremely large corpus comprised of fifty-five
textbooks in total, covering five years (1st to 5th year) and eleven kinds. This might
have been the main reason that made the dimension-naming difficult.
The bipolar CA map in Figure 1 visualizes the 58.9% of the spatial inter-
relationships identified among the fifty-five categorical variants in focus, in which
the x-axis (horizontal axis) represents Dim 1 (difficult (+) vs. easy (-) texts) and the
y-axis (vertical axis) Dim 2 (artificial-sounding (+) vs. natural-sounding (-) discourse).
Because these Dims are the two most predominant ones among the seven Dims
identified, covering almost 60% of the whole contribution rates, they can be
regarded as the major Dims representing the present major CA results.
This bipolar visualization seems to reveal several interesting facts concerning the
features of each of the fifty-five textbooks and their mutual inter-relationships.
First, there were a large number of textbooks clustered around the area
characterized by ‘neutral texts (around zero point)’ on the difficult/easy axis (the x-
axis) and ‘natural-sounding texts (minus-pole) on the naturalness/artificialness axis
(the y-axis).’ This cluster, termed ‘natural-sounding cluster’ or ‘Cluster A,’ was
comprised of the following twenty-two textbooks, mostly second- and third-year
textbooks.
Drill-2, Globe-2, Jack&Betty-3, Taisho-4, Drill-4, Standard(t)-1, Standard(t)-2,
Jack&Betty-4, Choice-3, Pacific-2, Pacific-3, Taisho-2, Drill-3, Taisho-3, National-3,
National-4, Jack&Betty-2, Union-3, Choice-2, Union-2, Union-1, National-2
The texts of these textbooks were judged to be neutral in readability or difficulty
and natural-sounding daily-life-based dialogues rather than artificially polished
expository passages. This judgment could also be supported by the fact that they
were mostly textbooks written for the lower-level students such as the second-
year or third-year students.

239
X-axis (Dim 1): difficult (+) vs. easy (-) texts (46.9%)
Y-axis (Dim 2): artificial-sounding (+) vs. natural-sounding discourse (-) (12.0%)
Figure 1: CA Map of 55 Textbooks
Second, there were also a large number of textbooks clustered around the area
characterized by difficult texts (plus on the x-axis) and artificial-sounding texts (plus
on the y-axis). This cluster, termed ‘difficult and artificial-sounding’ or ‘Cluster B,’
was comprised of the following twenty-four textbooks, mostly fourth- and fifth-
year textbooks.
Dening-5, National-5, Globe-5, Choice-5, Union-5, Standard(p)-2, Dening-3,
Union-4, Choice-4, Dening-4, Dening-2, Standard(t)-5, Globe-4, Standard(t)-3,
Standard(p)-3, Pacific-5, Globe-3, Dening-1, Standard(t)-4, Standard(p)-5,
Jack&Betty-5, Drill-5, Taisho-5, Pacific-4
The texts of these textbooks were judged to be both difficult and artificial in the
sense that they are artificially polished expository passages rather than natural-
sounding daily-life-like dialogues. This judgment could also be supported by the
fact that they are mostly textbooks written for the fifth-year or fourth-year

240
students and/or authored by native-speaker authors, such as Dening (Dening),

Sanders (Union), Barnes (National) and Palmer (Standard(p)).
Third, there were a rather small number of textbooks clustered around the area
characterized by easy in readability (located around the minus area of the x
(difficult/easy)-pole). This cluster, termed ‘easy’ or ‘Cluster C,’ was comprised of
the following eight textbooks, all of them being first-year textbooks.
Pacific-1, Standard(p)-1, Taisho-1, Jack&Betty-1, Drill-1, Globe-1, Choice-1
National-1
These easy textbooks could further be divided into two classes, (1) easy and
artificial-sounding ones (Cluster C-1) and (2) easy and natural-sounding ones
(Cluster C-2), depending upon their locations on the y-pole or the artificial-/
natural-sounding pole. As it is clear in Figure 1, the Cluster C-1 textbooks, i.e.,
Pacific-1, Standard(p)-1, Taisho-1, Jack&Betty-1, Drill-1 and Globe-1, could be
characterized as the textbooks which valued repetitive, drill-based language
activities more than natural communication. On the contrary, the Cluster C-2
textbooks, Choice-1 and National-1 could be characterized as the textbooks which
valued natural-sounding expressions more than artificial, repetitive, drill-based
activities.
An interesting fact to be noted in this respect is that National-1, a textbook
authored by a U. S. author for U. S. primary school grade-1 learners, published in
U. S. A., and imported to Japan to be used in Japanese middle schools, was at the
same level in readability as the textbooks authored by Japanese authors for
Japanese middle school first-year learners. Probably this might be one of the
reasons that National-1 was popular among Japanese EFL teachers and learners in
the pre-war days in Japan.
Clearly, it was both Dim 1, i.e., x-axis, named ‘difficult vs. easy texts’ and Dim 2,
i.e., y-axis, named ‘artificial-sounding vs. natural-sounding discourse’ that
differentiated this large number of textbooks from among each other. This will
prove that both of the two axes, both the x-axis and the y-axis, are equally efficient
and powerful differentiators of these EFL textbooks in focus.

241
Figure 2: Dendrogram by Ward Method (100%)

It is true that the bipolar map based on the two selected major axes can display
the major features of the fifty-five textbooks graphically but naturally it cannot
depict all of their features detected in the present CA. As the cumulative
contribution rates show in Table 3, the bipolar map comprised of the two axes can
only display 58.9% of the whole features, leaving the rest (41.1%) untouched. To
solve this problem, an attempt was made to display the whole features of their
differences, using cluster analysis (Ward method) and dendrogram (Figure 2).
(For further explanation of dendrogram see Asai et al., 2019, p. 42.)
Figure 2 graphically describes the differences of the fifty-five textbooks based on
the values of the fifty-four Dims identified. As it is shown in Figure 2, there were
three groups formed in the dendrogram, Group A, B and C. Group A, which
corresponds to Cluster A above, was comprised of the following twenty
textbooks.
Choice-1, National-1, Choice-2, Nationa-2, National-3, Nationa-4, Union-2,
Union-3, Jack&Betty-3, Pacific-3, Pacific-2, Pacific-4, Taisho-4, Taisho-3, Drill-
2, Globe-2, Jack&Betty-2, Standard(t)-1, Taisho-2, Union-1
Among these twenty textbooks, seventeen ones were identical with those from
among Cluster A above, which suggests that the two Dims, i.e., difficulty/easiness
(Dim 1) and artificial-/natural-sounding (Dim 2), were the most influential on their
categorization and classification.
Group B, which corresponds to Cluster B above, was comprised of the twenty-
nine textbooks.
Choice-3, Drill-4, Drill-3, Jack&Betty-4, Standard(t)-2, Choice-4, Drill-5,
Taisho-5, Jack&Betty-5, Pacific-5, Dening-1, Dening-2, Dening-3, Dening-4,
Dening-5, Choice-5, National-5, Union-4, Union-5, Globe-3, Globe-5,

242
Standard(t)-3, Globe-4, Standard(p)-2, Standard(p)-3, Standard(p)-4,

Standard(p)-5, Standard(t)-4, Standard(t)-5
Among these twenty-nine textbooks, twenty-three ones were identical with those
from among Cluster B above, which also suggests that the two Dims, i.e.,
difficulty/easiness (Dim 1) and artificial-/natural-sounding (Dim 2), were the most
influential on their categorization and classification.
Group C, which corresponds to Cluster C above, more specifically, Custer C-1,
was comprised of the following six textbooks, all of them being first-year
textbooks.
Drill-1, Globe-1, Standard(p)-1, Taisho-1, Jack&Betty-1, Pacific-1
All of these six textbooks were identical with those from among Cluster C above ,
which also suggests that the two axes, i.e., difficulty/easiness (Dim 1) and artificial-
/natural-sounding (Dim 2), were the most influential on their categorization and
classification.
It has to be noted that all of these Dendrogram-classifications were based on the
judgment of the fifty-four Dims identified (the seven named Dims and the forty-
seven unnamed ones). Also, Group A and Group B were combined together to
form a larger Group AB, and further, Group AB and Group C were further
combined to form a larger group, Group ABC.
5. Conclusion, recommendations, limitations and future research

It was proved in the present study that CA can handle quite a large amount of
textual corpus, discriminating such a large number of EFL textbooks and
clarifying the viewpoints necessary for this work. This means that CA is a useful
statistic tool for the textual analyses in the language –related areas.
As for the recommendations to be derived from the present study results, the
following are to be pointed out.
• In analyzing and evaluating English (EFL) textbooks, practitioners can make
good use of the seven viewpoints, i.e., (1) difficult / easy texts, (2) artificial- /
natural-sounding discourse, (3) dialogue- / passage-based textbooks, (4) teacher- /
non teacher-dominance, (5) strictly / loosely controlled, (6) redundant / concise and
(7) connected / disconnected.
• Among them, practitioners can focus on (1) difficult / easy texts since it is the
most powerful factor that discriminates the features of English (EFL)
textbooks.
• If it is necessary to grasp the fairly comprehensive picture of English (EFL)
textbooks, practitioners can focus on the two viewpoints, the most powerful
and the second most powerful viewpoints, i.e., (1) difficult / easy texts and (2)
artificial- / natural-sounding discourse.
If teachers can analyze or evaluate the textbooks used in the classroom from such
viewpoints, they will be able to help their learners’ learning and evaluate it from
the light of qualitative aspect of the textbooks.
Concerning limitations of the present CA, the following points are to be made.

243
First, as stated earlier, although the differences of the Books-1-5 textbooks were
explained by the same Dims as those of the Book-1 and Book -3 results up to Dim
7, there were two exceptions noted in the analysis (Honda et al. (2019). The Dim
3 of the Book-5 CA was termed variety-rich vs. variety-poor, which was different
from those of the Book-1, Book-3 (Honda et al. (2019) and the present CA. Also,
The Dim 4 of the Book-5 CA was termed teacher-assistance vs. non teacher-assistance,
while those of Book-1, Book-3 and the present CA were teacher dominance vs. non
teacher dominance (Honda et al. (2019). It has to be admitted that although the
results of the four CAs were almost the same on the whole, there were some
inconsistencies or irregularities observed on minor points. These facts suggest the
limitations of the present CA and a need of further make-up study, specifically a
need of qualitative studies of these EFL textbooks.
Second, the present CA results have nothing to say on the relationship
(homogeneities / differences) of the fifty-five historical EFL textbooks to the
currently used ones, since there were no current EFL textbooks included as
categorical variants in the present CA, due to a lack of capacity for the analysis. It
has to be admitted that this is a serious weakness of the present research model.
To solve this problem, there must be chances to conduct a new CA, using both
historical and current EFL textbooks as categorical variants, in order to probe into
their mutual relationships.
Finally, it must be admitted and emphasized that the results of these quantitative
analyses including the present CA could and should be double-checked by the
qualitative analyses of the same samples used. The qualitative confirmation of
the validity of a quantitative analysis (or vice versa) is essential in academic
pursuit. This should be the main theme in the next study.
6. References
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Fukui, M. (2011). Shakai sisutemu bunseki notameno togouka puroguramu 14:
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Fukui, M., & Watanabe, K. (2019a). Tekisuto CR bunnseki no gosuu chouseihou to tango
no sentaku: Senyou puroguramu no kaihatu [Number adjustment and selection
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Greenacre, M. (2017). Correspondence analysis in practice, 3rd ed. (Chapman & Hall/CRC
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doi:10.26803/ijlter.17.11.8
Honda, R., Asai, T., Watanabe, K., & Ozasa, T. (2019). A correspondence analysis of twelve
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Honda, R., Watanabe, K., & Ozasa, T. (2017). A correspondence analysis of nine Japanese
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doi:10.26803/ijlter.16.10.8
Ozasa, T. (2003). Meiji, Taisho, Showa-shoki no eigo kyokasho no keiryouteki bunseki [A
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Ozasa, T., Watanabe, K., & Fukui, M. (2016). Development of a readability index attuned
to the new English course of study of Japan (4): Development of Ozasa-Fukui Year
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Social Sciences and Business), Tokyo, Japan, August 25-27, 2016, pp. 385-394.
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shogakko eigo kyokasho 4shu to genko chugakko kyokasho no taiobunseki
[Correspondence analysis of four Japanese primary school EFL textbooks
published during 1900-1908 and a current junior high school textbook]. Journal of
ICTATLL (ICT in the Analysis, Teaching and Learning of Languages), Japan, 57-68.
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Takanashi, T. (2018). A quantitative descriptive analysis of Japanese EFL learners’ inability

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Appendix 1
Two contrasting textbooks in the values in Dim 1(difficult(+) vs. easy (-) texts)
HIRATSUKA ETCHU-NO-KAMI, a daring man, who feared nothing, while wandering

about the country as a knight-errant, was urged by messengers from IEYASU to enter his
service. “IEYASU is stingy,” he replied; “although he uses polite language to his
subordinates, the emoluments he bestows are very scanty.”
(Dening-5, 2nd passage (The most difficult))
You are a girl. You are Betty Smith. You are a boy. You are Jack Jones. Are you Betty?
Yes, I am Betty. Are you a schoolgirl? Yes, I am a schoolgirl. Are you a teacher? No,
I am not a teacher. Are you Tom? No, I am not Tom. Are you Jack? Yes, I am Jack. Are
you a schoolboy? Yes, I am a schoolboy.
(Jack&Betty-1, Unit 1, Lesson 2 (The easiest))

246
Appendix 2
Two contrasting textbooks in the values in Dim 2(artificial-sounding(+) vs. natural -
sounding(-) texts)
You have a book.

Have you a book?
Yes, I have.
You have a pencil.
Have you a pencil?
Yes, I have.
You have a card.
Have you a card?
Yes, I have.
(Pacific-1, Lesson 3 (The most artificial-sounding)
This is a big rat.

Can the dog get the rat?
The dog can get the rat.
(National-1, Lesson 3 (The most natural-sounding)
Appendix 3
Two contrasting textbooks in the values in Dim 3(dialogue-based(+) vs. passage-based(-)
texts)
This is a boy and his dog.

Can the boy and his dog run fast?
Yes. See them run.
He cannot run as fast as his dog.
Run, boy, run!
(Choice-1, Lesson 12 (12/53 Lessons) (The most dialogue-based))
T: Is this a cap or a hat?

P: It is a hat.
T: Is this my hat?
P: Yes, it is your hat.
T: Is this your hat?
P: No, it is not my hat. It is your hat.
(Drill-1, Lesson 9 (9/39 Lessons) (The most passage-based))
Jack and Betty are pupils of the 2A class. Mr. Johnson is their teacher. There is
a large blackboard in their classroom. There is a teacher's desk in front of the
blackboard. Thirty-five pupils' desks and chairs are in the room. In one corner of
the room there is a bookcase. And near the windows there are some flower-pots.
There is a cage in the hall just outside the classroom. Some little birds are in the
cage. There are seventeen boys and eighteen girls in the class. They always help
their teacher.
(Jack&Betty-2, Lesson 2 (2/24 Lessons) (The most passage-based))

247
Appendix 4
Two contrasting textbooks in the values in Dim 4(dominance(+) vs. non-teacher
dominance(-) texts)
See the big hen.

See the fat pig.
See the big fat hen.
See the big fat pig.
Do you see the big hen?
Yes, I see the big hen.
Do you see the fat pig?
Yes, I see the fat pig?
The big hen and the fat pig run.
Run, boy, run!
(Choice-1, Lesson 4 (4/53 Lessons) (The most teacher-dominated))
A dog. I have a dog. His name is Tom. He is an old dog. I play with Tom. Tome plays
with me. Tom and I play together.
(Globe-1, Lesson 4 (4/24 Lessons) (The least teacher-dominated))

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Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 248-267, April 2020
The Place of Creativity in EFL Omani Syllabus:

A Content Analysis of Grade 12 Students’ and
Teachers’ Books
Maryam Said Al-Jabri

Ministry of Education, Oman
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4553-4623
Fawzia Al Seyabi1*, Salma Al Humaidi2 and Abdulhamid Hasan3

Sultan Qaboos University
Al Khoudh, Muscat 123, Oman
1https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1763-3467
2https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8579-7749
3https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4443-2342
Abstract. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the presence of

creativity thinking skills (fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration)
and creativity teaching strategies in post-basic English as a Foreign
Language (EFL) textbooks in Oman. The content analysis method was
used to analyze grade 12 EFL textbooks and Teachers’ books. The
researchers developed two coding books. The first coding book aimed to
identify the creativity thinking skills present in the textbooks, and the
other book coded the creativity teaching strategies prescribed in the
Teachers’ Books. The results showed that activities in post-basic EFL
textbooks do not provide enough support for creativity thinking skills as
only about 20% of grade 12 textbook activities included creativity
thinking skills partially or fully. The findings also showed that out of the
four types of creativity skills, verbal fluency was the highest. The results
also indicated that the prescribed creativity teaching strategies are not
very common in the EFL Teachers’ Books. The study makes some
recommendations for curriculum developers.
Keywords: creativity thinking skills; teaching strategies; Torrance

Incubation Model; textbook analysis; Oman
1. Introduction
The significant role of creativity as a higher-level thinking skill in promoting the
quality of education is undeniable. Previous studies have proven that studying
creativity is considered a “necessity” in today’s world since it is regarded as one
* Corresponding author: Fawzia Al Seyab, Email: fawzia@squ.edu.om

249
of the factors that contribute to the progress of any civilization (Hennessey &
Amabile, 2010). Thereupon, creativity has been identified as a cornerstone in
curriculum design and education development (Fatt, 2000). In particular, creative
thinking activities should be present in textbooks as they play a significant role in
guiding the teaching-learning processes.
Although teaching creative thinking may not seem possible to many, research in
psychology has proven that creativity is a skill that can be taught (Downing, 1997;
Torrance, 1963). Torrance (1963) has emphasized that schools should consider
shifting their goals from teaching students how to learn into teaching them how
to think (p. 4). The Torrance Incubation Model (TIM) for creative learning and
teaching was developed by Paul Torrance to work as a model and guide for
content design and creativity instruction (Murdock & Keller-Mathers, 2002 b). It
consists of three stages that correspond to the before, during and after stages.
Murdock and Keller-Mathers (2002 b) suggested that the TIM can be used to teach
creativity independently or within the specified content of any subject, including
language teaching (p. 2).
Creativity is one of the important 21st-century learning skills, and it is a long-life
skill that contributes to improving the quality of education at different facets
(Richards, 2013). These are mainly relevant to the “four Ps” that help toward
shaping the creative personality: the Person, the Product, the Process, and the
Place (Vogel, 2014). These four aspects of creativity are reflected in various
approaches. For instance, in the humanist approach, creativity develops the
personality of the students through enhancing their abilities to express
themselves. For this purpose, teaching creativity requires providing safe
environments in which students can explore and build up their knowledge. In so
doing, the students’ basic needs of security, motivation, and self-actualization in
Maslow’s theory of needs are fulfilled (Craft, 2001). The cognitive approach also
views creativity as a combination of thinking skills that are directed to solve
problems (Alhajri, 2013). This approach perceives creativity as a process that leads
to the novelty of knowledge (Cropley, 1999).
This study attempts to investigate the integration of creativity thinking skills and
strategies at higher school grades in Oman through a content analysis of the
English as a Foreign Language (EFL) curriculum of grade 12. The study will seek
to answer the following questions:
1. What type of creativity thinking skills are present in post-basic EFL
textbooks?
2. What type of creativity teaching strategies are prescribed in post-basic EFL
Teachers’ Books?
Considering there is a gap in terms of studies that have approached creativity in
the EFL context in Oman, content analysis of the EFL textbooks is considered as a
starting point for future research on creativity as a 21st-century skill. The results
of the study will hopefully help to identify the weaknesses as well as the strengths
of post-basic EFL textbooks in terms of integrating creativity thinking skills.
Moreover, the study could provide suggestions for developing post-basic EFL
textbooks in the light of the findings of the research. Identifying the present types

250
of creativity thinking skills and teaching strategies could lead to more diversified
inclusion of these skills and strategies in future curriculum development.
Treffinger, Young, Selby, and Shepardson (2002) have declared that there isn’t a
single definition of creativity that is approved worldwide. Therefore, describing
creativity has been a hard mission for most scholars attempting to explain what
creativity is and isn’t (Boden, 1994), and its entire meaning is generally accepted
as difficult to articulate in words. Perhaps the most favored definition of creativity
is the one suggested by the National Advisory Committee on Creativity, Culture,
and Education (NACCCE, 1999), which views creativity as an “imaginative
activity fashioned to produce outcomes that are both original and of value.”
According to Shaheen (2010), this definition is applicable to the educational field
in the sense that it gives room to all students to be creative.
Since the 1950s, research on creativity had thrived, starting when Guildford urged
researchers to shift their attention to the skill of creativity and enrich it with more
empirical studies (Craft, 2001; Jaušovec & Jaušovec, 2011; Sternberg, 2006; El-
Koumy, 2019). Guildford (1987) blamed psychologists for neglecting this field as
he found very few papers that attempted to explore creativity. Consequently, a
large group of scholars has endeavored to delve deeper into this field and form
theories to make it more understandable, useful, and measurable. Moreover, the
call for fostering creativity in education came from the world of economics after
realizing the big influence of creativity in driving commerce and solving business
problems (Ford & Gioia, 2000). Also, the demand in the labor market on
employees with creative visions has increased. Accordingly, embedding
creativity in education has become a requirement to fulfill the job market’s needs
(World Bank, 2012).
2.1 Enhancing Creativity in Education

One common belief that surrounded the concept of creativity is that it is an
inherited potential that only gifted people possess; however, this belief has started
to diminish since the early twentieth century (Lin, 2011). Several studies have shed
light on the effectiveness of deliberate creativity training. For example, Scott,
Leritz, and Mumford’s study (2004) found that creativity training has a significant
positive effect on learners’ creativity abilities from different age groups. Also,
Fleith, Westberg, and Renzulli (2002) studied the impact of creativity training on
students’ divergent thinking and found positive results. Likewise, Gurak-
Ozdemir (2016) and Barker (2019) indicated that training teachers on creativity
has a positive influence on enhancing their learners’ creative abilities. Also, a case
study conducted by Sehic (2017) concluded that students’ creativity skills could
be improved through language teaching and vice versa.
The communicative method is one of the educational approaches that can
incorporate creativity training in foreign language teaching. The situational
learning tasks used in communicative classrooms activate students’ imagination
and lead them eventually to think creatively (Otto, 1998; Richards, 2013). At the
local level, it is clearly stated in the English Language Curriculum Framework
(ELCF) (2010, p. 9) that the curriculum developers in the Oman Ministry of

251
Education implemented the communicative approach in designing the textbooks.

The communicative approach requires integrating different types of tasks that
trigger higher-order thinking skills. According to the ELCF (2010, p. 29), the
current textbooks of the post-basic stage used in Oman are rich with activities that
prompt critical thinking and research skills, laying the groundwork for creative
thinking to occur. However, recent studies suggest that critical thinking skills are
poorly fostered in the current EFL curriculum. One recent study done by Al-
Rajaibi (2017) concluded that there are few critical thinking skills present in the
reading passages of post-basic EFL textbooks employed in Oman.
2.2 Creative Thinking Abilities

Studying the creative personality and the creative thinking processes have
facilitated the process of understanding creativity and developed a perspective on
how to enhance it in education. According to Torrance (1963), creative people are
those who can sense problems in contexts, have smooth flows of ideas, and are
flexible to change. They also are producers of new or unexpected answers, can see
beyond the obvious, can analyze and synthesize, and do not adhere to the “right
answer” or “the right way” philosophy (p. 94-97). Later, more researchers have
mentioned further descriptions of creativity abilities like brainstorming and
imagination (Davis, 1989).
In 1998, Torrance finalized the creativity thinking skills set in his book “Making
the Creative Leap Beyond”, which includes 18 skills that contribute to developing
students’ creative thinking abilities (Murdock & Keller-Mathers, 2002 a). Torrance
considered them as the essential skills that are developed through the Torrance
Incubation Model (TIM) for creative learning and teaching (p. 9). Through
utilizing these skill sets, teaching creativity becomes possible by specifying the
targeted creativity thinking skills to be integrated into any type of discipline
(Torrance, 1995). Among all of these skills, most studies that have attempted to
measure creativity focused only on the four skills that Torrance considered in
developing the Torrance Test for Creative Thinking (TTCT): fluency, flexibility,
originality and elaboration (Sriwongchai, 2015; Plucker, Runco, Lim, 2006;
Czarniecki, 2009; Vidal, 2005; Puryear, Kettler & Rinn, 2017; Sarikhani, Salari &
Mansouri, 2016). These skills are tested through figural and verbal forms in the
TTCT as they serve as indicators of intellectual and emotional creativity potentials
(Wechsler, 2006). Therefore, this might indicate that these four skills are the most
important creativity thinking skills among the ones listed in the TCSS.
2.3 Creativity Teaching Strategies: Torrance Incubation Model for Creative Learning
and Teaching
It is difficult to imagine teaching that promotes creativity without the teaching
methods themselves being creative (Sahlberg, 2009). The literature affirms that
teaching creativity requires creative teaching (Sahlberg, 2009; Annarella, 1999;
Richards, 2013). In other words, learners may not develop creative thinking skills
if it is not encouraged by the school curriculum (Richards, 2013, p. 14). On the
contrary, students may lose their interest in being creative as a result of traditional
teaching strategies.
Torrance combined creativity teaching strategies in one model to guide
practitioners in teaching creativity thinking skills. This model consists of three

252
stages for each lesson; every stage involves some strategies that can be used in
combination with other strategies or separately (Murdock & Keller-Mathers, 2002
b). The order of these stages corresponds to the before, during and after model, but
with a focus on creativity abilities (Murdock & Keller-Mathers, 2002 b). The
following figure in Torrance and Safetr’s book (1990, p.8) “The Incubation Model
of Teaching: Getting beyond the Aha! “ illustrates the TIM strategies.
Figure 1: The Torrance Incubation Model (TIM) for Creative Learning and Teaching
According to Torrance and Safter (1990, p.12), the TIM is “a three-stage model of
instruction which may be used as a guide in planning courses, planning lessons,
developing instructional materials, and in making instruction more effective”.
3. Methodology
3.1 Research design
To investigate the presence of creativity in education, the curriculum as a
significant element of the educational environment needs to be studied to ensure
that it supports creativity and creative thinking effectively. Thus, the present
study used the curriculum content analysis method. The content analyzed is that
of the English language textbooks and teachers’ books of grade 12 in Omani public
schools (of both first and second semesters). The focus of the study is directed at
creativity thinking skills and creativity teaching strategies that boost creative
thinking. Accordingly, students’ textbooks represent the documents for the
content analysis of the creativity thinking skills, and teachers’ guidebooks
represent the documents for the content analysis of the creativity teaching
strategies.
3.2 Sampling
The post-basic stage of public education in Oman includes two grades, 11 and 12.
As the activities and the cognitive load are cumulative throughout these two
levels, grade 12 contains the highest density of activities and thinking skills.

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Moreover, it is the exit level from which students continue their education at the
tertiary level or go directly into the job market. Consequently, grade 12 EFL
textbooks are the most appropriate to represent post-basic EFL textbooks of public
schools. The sample includes all the activities and lessons in grade 12 students’
textbooks, for both semester A and semester B. The analysis of the teaching
strategies also includes all the strategies mentioned in the Teachers’ books.
3.3 Instrumentation
Two instruments were developed by the researchers to collect data for this study.
These instruments are Creativity Thinking Skills Coding Book and Creativity
Teaching Strategies Coding Book. The creativity thinking skills coding book
includes the primary skills listed in the Torrance Creativity Skills Set (TCSS):
fluency or producing alternatives, flexibility or Look at it another way, originality and
elaboration (Torrance & Safter, 1990). These four skills are measured in figural
and verbal categories according to the same classification of creativity thinking
skills in the TTCT. As for the creativity teaching strategies, another coding book
was developed through listing the three main stages (heightening anticipation,
deepening expectation and extending the learning) of the Torrance Incubation
Model for creative learning and teaching along with all the types of teaching
strategies available in each stage. This coding book is used to identify the kinds of
creativity strategies included in grade 12 lessons, as prescribed in the Teachers’
Books of semesters A and B.
Both the validity of the instrument and reliability of analysis were established. A
panel of nine instructors from Sultan Qaboos University and three Ministry of
Education trainers and senior teachers validated the instruments with a few minor
suggestions on the layout of the coding books. Also, inter-rater reliability and
intra-rater reliability tests were developed before the actual analysis process.
3.4 Analysis procedures

To investigate the presence of creativity thinking skills and strategies in the
content selected, the data has been analyzed based on the frequency of occurrence
in each prescribed lesson in the textbooks. The frequencies are divided into three
levels: commonly present, present but not common and insufficiently present.
According to the scale from Man’s study (2006, p. 10), the frequencies of
occurrences are measured as shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Scale of Measuring Frequencies of Occurrences
Frequency level Amount of occurrence

Commonly present Strategies or skills present in equal to or more than 50% of lessons.
Present but not Strategies or skills present in equal to or more than 33% but less than
common 50% of lessons.
Insufficiently Strategies or skills present in less than 33% of lessons.
present

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4. Results
4.1 Types of Creativity Thinking Skills in Grade 12 EFL Textbooks
To answer the first research question about the types of creativity thinking skills
present in each lesson in grade 12 EFL textbooks, the coding of content data was
performed at the unit level and the activity level.
4.1.1 Types of Creativity Thinking Skills in the different units of grade 12 textbooks
At the unit level, all the 20 lessons in each semester were coded, and frequencies
and percentages of each creativity skill were measured, as illustrated in Table 2.
The correspondent level of presence for each type of skill is also demonstrated in
the table.
Table 2: The Commonality of Presence among Types of Creativity Thinking Skills in
Grade 12
Creativity Semester A Presence Semester B Presence Total Presence
skills F P F P F P
Fluency
Figural 0 0% Not present 0 0% Not present 0 0% Not present
Verbal 15 75% Commonly 17 85% Commonly 32 80% Commonly
present present present
Flexibility
Verbal 1 5% Not present 3 15% Not present 4 10% Not present
Originality
Figural 1 5% Not present 0 0% Not present 1 2.5% Not present
Verbal 4 20% Not present 5 25% Not present 9 22.5% Not present
Elaboration
Verbal 2 10% Not present 8 40% present but 10 25% Not present
not common
Total 23 14.37% Not present 33 20.62% Not present 56 17.5% Not present
Table 2 shows very little frequency of occurrences for the majority of creativity
thinking skills. Figural creativity thinking skills are almost not present in both
semesters. There is only one figural originality activity in workbook A (MOE,
2016c, p. 33). Among verbal creativity thinking skills, fluency has scored the most
considerable frequency of occurrences in 32 lessons out of 40 in total, which
indicates that verbal fluency is commonly present in the activities of grade 12
textbooks.
The occurrences of the remaining verbal creativity thinking skills range from 4 to
10 lessons out of 40 lessons in total. “Elaboration” occurred in 25% of the lessons;
however, this amount shows that the skill of elaboration is not present according
to the formula of analysis employed in this study. The next less frequent verbal
creativity thinking skill is originality, which occurred in 22.5% of the 40 lessons,
and that also indicates that this creativity skill is not present in grade 12 textbook
activities. The least present verbal creativity skill is flexibility, which occurred in
only four lessons in both semesters and registered a very low score of 10%.
Although the percentages of most of the coded creativity thinking skills are very
low, it is worthwhile to note that some lessons included more than one creativity
skill, while others included only one creativity skill or none. In general, the total

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percentage of the presence of creativity thinking skills in the different units of

grade 12 textbooks is 17.5%. Thus, it can be concluded that students are not
exposed to enough creativity thinking skills in EFL post-basic curriculum.
4.1.2 The Level of Integration of Creativity Activities in Language Skills-Based

Activities
To gain more insights about the inclusion of creativity thinking skills in grade 12
textbooks, all language skills-based activities were coded and measured in terms
of their levels of creativity thinking skills integration. These levels are (1)
standalone creativity activities, (2) partial creativity activities, and (3) activities
that do not include creativity thinking skills. According to the language skills-
based categorization of the units, the following table illustrates in detail the total
number of textbook activities in each unit included in grade 12 textbooks for the
two semesters. Total 3 in the table presents the total number of activities for each
language skills-based group of units. Total 4 shows the total number of activities
for each theme in every semester.
Table 3: Number of Activities in Each Unit and Theme
Units/Lessons in Number of textbook activities
Each Theme
Semester A Themes Semester B Themes
Unit Language 1 2 3 4 Total 1 1 2 3 4 Total 2 Total 3

skill/area
1 Reading 11 11 11 12 45 10 11 11 13 45 90
2 Grammar 10 9 9 9 37 10 10 8 10 38 75
3 Vocabulary 8 8 8 8 32 10 8 10 9 37 69
4 Listening & 9 8 8 8 33 9 9 10 10 38 71
speaking
5 Writing 8 9 10 9 36 9 9 9 11 38 74
Total 4 46 45 46 46 183 48 47 48 53 196 379
Table 3 displays the frequencies and percentages of occurrences of creativity

thinking skills in each language skills-based activity. This table highlights the
level of inclusion of creativity skills in each language skill set of units in each
semester separately. Moreover, Total 3 presents the total levels of creativity
thinking skills inclusion in each language skill set of units in both semesters. Total
4, on the other hand, shows the total levels of inclusion of creativity thinking skills
in each semester for all language skills-based activities.

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Table 4: Level of Integration of Creativity Thinking Skills in Grade 12 A & B Textbooks Language Skills-based Activities
Language Levels of integration

skills
Semester A Semester B Total 1
No Partial Stand No Partial Stand No Partial Stand alone
Inclusion Alone Inclusion alone inclusion inclusion
Unit.
F P F P F P F P F P F P F P F P F P
1 Reading 40 88.9% 3 6.7% 2 4.4% 39 86.7% 0 0% 6 13.3% 79 87.9% 3 3.3% 8 8.8%
2 Grammar 29 78.4% 4 10.8% 4 10.8% 32 84.2% 1 2.6% 5 13.2% 61 81.3% 5 6.7% 9 12%
3 Vocabulary 27 84.4% 3 9.4% 2 6.3% 26 70.3% 3 8.1% 8 21.6% 53 76.8% 6 8.7% 10 14.5%
4 Listening & 22 66.7% 3 9.1% 8 24.2% 29 76.3% 4 10.5% 5 13.2% 51 71.8% 7 9.9% 13 18.3%
Speaking
5 Writing 29 80.6% 3 8.3% 4 11.1% 30 78.9% 3 7.9% 5 13.2% 59 79.7% 6 8.1% 9 12.2%
Total 2 147 80.3% 16 8.7% 20 11% 156 79.6% 11 5.6% 29 14.8% 303 79.9% 27 7.1% 49 13%

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Table 4 above shows that listening and speaking skills received the highest inclusion of
creativity thinking skills, with 9.9% of partial inclusion and 18.3% of standalone creativity
activities. Vocabulary skills also included 8.7% partial integration of creativity thinking
skills and 14.5% of standalone creativity activities. The next-lowest percentage is scored
by writing with 8.1% of partial inclusion and 12.2% of standalone creativity activities.
Grammar scored slightly lower percentages than writing, with 6.7% of partial inclusion
and 12% of standalone creativity activities. Reading scored the lowest percentage of
inclusion of creativity thinking skills with only 3.3% of partial inclusion and 8.8% of
standalone creativity activities. Generally, in all language skills-based activities, creativity
thinking skills are not included in 79.9% of these activities, which is a very high percentage
compared to the percentage of the activities with full or partial inclusion of creativity
thinking skills together. This means that only about 20% of textbooks activities included
creativity thinking skills partially or fully. The following bar graph illustrates the level of
integration of creativity skills in language skills-based activities of grade 12 textbooks.
Figure 2: Levels of Integration of Creativity Thinking Skills in Grade 12 Textbook Activities
4.2 Types of Creativity Teaching Strategies in Grade 12 EFL Teachers’ Books

To answer the second research question, the teaching strategies in the teachers’ books
were coded according to the guidebook designed based on the Torrance Incubation Model
for creative teaching and learning. Table 5 demonstrates the frequencies and percentages
of creativity teaching strategies that exist in grade 12 teachers’ books along with the
presence of each one of them. Totals 1 to 3 show the commonality of creativity teaching
strategies for each stage in each semester while Totals 4 and 5 show the total commonality
of presence in each semester and for all language skills.

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Table 5: The Commonality of Use among Types of Creativity Teaching Strategies in Grade 12 A & B Teachers’ Books.
TIM Strategies Semester A Commonality of Semester B Commonality of Total 5 Commonality of

F P Presence F P presence F P Presence
Stage 1:
Heightening Anticipation
Create desire to know 12 60% Commonly present 15 75% Commonly present 27 67.5% Commonly present
Heightening anticipation 10 50% Commonly present 2 10% Not present 12 30% Not present
Get attention 12 60% Commonly present 9 45% Uncommonly present 21 52% Commonly present
Arouse curiosity 12 60% Commonly present 15 75% Commonly present 27 67.5% Commonly present
Tickle the imagination 5 25% Not present 0 0% Not present 5 12.5% Not present
Give purpose and motive. 11 55% Commonly present 17 85% Commonly present 28 70% Commonly present
Total 1 62 52% Commonly present 58 48% Uncommonly present 120 50% Commonly present
Stage 2:
Deepening Expectations
Digging deeper 17 85% Commonly present 18 90% Commonly present 35 62.5% Commonly present
Looking twice 10 50% Commonly present 9 45% Uncommonly present 19 47.5% Uncommonly present
Listening for smells 8 40% Uncommonly present 5 25% Not present 13 32.5% Not present
Crossing out mistakes 11 55% Commonly present 9 45% Uncommonly present 20 50% Commonly present
Cutting holes 7 35% Uncommonly present 13 65% Commonly present 20 50% Commonly present
Cutting corners 6 30% Not present 8 40% Uncommonly present 14 35% Uncommonly present
Getting in deep water 10 50% Commonly present 10 50% Commonly present 20 50% Commonly present
Getting out of locked drs. 4 20% Not present 7 35% Uncommonly present 11 27.5% Not present
Total 2 73 46% Uncommonly present 79 49% Uncommonly present 152 48% Uncommonly present
Stage 3: Keep it Going

Having a ball 4 20% Not present 4 20% Not present 8 20% Not present
Singing in one’s own key 6 30% Not present 3 15% Not present 9 22.5% Not present
Building sandcastles 12 60% Commonly present 15 75% Commonly present 27 67.5% Commonly present
Plugging in the sun 3 15% Not present 7 35% Uncommonly present 10 25% Not present
Shaking hands 2 10% Not present 2 10% Not present 4 10% Not present
Total 3 27 27% Not present 31 31% Not present 58 29% Not present
Total 4 162 42% Uncommonly present 168 44% Uncommonly present 330 43% Uncommonly present

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Table 5 indicates that the frequency of occurrences of creativity teaching strategies varies
in different stages. The total percentages of stage 1 show that it includes four commonly
present creativity teaching strategies which are: Create the desire to know, Get attention,
Arouse curiosity, and Give purpose and motivation. There are two other “not present”
creativity teaching strategies in stage 1, which are: Heightening anticipation and Tickle
the imagination. The total percentage indicates that creativity teaching strategies for stage
1 of the Torrance Incubation Model are commonly present in grade 12 prescribed lesson
plans.
The variation is wider concerning the creativity teaching strategies in stage 2 with four
commonly present strategies: Digging deeper, Crossing out mistakes, Cutting holes to see
through, and Getting in deep water. There are a few uncommonly present creativity
teaching strategies, which are: Looking twice and Cutting corners. Besides, two more
strategies are not present: Listening for smells and Getting out of locked doors. The overall
percentage of the second stage shows that creativity teaching strategies for this stage are
uncommonly present in grade 12 prescribed lesson plans.
As for the creativity teaching strategies in stage 3, the table shows a very low frequency
of occurrences for most of them except for one strategy, which is Building sandcastles. The
rest of the strategies scored lower percentages than 33%, which means that they are not
present in the prescribed lesson plans. In total, creativity teaching strategies in stage 3 are
not present based on the previously mentioned scale. Generally, creativity teaching
strategies scored 43% for both semesters in total, which confirms that these strategies are
present in grade 12 teachers’ books, but they are not common.
Appendix A presents examples of some creativity teaching strategies from grade 12
teachers’ books A and B.
5. Discussion
5.1 Creativity thinking skills in students’ textbooks
According to the results of this study, the presence of creativity thinking skills in post-
basic EFL textbooks activities is minimal. Fewer than 20% of the prescribed lessons
included creativity skills, and almost 20% of language skills-based activities included
creativity skills. This finding is expected since it aligns with the results of previous studies
that also sought to evaluate the presence of creativity thinking skills in textbooks activities.
Baleghizadeh and Dargahi (2016), for instance, have analyzed six international ESL
textbooks and found that only two of these textbooks included more than 50% of creative
activities while the rest have scored very low percentages of creativity skills inclusion.
Figural creativity thinking skills are not present in post-basic EFL textbooks.
Among all the 379 activities in the EFL textbooks of grade 12 for both semesters, only one
activity included figural creativity thinking skills. This result indicates that figural
creativity thinking skills are ignored at the post-basic level. This omission can be justified
since the focus of language teaching is usually directed at verbal efficiency. Dău-Gaşpar
(2013) has put this assumption under examination and concluded that high school
students function better at figural tasks than verbal ones. This result emphasizes the
importance of including figural creativity activities in EFL textbooks at this stage.
Moreover, a study by Chan and Chan (2007) in Hong Kong to explore the relationship

260
between Chinese high school students’ drawing abilities and their creativity abilities
found that these two variables are positively correlated. Also, according to Hummel
(1988), one of the significant characteristics of textbooks that encourage self-directed
learning is to stimulate creativity through drawing and crafting tasks. Moreover, figural
creativity has a positive influence on learners’ reading comprehension and recall abilities.
An experimental study conducted by Ghazanfari (2011) confirmed that students who
practice mental visualization of the texts before, during and after reading tasks perform
better than learners who are not exposed to this strategy.
Verbal fluency is commonly present in post-basic EFL textbooks.
Verbal fluency is the only commonly present creativity skill in the textbooks analyzed,
which is not surprising since these textbooks are designed based on the communicative
approach, as mentioned earlier. One of the primary purposes of communicative language
teaching or CLT is to provide learners with as many opportunities to develop verbal
fluency (Gatbonton & Segalowitz, 1988; Renukadevi, 2016). CLT is one of the most
effective approaches that can enhance learners’ verbal fluency because of the
communicative teaching techniques, such as games and roleplays that are practiced in
communicative classrooms. Oral fluency is also mentioned as an independent objective in
the framework of the English language curriculum at the post-basic level (ELCS, 2010, p.
25).
This finding aligns with other studies that have attempted to analyze language textbooks
for creativity skills. Alhawamda and Bani-Issa (2013), for example, analyzed Arabic
language textbooks for grade six and found that verbal fluency is the most common
among the other four creativity skills. Also, Alfara (2010) analyzed activities in Arabic
textbooks of grade four and reached a similar result. However, the ideas or solutions
required by the verbal fluency activities in grade 12 EFL textbooks are limited to a certain
number in many cases, which is at odds with the essential meaning of fluency: to unleash
ideas and let them flow freely. Moreover, most of these activities are explained in detail
with numerous examples; consequently, this can also lead to putting students’ ideas in a
specific, narrow framework and limiting their range of thought. A similar result was also
found by Halaq (2017) when analyzing Arabic textbooks at the primary stage of basic
education.
Verbal flexibility, verbal originality, and verbal elaboration are not present in post-basic EFL
textbooks.
The results of the study show few frequencies for these three skills, verbal flexibility,
verbal originality, and verbal elaboration in grade 12 EFL textbooks in both semesters. It
can be assumed that the inclusion of this amount of creativity activities is spontaneous as
part of the activities that are designed to encourage higher-order thinking and research
skills that are listed among the objectives of post-basic grades in the ELCF (ELCS, 2010, p.
25). Similar studies have also found that the presence of these skills is weak in language
teaching textbooks (Alhawamda & Bani-Issa, 2013; Alfara, 2010).
Language skills-based activities in the post-basic EFL textbooks do not offer enough support for
improving creativity skills.
As shown in Table 5, all the language skills-based activities included small percentages of
creativity skills in partial or full integration. Although the highest percentage was scored
by listening and speaking skills-based activities, which comprised 28.2% of creativity

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skills in total, this percentage fell under the “not commonly present level.” Besides, this
percentage represents the inclusion of creativity skills for activities of two language skills,
unlike the other percentages of the other language skills-based activities. Another reason
for that could be the emphasis on developing oral fluency in the curriculum objectives
(ELCS, 2010, p. 25).
Vocabulary activities fell into the second-highest percentage level, with 23.2% of creativity
skills. These activities generally included tasks like listing relevant words, guessing
meaning from context, or making sentences or short stories from given words. The
objectives related to improving learners’ vocabulary put stress on the importance of
exposing them to a wide range of texts and high-frequency words through recycling
familiar words and constructing sentences based on them (ELCS, 2010). Some researchers
like Seddigh and Shokrpour (2013) and Nosratinia and Zaker (2015) have attempted to
identify the relationship between creativity and vocabulary learning strategies and found
that these two variables are significantly and positively correlated. Besides, Hajilou,
Yazdani, and Shokrpour (2012) have concluded that creativity is not only correlated
positively with productive vocabulary knowledge, but there is also a positive correlation
between creativity and receptive knowledge of vocabulary. However, the finding of the
current study indicates that creativity skills are ignored in planning for vocabulary
activities in post-basic EFL textbooks.
Writing activities also scored a low percentage of creativity thinking skills inclusion,
although this language skill is generally linked to creativity in what is called “creative
writing.” This assumption is prevalent because of the productive nature of writing and its
direct relationship with imagination and mental visualization (Sharples, 2002, p. 8). This
relationship is clarified by Lambirth, Grainger, and Goouch (2005) when they stated that
“a creative activity is goal-oriented and the creative act of writing self-evidently involves
making; making connections, making meaning, composing and communicating” (p.13).
Nevertheless, the objective related to writing skills in the ELCF highlights the importance
of the process of “writing with a balance between fluency-based and accuracy-based
tasks.” The ELCF also mentions other specific objectives which focus on types of texts that
students can produce using higher-order thinking skills (ELCS, 2010). Therefore, it can be
concluded that these few writing activities are designed as part of the general orientation
of the communicative approach but not for enhancing creativity thinking skills.
It is no surprise that grammar and reading activities score lowest in terms of creativity
skills, with less than 20% of inclusion. Grammar as a language skill is generally considered
by many teachers and students to be rigid (Nagaratnam & Al-Mekhlafi, 2012), which
contradicts with the free and flexible nature of creativity. The ELCF mentions briefly that
grammar should be taught inductively and deductively in a balanced manner (p. 25);
however, there isn’t much explanation or detail about how grammar is expected to be
taught at this stage. As for reading, the ELCF includes some details about the types of
genres of the texts and the kinds of reading strategies that students should practice.
This also indicates that the slight inclusion of creativity thinking skills in language skills-
based activities is unstructured. Alkiyumi (2010) has also noted that grade 10 curricula,
which is immediately preceding the post-basic stage, do not include tasks or strategies
that activate creative thinking.

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5.2 Creativity teaching strategies in post-basic EFL Teachers’ Books

Stage 1: Creativity teaching strategies are commonly present in post-basic EFL Teachers’ Books.
The results of the current study reveal a common presence of creativity teaching strategies
of the first stage of the TIM in post-basic EFL Teachers’ Books. This can be attributed to
the sequence and structure of activities, which include lead-in elements that help learners
to be motivated and engaged in the content of the lessons. As noticed by the researchers,
the lead-in elements exist as independent introductory activities and within the
beginnings of some activities as well, which correspond to the warm-up stage of
Torrance’s model: Heightening Anticipation (Torrance & Safter, 1990). Warm-up
activities, according to Torrance, are those that help learners link the new content to
something meaningful to them and increase their interests to know more about the topic.
Similarly, the ELCF mentions that the “affective factor” is taken into consideration with
motivating activities that draw learners’ personal experiences into the learning processes
(p. 11). Therefore, this mutual perspective explains why strategies in the first stage of TIM
are commonly present in the analyzed EFL textbooks.
Stage 2: Creativity teaching strategies are present but not common in post-basic EFL Teachers’
Books.
The strategies prescribed in the second stage are present, but they are not common in
grade 12 prescribed lesson plans as the results suggest. The most commonly present
strategy in this stage is digging deeper, which aligns with Man’s study (2006), who also
found it as a widely used strategy by teachers who used TIM spontaneously in their lesson
plans. This strategy includes searching for more in-depth information, synthesizing,
diverging, and evaluating skills (Torrance & Safter, 1990), which are types of critical
thinking skills (Snyder & Snyder, 2008). Hence, the communicative skills-based activities
of the post-basic EFL curriculum are designed to foster critical thinking skills and
searching skills (ELCS, 2010).
Stage 3: Creativity teaching strategies are not present in post-basic EFL Teachers’ Books.
According to Table 5 in the results section, strategies of the third stage in the TIM are not
present in the analyzed textbooks. Building sandcastles is the only commonly present
strategy among the five strategies, which also aligns with Man’s study (2006), who found
it as the only commonly used strategy in the participants’ lesson plans. This strategy
includes using the content as a basis for searching for ideal solutions, which also,
according to Snyder and Snyder (2008), is related to critical thinking skills. One of the
strategies of the third stage is shaking hands with tomorrow, which is mainly related to
linking the content of the subject to the learners’ vocational or educational future
(Torrance & Safter, 1990). Surprisingly, this strategy scored the lowest percentage of
presence despite the claim that the activities of the EFL textbooks of grade 12 are designed
to prepare students for their future careers (Ministry of Education, 2016a, p. xii).
6. Conclusion
The study aimed to explore the present situation of creativity in Omani post-basic EFL
textbooks by investigating the presence of four primary creativity thinking skills: fluency,
flexibility, originality, and elaboration at figural and verbal categories. Besides, the study
investigated the presence of a set of creativity teaching strategies from the TIM by
analyzing the prescribed teaching strategies.

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The method used in collecting data was content analysis design, which was carried out
through reviewing the recently edited versions of students’ textbooks and Teachers’
Books produced by the MOE. Two coding books were developed and used by the
researchers to collect data from the mentioned documents, and reliability of analysis and
validity of instruments were ensured.
The results of the study showed a fragile presence of creativity thinking skills in the
analyzed language skills-based activities. However, the analysis revealed that creativity
teaching strategies are present in the prescribed teaching strategies for post-basic EFL
activities, but they are not common.
7. Recommendations
Some useful recommendations can be considered for future reform to consolidate
creativity in EFL teaching in the post-basic stage. The Oman Ministry of Education can
refer to the results of the recent studies which have focused on the presence of critical
thinking skills and creativity thinking skills in the current EFL curriculum and consider
them in its future reform of textbooks. There also seems to be a need to initiate more
workshops for teachers on creativity thinking skills and teaching strategies. As for
curriculum developers, they can include creativity skills in the EFL textbook activities
following a well-planned vision for fostering creative thinking in the post-basic stage. It
is also highly recommended to diversify the creativity skills in each lesson across the
curriculum with a variety of creativity teaching strategies. This seems to be necessary if
there is a sincere attempt to promote creativity as a long-life skill that contributes to
improving not only the quality of education but also the quality of life that awaits our
future generations.
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Appendix A
Examples of Some Creativity Teaching Strategies from Grade 12 Prescribed Teaching
Strategies.
Stage TIM Examples
strategies
Create desire Ask students questions like:
to know
- Do you think that news and the media are interesting?
Stage 1: Heightening
Give your reasons.

- Why is it important to follow the news?(MOE, 2017a, p.2)
anticipation
Heightening Ask students questions like:

anticipation
- What kind of career(s) are you interested in?
- What attracts you to this kind of career (job)? (MOE,
2017a, p.26)
Give purpose In groups, students read the letter and decide what advice they
and motive. would give to the writer (MOE, 2017a, p. 27)
Digging Ask students to read the information about reading, then discuss
Stage 2: Deepening expectation
Deeper the three questions in groups, eliciting feedback so that students

can share their ideas with the whole class. Encourage them to
share their solutions to improve their reading speed (MOE,
2016a, p. 28)
Listening for Organize students into pairs. One students is ‘Student A’. The
smells other students is ‘Student B’. Students read the scenarios and
then role play the situations (MOE, 2017a, p. 76).
Cutting holes Students complete the gapfill activity. Tell them that before
to see trying to fill in the gaps, they should read the whole text first in
through order to get the gist of it ((MOE, 2017a, p. 28).
Having a ball This fun activity reviews some of the key vocabulary in Units 1-3
of the themes… To make the activity more challenging, ask more
advanced students to see if they can complete the crossword
Stage 3: Keep it going
without looking back through the units (MOE, 2017a, p. 13)

Singing in Students work with a partner and practice making up sentences
one’s own about themselves using past perfect (MOE, 2016a, p. 32)
key
Building and Students choose one headline in Course book, page 7, activity 4
castles and write a short story to go with that headline. To help them,
they should use the vocabulary they have predicted for that story
(MOE, 2017a, p. 12).

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Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 268-290, April 2020
An Analysis of Higher-Order Thinking Skills

(HOTS) in the Learning of Economics
Ari Saptono1, Suparno Suparno2* and Agus Wibowo3

Universitas Negeri Jakarta
Jakarta, Indonesia
1https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4182-2284
2https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5518-0489
3https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0051-1743
Eeng Ahman
Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia
Bandung, Indonesia
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2606-5449
Ismiyati Ismiyati
Universitas Negeri Semarang
Semarang, Indonesia
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4706-1340
Deni Sukayugi
Universitas Negeri Jakarta
Jakarta, Indonesia
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7066-4361
Abstract. This study aims to understand the influence of self-concept,

family environment, and learning environment on higher-order thinking
skills (HOTS) of high school students in the Economics subject. The
education landscape in the information age is rapidly changing, and all
students are expected to develop their higher-order thinking skills to
prepare themselves for the future. This study uses both a qualitative and
quantitative approach. Eighty-seven students took part in this survey.
The survey measured self-concept, family environment, and learning
environment through multiple-choice questions to measure aspects of
higher-order thinking skills. A multi-factor direct effect test model was
used to determine the influence of each variable. Based on hypothesis
testing, we found that self-concept, family environment, and learning
environment have a positive influence on students' HOTS. Thus, in order
to improve the higher-order thinking skills in students, it is imperative to
improve self-concept, create a right family environment, and a pleasant
school environment that is conducive for learning.
Keywords: higher-order thinking skills; economics; learning; self-

concept; family environment; high school competencies

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1. Introduction
Global competition in the 21st century is increasingly fierce, and this requires
human resources to have the ability to think at a higher level. However, support
for internal and external conditions is needed to improve higher-order thinking
skills (HOTS) in students and learners in general (Tajudin, 2016). As the world
moves into a new era of education with industry 4.0, the megatrend of education
is the main issue of future learning (Kaur & Arledge, 2019), including economics
learning (Malik & Janowska, 2018).
Indonesia is a developing country with a very high population. The young

generation is the hope of the nation, and they were expected to achieve the highest
level of education—developments in the 21st-century demand that young people
be able to compete in an increasingly stringent global economy. The education
system is faced with new challenges in how to make the appropriate changes so
that students acquire modern and relevant knowledge and skills, Educational
goals in the 21st century must foster problem-solving skills, critical thinking
(Turiman et al., 2012; Erdoğan, 2019), and higher-order thinking skills which
students need to adapt to the rapidly changing information age (Darling-
Hammond et al., 2020; Ball & Garton, 2005; Greenspan et al., 2001).
The world megatrends are currently experiencing rapid development that

demands corresponding changes in education, industry, and even social culture.
Global megatrends are changing the environment, how we live, and the economy
(Hajkowicz, Cook & Littleboy, 2012). A megatrend is a global transformative force
that determines the world of the future with its broad impact on business, society,
economy, culture, and personal life (Malik & Janowska, 2018). In this era, new
technologies emerge such as artificial intelligence and mechanization that replace
human work, skills and job requirements change (Aulbur & Bigghe, 2016). Based
on the phenomena, education and learning need to experience fundamentally
structured changes in order to foster the true potential and curiosity that students
need to continue learning according to the demands of the times (Afrianto, 2018;
Hussin, 2018).
Learning is about packaging the environment for better learning (Bandura, 1971),
using the right media (Moreno, 1999), shaping personality (Bandura & Walters,
1963), fostering new entrepreneurial behavior (Collins, Witkiewitz & Larimer,
2011). The 4th industrial revolution is a significant advancement in technology
that integrates the physical, digital, and biological world, which fundamentally
changes the way people work. In Industry 4.0, equipment, machinery, sensors,
and people were designed to communicate with each other by using internet
technology known as the ‘Internet of Things.’ Learning shapes students'
competency and entrepreneurial skills (Suparno & Saptono, 2018), develops
character (Suparno, 2018a), and digital competencies through the use of
innovative media such as ebooks and online-based resources (Suparno, 2018b).
Furthermore, industry 4.0 marks the emergence of supercomputers and Artificial

Intelligence. In this condition, we can predict that robots or artificial intelligence
operate many jobs. However, it is also likely that many new jobs will emerge. The

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challenge in education is how to prepare human resources can operate much

artificial intelligence and not order by machines. Schools, through teachers as the
frontline in education, are required to be able to improve the quality of human
resources by preparing students to adapt to changes in the environment very
quickly. In this case, we can make improvements to our education by changing
the learning methods. Teachers must expect to take up the challenge and lead the
learning process to equip students with 21st-century skills. For example, our
teachers using digital technologies to create a more active, independent, creative
and innovative learning process.
The progress and development of education is a factor in the success of a nation.

The development of education in Indonesia is still low when viewed from the
National Development Index data. Indonesia must be able to improve the quality
of education, as this reflects the quality of the nation. Quality education represents
the quality of graduates in an educational institution. The quality of graduates is
determined by knowledge and skills that high competitiveness in the global
community. To be able to compete in the global market, higher-order thinking
skills are needed to support the quality of graduates (Wilson, 2000).
The purpose of economics education is to develop aspects of knowledge,

understanding, attitudes, values, and skills in students. Acquiring the right skills
has become an essential element in economics learning. In today's modern society,
children must master thinking skills. Teachers need to teach their students to learn
to think (Jhonson, 2010). Higher-order thinking skills have been widely studied
(Hidayati, 2017). However, only a small amount of research specifically focuses
on each subject and level of education. Through this study, students, parents,
teachers, policymakers, and the general public can get some insight into the
development of higher-order thinking skills in students and their current thinking
abilities.
Higher-Order Thinking Skills (HOTS)
HOTS shows one's ability to think more broadly to find new challenges and find
answers to problems (Retnawati et al., 2018; Smith & Szymanski, 2013). The
ability to think at a higher level requires someone to apply new information or
prior knowledge and manipulate information to reach possible answers in new
situations (Heong et al, 2011). High-level thinking is a thought process that
requires students to manipulate information and ideas in certain ways that give
them new understanding (Novirin, 2014). Higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) is
the ability and expertise to find answers or achieve goals through various forms
of thought processes. Students need to learn and practice this ability to get
answers, make decisions, and solve problems (King, Goodson & Rohani, 1998).
High-level thinking is an activity that challenges students to interpret, analyze or
manipulate information. Students are required to first process any new
information that can produce knowledge and may provide a solution to a
problem. Anderson and Krathwohl (2015) has revised the Bloom's Taxonomy to
include elements of HOTS. They believe that the process of creation is the highest

271
in the thinking abilities of learners. There is a strong relationship between the

professional components of teachers such as educational qualifications,
designation, teaching experience, research experience, training and exposure
workshops with teaching strategies for higher-order thinking skills has been
found that 'appointment', 'teaching experience' and 'educational qualifications'
significantly contribute to the strategy of teaching higher thinking skills (Kusuma,
Rosidin & Suyatna, 2017; Dungsungnoen, 2016; Vijayaratnam, 2012; Patrick &
Ryan, 2007). The implication in this research is that the school prepares good
learning facilities, the teacher conducts learning conductively, for parents to
encourage, guide students at home and improve self-concept in developing
thinking skills.
Self-Concept
An idea of self consists of beliefs, judgments, and views of the individual against
himself is known as the concept of self. The self-concept is the overall perception
a person has of himself (Slameto, 2003). Self-concept is significantly influenced by
the judgment of others, peers, and one's behavior (Sampthirao, 2016). The
environment greatly influences oneself to grow and develop in learning and
knowledge. Therefore, the concept of self can be considered as an impression and
personal view that a person has of himself and influences someone in interacting
with others and the environment. The concept of self as a social product is formed
through a process of internalization and organization of psychological
experiences. These psychological experiences are the result of an individual's
exploration of his physical environment and the reflection he receives from most
people in his environment (Slameto, 2003).
Family Environment
A family is a small social group that generally consists of a father, a mother, and
one or more children who have a fixed relationship and are usually based on
blood ties, marriage, or adoption (Ahmadi, 2007). The family has a huge influence
on the success of students. The functions carried out by the family include
education, socialization, protection, bonding, religion, recreation, and affection
(Adamovič, 2015). To optimize the personality and abilities of children, parents
must foster an educational atmosphere within the family. The educative
atmosphere starts from the womb (Suwarno, 2008). Parents have the
responsibility to create a conductive pattern of life and maintain good social
relations with other family members and others. The family environment is
considered a foundation for each dimension of student development as well as
the elements which influence student learning and thinking skills (Jackson, 2003;
Wade, 2004; Campbell & Gilmore, 2007).
Learning Environment
The school is a very important place for students to interact with their peers
(Muñoz-Hurtado, 2018) and to learn from the teachers (Moore et al., 2018). Schools
teach the right way of thinking and educate behavior change. The ability to think
and behave in the long-term direction becomes a learning experience and habit.
Student knowledge in the school environment is strongly influenced by teacher
learning strategies. The school is the stage for learning (Dwiyanti, 2017). The
function of the school is not much different from the function of the family

272
environment. The implementation of educational learning processes in schools is

intended to achieve educational goals. Learning is carried out by the teacher with
strategies, models, methods, techniques, media and other evaluation tools. The
learning environment in schools is an academic environment that develops
knowledge, experience, and learning skills. However, thinking skills also need to
be taught so that students can develop 21st century competences by acquiring the
right skills and abilities. A good infrastructure, conducive classrooms, supportive
peers, innovative and open teachers with democratic learning are the demands of
a good school climate. School environments that affect student learning processes
will have a major impact on students' thinking abilities. A conducive school
environment can be created by teachers when they are able to motivate their
students to learn through good teaching strategies and rewards.
Thus, we hypothesise that self-concept, family environment, and learning

environment influence the acquisition of higher-order thinking skills in students,
as shown in Figure 1.
H1: There is a positive influence of self-concept towards higher-order thinking
skills.
H2: There is a positive influence of the family environment towards higher order
thinking skills.
H3: There is influence positive learning environment towards higher-order
thinking skills.
H1
H2
H3
Figure 1. The Proposed Model
3. Research Methods
This study uses a quantitative approach with descriptive methods. Qualitative
research is also used in this study because it can explore and understand the
meaning of individuals or groups in developing HOTS. This study uses a multi-
factor analysis directly, to determine the factors forming HOTS in high school.
This study uses the Single Equation Structural Model which is analyzed by
multiple regression analysis, whereby the relationship between several
independent variables and one dependent variable is explained. The aim is to
predict the value of the dependent variable based on the known independent
variable values and to explain the effect of each independent variable on the
dependent variable (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2019). According to Ho (2014), a
minimum number of 20 observations for each independent variable is required to
derive meaningful conclusions.

273
The population in this study were Social Studies students of grade XI in a High
school in Jakarta, Indonesia. There were 111 students following social studies
classes but only 87 were selected to take part in the survey. The sampling
technique used in this study uses a proportional random sampling technique
because the characteristics of the population are homogeneous. The survey
questionnaire consisted of 38 statements and 15 multiple-choice questions. The
questionnaire was used to measure aspects of self-concept, family environment,
and learning environment related to students' higher-order thinking skills. The
multiple-choice test in this study was used to measure students' higher-order
thinking skills in economics learning. The questions were on taxation in
economics development and the policies of international trade. These basic
competencies are usually taught in schools.
The validity of the questionnaire was testing using the Pearson test and the
reliability test was tested using the Cronbach Alpha. A hypothesis prerequisite
test was also performed. A value less than 0.005 using the Lilliefors test showed
that the questionnaire passed the normality test. To determine the direct effect
between variables, a linearity test, and correlation coefficients are calculated
together with variance analysis. Data was processed and analyzed using SPSS.
4. Results and Discussion

In this study, we took a learning class as a teacher's assistant in the school. The
questionnaire was distributed proportionally at random sampling to 3 classes of
social studies with 30 questionnaires per class. We use this method according to
characteristics of the population that are homogeneous with learning objectives
and economics learning material. We give the respondents economics learning
and Higher-Order Thinking Skills practice questions for each lesson.
Furthermore, the respondents must complete one basic competency, the Higher-
Order Thinking Skills formative test, for 90 minutes in class. Lastly, we give the
openly questionnaire with the freedom to fill in for self-concept variables, family
environment, and learning environment.
The prerequisite tests used in this study include the normality test,
multicollinearity test, and the heteroskedasticity test. The next step was to
perform hypothesis testing, which consists of simultaneous hypothesis testing
and partial hypotheses. The F-test is performed to determine the extent to which
the independent variables can explain the dependent variable. The t-test is done
to determine the significance of the partial effect that each independent variable
has on the dependent variable. To determine the contribution of independent
variables and the dependent variable, it is also necessary to compute the
coefficient of determination (R2). The results are shown in Table 1.

274
Table 1: Indicator Variables, Reliability and Percentage of Data

Reliability Data
Variable Indicator
Test Percentage
Analyze 36.9
HOTS Evaluate 0.92 34.2
Create 28.9
Self-assessment in overcoming
25.8
problems
Optimistic 23.6
Self-concept 0.85
Assessment of roles 25.4
Individual assessment of yourself 25.1
Parental education background 13.2
Socio-economic situation 12.1
Education in the family 12.2

Involve children in giving reasons
12
Family for their choices and actions
Give freedom to children to express 0.96
environment 12,5
their views in their way
Loosen controls that reduce a child's
13.5
self-confidence
Inspire perseverance 12.6
Provide creative atmosphere 12.3

Learning Process that supports
Learning 34.1
HOTS
Provide Intrinsic Motivation to
environment 0.88 34.4
students
Giving awards to HOTS learning
31.6
process
To improve students' higher-order thinking skills, students should start by loving

themselves and developing positive thoughts that will encourage them to stay
optimistic, brave, and to never give up in the face of risks and challenges. Our
way of thinking controls our attitudes, actions, and lives. Encouragement from
parents can provide motivation and encourage children's interest in thinking.
Parents also need to pay more attention to the learning facilities that their children
have at home. They also need to develop a positive attitude to improve the higher-
order thinking skills of their children.

275
Table 2: Multiple Regression Test Results
Statistics Y = Higher-Order Thinking Skills
C 0.914
X1 0.784
X2 0.323
X3 0.655
0.005 *
t (X1)
(2.872) **
0.023 *
t (X2)
(2.319) **
0.019 *
t (X3)
(2.394) ) **
F 28.279***
R> 0.505
*** 2.71, **> 1.96 *> 0.05, C: Constants

X1: Self-concept, X2: Family environment, X3: Learning environment
Based on the test results, it is evident that self-concept, family environment, and
learning environment significantly influence the ability to think at a higher level.
This means that all hypotheses put forward in this study can be accepted. H1, H2,
and H3 are significant with a count of 2.872, 2.319, and 2.394, respectively, as
shown in Table 2. Table 2 also shows that the multiple linear regression equation
is Y = 0.914 + 0.784X1 + 0.323X2 + 0.655X3. The coefficient value of self-concept (X1)
is 0.784 and is positive. The significance value (0.05) for the self-concept variable
(X1) shows that students are able to think at a high level. The t-value of the self-
concept variable is 2.872. The t-table value that has been sought and determined
is 1.96. The equation to find the value of two-way test t-table is t-table = (α / 2;
df), with a 95% confidence level, with the value of α = 5% or 0.05. df = degree of
freedom is determined by the formula: n-k, where n = number of samples and k
= number of variables (independent & dependent). There are 87 samples and 4
research variables. So we can conclude that the value of df is 87-4 = 83. Based on
the distribution of the value of t-Table, a value of 1,992 is obtained. This shows
that the compensation variable is greater than the t-table value (2.872 ≥ 1.96). So,
it can be concluded that H1 is accepted. The concept of self becomes the
foundation for someone who will later form a self-image. The introduction,
understanding and evaluation of oneself is a very influential capital for students
to achieve their expected learning achievements (Effendi, 2004). People with high
self-concept can set higher aspirations than people with low self-concept. They

276
may be more willing to survive in the face of initial failures and tend to do more
effort to paralyze feelings of incompetence and self-doubt.
The significance value (0.023) for the family environment variable (X2) shows that
students are able to think at a high level. The t-value of the family environment
variable is 2.319. This shows that the compensation variable is greater than the t-
table value (2,319 ≥ 1.96). So it can be concluded that H2 is accepted. The family
environment is related to high-order thinking skills. Children's creativity needs to
be encouraged by the family, and the parents need to be wiser in control otherwise
it will reduce the children’s confidence in dealing with problems (Keshta & Seif,
2013). The condition of the family environment will encourage children's interest
in thinking critically, thus developing the relevant higher order thinking skills.
Family characteristic also influences HOTS indirectly through psychology
(Sungu, 2015).
The significance value (0.019) for the learning environment variable (X3) shows
that the students are able to think at a high level. The t-value of the learning
environment variable is 2.394. This shows that the compensation variable is
greater than the t-table (2.394 ≥ 1.96). So, it can be concluded that H3 is accepted.
The R-value of 0.771 indicates that the influence of self-concept, family
environment, and learning environment on students' higher-order thinking skills
is strong. The determinant coefficient (R2 = 0.505) shows that about 50.5% of
higher-order thinking skills are influenced by the concept of self, family
environment and learning environment, and about 49.5% are influenced by other
variables that are not described in this study.
Table 3: Mean Scores of Students’ HOTS data
No Indicator Item Score Total Score Mean Percentage

1 69
2 63
1 Analyze 5 79 341 68.2 36.9%
9 75
10 55
3 81
4 73
2 Evaluate 8 59 316 63.2 34.2%
11 33
12 70
6 38
7 56
3 Create 13 74 267 53.4 28.9%
14 73
15 26
Table 3 shows the total scores for the 15 MCQs on Economics which were
attempted by 90 students. The best score of 81 was obtained for question 3 which
was about the reporting of incoming tax payments. This shows that question 81
was the easier question and that perhaps students find this topic very interesting

277
to learn. Students also scored very well on questions 1, 4, 5, 9, 12, 13 and 14. The
lowest score of 26 was obtained for question 15 which was about exports, imports
and trade balance. This shows that question 15 was by far the most difficult
question and that most students have difficulties with understanding the trade
balance concept. Students also had much difficulties with questions 6 and 11
where the scores were less than the mean. The overall mean score for the class was
61.6. The mean score for analysis skills was highest while the mean score for
creativity skills was lowest. However, the ability of students in HOTS for
Economics is still below the national minimum required level of 75.
Table 4: Mean Scores of Self-concept data

Self-assessment
1 321
1 in overcoming 633 316.5 25.82%
2 312
problems
3 298
2 Optimism 4 275 870 290 23.67%
5 297
Assessment of 6 300
3 623 311.5 25.41%
roles 7 323
Individual 8 318
4 assessment of 9 289 923 307.7 25.10%
yourself 10 316
On a maximum scale of 450 points, the overall mean score for the self-concept
variable was 304.9. The differences between the four indicators are not significant
although from Table 4, we can see that the mean score for ‘Optimism’ was the
lowest. Thus, necessary actions must be undertaken at the school level to increase
the degree of optimism in their students. This includes the confidence in the
ability to do a task, solving economics problems and increasing their ability to
understand the materials taught.
Table 5: Mean Scores of Family Environment data
Parental education 1 348

1 670 335 13.20%
background 2 322
Socio-economic 3 307
2 612 306 12.06%
situation 4 305
5 315
3 Education in the 6 340
1235 308.8 12.17%
family 7 297
8 283
Involve children in
4 giving reasons for 9 300
610 305 12.03%
their choices and 10 310
actions

278
Give freedom to
5 children to express 11 334
633 316.5 12.47%
their views in their 12 299
way
Loosen controls
6
that reduce a 13 338
671 335.5 13.22%
child's self- 14 333
confidence
7 Inspire 15 297
636 318 12.53%
perseverance 16 339
8 Provide a creative 17 299
625 312.5 12.32%
atmosphere 18 326
On a maximum scale of 450 points, the overall mean score for the family
environment variable was 316.2. However, differences between the eight
indicators are not significant. Nevertheless, the mean scores were highest for
indicators 1 and 6 and they were lowest for indicators 2 and 4. Families need to
involve children's opinions in family activities, example by asking children to give
reasons for their choices and actions. This will favour the development of a
conducive family environment, as it will stimulate student's growth in HOTS. It
is also essential to involve children in decision-making in the family in order to
develop their freedom to think critically during their teenage years.
Table 6: Mean Scores of Learning Environment data

29 289
30 278
Learning
31 276
1 process that 1724 287.3 34.05%
32 303
supports HOTS
33 307
34 271
Provide intrinsic
33 287
2 motivation to 580 290 34.37%
36 293
students
Giving awards
3 37 283
to HOTS 533 266.5 31.58%
38 250
learning process
On a maximum scale of 450 points, the overall mean score for the learning
environment variable was 283.7. The mean scores for indicators 1 and 2 were
above the global average while it was less for indicator 3. Thus, providing an
adequate infrastructure and learning facilities give students comfort in their
learning activities. Feedback from teachers is an essential component of the
learning process. Feedback is deemed to be even more helpful for students with
weaker academic abilities. The need to appreciate the work of teachers and that of
students in an essential ingredient that must be encouraged in order to make the
inclusion of HOTS activities a success in the school environment.

279
The highest score was achieved in family environment (70.3%), followed closely
by self-concept (67.8%), while learning environment had the lowest score, which
was much less than 300 (63.0%) on a scale of 450. These results show that, in
general, most children believe that they a good family environment, irrespective
of their socio-economic status. Most students also valued themselves well. The
school learning environment required the most improvement. The lack of
appropriate learning facilities was the main reason for this poor score. It is
believed that the above three factors can contributed to the enhancement of HOTS
skills in students. The mean score, in terms of percentages, in the MCQ Economics
test was 68.4% while the overall mean score for the three variables combined is
67.7%. Thus, there is a very high correlation between these two values.
Nevertheless, further studies are required to confirm any possible causal effects.
5. Conclusion & Recommendations

This study aims to understand the influence of self-concept, family environment,
and learning environment on higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) of high school
students in the Economics subject. The education landscape in the information
age is rapidly changing, and all students expect to develop their higher-order
thinking skills in order to prepare themselves for the future of learning. Based on
the results of this study, we can conclude that self-concept, family environment,
and learning environment influence students' higher-order thinking skills in the
learning of Economics. Based on regression coefficients, we can also say that self-
concept has the highest influence but closely followed by the learning
environment. The family environment had the least influence on HOTS and the
learning of issues related to Economics. We can also conclude that schools must
provide intrinsic motivation to students and must also value the teaching and
learning of thinking skills. This can be achieved by rewarding teachers and
students appropriately. Schools must create ecosystems that nurture, support,
and respect thinking skills. Schools must also provide training programs for
teachers on how to teach thinking skills so that they can apply it in the learning
process in their classrooms. Further studies still need to be carried out to find the
other factors which affect higher-order thinking skills. This study can also be
replicated in other schools and other regions and with a larger sample so that
comparisons can be made.
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Appendix 1
QUESTIONNAIRE
No. Statement Agree.............Disagree
A Self-Concept
If I find it difficult to work on Economics
1 5 4 3 2 1
problems, I will still try to solve them myself.
If I get a low marks in Economics, then I will
2 5 4 3 2 1
study hard.
Each time the test takes place, I am sure of the
3 5 4 3 2 1
answers I am working on.
I will not do Economics work if I do not
4 5 4 3 2 1
understand the material taught by the teacher.
5 I can always do Economics problems well. 5 4 3 2 1
I will examine myself where my weakness lies
6 5 4 3 2 1
by discussing questions related to Economics.
I feel that I can take the Economics test
7 5 4 3 2 1
without help from others
I feel that Economics is a subject that I am
8 5 4 3 2 1
good at.
I feel the dumbest in class so I feel unable to
9 5 4 3 2 1
study Economics.
I have difficulty doing Economics tests, which
10 require the ability to understand the questions 5 4 3 2 1
given.
B Family Environment
My parents want their children to be highly
11 5 4 3 2 1
educated.
of my parents stressed the importance of
12 5 4 3 2 1
education.
My parents bought textbooks and other
13 5 4 3 2 1
learning needs.
My parents always prioritize spending on my
14 5 4 3 2 1
education.
Parents give rules for study time and playtime
15 5 4 3 2 1
at home.
My parents provide my learning facilities to
support me in improving thinking skills, such
16 5 4 3 2 1
as laptops/computers, calculators, books,
writing alt, etc.
Parents always give encouragement and
17 5 4 3 2 1
enthusiasm for learning.
Homework provided by the teacher is always
18 5 4 3 2 1
checked first by parents at home

284
My parents never asked me about my

19 difficulties while studying and doing 5 4 3 2 1
homework.
Parents give me free time to consult about
20 5 4 3 2 1
education.
My parents support education according to
21 5 4 3 2 1
my interests and talents.
22 I often disagree with my parents. 5 4 3 2 1
My parents tend to be careless if I make
23 5 4 3 2 1
mistakes.
My parents give me the freedom to do any
24 5 4 3 2 1
activity .
My parents always condition me not to play
25 5 4 3 2 1
with friends at certain times.
I was taught by parents to be an independent
26 5 4 3 2 1
person .
My parents ask about my learning activities at
27 5 4 3 2 1
school.
My parents took the time to take me for a
28 5 4 3 2 1
walk or recreation.
C Learning Environment
I have difficulty understanding the lesson
29 5 4 3 2 1
with new teacher teaching techniques.
I am bored with the method used by the
30 5 4 3 2 1
teacher who teaches.
Teachers always give assignments to students
31 to find solutions to overcome problems 5 4 3 2 1
related to the Economics subject.
The the teacher always asks students for
32 opinions or responses on issues related to 5 4 3 2 1
Economics materials.
Schools provide adequate and complete
33 facilities and infrastructure to support 5 4 3 2 1
teaching and learning activities in schools.
The facilities in the class are complete so the
34 atmosphere is comfortable when teaching and 5 4 3 2 1
learning activities.
The teacher allows students to choose the type
35 5 4 3 2 1
of test expected.
The teacher gives a response or comment on
36 5 4 3 2 1
the results of student work.
The teacher adds points to each student who
37 answers questions during the learning 5 4 3 2 1
process.
The teacher gives prizes in the form of items
38 5 4 3 2 1
to students who can answer questions.

285
Appendix 2
D. Higher- Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) in Economics learning
1. A taxpayer has:
- Land area of 2,000 m2 with a selling price of Rp 300,000 / m2.
- The fence along the 200 height of 2 m with a selling price of 100,000 / m2.
- Building area of 1,500 m2. If the building value is not subject to tax of Rp.
12,000,000.00, if the PBB-P2 tariff is 0.1% and the amount of PBB-P2 to be
paid is Rp 1,378,000.00, then the selling price of the building is:
a. Rp 2.000,00/m2
b. Rp 3.000,00/m2
c. Rp 5.000,00/m2
d. Rp 8.000,00/m2
e. Rp 9.000,00/m2
2. Taxable income Rates:

1. 0 s / d Rp 25,000,000 5%
2. USD 25,000,000 up to 50,000,000 10%
3. Rp 50,000,000 up to 100,000,000 15%
4. Rp 100,000,000 up to 200,000,000 25%
5. Rp 200,000,000 up to 35%
No Income Taxable:
Taxpayer Rp. 13,200,000. -
The wife does not work Rp. 1,200,000. -
Child (Maximum 3 children) @ Rp. 1,200,000. -
Mr. Ahmad, a private bank employee, has income after deducting the position
fund and insurance contribution in the amount of Rp. 56,000,000.- a year. He has
a wife who does not work with 2 children. Based on the data above, the amount
of Income tax owed by Mr. Ahmad is:
a. Rp 8.400.000.-
b. Rp 6.600.000.-
c. Rp 5.600.000.-
d. Rp 4.400.000.-
e. Rp 2.670.000.-
3. Mr. Bagaskoro is an Indonesian citizen who has income from Indonesia,

every year actively paying taxes to the government. Mr. Bagaskoro in paying
taxes and reporting income taxes entrusted to third parties is a tax collection
system …
a. Official assessment system

b. Withholding system
c. Multimatic system
d. Economics official system
e. Rental official system

286
4. Ms. Yane is an entrepreneur engaged in catering business having wealth in

the form of:
▪ the land area of 400 m2 with a selling price of Rp 400,000.00/m2
▪ of 250 m2 house with a selling value of Rp 650,000.00/m2
▪ 150 m2 luxury park with a selling value of IDR 150,000.00/m2
▪ Luxury fence length 50m, height 1.60m with a selling price of IDR
200,000.00/m2
Provisions: the sale value of taxable objects IDR 8,000. 000,00. The amount of land
and building tax owed by Mrs. Yane is:
a. Rp. 314,000.00
b. Rp. 322,000.00
c. Rp. 349,000.00
d. Rp. 353,000.00
e. Rp. 361,000.00
5. Mrs. Vero is an entrepreneur engaged in the catering business. He has a land

area of 300 m2 with a selling value of Rp 500,000 / m2. Building an area of 200 m2
with a selling value of Rp 700,000 / m2. 100 m2 luxury garden with a selling value
of IDR 200,000 / m2 and a luxurious fence of 100 meters in length with a height
of 1.5 m with a selling value of IDR 200,000 / m2. Selling Value of Non-Taxable
Tax Objects Rp 10,000,000.00. Then the building tax payable by Mrs. Vero if the
property tax -P2 tariff is 0.1%:
a. Rp. 320,000.00
b. Rp. 325,000.00
c. Rp. 330,000.00
d. Rp. 335,000.00
e. Rp. 340,000.00
6. Hypothetical data:
Country Cloth / month TV/month

Indonesia 80 meters 20 units
Korea 40 meters 40 units
Based on the table above, the conclusion about the correct exchange rate of goods
is:
a. Korea has a specialty of cloth and has an absolute advantage of 3 meters of
fabric
b. Korea has a specialty of fabric and has a comparative advantage of 3 meters
of fabric
c. Indonesia has a specialty of cloth and has a comparative advantage of 0.75 TV
units
d. Indonesia has a TV specialization and has a comparative advantage of 3
meters of fabric
e. Korea has a TV specialty and has an absolute advantage of 3 meters of cloth.

287
7. Increasing prices in the market resulting in decreased demand for goods and
this has an impact on the company's sales decline, in this case, the marketing
manager made several breakthroughs including giving disco n, ease of credit
terms, payment periods, availability of goods and increasing marketing channels
to consumers, the steps taken by marketing managers are the marketing mix
strategy steps...
a. price and place
b. product and place
c. targeting and price
d. positioning and promotion
e. positioning and promotion
8. Consider the following statements:

1. In the first quarter of 2018, Indonesia has the value of exports of goods and
services amounted to $ 2.8 million while the value of imports amounted to US
$ 1,800,000 US
2. In Quarter II in 2018 Indonesia had a value of US $ 3,200,000 in exports of
goods and services while the import value of US $ 4,650,000
3. In the third quarter of 2018, foreign capital flows into Indonesia both for short-
and long-term investments amounted to $ 70,000,000 US while to repay debt
and interest on foreign loans amounting to the US $ 56,450,000
4. At the end of January 2019, the flow of non-binding foreign aid for victims of
the earthquake and tsunami in NAD and North Sumatra amounted to the US
$ 24,000,000
5. In the fourth quarter of 2018, the service balance in Internacional payments
experienced a US $ 1,200,000 fee. based on the data above which could cause
the value of US $ to rise or the value of the rupiah down is:
a. 1 and 3
b. 3 and 4
c. 4 and 5
d. 2 and 5
e. 3 and 5
9. Hilary, An American tourist visiting Indonesia with the US $ 8,350. For

purposes while in Indonesia, he exchanged his money with the rupiah. The
prevailing exchange rate at the time was; Purchase exchange rate of Rp13,300.00
per 1 US $; Selling rate of Rp13,450.00 per 1 US $. While in Indonesia he spent as
much as Rp62,820,000.00 When he returned to his country Hilary returned to
exchanging his rupiah for US dollars. The prevailing exchange rate at that time
is: Purchase exchange rate Rp 13,350.00 per 1 US $ rate Rp 13,500.00 per 1 US $
Selling exchange. Then the total dollar received by Hilary was:
a. US $ 3,356.96
b. US $ 3,465.96
c. US $ 3,572.96
d. US $ 3,672.96
e. US $ 3,772,96

288
10. The following table shows the selling rate and buying rate of the currencies
of three countries.
Currency Buying rate Selling rate

USD USD 13100.00 USD13200.00
SGD USD 9702.00 USD 9803.00
AUD USD. 9,955.00 Rp 10,061.00
Mr. Ahmad plans to visit three countries, namely Singapore, Australia, and
America, he needs as much as USD 2,500, SGD 3,000, and AUD 4,500. The
amount of rupiah he needed to get the three currencies were:
a. Rp. 106,653,500.00
b. Rp. 106,853,500.00
c. Rp. 107,683,500.00
d. Rp. 108,853,500.00
e. Rp. 109,653,500.00
11. Balance of Payment (US) $ billion.
2017 2018
Description
Imports Exports Imports Exports
Trade Balance
Oil and Gas Oil 38,327.0 17,891.0 40,365,0 17,889.0
Not oil and gas 139,068.0 152,925.0 134,109.0 149,960.0
Balance - 6,579.0 6,625.0
Balance of Services 33,444 , 0 23113.0 33990.0 22,562,0
Balance 10331.0 11428.0
Current Account 193.929,0 210.839,0
208.464,0
190.411,0
Balance 16910.0 18053.0
Balance Capital and 30068.0 54964.0 39,629.0 62,360.0
Financial Account
Balance 24,896.0 - 22,731.0 -
Based on the table above, the impact that will occur is:
a. balance of payments in 2017 experienced a deficit of US $ 7,986 and in 2018
a deficit of US $ 4,678 billion so that the country's debt increased
b. balance of payments in 2017 experienced a surplus of US $ 7,986 so that
savings increased and in 2018 a deficit of US $ 4,678 billion so that the state
debt becomes increased
c. balance of payments in 2017 experienced a deficit of US $ 7,986 so that the
state debt increased and in 2018 there was a surplus of US $ 4,678 billion so
that the state savings were increased
d. balance of payments in 2017 had a surplus of US $ 7,986 so the state savings
increased and in 2018 there was a surplus of US $ 4,678 billion so that state
savings increased
e. balance of payments in 2017 experienced a greater deficit than in 2018 so that
state savings increased

289
12. Veronika departed from Jakarta on December 25, 2019, to take a vacation to
the United States for 2 weeks. Three days before leaving, he exchanged his money
in the amount of Rp. 24,000,000.00 in US dollars. During his vacation, he spent the
US $ 1,800.
December 2014 January 2015

Date Currency Selling Buy Date Currency Selling Buy
20 US $ 12.956,00 11.956,00 6 US $ 12.721,00 12.595,00
22 US $ 12.497,00 12.373,00 7 US $ 12.796,00 12.668,00
23 US $ 12.518,00 12.394,00 8 US $ 12.795,00 12.667,00
24 US $ 12.529,00 12.405,00 9 US $ 12.703,00 12.577,00
After arriving in Jakarta, he immediately exchanged all of his money back into
rupiah. How many rupiahs did Veronika receive?
a. Rp 1,525,366.82
b. Rp 1,525,466.82
c. Rp 1,525,566.82
d. Rp 1,525,666.82
e. Rp 1,525,866.82
13. Read the article below and then answer the questions.
An increase in the current account deficit will affect the rupiah

The current account deficit increase in the current account deficit (CAD) in the
second quarter of 2018 of 8 billion US dollars or 3.0 percent of GDP is higher than
the previous quarter of 5.7 billion US dollars or 2, 2 percent of GDP.
Widening the current account deficit will affect the rupiah exchange rate to
weaken against foreign currencies. The next impact is a decrease in investor
confidence that will erode direct investment growth in 2018. (Economist Indef:
Bima Yudhistira).
To overcome this, import controls must be carried out, in addition to increasing
export performance through trade missions and various fiscal stimulation and
increasing tourism foreign exchange (Seconds Finance, August 2018).
Based on the article above, why would a balance of payments deficit cause the
rupiah exchange rate to weaken against foreign currencies?
a. the occurrence of a balance of payments deficit causes demand for foreign
money to decline, this will cause the value of the rupiah to decline.
b. the occurrence of a balance of payments deficit causes demand for foreign
money to increase, this will cause the value of the rupiah to decline.
c. the occurrence of a balance of payments deficit causes demand for foreign
money to increase, this will cause the value of the rupiah to rise.
d. the balance of payments deficit causes the demand for the rupiah to increase
so that inflation can cause a
e. deficit in the balance of payments causes the demand for foreign currency to
decline so that the results of Indonesian exports increase.

290
14. Based on the article above, with the policies that have been carried out by the
government it turns out that the budget deficit has not been resolved, what impact
will this have on the country's economic condition?
a. then it will automatically reduce foreign exchange reserves so that it affects

the condition of the national economy because it inhibits economic growth.
b. then it will automatically reduce foreign exchange reserves so that it affects
the condition of the national economy because it increases economic growth.
c. then it will automatically increase foreign exchange reserves so that it affects
the condition of the national economy because it inhibits economic growth.
d. then it will automatically increase foreign exchange reserves so that it affects
the condition of the national economy because it increases economic growth.
e. then it will automatically reduce foreign exchange reserves so that it affects
the condition of the national economy because it increases state debt.
15. In the last two years in the trade balance of the State "X", the total exports were
smaller than the total imports, in this case, the trade balance experienced a deficit,
to overcome this the government adopted a devaluation policy which resulted in
the exchange rate of the domestic currency has decreased against foreign
currencies, with the expectation of this policy will increase the value of exports
and decrease the value of imports which will improve the economy. In your
opinion, the impact of the devaluation policy undertaken by the government on
the trade balance that will improve the economy:
a. With an increase in exports and a decline in imports, resulting in a reduction in

the supply of domestic goods, which will lead to scarcity.
b. With this policy, imports can be reduced, the goods that we export abroad
become depreciated if the importer's currency is not the domestic currency.
c. With this policy, the prices of imported goods become very high when valued
in the domestic currency and the goods that we export abroad are declining in
value if the importer currency is not the domestic currency
d. With this policy there will be an increase in exports and a decline in imports, it
is hoped that domestic companies can develop, as a result, will be able to absorb
energy unemployed work.
e. With the devaluation policy, there will be a decrease in the domestic currency
so that the prices of exported goods will be very high, while the prices of imported
goods will fall.

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Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 291-308, April 2020
Correcting Misconceptions in Fractions Using

Interactive Technological Learning Activities
Mohammad Ahmad Alkhateeb

Hashemite University
Zarqa, Jordan
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2289-7982
Abstract. This study aimed to diagnose the misconceptions of the

fractions subject with the fourth graders and identifying the effect of
using interactive activities to correct the misconceptions that the students
experience in the fractions subject. The researcher applied the
quantitative method and the quasi-experimental design for the one-group
pre-test/post-test design. This includes conducting a pre-test that aimed
at diagnosing the misconceptions in the fractions. The possibility of
correcting misconceptions was tested using interactive technological
activities. The study sample consisted of 85 fourth graders in Jordan. The
results revealed a pool of misconceptions in the fractions subjects. Two of
the most common misconceptions comprised 88.3% and 80% of the
misconceptions, respectively. The first one was subtracting non-
equivalent fractions through subtracting the two numerators by
considering this as the result of the final numerator and subtracting the
two non-equivalent denominators taking the output as the result of the
denominator. The second misconception was adding a fraction to an
integer by adding the integer to the numerator of the fraction by
considering it as a numerator of the result, and keeping the denominator
of the fraction as it is, which represents the denominator of the final result.
Furthermore, the results showed an increase in the mean from 4.15 in the
pretest to 8.9 in the post-test. This is a strong indicator that the use of the
interactive learning activities that were created helped to correct the
misconceptions in the learning of fractions.
Keywords: ADDIE model; interactive technological activities;

misconceptions in fractions
1. Introduction
Students, worldwide, suffer from difficulties in fraction learning, because it is one
of the difficult subjects the students face throughout their basic and secondary
stages (Bailey, Hoard, Nugent & Geary, 2012; Bruce & Ross, 2009; Chen, Pan, Sung
& Chang, 2013; Pal, 2014). This is ascribed to that the facts that the students
learned about the integers do not apply to the fractions (Lortie-Forgues, Tian &
Siegler, 2015(. For example, adding the integers does not apply to adding the

292
fractions; multiplication of the fractions does not always lead to a result that is
more than the number multiplied by; and, division processes do not produce a
result that is less than the number divided by.
According to the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT,
2008), the difficulties in learning the fractions may be due to several reasons. For
instance, the students' use of prior knowledge about the integers when they learn
the fractions, and the tendency of the schoolbooks and teachers to teach the
fractions and operations on them in a manner that has no effect on the student in
real life. Therefore, the students feel the need for the fractions in the math lesson
only. These and other obstacles hinder their understanding of the fractions
concept and the related operations.
The constructivism theory emphasized the importance of the context in teaching,
the importance of revealing the prior knowledge of the learner, and the active
interaction between the learning and the teaching content. In this concern, the
learner organizes what he learned in cognitive structures that consist of units of
interrelated ideas called the conceptual structures. These structures represent
valuable mental tools stored in the memory, which could be retrieved and made
use of (Emma, Geller; Son & Stigler, 2018).
According to this theory, the interaction between the prior knowledge of the
learner and the new ideas is termed "adaptation", which includes two processes:
assimilation and accommodation. The learner carries out the assimilation process
by integrating the new knowledge with prior knowledge that exists in his
conceptual structure. On the other hand, the accommodation process includes
acquiring information that is new and different from the learner's conceptual
structure. This requires amending the nature of the student's structures to deal
with the new information (Lazića, Abramovichb, Mrđaa & Romanoc, 2017).
Posner, Strike, Hewson and Gertzog (1983) indicated, in their theory on the
conceptual change, that if the student can solve the problems he faces in the light
of the conceptual framework, he has will not feel the need for changing this
framework, even if this framework does not solve specific problems successfully.
At this point, the learner carries out simple changes on the concepts in his
conceptual structure and performs the assimilation process without the need to
perform the accommodation process.
Learning depends on linking from the prior knowledge the learner owns, which
may help (or hinder) the understanding process. It could consist of incorrect prior
knowledge called misconceptions, which cause an inability to understand the new
concepts. This could be due to many reasons, such as the learner's inability to link
what is already present to what is new, misinterpreting the new concepts to match
the prior knowledge; or due to the lack of prior knowledge about the concept. In
these cases, the learner will resort to sticking to his previous conceptualizations in
the light of his conceptual framework (Namkung, Fuchs & Koziol, 2018).
The conceptual change begins with the assumption that students, in specific
occasions, build the alternative misconceptions about the phenomena based on
the lived experience, and that these concepts stand firmly against the striking
contrast with the accepted scientific theories that explain these phenomena
(Liljedahl, 2011). For example, students deal with the regular fractions as if they

293
were integers when they add a fraction to another. They add the two numerators
of the fractions and take the addition output as the final result of the new
numerator. Also, they add the two denominators and take the addition output as
the final result of the new denominator (Chen & Wang, 2016).
Posner, Strike, Hewson, and Gertzog (1982) see that the student should be quite
satisfied with the new concepts he learns, to create an intellectual (cognitive)
"conflict" between the current concepts that include the misconceptions and the
new concepts. The misconceptions are firmly change-resistant because they are
not independent of the cognitive structure of the learners. The main objective lies
in creating an intellectual (cognitive) conflict to make the learner un-contented
with concepts he currently holds. Therefore, he may accept new concepts that are
reasonable, brighter, and more productive in finding solutions to the problems he
faces.
Amid the search for effective strategies to remedy such misconceptions, the
analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation (ADDIE) model
appeared. This model provides the necessary steps to design effective
technological programs, which may help in establishing a learner-centered
approach instead of the teacher-centered approach (Cheung & Slavin, 2013; Stoyle
& Morris, 2017). The approach depends on the constructivism theory principles,
through designing technological activities that act on assisting the learner to build
meanings within his/her cognitive structure, and through acquiring experiences
that enable him/her to link the new information to the prior knowledge to form
the correct concept with him/her. Consequently, interactive technological
activities become more applicable and meaningful (Reinhold, Hoch, Werner,
Richter-Gebert & Reiss, 2020; Ross & Catherine & Bruce, 2009).
ADDIE model includes successive steps where each step feeds the one next to it.
During the analysis stage, the learning outputs and current knowledge the learner
possesses are defined. The gaps between the learning outputs and the students'
current knowledge are also defined. Finally, the misconceptions are detected to
enable the learner to achieve the educational goals and correct understanding.
Thereafter, the design, development, application, and evaluations are performed
after defining the goals and placing them in a clear manner (Pepin, Choppin,
Ruthven & Sinclair, 2017; Wang & Hsu, 2009).
In this regard, Yilmaz, Özdemi, and Yasar, (2018) conducted a study aimed at
identifying the misconceptions in the fractions of fourth-graders and amending
these conceptions through digital stories. The study was conducted on 25 students
in Turkey, which showed that the teaching applications designed by digital stories
eliminated the errors and misconceptions in the fractions with a vast majority of
the students. Most of the students realized the entire definitions of the fractions
and were able to perform the mathematical operations on them. The study further
showed that most of these students expressed positive views about the use of the
digital stories in the lessons, and found that these stories are enjoyable,
educational, and constructive.
Ross, Catherine, and Bruce (2009) developed educational programs consisting of
a set of activities that dealt with several concepts in fractions, such as
representations of the simple fractions and equivalent fractions, comparison of the

294
fractions, and expressing the unreal fractions as a fractional number. The activities
provided an interactive environment for the students that included a pool of
pictures that link the fractions with daily life, such as the use of the pizza and cake
pictures to represent the fractions. They also included successive steps of
animations. The study found that using electronic activities contributed to the
improvement of the students' achievement. The students indicated, during the
interview, the researchers conducted, that the activities provided them an
interactive learning environment, which enabled them to have control over the
speed of their learning and progress in the activities, through using the arrows to
move forward and backward and to the main menu, which contains a list of all
the names of the activities.
Many studies tackled the issue of the students' misconceptions in the fractions.
Students are still suffering from difficulty in learning the fractions and the
different mathematical operations on them. For instance, studies of Alkhateeb
(2019); Aksoy and Yazlik (2017); Duzenli-Gokalp and Sharma (2010); Hoch,
Reinhold, Werner, Richter-Gebert and Reiss (2018); Reinhold, Hoch, Werner,
Richter-Gebert and Reiss (2020); Schumacher and Malone (2017); and Trivena,
Ningsih and Jupri (2017).
Accordingly, the significance of this study is highlighted as an aspired benefit in
providing a remedial strategy to the misconceptions in the fraction subject with
the students. The significance also lies in the scarcity of the studies that integrate
the conceptual change theory with the electronic activities in correcting the
misconceptions in the fractions. The results further contribute to curricula
development and shed light on the misconceptions of the students during the
learning process. In this regard, the researcher hopes to adopt the interactive
technological activities method, as it provides a systematic solution to the
students' misconceptions. It could also benefit stakeholders who are involved in
developing the math curriculum, who can also add methods and strategies
specialized in correcting the misconceptions in the math curricula.
Based on the foregoing, the study aims to achieve two main objectives. First,
diagnosing the misconceptions of the fractions subject with the fourth graders;
and second, identifying the effect of using interactive technological activities to
correct the misconceptions that the students experience in the fractions subject.
Therefore, the study seeks to answer the following questions:
1. What are the misconceptions the fourth graders hold about the fractions
subject?
2. What are the effects of using interactive technological activities in correcting the
misconceptions of the fourth graders in the fractions subject?
2. Methodology
The researcher applied the quantitative method and the quasi-experimental
design for the one-group pre-test/post-test design. This includes conducting a
pre-test for the one group that aims at diagnosing the misconceptions among the
students in the fraction's topic. After that, the possibility of correcting these
misconceptions is tested using interactive technological activities, which were
constructed in the light of the constructivist theory and Posner Model to change

295
the concepts. Then, the same test is repeated in the post-measurement after using
the interactive technological activities in teaching the fractions topic, to identify
their effects in correcting these misconceptions.
Study Population
The study consisted of a randomly chosen sample of 85 fourth graders in Zarqa
(Jordan) governorate in the academic year 2019-2020, who are taught the
Jordanian curriculum, which is in line with NTCM (2000) standards. The
Jordanian ministry of education adopts the math books issued by Collins in the
United Kingdom (https://collins.co.uk). Students in 3rd-5th grades continue
refining their understanding of the computational operations on the fractions and
developing computation algorithms using the fractions. Students study the
fractions topic in four units in the fourth grade. Also, they are introduced to the
primary concepts of fractions in the first, second, and third grades.
Three weeks after the students completed the study of the fraction's topic, the
diagnostic pre-test was conducted. No revision was done before the diagnostic
pre-test, and students were not informed beforehand that they will undertake the
exam. The students worked individually and were not allowed to consult the
teacher (in this case, the researcher), or their classmates during the exam.
The researcher obtained the necessary approvals of the concerned parties to
conduct the study, with a commitment of the researcher that the data collected
will be solely for the purposes of the research, not to be used for any personal
purposes or leased to any other party. The participants have informed the details
and goals of the study, and the researcher respected the right of the participants
to withdraw.
3. Study Instruments
1) Diagnostic test
The test consisted of ten questions that measure ten errors, which could be present
with the fourth graders in the fractions subject, which were defined as per their
existence in the educational literature. The most frequent errors of the students
were chosen (Alkhateeb, 2019; Allen, 2007; Aksoy & Yazlik, 2017; Bruce & Ross,
2009; Chang, 2013; Cramer, Wyberg, & Leavitt, 2008; Ghani, &, Maat, 2018;
Schumacher & Malone, 2017; Siegler, Fazio, Bailey & Zhou, 2013; Trivena, Ningsih
& Jupri, 2017). The questions varied throughout the regular fractions, comparison,
and the addition and subtraction operations on them. Each question was given
one score for the correct answering and zero for the wrong. The questions were
presented in a way that shows the errors through the students' answers. For
instance, when the students were asked: find the result of the subtraction in the
3 1 2
following − = and write the result in the rectangle: If the answer was ,
6 3 3
we know that the student has the misconception, as he subtracted two un-
equivalent fractions by subtracting the two numerators and putting the output as
the numerator of the subtraction process. Then he subtracted the two
denominators putting the output as a denominator of the result.
The test was presented to 6 reviewers to show their views on the clarity degree of
the test question, and whether any of them is to be rephrased. In the light of their

296
comments, specific questions were amended. The researcher applied the test-
retest procedures and realized the test reliability. The test was applied to an
exploratory sample and was reapplied two weeks later, where the resulting
Pearson Correlation Coefficient was 0.87.
2) Interactive technological activities
Ten interactive technological activities were designed, which aim to treat the ten
misconceptions already mentioned in the fraction's topic. The activities were
designed in the light of the two-model frameworks, namely the general model to
design teaching (ADDIE Model), and Posner Model for conceptual change. The
activities were designed within the intellectual (cognitive) conflict strategy by
working within the visualization that a contradiction must be created in the
student and his misconceptions must be destabilized, be replaced by the correct
concepts. As for the general model for teaching design, the activities were
designed within the following stages:
Misinterpretation of new
Insufficiency of the
concepts to match prior
current concepts
knowledge
Produce
Misconception
The Electronic Activities
Posner's Model for conceptual Change General Model for Education Design
Intellectual Struggle: Facing the Analysis Stage: Defining the problem,

student, creating dissatisfaction its origin, the possible solutions and
on the misconception he owns content analysis. Defining the gap
(wrong answer on the question), between the learning outputs and the
offering feedback, which is in current students' knowledge and
the beginning of the intellectual defining the misconceptions.
struggle.
Designing Stage: Describing the
Knowledge Rebuilding: approaches pertinent to how to
Thinking of how far the implement the teaching-learning
students accepted the new process.
concepts, because they were
persuaded about the Development Stage: Translating
misconceptions. what was taught into actual
educational materials.
Introducing the correct
concept.
Application Stage: Actual education.
Evaluation Stage: Measuring the

effects of Education.
Figure 1: General Model of the Interactive Technological Activities Design

297
The validity of the technological activities was verified by presenting them to the
reviewers, whose remarks and comments about the nature of the activities, their
contents, and the design mechanism were taken into account. Then, the activities
were applied to an exploratory sample to find out how convenient the activities
are for the students, how easy they are, and how to navigate through the activity's
screens. The activities were given to the same exploratory sample two weeks later,
and the two experiments were compared to know how close the students'
performance in using them was.
Data Gathering Procedures:

Step 1: Applying the pre-test on the pupils of a school in Zarqa City, to identify
the percentage of errors in the fractions topic before the use of
technological activities.
Step 2: The researchers taught the pupils the fractions topic using technological
activities over 15 lessons. Here below are examples of specific
technological activities in the study:
Comparison of two fractions having the same numerator: in the beginning, the
activity consists of a multiple-choice question. The student is asked to compare
1 1
the fractions and by selecting the signs ( ), as shown in Figure 2. If he
5 2
1 1
answers that < , the screen will tell that the answer is incorrect, and then an
2 5
arrow is shown to him to move to the next.
Figure 2: Homepage of the electronic activity

Then the activity displays the incorrect answer of the student in a pictorial
manner, as the activity is programmed in a way that enables achieving the
theoretical framework of the study. In this regard, Posner, Strike, Hweson and
Gertzog (1982) see that for a successful conceptual change process to happen,
students must feel dissatisfied about their current concepts, which results in an
incorrect answer so that the intellectual conflict will start, as shown in Figure 2.

298
Figure 3: Pictorial comparison that shows the student his incorrect answer to start the
intellectual conflict
Figure 3 contains the continuity of the intellectual conflict process, but in a manner
closer to the student's reality and his daily life. The student is again asked to
1 1
compare the fractions and , and with a representation of two fractions
2 5
appearing through using the pizza example.
Figure 4: Continuation of the intellectual conflict process

Following the intellectual conflict process and student's destabilization in his
answer, the activity moves to the next stage. This stage includes illustrative steps
to provide the student's correct knowledge, in which if he sees reasonability and
clarity, we can achieve the conceptual change with him. The activity also provides
the correct scientific knowledge about how to change the non-equivalent fractions
into two equivalent fractions by finding the least common multiple between the
two denominators and then making them similar.
Furthermore, the activity includes clarification of the rule the schoolbook deals
with, namely: when comparing two fractions with the same numerators, then the
fraction with higher denominator is less than the other. It is a quick way that
enables the students to answer correctly on comparing two fractions in which
numerators are the same. Then, the activity asks the student to compare once more
1 1
the two fractions and to find out whether the student achieved the objective of
2 5

299
the activity, or he will repeat the same error. If the student answers correctly,
feedback will be presented to him/her, which represents sounds and shapes to
encourage him. On the other hand, if the answer was incorrect, the activity will
automatically come back to allow the student to start the discovery navigation
again until the error is corrected.
Step 3: The post-test was applied after teaching the fractions using the
technological activities, which included questions aiming at revealing the
extent of the treatment of the error in the fraction's topic, which were found
in the pre-test. The researcher changed the order of the questions and the
numbers used in the exam items, to ensure that the students did not learn
the answers by the heart by repeating the same questions.
4. Statistical Results
This study aimed to identify the misconceptions held by students of the fourth
grade in the fractions topic. It also aimed to study the effect of using interactive
technological activities to correct misconceptions among students, where
activities were designed in the light of constructivist theory, Posner's Model, and
ADDIE Model.
1) Misconceptions of the fourth graders about fractions
The misconceptions of the fourth graders on fractions were evaluated and
identified through a diagnostic pre-test. The results showed a difference in the
percentage of errors the students hold, which were as per the following details.
The highest percentage (88.2%) was for Misconception Ten: subtracting non-
equivalent fractions through subtracting the two numerators and subtracting the
3 2 1
two denominators, such as − = . Misconception Six comprised 80%, which
8 5 3
was about adding a fraction to an integer by adding the integer to the fraction,
2 7
keeping the denominator of the fraction as is, such as 5 + = . Misconception
3 3
Eight comprised 74.1%, which was about adding two un-equivalent fractions and
5 3 8
adding the two denominators, such as + = . Misconception Three
7 2 9
accounted for 63.5%, which was about the comparison of two fractions having the
1 1
same numerator by comparing the two denominators together, such as <
2 3
because of 3 > 2. Misconception Seven amounted 56.5%, which was about adding
two fractions with equivalent denominators as well as adding two un-equivalent
2 5 7
numerators, such as + = . Misconception Nine comprised 52.9% and was
7 7 14
about subtracting two fractions with equivalent denominators and un-equivalent
numerators, by subtracting the two numerators and the two denominators, such
5 2 3
as − = . Misconception Four formed 47.1% and was about the comparison
8 8 0
of two un-equivalent fractions by ignoring the numerator, using the property that
"the fraction with higher denominator is the smaller", which applies only on
1 4
fractions with the same numerator, such as > because of 5>3 .
3 5
Misconception One amounted to 29.4% and was about writing a fraction that

300
represents the ratio of the shaded part to the un-shaded, not to the whole shape.
Misconception Five comprised 27.1% and was about comparing a fraction with a
fractional number by comparing the two fractions while ignoring the integer, such
1 4
as 1 < .
5 5
Finally, Misconception Two got the lowest percentage (21.2%) which was about
writing a fraction that represents the shaded part of the shape not taking into
consideration the unequal portions in the shape. Table 1 shows the
misconceptions and their percentages among the students.
Table 1. Students' Misconceptions and their Percentages
No. Misconception Students Misconception
holding the Percentage
misconception
1 Writing a fraction representing the ratio of the 25 29.4%
shaded part to the un-shaded, not the ratio of
the part to the whole.
2 Writing a fraction that represents the shaded 28 21.2%
part of the shape without taking care of
whether the parts are equal in the shape
3 Comparison of two fractions having the same 54 63.5%
numerator by comparing the two
denominators together.
4 Comparing two un-equivalent fractions 40 47.1%
ignoring the numerator, and using the property
that the fraction with the bigger denominator is
the smaller.
5 Comparing a fraction with a fractional number 22 27.2%
by comparing the two fractions while ignoring
the integer.
6 Adding a fraction to an integer by adding the 68 80%
integer to the numerator of the fraction as a
numerator of the answer, and then taking the
denominator of the fraction as a denominator
of the answer.
7 Adding two fractions (with un-equivalent 48 65.5%
numerators and equivalent denominators) by
adding the two numerators as the numerator of
the answer as well as adding the two
denominators as a denominator of the answer.
8 Adding two un-equivalent fractions by adding 63 74.1%
the two numerators as a numerator of the
answer and adding the two denominators as
the denominator of the answer.
9 Subtracting two equivalent fractions by 45 52.9%
subtracting the two numerators as the output
of the numerator, as well as subtracting the two
denominators in the same way.
10 Subtracting two un-equivalent fractions by 75 88.2%

301
2) Effect of using interactive technological activities in correcting the fourth-

graders misconceptions on fractions
The diagnostic post-test was conducted and the percentage of the correct answers
of the ten items of the test on the defined misconceptions was found. The mean of
the students' grades was calculated and then compared with their grade mean in
the pre-test, to find out the amount of the conceptual change with the students.
Table 2 illustrates the misconceptions of the students as we're in the post-test after
the use of technological activities, as well as their existence percentage.
Table 2. Students Misconception Percentage after exposure to interactive
technological activities as measured by a post-test
No. Misconception Students Misconception
holding the Percentage
misconception
1 Writing a fraction representing the ratio of the 0 0
shaded part to the un-shaded, not the ratio of
the part to the whole.
2 Writing a fraction that represents the shaded 3 3.5%
part of the shape without taking care of
whether the parts are equal in the shape
3 Comparison of two fractions having the same 5 5.9%
numerator by comparing the two
denominators together.
4 Comparing two un-equivalent fractions 6 7.1%
ignoring the numerator, and using the
property that the fraction with the bigger
denominator is the smaller.
5 Comparing a fraction with a fractional number 4 4.7%
by comparing the two fractions while ignoring
the integer.
6 Adding a fraction to an integer by adding the 11 12.9%
integer to the numerator of the fraction as a
numerator of the answer, and then taking the
denominator of the fraction as a denominator
of the answer.
7 Adding two fractions (with un-equivalent 4 4.7%
numerators and equivalent denominators) by
adding the two numerators as the numerator of
the answer as well as adding the two
denominators as a denominator of the answer
8 Adding two un-equivalent fractions by adding 6 7.1%
the two numerators as a numerator of the
answer and adding the two denominators as
the denominator of the answer.
9 Subtracting two equivalent fractions by 7 8.2%
10 Subtracting two un-equivalent fractions by 9 10.6%

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Table 2 above depicts the change of students’ conceptions about fractions after
exposing them to the interactive technological activities. Below are the
misconceptions of students in the subject matter (Listed in Table 1) on fractions,
and the extent of the change that students achieved.
Misconception One: Writing a fraction that represents the ratio of the shaded part
to the non-shaded, not to the whole shape. The concept was present with 29.4% of
the students before applying the interactive activities. After applying these
activities, all the students managed to answer this question correctly, and the
misconception did not appear in the post-test. This is attributed to that the
technological activity introduced the concept of the fraction and its divisions
(numerator and denominator) in a detailed manner using illustrative pictures. The
activity further provided detailed steps on how to write the fraction that
represents the shaded part and feedback for the student once he answers. If the
answer is incorrect, the activity provides an interactive, illustrative explanation,
which contributed in explaining the concept and creating a conceptual change
with all the students.
Misconception Two: Writing a fraction that represents the shaded part of the
shape without attention to whether the parts inside the shape are equal, which
was present with 21.2% of the students. But, when the interactive activities were
applied, it was present with 3.5% of the students only. Most of the students
realized the concept of the integer (1) through the interactive activity, and how to
divide it into equal parts so that the total of the parts expresses the denominator
of the fraction, and the shaded parts represent the numerator. The researcher
noted, through the students' answers, the possibility of falling in the error of
considering the non-shaded part in the shape as the denominator of the fraction.
In this case, when they are asked to choose the shape in which the shaded part is
2
equal to , they tended to choose the pie chart with 3 shaded segments.
5
Misconception Three: Comparing two fractions that have the same numerator by
comparing the two denominators together. This conception was found with 63.5%
of the students, but it dropped to 5.9% only when the interactive activities were
applied. The persistence of the misconception with few students is ascribed to the
fact that the conceptual change is sometimes faced with rejection by the students.
They adhere to their current misconceptions because they have difficulty in
unifying the denominators and finding the least common multiple, which could
be linked to the existence of problems among the students in multiplying the
numbers.
Misconception Four: Comparing un-equivalent fractions while ignoring the
numerator and using the property of the fraction, which is "the fraction with
higher denominator is smaller than the other". This misconception was present
with 47.1% of the students and fell to 4.7% only after the application of the
interactive activities. The students used a wrong comparison strategy and
compared the two un-equivalent fractions using the strategy for comparing two
fractions having the same numerator. They misused the strategy and considered
the fraction with a higher denominator smaller than the other. The activity
provided a group of pictorial representations and life examples to bring the

303
concept close to the students. Then the activity dealt with the strategies to convert
the two un-equivalent fractions and then comparing them.
Misconception Five: Comparing a fraction with a fractional number by
comparing the two fractions and ignoring the integer. The concept was present
with 26.5% of the students and dropped to 4.5% only after applying the activity.
The students compared the similar thing when comparing the fractions, giving no
weight to the integer. This result is in line with that of Ross, Catherine and Bruce
(2009), where they indicated that students find difficulties in the fractional
numbers concepts because they do not understand the fact that there is a
possibility to write an integer beside the fraction. Accordingly, the study
emphasizes the necessity to clarify the strategy of converting the fractional
number into a fraction to the students as a prior step to compare between the
fraction and the fractional number, to avoid the common mistakes the students
make.
Misconception Six: Adding a fraction and an integer by adding the integer to the
numerator of the fraction as a numerator for the result, then taking the
denominator of the fraction as a denominator for the answer. The misconception
was held by 80% of the students, which dropped to only 12.9% after applying the
interactive activity. The conceptual change is attributed to that the activity dealt
in the concept of the integer and the fraction that expresses. It is also ascribed to
guiding the students to the activity that deals in the first concept that explains the
fraction concept and the nature of the numerator and denominator. The activity
provided a detailed explanation in an interactional method as well as animations
of pizza pieces that represent the integer, then moving with the children to how
to add a fraction to an integer.
Misconception Seven: Adding two fractions (that have equivalent denominators)
by adding the two numerators and considering the output as the numerator of the
answer and the two denominators as the denominator of the answer. The
misconception was held by 56.5% of the students and dropped to 4.7% after
applying the interactive activities. The students applied the strategy for adding
the integers and generalizing it to the fraction adding process. The activity
contributed to a considerable conceptual change with the students by placing
them in an intellectual conflict through real-life examples on how to add two
amounts to produce an amount lesser than the two!
Misconception Eight: Adding two un-equivalent fractions by adding the two
numerators and considering the output as the numerator of the answer, and
adding the two denominators as a denominator of the answer, which was held by
74.1% of the students, and dropped to 7.1% after applying the interactive
activities. The considerable change rate is ascribed to the reliance of the eighth
activity on facing the student with his incorrect answer by the pictorial
representation, students asking one the other, and clarifying the fact that when
we add two amounts, the resulting amount is bigger than any of the two.
Misconception Nine: Subtracting two equivalent fractions by subtracting the two
numerators taking the output as a numerator of the answer and subtracting the
two denominators taking the result as a denominator of the answer. The
misconception was held by 52.9% of the students and fell to 8.2% after applying

304
the interactive activities. The students were surprised by the result, as the
following example explains the confusion of the student about his answer. He first
5 3 2
solved the subtraction process as: − = . He soon changed the zero (o) to (1)
8 8 0
integer. When he was asked to explain his answer, he said that "it is not allowed
to have a zero (0) "beneath" the fraction (denominator), and I replaced it by one
(1).
The activity includes clarifying the concept of subtracting two equivalent fractions
using the numbers line, which contributed to the assurance of the student's
understanding, as mentioned in the study of Siegler, Fazio, Bailey and Zhou
(2013). The activity has sequential steps that include dividing the numbers line
into equal parts from 0 to 1, defining the two fractions: the first, then going
backward (because the process is subtraction) by the amount of the second
fraction to find the result. Students find, at the end of the activity, and enrichment
video that contains additional examples on how to subtract two equivalent
fractions.
Misconception Ten: Subtracting two un-equivalent fractions by subtracting the
two numerators as the output of the numerator and the two denominators as the
output of the denominator, which was held by 88.2% of the students, and went
down to 10.6% only after applying the activity. The activity dealt in activities such
as pictorial comparisons to clarify the incorrect answer to the student, then
explaining the necessity to uniform two equivalent fractions before carrying out
the subtraction process.
The means of the students' scores in the post-test were calculated and compared
with those of the pre-test using the Paired Sample Test, to determine whether a
conceptual change took place with the students after applying the interactive
activities. The results showed an increase in the mean from 4.15 in the pre-test to
8.9 in the post-test, and that T=14.33, p=0.00, which indicates a difference in favour
of the post-test after applying the interactive activities. Consequently, it is an
indicator that the use of the interactive activities created a conceptual change with
the students as shown in Table (3).
Table 3. Means of the Students Grades in the Pre-test and Post-test as well as T Value
Pre-test Post-test T Vale Sig
Mean 4.15 8.90 14.33 0.00
S.D 1.82 0.72
5. Discussion
Through the analysis of the students' answers on the post-test, we found
variations in attributing the misconceptions they hold. There were four similar
misconceptions in terms of the context: adding two equivalent fractions, adding
un-equivalent fractions, subtracting two equivalent fractions, and subtracting two
un-equivalent fractions. The students dealt in the questions related to these
concepts by adding or subtracting the two numerators making the output as the
numerator of the answer, and adding-subtracting the two denominators and
making the output as the denominator of the answer. The prevalence of these

305
5 2 3
misconceptions was relatively high, such as − = . This type of
8 3 5
misconception indicates that there are difficulties facing the students in
understanding the fractions concepts. The students treat the fractions as if they
were integers not paying any attention to the importance of the fraction line. The
students further transfer their previous experiences and what they learned in
earlier educational stages, such as operations on the integers, to their current stage
in fraction learning, which resulted in an overlap in their knowledge that results
in the misconceptions.
This result is in line with Allen (2007), who stated that the misconceptions with
the students stem from the insufficiency of the prior knowledge. They also stem
from misunderstanding the ideas and the conceptual relations between them,
which could be obtained through inconvenient ways in a specific context. These
results are also in line with the studies of Dhlamini and Kibirige (2014); Siegler,
Fazio, Bailey, and Zhou (2013) about students’ treatment of the numerator and
denominator as totally independent numbers and transferring their previous
experiences in adding and subtracting the integers to adding and subtracting the
fractions. As a result, this study emphasizes the need to train the teachers to take
care of and reveal the students' misconceptions, and the necessary remedial ways.
This is quite possible by the teachers' follow-up of the students' answers in the
examinations, not to be contented by the "abstract" grades, but they should work
to analyze the answers to identify whether the misconceptions exist with the
students.
Furthermore, the results showed that the use of the interactive technological
activities in the fractions topic is capable to correct the students' misconceptions
in the light of compatibility between Posner's Model and ADDIE Model.
Therefore, care should be placed on including multiple activities of the
misconceptions because misconceptions are change-resistant, as one activity that
includes one case is not sufficient to measure the students' conceptual change, as
well as using different questions aiming at the misconception.
This result is in line with the study of Reinhold, Hoch, Werner, Richter-Gebert,
and Reiss (2020), which showed that it is possible to use an interactive educational
environment to teach the fraction concepts. It is also in line with the study of Chen,
Pan, Sung and Chang (2013) which showed that conceptual change instructions
could correct misconceptions effectively by constructing scenarios that conflict
with existing knowledge structures. These results are consistent with the results
of a study conducted by Bruce and Ross (2009). The researchers designed five
groups of technological activities for the fractions, which contributed to the
increase in the students' achievement and reduced their misconceptions.
It is also in line with the study of Yilmaz, Özdemi and Yasar (2018), which showed
that the teaching applications designed by digital stories eliminated the mistakes
and the misconceptions in the fractions with a vast majority of the students. Most
of the students fully realized and understood the definitions of the fractions
following the activities designed with digital stories. The study of Stoyle and
Morris (2017) is also in line with these results, which showed that the use of the
blogs may provide unique support for fractions learning because they provide the
students with opportunities to explain, justify, and discuss their thinking. They

306
also provide criticism on the logic of others through an interactive educational

environment that offers chances to clarify the misunderstandings and
misconceptions, which may not be found face-to-face in a traditional educational
environment.
6. Conclusions
The results of our current study may be an indication that the interactive
technological learning activities could lead to an improvement in the
understanding of the current misconceptions that students face when learning the
fractions topic. As for the content, the focus should not only be on calculating the
symbolic fractions, which may seem meaningless for many students, but also on
providing convenient educational opportunities to start the required conceptual
change. The results show that the use of interactive electronic activities could be
used to transfer the different fraction representations to aid the understanding of
the concept of fractions. This study is limited to dealing with ten misconceptions
only as it takes a lot of time to develop the e-activities which are used to correct
these misconceptions.
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Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 309-321, April 2020
Experimental and Research Verification of the

Methodology of Forming the High School
Students’ Artistic Taste for the Vocal Heritage
(Late XIX-Early XX Century)
Yuliia V. Merezhko1, Dmytro A. Lievit2, Oksana P. Petrykova3,

Svitlana V. Gmyrina4 and Mariia S. Kasianchuk5
Department of Academic and Solo Vocal, Institute of Arts, Borys Grinchenko
Kyiv University, Kyiv, Ukraine
1https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5918-7496
2https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6442-3203
3https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4326-3308
4https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3549-2207
5https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6482-9497
Abstract. The article highlights the results of research and experimental

work on verifying the methodology of forming the artistic taste of high
school students in the vocal heritage of Ukrainian composers of the late
XIX – early XX centuries. The study purpose was to evaluate the
elaborated methodology for the formation of the artistic taste of high
school students in the process of studying the vocal heritage of
Ukrainian composers. The study was accomplished using the method of
paired comparisons that resulted in the scale of the comparative
assessments in the control and the experimental group of high school
students during the extracurricular activities in Kyiv, Zaporizhia and
Dnipropetrovsk regions. The effectiveness of the proposed method was
supported by the results of the statistical purposes of processing the
experimental data using the χ2-criterion formula. The criteria for
monitoring the formation of the high school students’ artistic taste
regarding the national heritage of the late XIX-early XX centuries were
outlined; the three levels (high, medium, low) of high school students’
artistic taste formation were identified. The effectiveness of the applied
methodology was evaluated by the series of tests comparing the results
at the ascertaining and forming stages of the study. The authors argue
that the data of the forming experiment showed significant positive
changes in the levels of formation of high school students’ artistic taste
according to all the determined criteria, which testifies to the
effectiveness of the developed facilitation methodology.
Keywords: artistic taste; high school students; vocal music teaching;

Ukrainian composers; aesthetic education

310
1. Introduction
At the present stage of societal development, education lies at the basis of
intellectual, cultural, spiritual, social, and economic growth of society and
the country as a whole (Batalina, 2005; Rostovsky, 2001; Zyazyun 1976). To
benefit the educators, practical teaching strategies need to be elaborated to
actively advance music education as an essential structure, “a pillar of achieving
the comprehensive development of society and a measure of its social and
technological progress” (Mahidi, 2019). In accordance with the current
approaches, in Ukraine the education system should ensure the formation of a
person who is aware of belonging to European civilization and values, clearly
oriented inand familiar with modern realities and perspectives of socio-cultural
progress. Currently higher education focuses on the successful solution of socio-
cultural and pedagogical issues related to the guiding the future teachers in the
advances of musical and aesthetic pedagogy.
Modern scientific researches show that music and music pedagogy furnish
experiences and values for gaining the expected progressive movement of the
learners, consistently playing an integral role in the comprehensive, holistic
development of the learner’s personality (Allsup, 2003; Babayan, 2006; Lebler,
2008; Padalka, 2010).
However, the overwhelming majority of young people nowadays prefer
listening to the “light” genre of music (Hemming & Westvall, 2010; Lebedeva,
2011; Shakhrai, 2003).
Music education in secondary schools of Ukraine encompasses the students of I-
VIII grades, in contrast high school students remain unattended with the
aesthetic knowledge and need guidance to complete education tasks.
Unfortunately, the values of national art often stay outside of their reach. Hence,
there is a contradiction between the creative potential of the vocal heritage of
Ukrainian composers and the prevailing interest of high school students in
contemporary music of low quality.
The problem of developing the personality’s artistic taste drew the attention of
the researchers from various fields of study – philosophers, psychologists, and
educators (Abramova, 1998; Babayan, 2006; Vereshchagina, 2010; Vygotsky,
2008). In Ukraine, the dissertation theses of the recent years (Lebedeva, 2011;
Ponomaryova, 2007; Popovych, 2005; Sapozhnik, 2001; Shakhrai, 2003, etc.)
address the development of aesthetic taste of high school students. In particular
the current research studies pedagogical conditions of shaping the aesthetic
attitude to reality in the process of learning to play the musical instrument, the
method of using popular and variety music in organizing forms of pedagogical
influence, developing the aesthetic sphere of high school students and ensuring
the aesthetic orientation of their pastime.
At the same time, the problem of instilling the artistic taste in high school
students in the process of studying the vocal legacy of Ukrainian composers is
almost not considered, as evidenced by Merezhko (2012, 2018). The issues of the
music pedagogy, in particular the vocal education of high school students in
extracurricular activities of the secondary school, remained virtually
unaddressed by the researchers, the ways of shaping aesthetic attitude to

311
reality of the youth in the process of vocal activity were not sufficiently
explored, the possibilities of realizing the aesthetic and educational potential of
Ukrainian vocal music have not been addressed. The novelty of the research lies
in an attempt to bridge a research gap between the need to enable the facilitating
activity of the teacher as regards motivation and persuasion in high school
education design and the current targeted drive for the preservation of the
values of the national vocal legacy, in particular as reflected in the works of the
renowned Ukrainian composers. The study is expedient as the components,
criteria and levels of formation of value attitudes of the high school students are
explored. Besides, theoretically substantiated and experimentally tested are the
pedagogical conditions that contribute to the effective formation of value
attitudes in high school students by studying the vocal legacy of the renowned
Ukrainian composers at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries.
Researchers showed that in practice, the vocal compositions with the high school
students in extra-curricular time are focused primarily on the use of modern
“youth” music, under the influence of which the students’ artistic taste is formed
(Sapozhnik, 2001).
Thus, the purpose of the article is to highlight the results of the analysis of
experimental work on verifying the methodology of forming the high school
students’ artistic taste in the vocal legacy of Ukrainian composers-contributes to
elaboration of the state-of-the-art teaching strategy. Thus, the study contributed
to the field of music pedagogy the authors’ facilitation methodology of shaping
musical and aesthetic attitudes of the future teachers, which can be considered
as one of the important manifestations of the cultural creativity associated with
the preservation, dissemination, enrichment of the values of the national vocal
heritage in the life of the contemporary Ukrainian high school students.
2. Methods
The methodology of forming young people’s artistic taste is aimed specifically at
studying the vocal legacy of the Ukrainian composers at the turn of the XIX-XX
centuries, in particular Mykola Lysenko, Semen Hulak-Artemovskyi, Sydir
Vorobkevych, Yaroslav Barnych, Petro Senyk and others, in extracurricular
vocational classes in comprehensive schools.
The proposed methodology includes a set of methods: first, the methods which
involve expanding the high school students’ awareness of the vocal music of
Ukrainian composers at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries; second, the methods
aimed at providing the cultural basis of high school students’ perception of
Ukrainian vocal creativity; third, the methods aimed at stimulating the
emotional and evaluative attitude to music, and fourth, the methods aimed at
motivating the high school students to express themselves in the process of
performing the works of the renowned Ukrainian composers.
The experimental verification of the proposed methodology was applied for
several years at the secondary school No. 5 (Pershotravensk), the secondary
school No. 25 (Melitopol), the secondary school No. 292 named after hetman
Ivan Mazepa (Kyiv), Goroshkivska school of Tetiivsk district in the process of
extracurricular work in the framework of secondary school education.

312
On the whole, 220 high school students aged 14-16 participated in the
experimental study during all steps (ascertaining, forming, final). The
verification of the results of the implementation of the developed methodology
for the formation of high school students’ artistic taste was carried out by the
method of ascertaining tests (Nemov, 2001).
3. Results
The results of the ascertaining experiment showed that the general level of the
formation of the high school students’ artistic taste does not meet the
requirements established by the regulatory documents. It is manifested, in
particular, in the inability of the majority of surveyed students to distinguish the
vocal music of high artistic merit from pseudo-arts, inability to give an
argumentative evaluation of musical works and their performance, and the
inability of the high school students to adequately reproduce the artistic and
artistic charge of the vocal compositions, in particular, Ukrainian songs.
The first test session was carried out in the diagnostic block, at the beginning of
the forming experiment, to distribute the students of the senior school age into
the control and experimental groups. The students’ level of artistic taste
formation was the main factor in selecting high school students to the control
and experimental groups. The students with a top and average level of aesthetic
taste formation were put into the control group. The experimental group
included low-level students, eight high school students of the secondary school
No. 5 (Pershotravensk), eight high school students of the secondary school
No. 25 (Melitopol), nine high school students of school No. 292 named after
hetman Ivan Mazepa in Kyiv, and eight high school students of Goroshkivska
secondary school. Each group comprised of thirty-three students.
4. Discussion
The issues of spiritual development of personality, formation of aesthetic
attitudes to music heritage, tracing the reality of advances in music education as
well as preparation of future teachers for active use of modern approaches in the
educational process nowadays become particularly relevant. Nowadays the
socio-cultural space is saturated with information, so an important manifestation
of the professional culture of the educators is the ability to navigate in the
ambience of creative and aesthetic values, deeply perceive, evaluate and
interpret works of art, consistently cultivating the learners’ interest.
As Campbell and Wiggins (2012), Rudnitskaya (2002), Padalka (2010) note,
currently pedagogical education and art are potent factors of personality
development. Lewy (1971) outlines and develops the taxonomy of affective
educational outcomes of music pedagogy and explores their applicability for the
teaching of music in school. Furthermore, Quesada and Terese (1997), Zhang
(2018) point that music education activities are at the crossroads of teaching
practices. Rodríguez (2019) examines the targeted practices of music education
for social development, whereas Mahidi (2019) dwells on practical teaching
strategies of musical education in the context of instructional design, in
particular, social variables and psychological variables. On the other hand,

313
Bradley (2015) focuses on the interculturalist stance of music education as

preferred to the multicultural perspective and examines its unintended
consequences. As for the national context, art is the process of forming and
improving aesthetic education of the younger generation based on the
intercultural relations of the art, including the vocal one (Anderson & Campbell,
1996; Chaciński, 2012). An essential component of this process is the cultivation
of personality culture in the aspect of the national ideal of Ukrainian traditions
(Fright, 1998; Protsyk, 1982; Shulgina, 2005). Of particular interest are theoretical
studies in the field of art and aesthetic education and upbringing of pupils and
students, the determination of the list of criteria for aesthetic evaluation, the
research addressing the formation of an aesthetic attitude to reality and art.
The relevance of the value approach is also due to the "turning point" of the XX -
early XXI centuries, which created new ideas about space, time and movement
and is determined by the transition to value consciousness. As the teaching
practice shows, pupils at secondary educational institutions have little
experience in musical works of the renowned Ukrainian composers. The sheer
complexity of finding ways of holistic perception of the multidimensional
musical world, present-day musical life raises the problem of the formation of
value orientations in the musical-pedagogical process is particularly acute.
During the experiment in the control group, the formation of artistic taste was
held under the usual conditions of the educational process according to the
traditional method and conducted under the direction of music teachers. In the
pilot group the high school students studied according to the method developed
by the authors. The empirical study involved twelve music teachers and two
lecturers from the pedagogical universities in working in an expert commission
on summarizing the experiment.
The second test session was conducted at the forming stage of the study to
control the experimental process and the third test session was held in the final
stage.
At the final stage of the experiment with the view of determining the levels of
formation of artistic taste of high school students, the method of content analysis
was used. It included the evaluation of the determined indicators by competent
referees, such as the teachers of vocal pedagogical universities (National
Pedagogical Drahomanov University and Bohdan Khmelnitskyi Melitopol State
Pedagogical University).
During the study, a general method was used for all the applied methodologies
– the method of pair comparisons since authors worked with two groups of
recipients – the control group and the experimental one. This method resulted in
the scale of the comparative assessments, expressed in percentage terms.
In the comparative analysis of experimental data of the ascertaining and forming
stages of the study, we drew attention to the dynamics of the disclosure of
indicators of the creation of the artistic taste levels in the process of studying the
Ukrainian heritage of the past according to the criterion “The degree of interest of
high school students in art, in particular, the vocal heritage of Ukrainian composers” of
the high school students of the experimental and control groups. The
questionnaires and the method of “musical and imaginative graphics” were

314
used to determine the levels of formation of students’ artistic taste. The

comparative indicators of the formation of high school students’ artistic taste
during the study of Ukrainian classical music are presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Dynamics of indicators of forming the artistic taste of the high school
students of CG and EG on the criterion “The degree of interest of high school
students in art, in particular the vocal heritage of Ukrainian composers”
High school students of the CG High school students of the

Criteria (33 students) EG (33 students)
Levels of the high school students’ artistic taste formation in the
vocal heritage of the renowned Ukrainian composers
The level of
low medium high low medium high
interest in the
arts, in particular
students
students
students
students
students
students
vocal heritage
%
%
at the beginning
51,5
33,3
15,2
63,6
27,3
9,1
17
11
21
5
3
of the experiment
at the end of the

42,4
33,3
24,3
21,2
42,4
36,4
14
11
14
12
8
7
experiment
As illustrated in Table 1, the low level of the artistic taste development of the
students of the CG, according to the criterion “The degree of interest of high
school students in the vocal heritage” at the end of the experiment declined by
9.1%. However, for the pupils of the EG it fell even more – by 42.4%. The
average level in the CG remained the same as it was at the beginning of the
study – 33.3%, the medium level of students of the EG increased by 15.1%; a
high level of indicators of the formation of the artistic taste of the CG grew at the
end of the experiment by 9.1%, whereas for the high school students of the EG it
increased by 27.3%
Consequently, having analyzed the results of this table, we conclude that the
level of the formation of the artistic taste according to the criterion “The degree
of interest of high school students in the artistic, in particular, the vocal heritage
of Ukrainian composers” among the students of the experimental group has
enhanced more considerably than that of the CG students. It is due to the use of
such methods by the students of the EG, how to make the most of songs of their
age, familiarity with the artistic and stylistic features of the vocal heritage of
Ukrainian composers, commencing a conversation about the artistic value of
music, etc.
At the initial and at the final stage of the experiment, it is expedient to consider
the comparative table of the obtained data (see Table 2) by paying attention to
the formation of the artistic taste in the students of the senior school age of the
control and experimental groups according to the criterion “Measuring the
ability to perceive and evaluate the contents of the vocal composition”.

315
students of CG and EG on the criterion “Ability to perceive and evaluate the contents
of vocal composition”
High school students of the CG High school students of the EG
Criteria
(33 students) (33 students)
Levels of the high school students’ artistic taste formation in the vocal
Ability to heritage of the renowned Ukrainian composers
perceive and
evaluate the low medium high low medium high
content of
vocal
students
students
students
students
students
students
composition
%
%
at the
beginning of
45,4
36,4
18,2
57,6
30,3
12,1
15
12
19
10
the
6
4
experiment
at the end of
the
39,4
30,3
30,3
24,2
30,3
45,5
13
10
10
10
15
8
experiment
The data of the tables show that the indicators of the formation of the artistic
taste according to the criterion “Ability to perceive and evaluate the contents of
vocal composition” in the students of the CG did not improve significantly: the
low level declined by 6%, while the high level increased by 12.1%; the medium
level at the last stage of the study declined by 6.1%. The results of the students of
the EG showed significant progress towards the enhancement of the state of
artistic taste (the low level declined by 33.4%; the high one increased by 33.4%;
the medium remained at the same level). The obtained results make it possible
to conclude that the state of formation of the artistic taste according to the
criterion “Ability to perceive and evaluate the contents of vocal composition” is
better in the experimental group of high school students than that of the
students of the control group. Thus, it should be noted that the traditional
method, aimed at forming meaningful attitude and adequate evaluation of
musical works in students, is not sufficiently developed and requires a more
thorough study, and the introduced pedagogical methodology enhances both
the artistic taste and the ability to perceive and evaluate the contents of the vocal
composition.
Determination of the level of formation of the artistic taste of high school
students of the control and experimental group according to the criterion
“Measuring the ability to express the performance of a musical composition”
was carried out with the help of the developed method of performing
interpretation. In the process of diagnosis, the following results were obtained
(see Table 3).

316
students of CG and EG according to the criterion “Measuring the ability to express the
performance of a musical composition”
High school
High school students of the CG (33
Criteria students of the EG
students)
(33 students)
Levels of the high school students’ artistic taste formation in

the vocal heritage of the renowned Ukrainian composers
Measuring the
ability to express low medium high low medium high
the performance
of a musical
students
students
students
students
students
students
composition
%
%
at the beginning
27,3
63,6
60,6
24,2
15,2
9,1
21
20
of the experiment
9
5
at the end of the
36,4
42,4
21,2
18,2
48,5
33,3
12
14
16
11
experiment
7
The results of the abovementioned table testify to the formation of the artistic
taste of the CG high school students in the process of studying the vocal heritage
of Ukrainian composers according to the criterion “Measuring the ability to
express the performance of a musical composition” at the end of the experiment
enhanced in comparison with the results of the initial stage of the experiment,
namely: the low level declined by 27.2%; the medium level increased by 15.1%;
the high level also increased by 12.1%. Indicators of the formation of the artistic
taste of high school students also increased: the low level declined by 42.4%; the
medium level increased by 24.3%; the high level also increased by 18.1%.
According to the general results of this table, high school students of the EG are
overtaking the students of the CG by 12.1%. Remarkable results of the
development of the ability to expressly reproduce an artistic composition among
students of the experimental group have their own ground.
The process of training high school students of the experimental group to
expressly convey the artistic impact of the composition was systematic
throughout the experiment with the elaborated methodology. We developed the
methodology of public demonstration of vocal achievements, which includes the
following techniques: the method of involving students in independent artistic
and creative interpretation (“Performance interpretation”, “Independent
performing analysis of the composition”, “Theatrical interpretation”, singing of
the Ukrainian song with staging performance, etc.); work on vocal and
performing techniques in the embodiment of the artistic and creative impact
(“Imitation of the reference sample”, etc.); doing tasks of performing and
creative nature (on the development of artistic, combined imagination); the
application of psychological training (to identify oneself as a unique creative
personality, to remove physical and emotional stress); compliance phasing in
high school students’ preparing for the public performance (“Distinguishing of

317
individual psychological peculiarities of each singer”, “Encouragement to self-

control”, etc.). Due to the implementation of these methods and techniques the
high school students were able to “put themselves in place of the author” of the
musical piece, to perceive all the intonation subtleties and to perform the vocal
composition deep emotionally and highly artistically, in contrast to the students
of the control group.
By determining the levels of the formation of the artistic taste according to the
criterion of “Measuring the ability to express the performance of a musical
composition” of the high school students of the CG and EG, it is relevant to say
that the developed methods, techniques, creative tasks aimed at improving the
ability to reproduce the work of art. The results of the table indicate that the
ascertaining experiment has enhanced the artistic taste of both high school
students of the control group and in the experimental group, but the levels of
development of the ability to express the reproduction of the artistic impact of
the work is better in the EG than in the CG.
The comparison of the results obtained with the students of the experimental
and control groups during the ascertaining experiment made it possible to
identify the basic level of formation of their artistic taste according to all the
determined criteria (see Table 4).
Table 4: Levels of the artistic taste formation of the high school students of the control
and experimental groups at the end of the experiment
High school students of the High school students of the EG

Criteria
CG (33 students) (33 students)
Levels of the high school students’ artistic taste formation to the

vocal heritage of the renowned Ukrainian composers
low medium high low medium high

The level of
interest in vocal
students
students
students
students
students
student
heritage
%
%
42,4
33,3
24,3
21,2
42,4
36,4
14
11
14
12
8
Ability to perceive
and evaluate the
24,2
39,4
30,3
30,3
30,3
45,5
13
10
10
10
15
content of vocal
8
composition
Measuring the
ability to express
the performance
36,4
42,4
21,2
18,2
48,5
33,3
12
14
16
11
7
of a musical
composition
General indicators
39,4
35,3
25,3
21,2
40,4
38,4
13
12
13
13
8

318
From this table one can see that as a result of the new pedagogical methodology
introduced in the educational process, the level of the formation of the artistic
taste in the process of studying Ukrainian classical music of high school students
of the experimental group exceeds the level of the artistic taste formation by
means of Ukrainian classical music of the students of the control group
according to all indicators and criteria by 13.1%. The given result testifies to the
efficiency of the methodology of forming artistic taste developed by our high
school students. Due to the introduction of this method, the results of the
students in the senior school age group of the experimental group were as
follows: high level – thirteen students, medium – thirteen, low – seven. The
distribution of the results in the control group was as follows: 8 students had a
high level, twelve students had a medium level, and thirteen students had a low
level.
The effectiveness of the suggested methodology is confirmed by the statistical
processing the experimental data using the formula χ2-criterion (“chi-squared
criterion”):
X2 = 
m
(Vk − Pk )2
k =1 Pk
where Pk – the results of comments before the experiment; Vk – the results of
comments after the experiment; m – the total number of the groups to which the
results of comments were shared.
a) By substituting the experimental data of the students of the control group in
the given formula, we obtained the following results:
X2 = 
(39.4 − 53.5)2 +
(35.3 − 32.3) 2
+
(25.3 − 14.2) 2
= 12.68
k =1 53.5 32.3 14.2
According to the indicators of the students of the control group, the χ2-criterion
was 12.68. Using the table 4, where we can determine the degree of significance
of the differences obtained at the beginning and end of the experimental study
for a given number of degrees of freedom, it was recorded that the value χ2 =
12.68 is less than the value given in the table m–1=2 degrees of freedom, that is
equal to 13.82 with a possible error of less than 0.001%. This measurement has
shown that studying according to the traditional methodology does not provide
the formation of the artistic taste of the high school students by means of the
vocal heritage of the renowned Ukrainian composers.
b) By substituting the experimental group’s data for the given formula, we
obtained the following results:
X2 = 
(21.2 − 60.6)2 +
(40.4 − 27.3) 2 (38.4 − 12.1) 2
+ = 89.07
k =1 60.6 27.3 12.1
According to the indicators of the experimental group, the value of the χ2

criterion is 89.07, exceeding the value in the table [10, 573], which is 13.82 with a
probability of an error of less than 0.001%.
The existing studies prove to be in accordance with the foregoing series of
experiments and their design. Suffice to say, that the research done by Mahidi

319
(2019) relies heavily on the prerequisites such as the teacher’s familiarity with
the music education design, the goals sequence for learner’s perception, their
success motivation and appropriateness of the chosen goals and activities
against the national context and the existing culturally-specific attitudes towards
the effects of music as directly addressed to the deeply rooted determinants of
the national spirit and national identity. The measurements obtained in the
experiment expressly showed the appropriateness of measuring the learner’s
success, studying according to the suggested authors’ methodology, that ensures
the deeper awareness and desired acquisition of the artistic taste of the high
school students and their perceptions of the vocal heritage of the renowned
Ukrainian composers since cultural education of a person should possess a
pronounced national character (Kablova & Pavlova, 2017).
5. Conclusions
Music education is shown to enhance the spiritual culture of the high school
students who were embraced by the experimental study, to guide them in the
historical experience and heritage of the nation. The verification of the research
findings on the example of the high school students of the experimental group
convincingly illustrates the high efficiency of the methodology introduced in the
educational process. The method was aimed at forming the artistic taste of the
high school students in the process of studying the vocal heritage of the
renowned Ukrainian composers. The dynamics of achievements of the high
school students of the experimental group testifies to the effectiveness of the
proposed methodology of forming artistic taste in the process of studying the
vocal heritage of Ukrainian composers.
Thus, the authors’ method of shaping aesthetic attitude to reality in extra-
curricular music-creative activity was substantiated and experimentally tested.
The criteria and levels of formation of this phenomenon in students were given
detailed study. The results of the forming experiment are analysed and their
reliability is proved. According to the foregoing, the essence of music as a form
of the artistic creativity is taken as a ground for its understanding in music
pedagogy, reflecting the inherent infinity and immense power to affect the
spiritual culture of the high school students.
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Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 322-342, April 2020
Islamic Spirituality, Resilience and Achievement

Motivation of Yemeni Refugee Students:
A Proposed Conceptual Framework
Manal Ali Ahmed1*, Sahabuddin Hashim2 and Nik Rosila Nik Yaacob3
USM, Universiti Sains Malaysia
Penang, Malaysia
1https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6497-3256
2https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2014-1973
3https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3972-5688
Abstract. The present study aims to improve Yemeni refugee students’

achievement motivation by introducing the construct of Islamic
perspective of spirituality and resilience. The issue of achievement
motivation of students has been a concern in educational psychology
circles. However, it appears to be mostly not concerned on refugee
students. From the previous literature review finding, the study supports
the belief that Islamic spirituality effects on refugee students because it
encompasses the whole aspects of the person life. It also describes the role
of positive outcomes of resilience on refugee students. To achieve this, a
new theoretical framework is proposed to describe how spirituality from
Islamic perspective and resilience can impact on achievement motivation
of Yemeni refugee students. This contribution to the body of literature
research aims to support theoretical and empirical research and provide
a more explanation of the correlation between these three concepts. The
study has particular implication for research, to help parents and teachers
to improve achievement motivation through improve Islamic spirituality
and resilience of refugee students. Finally, the paper concludes by calling
for future research based on the gaps identified in the current study to
investigate the relationship between Islamic spirituality, resilience, and
achievement motivation.
Keywords: achievement motivation; spirituality; resilience; Yemeni

refugee students
1. Introduction
The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) reported that
around twenty people every minute become a refugee worldwide. Globally, the
number of refugees totalled 25.4 million people worldwide at the end of 2017
(United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees [UNHCR], 2018). An increase
in the number of Yemeni people who are refugees is a new problem that started

323
in 2015 because of the war and related circumstances in Yemen. Many Yemeni
people fled their homes seeking safe places or because they lost their job. A large
number of Yemeni refugees escaped to countries around the world such as the
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
There are high rates of psychological problems that are faced by the refugees who
move to new countries (Van der Veer, 1992). According to Jaranson et al. (2004)
and Robertson et al. (2006), refugees face psychological problems such as anxiety,
depression and PTSD. Additionally, the psychological factor is one of the factors
that may obstruct new refugees from adjusting in the new country (Robinson,
2013). Similarly, several types of problems have been faced by Yemeni refugee
students such as psychological, economic, social and educational. Referring to
educational psychological issues, achievement motivation is considered to be of
critical concern in this area (Bal-Taştan et al., 2018). However, with this increase
in the number of Yemeni refugees, no psychological or educational research
studies have yet explored the achievement motivation of Yemeni refugee students
according to the best of the researcher’s knowledge.
According to Shekhar and Devi (2012) and Quispe-Bendezú et al., (2020),

achievement motivation is an active matter in the area of education. Studies on
achievement motivation have an extensive and extended history. Moreover,
achievement motivation has become an extensively studied concept in the
psychology field and it is still an active field of study, especially in the area of
educational psychology (Chen, Elliot & Sheldon, 2019). Poledňová, Stránská and
Niedobová (2014) observed that the achievement motivation topic has a critical
pertinent focus within the psychology scope.
Many studies like Brunstein and Heckhausen (2018) and Awan, Ghazala and
Anjum (2011) have been published in order to determine factors that influence
achievement motivation of the students. The studies identified diverse factors
such as the social-economic status of the family, the residential place of the
student and the effort put in by the student. However, according to Wong and
Schweitzer (2017), the information on the factors and resources of achievement
that affect refugee adolescents is still limited.
Extensive research has been done on achievement motivation such as the studies
conducted by Poledňová et al. (2014) and Dinesh and Kiran (2018), with less
attention given to realizing what the potential impact of spirituality and resilience
is. Therefore, research into spirituality and resilience in relation to achievement
motivation is still limited in the previous research studies. It is critical to
comprehend the factors that may impact on the achievement motivation of
refugee students in their schools.
Spirituality helps people adapt to challenges (Faigin & Pargament, 2011). Pulla
(2014) mentioned that spirituality is essential for people. Gozdziak and Shandy
(2002) stated that although there is significance in the role of religion and
spirituality among refugees, it has been largely ignored by researchers.
Spirituality is recognized as an essential element when individuals face

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difficulties (Faigin & Pargament, 2011). Similarly, Shaw, Peacock, Ali, Pillai, &
Husain (2019) stated that spirituality could help refugees to face and adapt to the
adversities they encounter.
According to Hutchinson and Dorsett (2012), spirituality is a belief in God.

Florczak (2010) asserted that spirituality is optimism, bravery and self-
transcendence. Crawford, Wright and Masten (2006) defined spirituality as a
process that promotes resilience in individuals who were exposed to adversities
in their lifespan. The discussion of the definition of spirituality above shows that
the term spirituality is comprised of many aspects.
The early research studies on resilience concentrated on how adolescents

encounter the difficulties in their life. Researchers have described resilience in
many forms such as Kobasa (1979) with hardiness, Garmezy (1993) as an
evaluation of facing adversity and Rutter (1987) who affirmed it to be a successful
adaptation. Furthermore, Rak and Patterson (1996) declared resilience to be the
ability of people who have encountered the risk factors to overcome difficulties
and avoid negative outcomes such as behavioral problems and academic
difficulties.
Most of the resilience studies such as those by Peres, Moreira-Almeida, Nasello,

& Koenig (2007) and Isokääntä, Koivula, Honkalampi and Kokki (2019) have
focused on traumatic events and other diseases. Betancourt and Khan (2008)
pointed out that the previous literature focused on the risks that refugees faced
with less attention paid to their resilience. Pieloch, McCullough and Marks (2016)
stated that while refugees represent a large part of society in new countries, it is
essential for education professionals to understand how the resilience of refugees
can help in terms of their adaptation positively.
The purpose of the present article is to highlight a conceptual framework of

spirituality from Islamic perspective, focused on the resilience and achievement
motivation of Yemeni refugee students in Saudi Arabia.
2. Background
According to UNHCR (2016), since the fighting increased in late March 2015,
Yemen continues to crumble. Absence of security and violence have led to the
displacement of some of the population both internally and externally. Khan
(2018) stated that the disaster in the Republic of Yemen is considered to be one of
worst disasters worldwide. Similarly, UNHCR (2020) stated that:
“The humanitarian crisis in Yemen remains the worst in the world.”
More than four years of conflict has led to more than 4.3 million Yemeni people
being forced to flee (UNHCR, 2020). Approximately 166,658 refugees from Yemen
have arrived in countries in the Gulf region because of the adversity in Yemen.
Most of the refugees reside in countries near to their countries of origin (Shaw et
al., 2019). Accordingly, most of Yemeni refugees fled to the Kingdom of Saudi

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Arabia because of the Saudi geographic location in terms of Yemen (UNHCR,

2016). Despite the passage of more than five years referring to the war in Yemen,
the ignorance of the disaster in Yemen continues.
Patel et al. (2017) stated that there is a dearth in the research that studies the
influence of the war crisis on the achievements of the refugee students. Although
there has been a wide range of research relating to achievement motivation in
school, very few studies focus on the factors that may increase the achievement
motivation of refugee students (Pastoor, 2017). Further, previous studies have
determined that there are many factors affecting achievement motivation such as
socioeconomic and psychosocial factors. Psychology and adaptation could be
associated and relevant to achievement motivation (Anderman & Anderman,
1999).
After going over the scientific studies and literature influencing achievement
motivation, the researcher found that the previous literature did not focus on the
influence of both spirituality and resilience on achievement motivation. Harris
(2016) obviously mentioned the lack of research discussed the effect of spirituality
and resilience when coping with the challenges faced in life.
Spirituality is viewed as significant and it has a very important role in many fields
such as education (Wright, 2003) and psychology (Rego & Nunes, 2019). However,
most of the previous studies relating to spirituality do not contain studies that are
directly linked to achievement motivation. Kim and Esquivel (2011) highlighted
the need for more research and an understanding of how spirituality affects the
learning process.
Resilience can positively affect an individuals’ ability to overcome the difficulties

encountered when achieving personal, professional or academic goals (Smith,
Tooley, Christopher & Kay, 2010). There is a lack of previous works that have
examined the resilience within Arabic countries (Ungar, 2012).
According to Waxman, Gray and Padron (2003), there is a need for studies to
identify the indicators of resilience used to evaluate the impact of the students'
affective and motivational results. In accordance with the previous studies, there
is a dearth in the studies that seek to elucidate the relationship between resilience
and the achievement motivation of the refugees (Hutchinson & Dorsett, 2012).
3.1 Achievement Motivation
Beginning with the Theory of the Hierarchy of Needs by Maslow (1954) which
classified human motivation as a sequence of needs. Furthermore, Helgeson
(2005) motivation as a desire to achieve an aim which is significant to humans.
Akram and Ghani (2013) shared Helgeson (2005) view on motivation. They
defined motivation as a desire to perform an aim or a drive related to a certain
behavior. Similarly, Dörnyei and Ushioda (2011) indicated the significance of
motivation that derives from the inside leading to shape motivation of individual.

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The definition of achievement motivation as presented by McClelland, Atkinson,

Clark, & Lowell, (1953) is:
“The need to do something well in competition with a standard of
excellence.”
In a later period, achievement motivation has been extended by McClelland (1961)

to include the striving of an individual for excellence, shown through effort when
they are coping with hardship. Furthermore, the need in McClelland's theory for
achievement is deeply correlated to education conceptions. The concept of
achievement motivation proposed by McClelland is that when a person has a
strong need, the effects of this need motivate a person to behave in the manner
which means that their needs are met.
3.2 Spirituality
Various definitions of spirituality have been included in the previous research
literature. Zsolnai and Illes (2017) asserted the definition of spirituality as a
complex concept, with many variations across different cultures and many
dimensions. The different understandings and interpretations of spirituality are
because of the differences in the viewpoints, sources, and considerations
involved.
Furthermore, Landrum (2000) defines spirituality as the valuing of an individual,

in addition to examining or expressing a greater construction that could be used
to view human life through it. Stokley (2002) had another insight into the
definition of spirituality, which is the viewpoint through which actions and
behavior are determined by others in the community. Kim and Esquivel (2011)
described spirituality as an ingrained aspect of the nature of human beings that is
revealed during the adolescence period in which the adolescents seek
transcendence, purpose in life and meaning.
It is obvious from the aforementioned literature that there is no consensus on the

definition of spirituality. Although there is a degree of complexity and no
agreement on the definition of spirituality, many of the definitions are centered
into two aspects: an individual's connection in order to transcend and how it is
central in an individual’s life experiences.
From the Western perspective, there are different views of the spirituality concept
and the religion definition. Barker (2008) summarized these different views of
spirituality and religion and classified the relationship between them into five
models. The first relationship classification is that there is no difference between
religion and spirituality and the concept is used interchangeably. The second
relationship is that spirituality is a sub-division of religion. The third relationship
is that religion is a subsection of spirituality. The fourth possibility is that there is
a difference between religion and spirituality. Lastly, there is an overlap between
religion and spirituality. Figure 1 summarizes the relationship between
spirituality and religion based on Barker (2008) model.

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Relationship between Spirituality and Religion
Spirituality is a Spirituality
Spirituality and Religion is a Spirituality and Religion
Religion sub-division subsection of and Religion
of Religion are
are same Spirituality are overlap difference
Figure 1: The relationship between spirituality and religion based

on Barker (2008) model
3.3 Spirituality from Islamic perspective

Islamic religion has its own view of spirituality that differs from that of other
religions. According to Nasr (1987), from an Islamic viewpoint, the distinction
between religion and spirituality does not exist. Spirituality is an integral part of
religion for Muslims (Rassool, 2000). Pahlevan and Ong (2018) mentioned that the
spiritual dimension is considered to be a fundamental characteristic in a Muslim
society. In addition, spirituality in Muslim life is important and cannot be ignored.
Sani and Maharani Ekowati (2019) revealed that spirituality in Islam ensuring that
every action does is in accordance with Allah’s pleasure.
Furthermore, the meaning of Islam in the Arabic language is submission to the

will of Allah (Husain, 1998). In Islam, the word Islam for Muslims means whole
submission to the will of Almighty Allah and the worship of Allah alone. In
Islamic context, religion is a Muslim way of life (Mahudin, Noor, Dzulkifli &
Janon, 2016).
Based on Altareb (1996), Islamic spirituality provides the instructions and

directions needed to increase Muslim spirituality. Muslims attain the highest level
of spirituality if individual Muslims conduct their life and activities related to the
purpose of obeying God (Islahi, 1989). In the same context, Al-Ghazali (1986)
declared that spirituality is gained through the practice of Islamic instructions.
Briefly, the concept of spirituality and religion in Islam is clear and there is a
consensus between scholars. Additionally, Islam has a distinctive viewpoint on
spirituality that differs from Western perspectives.
In terms of the references to Islamic spirituality, the sources of spirituality in Islam

are based on a solid foundation of Islamic law (Sharia) origins from the Muslims’
Holy book (The Holy Qur’an) and the habitual practice (Sunnah) of Prophet
Mohammed (peace be upon him). These make up the fundamental sources of the
curriculum of Muslims. Therefore, in terms of the source, spirituality in Islam is
distinguished from spirituality in the Western perspective.

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Nasr (1981) classified spirituality as being based on three basic notions:

submission (Islam), faith (Iman) and perfection (Ihsan). Islam includes the
obligation to worship as a Muslim individual. Furthermore, Muslims submit
through the practice of the five pillars of Islam, which is the testimony of faith,
prayer five times a day, fasting during one month every year in Islamic calendar
(Ramadhan), alms-giving (Zakat), and pilgrimage (Hajj) (Hamdan, 2010). The
second concept is Iman, which refers to the Muslim's belief in God and the other
pillars of faith. Nisar, Farwa and Nadeem (2015) described how faith affects
spirituality: "Faith provides a skeleton for the soul. Just as bones give a structure
to a frail envelope like the skin to carry the body, in a similar manner does faith
add substance to the spirit". The third one is Ihsan, which refers to the highest
level of spiritual distinction that Muslim individuals are supposed to have
(Mahudin et al., 2016). All these three concepts are related together to shape the
whole Muslim individual. Thus, it can be observed that the perspective of
spirituality in Islam means to be close to Allah and to prove that through good
deeds that please Allah.
From a wider angle, human beings are created from two components that
interrelated that can never be separated from each other: body and soul (Al-
Ghazali, 1986). Al-Ghazali (1989) explained that in Islam, the soul is the source of
happiness for a Muslim individual and it has a high value in Muslim individual
life; thus the body is considered to be only a container for the soul. Therefore,
Islam pays particular attention to the soul. It seeks to purify and refine it, because
of its impact on a person’s life.
Because of the importance of the soul, Allah made one of the reasons behind the
mission of the Prophet Muhammad (May Allah peace be upon him) to refine the
soul. It is enshrined in the Qur'an:
“…when He sent them a messenger from themselves, reciting to them
His signs and praise them and teach them the Book and wisdom that had
previously shown in error” (The Qur’an 2: 164).
The mission of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) was comprehensive
in all aspects of life, including spirituality. Moreover, Islam focused on the
importance of self-purification and refinement. Islam is connected to happiness in
this world and success in the hereafter by adhering to the instructions given.
Furthermore, it asserts that unhappiness in the world and losing out in the
hereafter is a consequence of not following Allah’s orders. Allah said:
“Whoever purifies it has succeeded; and failure is the lot of whoever
corrupts it” (The Qur’an 91:9-10).
A lot of Muslim scholars and researchers have explained the meaning of the verse
as Muslims purifying their souls of sordid morals and vices (Al-Jawziyyah, 2006).

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Furthermore, the concept of spirituality (ruhaniyyah) in Islam focuses on the

relationship between a Muslim’s purpose of life and their religious rituals. Allah
mentioned in the Qur’an that:
“A Muslim’s purpose of life is to worship Allah” (The Qur’an 51:56).
In Islam, people are created to worship Allah and to obey Allah’s instructions.
Furthermore, the Holy Qur'an has pointed to the word spirit (ruh) in the following
verse as the secret of life:
“And they ask you about the ruh. Say: The ruh is one of the commands
of my Lord, and you are not given aught of knowledge but a little” (The
Qur’an 17:85).
In this regard, the Messenger Muhammad (peace be upon him) said:

“Allah shall not look at your bodies or your faces, but rather looks into
your hearts” (Muslim, Book 32, Hadith 6220).
As Grine, Fares, & Meguellati (2015) stated, individual Muslims have to perform
religious rituals that are considered to be a periodic nourishment for his/her spirit
that help to purify his/her heart from sin. Hawa (2006) asserted that Muslims
have to clean their spirits through conducting prayer, fasting, reciting the Qur’an
and other rituals. According to Nasr (1987), spirituality in Islam represents the
relationship between humans and Allah that influences the self-esteem of the
person, linking with others and nature.
From an Islamic point of view, spirituality covers all Muslim life aspects.
According to Rassool (2000), Islam provides a spiritual path to salvation and
spirituality is a result of religious thinking and practices in Islam. In Islam, it is
obvious that the worship of Allah is the road that needs to be journeyed to get to
spirituality. Abu Dharr reported that the Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings
be upon him, said:
“Be mindful of Allah wherever you are, follow a bad deed with a good
deed and it will erase it, and behave with good character toward people”
(Tirmidhi, Vol. 4, Book 1, Hadith 1987).
In the light of this hadith, Islamic spirituality is defined as a concept that has been
included in the fearing (taqwa) of Allah. Taqwa has been clarified as putting a
protective barricade between yourself and Allah’s penalty. Practicing Islam is
done by doing good deeds and being involved in society while representing good
morals.
In summary, it is obvious that spirituality is related to the connection between

Allah and individual Muslims. A Muslim purifies him/herself through
performing daily and periodic religious rituals. It is clear that Islam does not
interpret spirituality in isolation of everyday actions and religious rituals. In
Muslim life, all activities, whether small or big, must be in accordance with Allah’s
pleasure. Performing prayers, reciting the Qur'an and attending a mosque are

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examples of strengthened spirituality. Thus, it can be observed that the

perspective of spirituality in Islam means to submit to Allah and to be close to
Him, to love Him and to prove that through deeds that please Allah. Briefly, based
on this concept of spirituality in Islam, all actions agree with the pleasure of Allah
and the feeling of connectedness with Allah and loving Him.
Furthermore, with regard to Islamic spirituality that has been reviewed in the
aforementioned literature, the current research sets out to prepare the theoretical
framework of Islamic spirituality after reviewing spirituality research in order to
define the concept of spirituality from an Islamic point of view in the theoretical
framework.
3.4 Resilience
Resilience is considered to be a significant concept in the context of adapting to
the challenges of life. The term resilience has been defined by Richardson, Neiger,
Jensen and Kumpfer, (1990, p. 34) as:
“the process of coping with disruptive, stressful, or challenging life events
in a way that provides the individual with additional protective and
coping skills than prior to the disruption that results from the event”.
However, Wolins and Wolins (2010, p. 5) defined resilience as the:

“Capacity to bounce back, to withstand hardship, and to repair yourself”.
Similarly, Masten (1994) provided the concept of resilience as a pattern that may
be adjusted in the end in spite of the existence of risks, pressure or misfortunes in
life. Dyer and McGuinness (1996, p. 276) assert that resilience is:
“The ability to bounce back from misfortune”.
From the previous view of resilience definitions, it is obvious that the term
resilience has different meanings based on which perspective is used. However,
all of the definitions include the meaning of resistance.
Dyer and McGuinness (1996) consider resilience to be a process where individuals

spring back from difficulty and carry on with their lives. Furthermore, this process
is dynamic and it is affected by protective factors. Correspondingly, Masten (1994)
described resilience as a process. Subsequently, Masten (2001) emphasized
resilience as a set of processes between individuals and the environment. In the
same context, Luthar, Cicchetti and Becker (2000) defined resilience as a process
used to adapt positively with difficulty. The description of resilience follows the
same lines as those of Clinton (2008) study. Resilience has been defined as a type
of adaptive behavior or the ability to manage in the environment.
According to Southwick and Charney (2012, p. 6), resilience is defined as:

“the process of adapting well in the face of adversity, trauma, tragedy,
threats and even significant sources of stress – such as family and

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relationship problems, serious health problems, or workplace and financial

stresses”.
It is obvious from the literature and previous studies that resilience changes
according to the adversities faced (Werner & Smith, 1992). Additionally, resilience
is identified as a dynamic and complex process that leads to mitigation when
facing stresses (Bonanno, Galea, Bucciarelli & Vlahov, 2007). Increasingly, there is
an indication that resilience is a multidimensional and dynamic process in the face
of misfortune (Luthar et al., 2000). Resilience is considered to be the result of the
interaction process between the genetic, biological, psychological and sociological
factors in the context of environmental support (Henry, 1999).
Resilience is defined by Luthar et al. (2000, p. 543) as:

“A dynamic process encompassing positive adaptation with the context
of significant adversity”.
Luthar et al. (2000) theory declares that in order to be resilient, one must have met
two conditions: exposure to a critical threat or severe hardship and the attainment
of a positive adaptation. Furthermore, she proposed focusing on the mechanisms
of the variables that perform as either a protective or risk factor (Luthar et al., 2000,
Luthar, Sawyer & Brown, 2006).
Neenan (2017, p. 17) defined resilience as:

“a set of flexible cognitive, behavioral, and emotional responses to acute
or chronic adversities which can be unusual or common place”.
Additionally, Bernard (2004, p. 43) summarized resilience as:

“the preponderance of resilience related research identifies resilience as a
universal, developmental capacity of every human being”.
The previous section has outlined the concept of resilience as defined according
to different facets of the previous research. Furthermore, the way that researchers
have defined the term resilience is similar and has been come in interchanged
words. Resilience is described in different terms such as positive coping,
adaptation and persistence.
4. Relationships among Achievement Motivation, Spirituality, and

Resilience
This section will review the related previous research studies on the relationship
of achievement motivation, spirituality, and resilience.
4.1 Spirituality and Achievement Motivation

Many studies have focused on spirituality and how it relates to social outcomes,
well-being and coping. However, very few studies have been found that have
focused specifically on spirituality and achievement motivation. Kim and
Esquivel (2011) explained that the research revealed that spirituality promotes the

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capability of people to face adversity and that it improves the student's

performance in academic learning. It is claimed by Johnson (2008) that the interest
in studies concerning spirituality and academic performance has just started and
that it has been rising.
Some studies have explored related constructs referring to spirituality,

achievement motivation and refugee students. For example, Bowen and Cheng
(2017) investigated the impact of spiritual cues on non-cognitive skills. The
authors conducted a research study looking at 180 secondary school students but
there were no refugees in the population. The study found that the self-regulatory
capabilities of students are boosted by increasing their sense of religion, the
predictors of educational achievement and increasing their political tolerance.
Davis (2017) mentioned the influential role of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
on achievement. Generally, the literature has shown there to be few studies on the
area concerning the relationship between refugees and their religiosity (Ennis,
2011).
4.2 Resilience and achievement motivation

There is a lack of studies that are concerned with refugee resilience (Hutchinson
& Dorsett, 2012). The current studies recommend that there is a need to
understand what the strengths and skills are of refugees in order to promote
refugee resilience (Bartlett, Mendenhall & Ghaffar-Kucher, 2017). Darychuk and
Jackson (2015) used interviews to reveal how female refugees navigate the
influences of gender within community resilience at UNRWA health centers. The
study reached the result that there is a significant role played by the presence of a
safe place for refugees and showed the resilience of Palestinian women.
Furthermore, Dinesh and Kiran (2018) studied achievement motivation and self-
concept using Achievement Motive Test (ACMT) and a population of secondary
school students. The results showed there to be no significant difference between
high achievers and low achievers concerning the achievement motivation of the
study sample. Additionally, the scores of the high achievers among secondary
school students were a little higher than the low achievers concerning
achievement motivation.
5. Proposed Theoretical Framework of the Current Study

The theoretical framework of this study is based on the foundation of three major
theories. The perspectives are spirituality from an Islam perspective, the
Resilience Theory by Masten (2014a) and the Achievement Motivation theory by
Atkinson (1964). It is believed that the synthesis of these theories and perspectives
provides a proper reflection of the purpose of this study.
The first central conceptual component for the present research is guided by
spirituality from Islamic perspective. In Islamic literature, Islam is defined in the
Arabic language as submitting to Allah - glory be to Him - and complete
obedience to His orders. According to Nasr (2002), the meaning of Islam is
"surrender" as mentioned in (The Qur'an 4:125):

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“Whose way is better than that of the man who has submitted to God, and
does good, and who follows the creed of Abraham the upright?”
Muslims are requested to follow Abraham and to be in a state of total surrender

like him, in addition to following the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him)
who said:
“…By Allah, I am more submissive to Allah…” (Al-Bukhari, Vol. 7,
Book 62, Number 1).
The submitting and surrendering to Allah is including Islamic beliefs, the

consequent orders, and duties that a Muslim must do according to the pillars of
Islam and the pillars of faith themselves to the highest level that is called Ihsan;
“to worship Allah as if you see Him, and if you do not see Him, He will
see you" as mentioned in the famous hadith called the "hadith of Gabriel”
(Al-Bukhari, Vol. 6, Book 60, Number 300).
A Muslim is obliged to submit to and completely surrender to the orders and

instructions of Allah which are mentioned in the legislation of Muslims. Allah the
Exalted said:
“So take what the Messenger assigns to you, and deny yourselves that
which he withholds from you. And fear Allah” (The Qur'an 59: 7).
The meaning of this verse as explained in the interpretation of Ibn Kathir is that:
“whatever the Messenger commands you, then do it and whatever he
forbids you, then avoid it. Surely, He only commands righteousness and
forbids evil” (Abdul-Rahman, 2009, p.51).
Furthermore, the essential meaning of worship is declared as practicing from a

firm belief that the One who orders it is Allah Almighty and that the Prophet
(peace be upon him) delivered its method to us in detail. Hence worship falls
under the concept of absolute submission to Allah. This surrender is to Allah who
is closer to us than the jugular vein as mentioned in the (The Qur'an 50:16):
“we are closer to him than [his] jugular vein”.
The more one submits by worshiping Allah, the closer we are to Him as
mentioned in (The Qur’an 96: 19):
“and bow down in sajdah, and come closer”.
There is also the saying by the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him):
“The closest that a servant can be to his Lord is when he is in prostration.
Therefore, make abundant supplications (i.e. while prostrating)”
(Muslim, Book 4, Hadith 979).
The meaning of "closeness" has also been stressed during the migration to
Madinah. The Prophet said to his friend Abu Bakr "Allah is with us" as mentioned

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in (The Qur'an 9:40). Maintaining closeness to Allah is very important for the
purification of the soul as mentioned in the Qur'an and hadiths.
The closeness of Allah makes the love of Him greater as stated in the Qur'an:
“Say: If you love Allah, follow me, and Allah will love you” (The Qur'an
3:31).
The closer a Muslim approaches His Lord with acts of worship and obedience, to
implement his orders and to avoid his prohibitions, the more his love for Him and
so the greater his spirituality. Worship brings together the origin of the goal of
love with the goal of submission. This is stated clearly in the hadith:
“When My servant approaches Me through good works, then I love
him…” (Al-Bukhari, Vol. 8, Book 76, Number 509).
A Muslim strives to come closer to Allah by performing worship like voluntary

prayers. Allah will bring him closer to Him and his level will be raised from Eman
(belief) to Ihsan. In other words, the path to gaining the love of Allah is through
rituals and good deeds which bring pleasure and enhance spirituality.
In the current research, spirituality as an Islamic concept originated from two

sources. The first belongs to the Qur'an which discusses the three Islamic themes
of submission to Allah, love and closeness. The second source comes from the
hadiths which explain how to apply the aforementioned Qur'anic themes. Both
sources are essential when developing Muslim spirituality from an Islamic
background. Consequently, Islamic teachings could be applied in the framework
of submission to Allah, love and closeness which represents a comprehensive
umbrella of Islam. It can be seen what the consequence are; there is a fear of Allah
when one does not perform orders.
According to this view of the concept of spirituality in Islam, submission to Allah,

love and closeness may serve as a useful framework for understanding Muslim
spirituality.
The next theoretical framework is Masten’s theory, which has been synthesized to
show the conceptual framework of resilience that serves as the basis of resilience
in this study.
Resilience stems from the nature of a person’s ability to adjust to different

circumstances (Masten, 2001). According to Masten, Morison, Pellegrini and
Tellegen (1990), resilience describes phenomena by dividing them into three
types. The first phenomenon is about persons who have knowledge of successful
adaptations in spite of a high risk. The second phenomenon is about persons who
are resilient to pressure and the third phenomenon is about persons who improve
after a traumatic experience. This theory supports the purpose of the current
research study to examine resilience and to assess whether there is a significant
relationship between resilience with the other variables in the study.

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Later, Masten studied resilience in youth refugees that were exposed to war
(Masten, 2014b). Masten also studied resilience in people in war-torn
circumstances and related issues like homeless street-children in Nepal, famine in
the Niger and the war in Afghanistan (Panter-Brick, Grimon & Eggerman, 2014).
According to Masten (2014b), an adaptive system is important in youths because
it describes their motivation system. Furthermore, Masten (2001) stated that if
youths do not appear to be resilient in their life experiences, then this means that
“basic resources nor the opportunities and experience that nurture the
development of adaptive systems” do not exist in the youths. Masten, Cutuli,
Herbers and Reed (2009) recommended avoiding harm to, restoring, or
recompensing for any pressures in essential systems.
Based on theory of Masten et al. (2009), an individual is considered to be resilient

if two conditions are fulfilled: a positive adaptation in the development of the
individual and risk or threat to the individuals' positive adaptation. The positive
adaptation is an alignment of the human adaptation system and developmental
tasks. The expectations of a certain culture within the individuals' behavior when
across diverse periods of age and in different situations consider the
developmental tasks of the individual. Furthermore, Masten et al., (2009)
mentioned that essential adaptation systems are a compromise between many
relations such as attachment associations, families, parenting, spirituality, religion
and formal education systems. In the context of refugees, Masten (2014b) stated
that refugees are varied in how they perform in different areas of their life such as
in school and other places, including the effect of resilience.
The last theory is the theory of achievement motivation that was developed by
Atkinson (1964) which is one of the most famous theories on achievement
motivation. The achievement motivation theory frames the theoretical framework
for achievement motivation of this study. This theory explains achievement
motivation as a tendency towards positive motivation and the tendency towards
negative motivation respectively. The motive of the individual is considered to be
positive if they are motivated toward success (Ms) and their motivation is
considered to be negative if they are motivated to avoid failure (Mf). More deeply,
achievement motivation theory is a theoretical model that proposes
“to explain how the motive to achieve and the motive to avoid failure
influence behavior in a situation where performance is evaluated against
some standard of excellence” (Atkinson, 1957, p. 371).
In addition to the two motive factors, Atkinson (1957) defined the tendency to
complete an achievement-oriented task in terms of the four factors that are the
likelihood of success, the likelihood of failure, the incentive of success and the
incentive of failure.
According to Atkinson and Feather (1966), the achievement motivation of

individuals is derived from two types of motives; the tendency to achieve success
and the tendency to avoid failure in different levels of task. The theory of
achievement motivation by Atkinson and Feather (1966) places emphasizes on the
competition between the motivational tendencies that are existed in every

336
achievement-oriented activity. Atkinson and Feather (1966, p. 328) proposed that

behavior consists of three components, which are:
“motive, expectancy, and incentive”.
The motive of an individual to achieve success is related to:

- The motive or need to achieve success: This motivation refers to the ability of an
individual to perform a task actively in order to achieve success. Consequently,
Motivation to Success is a result of another motivation to avoid failure.
- The strength of expectancy or the probability of success: The probability of success in

relation to a task is based on an assessment performed by the individual that is
performing a task. The probability of success is between very low to very high,
and it depends on the importance of success to the individual.
- The incentive value of success: When the level of task difficulty increases, the
incentive is required to increase in order to maintain a high level of achievement.
Difficult tasks associated with a low incentive value do not motivate the
individual to achieve success. The individual himself can assess the level of task
difficulty and incentive.
Moreover, the motivation to achieve success and the motivation to avoid failure
are related. If the individual is motivated by success, he/she will perform tasks
with a probability of success that is equal to the probability of failure, and where
the value of the incentive is high. If an individual is motivated from a fear of
failure, he/she will avoid performing tasks that are equal in terms of their
probability of either success or failure. Moreover, he/she will choose easier tasks
to reduce the probability of failure or more difficult tasks where failure can be
attributed to the difficulty of the task.
In other words, if the motive of an individual to achieve success is higher than the
motive to avoid failure, then the individual's expectation will be achieved and
they will perform the task well. In contrast, if the motive of an individual to avoid
failure is greater than the motive to achieve success, then the individual's
expectation will be the fear of failing to perform the task.
Depending on the aforementioned theories, if individuals who escape their

country because of war have a closeness to Allah and the ability to face things
positively in life, then this may be a sign of the presence of an achievement
motivation represented by a tendency to achieve success or to avoid failure. In
contrast, if individuals who have suffered due to war do not have sufficient
connectedness to Allah and the capacity to cope, then this will lead to a lack of a
desire to achieve in life. Figure 2 summarizes the theoretical framework of the
present study.

337
Spirituality
Achievement
Motivation
Resilience
Figure 2: Theoretical framework of spirituality, resilience and achievement motivation
6. Conclusion
In conclusion, the current study was an attempt to propose a new theoretical
framework that outlined above to define and illustrate the concept of achievement
motivation of Yemeni refugee students by introducing the construct of Islamic
perspective of spirituality and resilience with paying particular attention on their
effects on achievement motivation. Further, most of previous spirituality studies
have addressed spirituality from a western point of view, which is different from
the Islamic viewpoint of spirituality. Consequently, this study attempts to fill the
literature gap on spirituality from the Islamic perspective and proposes a new
conceptual framework to enrich the understanding of the Islamic spirituality and
resilience and its contribution to achievement motivation. This study will also
help parents and teachers to improve Islamic spirituality and resilience in refugee
students. Further theoretical clarification based on the current conceptual
framework may provide western researchers with deep knowledge of the Islamic
spirituality in Muslim society with particular emphasis on the soul as a source of
happiness. Additionally, the present study calls researchers to develop models of
Islamic spirituality that are appropriate in Muslim countries.
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Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 343-355, April 2020
Creative Teaching Strategy to Reduce

Bullying in Schools
Siti Irene Astuti Dwiningrum

Faculty of Science Education, Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta
Yogyakarta, Indonesia
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6377-6074
Norwaliza Abdul Wahab

Faculty of Human Development, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris
Perak, Malaysia
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2713-1233
Haryanto
Faculty of Science Education, Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta
Yogyakarta, Indonesia
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8531-9891
Abstract. This paper aims to identify the teacher's strategy in creating and
developing creative learning to purposely reduce bullying behaviour in
schools. To assess this objective, a quantitative data approach was
employed to explore the data on bullying behaviour to illustrate the
teacher's strategy and creativity in reducing bullying. Previous findings
revealed that bullying is prevalent during school hours (69%), where the
perpetrators consisted mainly of seniors (37%). This study serves as an
empirical picture of the strategies employed by creative teachers to
reduce bullying in schools by building synergy at the school
environment, class setting and individual level. As for the school
environment, it is necessary to strengthen the links between learning
elements and teachers' teaching style. However, there was a need to
improve the learning abilities of teachers in classroom settings. At the
individual level, effective collaboration between teachers and students
needs to be strengthened by improving non-cognitive knowledge to take
actions against bullying in schools. Also, it is essential to recognise
findings, especially at the system level, to identify interventions and
policies to ensure a secure and reliable learning environment for all
students. This study also recommended the implementation of a training
course for teachers to enhance their creative strategies in the classroom.
Keywords: bullying; creative teaching; elementary school; teaching

strategies

344
1. Introduction
Bullying encompasses a broad concept which can still potentially cause
controversial arguments regarding its meaning, severity and its relationship with
other constructions as it is a universal problem in schools (UNESCO, 2017).
Bullying that occurs repetitively causes irreparable damage and is regarded as a
social issue which is part of an aggressive manner (Erika, Pertiwi & Seniwati,
2017). Afroz and Husain (2015) stated that there are many types of bullying such
as mocking, hitting or intimidating others and spreading false information. It can
be divided into two categories, namely direct bullying and indirect bullying.
Direct bullying involves physical touch like beating, knocking, intimidating or
any behaviour that inflicts injury to the victim. Meanwhile, indirect bullying
through disrespectful remark affects the victim in psychological ways (Khalim,
2014). Based on previous literature, male students are more inclined towards
direct bullying, whereas female students are towards indirect bullying (Boyes et
al., 2014; Wang et al., 2009).
Based on studies conducted in multiple countries, bullying remains prevalent and

has continued to affect people's lives. In Indonesia, research performed by the
National Consortium Character Study in School Development indicated that
almost all schools experience the bullying phenomenon (Firmansyah, 2014). This
social fact was further supported based on the studies by Aryuni (2017),
Dwiningrum (2019), Da Silva et al. (2019) and Chandra and Mulya (2009), which
concluded that most of the students have been bullied. A study conducted in
Malaysia, further revealed that the most common bullying acts in secondary
schools are caused by teenagers with a high level of egocentrism. The study which
involved 20 secondary school students demonstrated that their characteristics
such as self-esteem, vengeance, enjoyment, authority and part of prejudice were
the factors influencing bullying (Norshidah, 2014). Therefore, effective strategies
are necessary to overcome bullying because the causal factors are very diverse,
and the intensity continues to recur. Efforts to mitigate bullying cannot be
postponed anymore due to its adverse impacts. However, survey techniques to
evaluate bullying behaviour are not effectively practised in schools. For example,
physical and verbal aggression is usually guarded using penalty responses.
Since bullying can occur in different manners, most teachers are not aware of it
transpiring among students, hence, is difficult to apprehend dynamic precautions
(Psunder, 2010; Veenstra et al., 2010). However, some school policies play a
strategic role in reducing bullying. Effective ways to manage bullying at schools
can be designed using creative learning processes. Having said that, creativity has
not yet been fully utilised to overcome bullying in schools. Hence, this paper
specifically explores techniques by which the teachers can incorporate creativity
to reducing bullying at individual, class and school level to curb bullying among
students. Based on the findings, interventions and policies can be identified and
drafted to ensure a protected, safe and secure learning condition for all students.

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2.1 Bullying behaviour in schools

Most of the available literature is more concerned with bullying in general and
are unrelated to specific research findings (Rigby, 2017). Bullying is a type of social
interaction which has an impact on schools and society. Hence, the behaviour of
the perpetrators or victims together with other factors depend on the school
environment. Bullying is a unique form of aggressive behaviour and is manifested
in various patterns of relationships. Bully victims normally experience agitation,
embarrassment and exasperation which consequently caused them to be timed,
self-isolated from their friends, play truant, changed personality, sensitive,
melancholy and suicidal. Among the effects of bullying on the victim include
declining academic performance due to the loss of interest in learning, skipping
classes and skipping school out of fear, self-blame together with the uncertainty
about one's abilities and potential (Nor Junainah, Mohd Sobri & Amelia, 2019).
These effects have been identified to hold severe and lasting effects on the victim
(Jenning et al., 2017; Hidalgo-Rasmussen et al., 2018).
Bullying is a worldwide issue regardless of gender, age, rank, race, culture or

religion. Based on an international study conducted in 2015 by Musu-Gillette et
al. (2017), bullying among students in some countries is at an alarming rate. The
awareness against bullying helps students who face similar circumstances to
come up with a resolution when they are bullied. Students with a significant level
of bullying conduct are inclined not to bully, while students who are rarely bullied
will, in general, be more domineering over other students (Saibon, Syed Abdullah
& Leong, 2017). Hence, teachers play a crucial role in facilitating appropriate
interventions in school-related bullying cases.
2.2 Creative Teaching Strategy

The main idea of creative teaching is for the teachers to transform their classrooms
into innovative learning environments to promote lifelong learning (Aleinikov,
1990). Creative teaching strategy requires teachers to make teaching and learning
fun by using a practical and imaginative approach in the classroom (Cremin,
Burnard & Craft, 2006). Creative teaching is a strategy for teachers to recognise
students' abilities to further empower and provide chances to their turn of events.
Meanwhile, this strategy is also described using a visionary approach to make
teaching and learning more enjoyable and productive.
To practice creative teaching, the teacher must possess some principles. Teachers
must be able to explore their identity and potential to develop the capacity and
sensitivity to think creatively. This, in turn, can help them to become creative
individuals. In this context, teachers should also be able to integrate local
knowledge to build creativity in conducting learning in the classroom. Whereby
creative thinking and critical thinking could enhance and complement each other.
Creative teaching leads to creative learning is not only an essential factor in
overcoming the complexities of social change but also acts as a catalyst in creating
a rapidly emerging global knowledge society. Hence, creative learning should be
the primary focus area in all disciplines and at all grade levels. In addition,

346
educators do also need to understand the factors driving creative learning (Watts
& Blessinger, 2017).
In general, an essential educational goal is to develop social creativity (Craft,

2005). Researchers have explained that education is not only limited to the study
of relevant theory but also provides many practical suggestions for
schoolteachers. However, practical activities in the classroom that focus on
fostering creativity does not necessarily yield the expected results, which is to
reduce bullying among students. Creative learning in the perspective of
constructivism theory can be related to the principles of constructivism which can
be illustrated as 1) knowledge is developed by students, exclusively and socially,
2) knowledge cannot be conveyed from teacher to student, 3) students construct
actively and continuously, and 4) teachers help provide circumstances in line with
the goal for the development of students. Constructive learning occurs when
students continually check for new information that is contrary to the old rules
and revise those rules if they are no longer appropriate (Danarjati, Murtiadi &
Ekawati, 2014). Creative learning process requires 1) democratic learning
environment and atmosphere, 2) interactive student-centred learning activities
and 3) educators who encourage students to learn on one's own and be
accountable for their learning activities.
In demonstrating creative learning, firstly, the teacher must model and provide
verbal remarks about their actions along with an explanation to it. Secondly,
students must attempt to mirror what the teacher is doing. In the third phase, the
teacher must progressively reduce intervention once the student has mastered the
skill. Fourthly, the teacher and students repeatedly take the roles in turns as
children need to be regularly confronted with concepts so that their spontaneous
ideas become more accurate (Khodijah, 2016). Besides that, teachers should be
aware of the importance of guiding to building a conducive atmosphere that
reduces bullying behaviour in the classroom. Hence, classroom settings should be
in the form of cooperative learning between groups of students with different
abilities. In a conducive environment, students will be able to interact in
performing difficult tasks, bring up each other's practical problem-solving
strategies within the closest or proximal development area and emphasise their
role as students to take responsibility for their learning.
Creative teaching strategy or creative pedagogy emphasises on the role of teachers

and students. For instance, creative teaching strategy is practised by forming new
ideas, new approaches and imagination leading to the inventive teaching method
or creative pedagogy. Teachers act as guidance to create dynamic and adaptable
activities in the classroom (Dineen & Niu, 2008). Consequently, the
implementation of creative teaching strategy should be incorporated into a
bullying intervention program to boost student awareness regarding bullying
behaviour among students.

347
3. Methodology
This study employed two approaches, quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative
data approach was aimed at exploring data regarding bullying behaviour in
schools. A survey was used to describe the profile of bullying in schools, i)
bullying setting and ii) bullying perpetrators. The survey questionnaires were
distributed among 970 students from 11 secondary schools in Jakarta using
stratified sampling. The data collected were analysed using percentage
calculations to describe the profile of bullying in schools.
In contrast, qualitative data approach was intended to illustrate the teacher's

strategy and creativity in reducing bullying in schools. The teachers were
recruited using purposive sampling. A total of 55 teachers from 11 schools were
selected and were interviewed. The interview was audio recorded for 30 minutes
and transcribed to verbatim. Observations in schools were also conducted using
the observation checklists to describe the social processes that occurred in these
schools to overcome bullying. Once the interview and observation were
completed, the data were analysed to identify the themes. Teachers' pre-
intervention practices were identified to develop student and school resilience by
designing creative learning programs at three levels, i) school level, ii) classroom
level and iii) individual level.
This study aims to explore students' bullying behaviour and teachers' creative
learning processes to reduce bullying behaviour in school. Through the outcome
of this study, we aim to answer these questions. Firstly, when does bullying occur
among students from secondary schools in Jakarta? Secondly, who are the
perpetrators in bullying? Thirdly, how will the teachers implement the creative
teaching strategies to reduce bullying at the school, class, and individual levels?
4.1 Bullying behaviour in school

Based on Figure 1, it can be concluded that bullying mostly occurs within the
school environment, especially during school hours (69%) and break time (23%).
Some cases were reported to have occurred before school hours (8%), while none
after school. A study done by UNICEF (2018) stated that the findings coincided
with the exposure of victims during school hours especially at the school cafeteria
and restrooms, the leading spots for bullying.

348
Bullying Setting (Jakarta) Bullying Perpetrators (Jakarta)

Before Onese If
School 2%
8%
Friend
13%
Break Peer Together
Time 14% 30%
During 23%
School
69% Senior
37% Alone
5%
Figure 1: Bullying setting Figure 2: Bullying perpetrators
Based on Figure 2, the bullying perpetrators among high school students in

Jakarta consisting of seniors (37%), together (30%), classmates (14%) and their
friends (13%). This figure is further supported by the statements of high school
students who claimed that most bullying cases occurred together and by seniors.
This phenomenon revealed that the bullies dare to bully the victims when they
are together during break time. Break time provides an excellent opportunity to
oppress the victims as there would be no teacher supervision. Meanwhile, victims
have also reported that bullying occurred in the classroom when there were no
teachers (35.9%) or during on-going lessons (30.2%). Dwiningrum (2019) also
concluded that as many as 48.2% of the students claimed to have been victimised,
while 45.1% of the students had been perpetrators. Similar trends were also
observed in a study conducted in Malaysia on bullying, which is becoming a
severe issue (Wan-Salwina et al., 2014). In Canada, it was reported that 25.2% of
the students were also victims of school bullying (Sampasa-Kanyinga, 2014).
These considerable extents demonstrate that school bullying is still prevalent
among middle and high school students.
According to Dwiningrum (2019), bullying behaviour in the school environment

cannot be eliminated naturally. Perpetrators tend to bully the victims mostly
during break time since they will be far from the supervision of teachers. Hence,
schools must strengthen the social functions, especially among the students to
create bond among them. In brief, bullying persists due to social reproduction.
Although bullying has been proved to be prevalent in school environments, most
teachers still are incapable of dealing with it. Based on the literature, programs
implemented to mitigate bullying in schools is not easy because the personality of
each student is not the same as assessing the bullying behaviour. Such differences
in personalities remain as one of the components of continuing bullying
behaviour in schools. Besides that, based on the interviews with teachers in high
schools, there were several obstacles to mitigating bullying in schools:
a. Diversified knowledge about bullying.
b. Student ignorance in responding to bullying.
c. Low awareness about the impact of bullying.

349
d. Differences in economic, racial, religious, social, cultural and economic

backgrounds among students.
e. Limited time to provide knowledge in classroom learning.
f. Discriminatory attitude between students and teachers.
However, according to teachers, bullying often occurs in the classroom (Nouran,

2015). Schools continuously try to overcome bullying by employing a variety of
strategies with the school policies. These strategies are critical to consider because
the impact of bullying is very complex. Programs to stop bullying are moral
movements that must be fought by schools. The dire efforts to stop bullying is
focused on the overwhelmed suffering of victims by repeated bullying. Juvonen
and Graham (2014) also added that victims of bullying experience more serious
alteration issues compared to victims of different types of peer hostility. Since
bullying is a more destructive and complex element of aggressive behaviour,
specific interventions are needed (Ttofi et al., 2011). Hence, schools must deal with
bullying more diligently and seriously to achieve optimal results. This study
concluded that the schools are trying to design comprehensive techniques in
combatting bullying on school grounds. Based on the qualitative data analysis,
school policies in reducing bullying were carried out at three levels, i) school level,
ii) classroom level and iii) individual level (Olweus, 1993). This strategy is
intended as the main segments fundamental to the implementation of an anti-
bullying program (Olweus & Alsaker, 1991).
4.2 At the school level

According to Alter and Hadon (2017), classroom rules are conveyed by teachers
to portray satisfactory and inadmissible conduct among the students. Based on
the interviews with teachers, classroom rules against violence are conveyed
through, i) written agreements with students and making it a school effort to
create a healthy and friendly environment, ii) moral messages composed by
schools were displayed in posters and banners at several strategic places in the
school environment for students to read; iii) policies created to strengthen
character education integrated into various school programs such as anti-bullying
programs; iv) the schools cooperated with parents to monitor children's behaviour
at home. According to Jimenez-Barbero et al. (2016), anti-bullying programs have
significantly reduced the frequency of bullying cases and victimisation among
students.
4.3 At the classroom level

Teachers deal with bullying problems in classrooms by associating it with the
learning process. Based on the description in Table 1, it can be interpreted that to
develop creativity, teachers need appropriate and comprehensive knowledge in
overcoming various problems of bullying in schools. In order to create creative
learning based on the perspectives of constructivist theories, the teacher's role
should optimise five elements of learning including a) activating knowledge, b)
acquiring knowledge by learning as a whole first, then paying attention to the
details, c) understanding knowledge, i.e. constructing a temporary concept
(hypothesis), sharing with others to get a response (validation) and based on that
response, the idea is revised and developed, d) applying knowledge, and e)

350
reflecting on the knowledge development strategy. Table 1 illustrates that each

teacher apprehends different ways of dealing with bullying among students.
Table 1. Elements and activities of teachers in the teaching process

Elements of learning Teacher activities
Activating knowledge ▪ Improve the literacy of the Koran by reading
intensively at the beginning of class entry/end
of learning in school.
▪ Leading prayers in class.
Acquiring knowledge by ▪ Acquire the experience and impact of bullying
learning, then paying in schools.
attention to the details ▪ Integrating character values in learning in
schools with structured activities.
Acquiring knowledge by ▪ Organise certain activities/programs organised
learning, then paying by students between classes to build
attention to the details togetherness between students.
▪ Coordinate with parents to supervise children
at home.
▪ Warn and punish students who commit acts of
violence in class/school gradually.
▪ Develop topics for specific material and
discussion in class to build awareness of
mutual respect and respect between
students/teachers.
Applying knowledge ▪ Organise competitions between classes and
schools in various fields of learning, sports, arts
and music to develop students' creativity and
reduce conflicts between students.
▪ Develop group dynamics in the classroom for
learning and creative work through social and
entrepreneurial activities.
Reflecting on the ▪ Conduct out-bound activities to strengthen
knowledge development leadership and capacity building.
strategy ▪ Conduct social activities that build a sense of
social solidarity and social care.
In addition, the ability to be creative is deemed as an important aspect to reduce

bullying (Komalasari, 2011). Teacher's creative learning in the class consists of
creative teaching imaginative approach to develop creative thinking behaviour,
as stated in Table 2.

351
Table 2. The teacher's creative learning in class

Creative teaching imaginative Teaching for creativity to develop creative
approach thinking or behaviour.
1. Teach students how to respond to 1. Introduce thinking and creative

challenges methods by changing the mindset.
2. Teach students to develop ideas in 2. Getting used to doing tasks
overcoming the problem of effectively and creatively.
bullying in schools using empirical 3. Getting used to organising
data. classrooms to be safe and
3. Encourage students to study comfortable for students to learn.
enthusiastically. 4. Develop a culture of reading and
4. Practising openness in learning.
communication. 5. Encourage students to produce
5. Teach students about social creative products.
sensitivity in people's lives.
6. Oversee personal growth with a
humanist approach.
Based on the data above, it can be interpreted that the ability of teachers in creative
teaching can be developed if they have sufficient knowledge about creative
teaching imaginative approach. According to the NACCCE Report (1999), the
importance of developing the aspects of creativity in teaching is considered as
their capability in overcoming social problems. The knowledge gained by
students through fun and meaningful learning processes will be a fundamental
basis for students for personal character or behaviour.
4.4 At the individual level

Bullying behaviour affects the physical and mental health of victimised students.
Therefore, efforts to reduce bullying behaviour requires a good relationship
between teacher and teacher, teacher and students, and student and students, as
shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Relationship pattern and activities to deal with bullying in schools

Relationship Form of activity
pattern
Teacher with teacher ▪ Sharing mutual experiences among fellow teachers in their
efforts to deal with children who tend to bully in class.
▪ Sharing mutual variety of information on ways of teaching
that encourage students to learn creatively.
Teacher with ▪ Play a film that has a moral message about bullying.
students ▪ Give tasks which require students to think individually and
in groups on the impacts of bullying and solutions to overcome
bullying.
Students with ▪ Create a "Peer Counselling" activity for students, so that
students they could have the opportunity to talk to their peers freely
when experiencing bullying problems.
▪ Create an "anti-bully" group formed by students as
ambassadors of peace at school.

352
According to Table 3, social synergy must be built to combat bullying by building

a safe and comfortable school for students. Although all schools are ready to
comply with new techniques, creating a safe and enjoyable school culture is not
an easy task. Having said that, an appropriate approach to combat bullying is to
focus on developing non-cognitive skills for students to resist bullying behaviour.
By fostering proactive factors such as resilience and other non-cognitive skills,
bullying can be reduced along with its harmful effects on students. When these
skills are instilled in students, they are provided with mental self-defence to
safeguard themselves from being bullied or from becoming the perpetrators.
5. Conclusion, Implications and Recommendations

Creative learning strategy should be acquired by teachers, especially to curb
bullying among students. This study concluded that:
• At the school level, there is a need to strengthen knowledge and it must be
constructed expertly. The problem of bullying must be recognised as an
action that must be addressed together by enhancing awareness in all
elements of learning. A comprehensive approach for a positive school
environment which emphasises student wellbeing and reinforces a norm
of inclusiveness and diversity is crucial in preventing bullying.
• At the classroom level, teachers are expected to be able to apply a variety
of learning processes to make students happy and comfortable. With a
conducive learning environment, there would be no reasons for students
to bully. With creative learning, teachers could build a conducive and
comfortable learning atmosphere for students in school.
• At the individual level, it requires social relationships that are built
through various social activities by strengthening aspects of non-cognitive
abilities to reduce bullying in schools.
Teachers can acquire creative teaching strategy by attending courses and training
programs. During this Covid-19 pandemic, teachers can opt to join online
professional development courses available on the internet on how to secure a
positive school climate. This study also implies that school policies which are
designed to reduce bullying need to be balanced in creating lessons with cognitive
knowledge and non-cognitive expertise in the learning process. This
recommendation offers a guideline for a new framework and further research.
Acknowledgement
This paper presented here is collaboration research activities supported by
Kementerian Riset, Teknologi, dan Pendidikan Tinggi Republik Indonesia who
have provided research development funds 2019 following the contract number:
73 / Research / PP / UN34.21 / 2019 and part of the matching grant between
Universitas Negeri Yogjakarta (UNY) and Research Management and Research
Centre (RMIC), Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris (UPSI) Research Code 2019-
0240-107-01. Special thanks to for all researchers for their contributions.

353
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Code S2
Appendix 1
Creative Teaching Strategy to Reduce Bullying in Schools
Instruments
Please indicate your level of agreement with the statement listed below:
1 = Strongly agree
2 = Agree
3 = Neutral
4 = Disagree
5 = Strongly Disagree
No Items 1 2 3 4 5
1 I experienced bullying at school

I experienced bullying in the
2
community
3 I experienced bullying at home
Bullying at school occurs before
4
lessons begin
5 Bullying occurs during lessons
6 Bullying occurs during school breaks
7 Bullying happens after school
8 Bullying happens repeatedly
9 Bullying often happens in my school
10 Bullying often happens in my class
11 I do bully
12 My friend also bully people

Bullying is done by fellow
13
classmates
14 Bullying is done by seniors
15 Bullying is done alone
16 Bullying is done together
17 I became a victim of bullying
18 My friend is also a victim of bullying

Bullying is done by friends who are
19
more powerful
Bullying occurs because the victim is
20
weak
Bullying occurs because of inferiority
21
complex
Bullying occurs because victims are
22
physically different
Code S2
Bullying occurs because victims

23
differ economically
Students at my school mock other
24
students
25 Students yell at other students
Students embarrass other students in
26
front of their peers
Students slander other students from
27
behind
28 Students ask friends for money
29 Students hit other students
30 Students bullying on social media

I feel insulted after experiencing
31
bullying
I buried myself the bully incident
32
that I experienced
I want to be braver so that I won't be
33
bullied
I need time to tell about the bully
34
that I experienced
I told the bullying that I experienced
35
to friends / best friends
36 I told my parents about bullying
I told the bullying I experienced to
37
the teacher
38 I fight when bullied
My friend helped overcome the bully
39
problem that I experienced
My parents helped me overcome the
40
bully problem that I experienced
My teacher helped overcome the
41
bully problem that I experienced
42 I feel inferior after being bullied
43 I feel insecure after being bullied
44 I feel hurt after being bullied

I became physically ill after being
45
bullied
My parents asked me about the
46 bullying experience that I
experienced at school
The teacher asked about the bully
47 experience that I experienced at
school
The teacher knows the bullying
48
incident at school
My parents handled bullying that I
49
experienced
The teacher handles bullying that
50
occurs at school
356

Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 356-376, April 2020
Preferential Admission Policies for Ethnic

Minority Students in Yunnan: Help or Hindrance
Dongyuan Deng
Suranaree University of Technology, Thailand
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7003-8157
Sirinthorn Seepho
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5048-5435
Andrew Lian
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5812-3017
Abstract. This research project took Yunnan (YN), the most

southwestern province of China and a frontier province with the largest
number of ethnic minorities along with multi-ethnic languages and
abundant ethnic cultures, as a specific case. It studied both the current
situation of minority education and the necessity for Preferential
Admission Policies (PAPs) in the particular stage of the national college
entrance examination (NCEE) from a social perspective. Quantitative
statistics was used to analyze data from the different education levels of
the minority groups. Document analysis and in-depth interviews with
four groups of participants (exclusive ethnic minority university
students (EEMs), university teachers, administrators and provincial
officials of Yunnan Province) were conducted to explore the rationality
and feasibility of PAPs. The findings reveal that PAPs are indeed
justified in Yunnan’s multi-ethnic social context, at the same time,
geographical remoteness and regional gaps, socioeconomic
determinants, and linguistic barriers contributed to the need for PAPs at
present under the average level of minority education in Yunnan.
Keywords: Yunnan; ethnic minority education; Preferential Admission

Policies; entrance examination; social context
1. Introduction
1.1 Overview of Ethnic Minorities in China and Yunnan
The People’s Republic of China (PRC) is a multicultural, multi-ethnic, and
unified country with a written history of more than 4,000 years, and it is home to

357
56 ethnicities. The Han majority makes up about 91.51% of the total population
in the mainland, whereas other ethnic groups constitute 8.49%. The term “ethnic
minority” refers to the 55 non-Han China’s officially recognized ethnic groups in
the PRC. They are defined as “historically constituted, stable community of
people, formed based on a common language, territory, economic life, and
psychological make-up manifested in a common culture” (Mackerras, 2003, p.2).
They share “a language, an area, an economic life, a culture” (Gladney, 1994,
p.98) and “an awareness of belonging to the same group” (Campos, Ren &
Petrick, 2016, p.258). The total population of the minority groups has increased
to over 113.79 million, and most of these ethnic groups inhabit in frontier and
rural areas with their own distinctive cultures and customs (Guo, et al., 2019).
Yunnan was reported by the government authorities of the 6th National

Population Census of China1 that currently the total population of Yunnan
province is 45.966 million. 30.629 million are Han, which comprise 66.63% of the
Yunnan’s population. Yunnan contains 52 out of the 55 ethnic minorities in
China, among whom 25 minority populations exceed 5,000 people and 15.337
million in total, and they composes of 33.37% of the whole population of Yunnan
(Cai, 2014). Meanwhile, statistics shows that nearly one-third of the poverty-
stricken counties2 in Yunnan and some other western parts of China are
primarily inhabited by ethnic minority people (Yang, 2005; Adamson & Xia,
2011). These regions are considered as less developed and “the most
economically deprived regions in China” (Feng & Cheung, 2010, p.258). In
practice, ethnic minority education is of great significance for Yunnan’s
socioeconomic development.
1.2 PAPs for Ethnic Minorities in the NCEE

Key Regulations of PAPs
Despite the rapid economic development of China, it is evident that there is
unequal access to good quality education for people. The vast differences
between China’s prosperous eastern coastal provinces and the poor western
inland provinces have widened the gap. The differences between urban and
rural areas are in the same situations (Adamson & Feng, 2009; Sunodula & Feng,
2011). In minority education, PAPs are designed to recruit minority students by
lowering the required scores for the NCEE according to the level of economic
development of some particular concentrated areas of ethnic minorities3, and
then by giving those ethnic minority students priority in admission to higher
education over the Han majority. The most recent PAPs have been implemented
since 2000 by taking both ethnicity and level of socioeconomic development as
1The National Population Census of China started in 1953. It was usually held once
every ten years ever since 1980. The 6th National Population Census of China was
conducted in November 2010 and released in 2011, and so far, the data are the latest.
2There are five levels of primary administrative divisions in China: provincial level (1st),
prefectural level (2nd), county-level (3rd), township level (4th), and village level (5th).
3Concentrated areas of ethnic minorities: those ethnic community areas with people
mostly from the same dominant ethnic minority group.

358
criteria. Some critical regulations on bonus points are illustrated as follows (Bao
& Liu, 2015; Hu & Ga, 2016; Guan, 2019).
First, minority college applicants from border counties receive 30 bonus points
in the NCEE. Han applicants who were born in the concentrated areas of ethnic
minorities or the families have lived there for ten or more years earn 20 bonus
points. This item gives ethnic minorities a slight edge over Han students from
the same place. Second, the PAPs of Yunnan regulate that university applicants
from China’s interior regions can obtain ten bonus points on their NCEE. 19
ethnicities in buffer and inland zones (including the Hani, Dai, Miao, Lisu, La,
Wa, Jingpo, Yao, Bulang, Nu, Achang, Pumi, Deang, Dulong, Zang, Mongol,
Jinuo, Shui, and Buyi) may receive ten bonus points. However, Hui, Bai, urban
Zhuang, urban Yi, and Manchu applicants do not accept any bonus points.
Third, for underdeveloped counties from the concentrated areas of ethnic
minorities in nomadic pastoral areas and mountainous highlands, ethnic
candidates may apply for 20 bonus points in the NCEE. Fourth, ethnic minority
applicants are frequently given priority over Han applicants in college
admission when they have the same college admission scores if they are from
the Hui, Naxi, Bai, Manchu, urban Yi, and civic Zhuang ethnic groups.
Meanwhile, the methods or assessment for students’ enrollment in vocational
schools, adult education, and technical secondary schools are similar to the
regulations previously mentioned.
PAPs for Ethnic Minorities in the NCEE

The Ministry of Education (MOE) in China has adopted PAPs to lower
admission scores for ethnic minority students in the NCEE. To know the
background of Yunnan’s PAPs for minority college applicants, it is necessary to
have a comprehensive understanding of the history and social functions of
China’s NCEE. The NCEE began in 1952 and has been considered by the public
as the academic criteria for college entrance throughout China ever since then.
The NCEE constantly plays a critical role in Chin’s education only with the
interruption of the ten-year Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) (Gorter & Durk,
2015). In China, the purpose of the NCEE is to select the top students who are
usually those with higher examination scores to gain access to university, and to
allocate limited high-quality educational resources based on students’ academic
performance rather than social status or their family conditions. China has set
PAPs to redress the inequality in college enrollment while maintaining the
practical implementation of unified NCEE scores because minority groups are
often disadvantaged due to certain “historical factors as well as geographic
remoteness” (Wan & Jun, 2008, p.140). If only one cutoff score is adopted
nationally, applicants from some concentrated ethnic minority communities and
remote regions will lose their opportunities to receive higher education, which
will absolutely result in disparity in education. Therefore, for decades some
ethnic minority students have had to resort to PAPs, which lowers the “entrance
threshold” (Verhoeven & Zhang, 2016). As a result, a wide range of the minority
population (which amounts to one-fourth of the total minority population) that
lives in the concentrated ethnic areas, are mostly integrated with the Han and
thus have become beneficiaries of PAPs (Sautman, 2010).

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1.3 Novelty of This Study

Although there have been some previous research programs concerning ethnic
minority education in China, most of them focused on bilingual or multilingual
education problems (Yang, 2005; Sunuodula & Feng, 2011; Adamson & Feng,
2014; Wang, 2015). Some emphasized on minority education situations in
specific ethnic autonomous regions or provinces such as Tibet, Mongolia,
Xinjiang, Guizhou etc. (Sunuodula & Cao, 2015; Postiglione, Jiao & Tsering,
2009; Dong, Gou, Wang & Qiu, 2015；Ba, 2009; Finifrock & Schilken, 2015). So
far, only a few research programs have considered preferential policies (Wang,
2009; Teng & Ma, 2009; Zhou, 2009). But most of these studies were carried out
in a macroscopic perspective, in which a general situation of ethnic minorities in
China was analyzed. In 2015, Professor Yuan and his colleagues surveyed on
trilingual education in Yunnan (Yuan et al., 2015). That is one of the minimal
indigenous research involved Yunnan minority education, where, as mentioned
above, is a province with the most diverse ethnic cultures and ethnic languages
in China. Above all, studies on PAPs for ethnic minority students at the critical
moment of the NCEE in the context of Yunnan are still rare. This study hopes to
fill these gaps in the perspective of PAPs for ethnic minority students in Yunnan.
2. Research Purposes and Questions

2.1 Purposes s of the Study
The purposes of this study were to obtain a picture of the minority education
situation of Yunnan, China, as this province is uniquely characterized by multi-
ethnic cultures and includes various and diverse ethnicities. Also, it aimed to
explore the factors which possibly determine the necessity of PAPs in the NCEE
from a social perspective, uniquely combining the local ethnic education
condition with PAPs situation together.
2.2 Questions of the Study

To achieve the objectives, the study attempted to answer the following two
questions:
(1) What is the current situation of ethnic minority education in Yunnan?
(2) What are the factors that determine the necessity of PAPs’ implementation
for ethnic minorities in Yunnan in the NCEE?
2.3 Limitations of the Study

The results of this study cannot be generalized to all minority students because
the sample chosen in this study does not include all the minorities in Yunnan,
China. Moreover, the data elicited from the 6th National Population Census can
only work as a reference because this is the latest information available. This
study was conducted in Yunnan, China, from 2017 to 2019.

360
3. Methodology
The study adopted a mixed-methods approach with the qualitative method
being dominant. To understand the general situation of the ethnic minority
education level of Yunnan, the descriptive statistics was used to illustrate the
status of minority education in Yunnan. Concerning the qualitative approach,
based on the education level of the ethnic minority samples, a semi-structured
interview was conducted to elicit data from different ethnic participants, whom
will be explained in the following part, to comprehend the rationality and
feasibility of PAPs implementation in Yunnan context. By using these two
methods, it enabled the researcher to confirm findings from various data sources
and develop an understanding of the overall situation. Besides, the researcher
used a longitudinal approach, starting from primary education to higher
education. Simultaneously, horizontal multiple comparisons and analysis of
different ethnicities, including the Han, were carried out to obtain an objective
and comprehensive view of the research.
3.1 Research Participants

Samples for the Quantitative Approach
Although Yunnan is a province with a large number of ethnicities, there are only
15 exclusive ethnic minorities (EEMs) including Hani, Bai, Wa, Naxi, Jingpo,
Bulang, Pumi, Dai, Lisu, Lahu, Jinuo, Achang, Nu, Deang, and Dulong. EEMs
mean those ethnic minorities who only live in Yunnan province. As these 15
EEMs are mostly representatives of the local ethnic minorities of Yunnan (Sun, et
al., 2013), therefore, the study mainly chose the 15 EEMs as samples to analyze
the minority education situation in Yunnan province. The data were obtained
from the 6th National Population Census, China.
Samples for the Qualitative Approach

The samples for interviewing consisted of four groups of people, i,e. EEMs,
university teachers and administrators, and officials in Yunnan. About four
representative interviewees for each 15 EEM groups of subjects (60 students)
participated in both the individual and focus group interviews. They were
randomly recommended by their teachers and voluntarily joined. Also, five Han
students were included for some specific comparison. Besides, four university
teachers with various work experiences on minority education programs were
selected purposefully from four government-funded universities which are well-
known for the enrollment of local ethnic minority college applicants from
Yunnan, i.e., Yunnan Minzu University (YMU), Dali University (DU), ChuXiong
Normal University (CNU), and Kunming University of Science and Technology
(KUST). Also, three administrators were respectively from YMU, DU, and CNU,
and another two officials were from Yunnan Provincial Department of
Education (YPDE) and Kunming Education Bureau (KEB). Altogether, 74
participants were investigated as a mixture of different ethnicities, from different
areas of study and with a longer or shorter term of learning and work experience
by using both random and purposive sampling methods. The use of multiple
resources embedded EEM groups and four university sites enabled data
triangulation and provided reliability in the findings.

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Table 1. Basic information on the participants

Participants Number Method of selection Notes of sampling
EEMs & Han 65 random sampling 4 for each of the 15 EEMs,
plus 5 Han students
University teachers 4 purposive sampling YMU, DU, CNU, KUST
Administrators 3 purposive sampling YMU, DU, CNU
Officials 2 purposive sampling YPDE and KEB
Table 2. Demographic information on the EEMs and Han participants

Universities YMU KUST DU CNU
Individual interview (No) 20 16 12 12
Focus group interview Naxi-5 Han-5 Bai-5 Deang-5
(Ethnicity-No)
Level of education BA & MA BA & MA BA BA
Location (City) Kunming Kunming Chuxiong Dali
Table 3. Demographic information on teacher participants

Samples Teacher1 Teacher2 Teacher3 Teacher4
University YMU KUST CNU DU
Professional Title EFL lecturer EFL Asso.Prof. EFL lecturer EFL Prof.
Pseudonym Ms Du Mrs Gao Mr Li Mrs Mei
Ethnicity Zhuang Han Miao Bai
Years of Teaching 6 20 8 25
Table 4. Demographic information on administrative and official participants

Samples Adm-1 Adm-2 Adm-3 Official-1 Official-2
Work unit YMU DU CNU YPDE KEB
Pseudonym Mrs Haiye Dr Yangzi Mr Lin Mr He Zhi Mr Dong Ying
Ethnicity Zhuang Bai Han Naxi Han
Years of working 16 12 21 22 18
3.2 Data Collection

Quantitative Data for Research Question 1
All data on the 15 EEMs and the Han of Yunnan were collected through the
official website of the 6th National Population Census of China. The percentage
of the index for describing the situation of minority education in Yunnan were
measured (see Table 5, 6).
Qualitative Data for Research Question 2
As “the interview is the most widely used method of generating data in
qualitative social research” (Nunkoosing, 2005, p.698), a semi-structured
interview was utilized to explore EEMs’ growing up experiences and their
opinions of PAPs. The meetings were organized at both the interviewer’s and
interviewees’ convenience and were open-ended to allow for complementarity
and expansion of related questions. Each in-depth individual interview lasted
approximately 20 minutes, and the time for the focus group interview was from
half an hour to one hour. Most of the interviews took place on the campus of the

362
4 sample universities, in classrooms, office, or on outdoor benches. Chinese was

the primary language used for the interviews. The English language was also
employed when it became necessary. Above all, confidentiality was the central
policy. Based on the four different groups of participants, opinions obtained
from the EEMs described their educational experiences and perceptions of PAPs.
Besides, the data of the teachers concerned the consequences and influence of
PAPs towards ethnic minorities. Moreover, the statements made by the
administrators and officials explained the contents of PAPs and their original
purposes. Also, a review of all the related policy documents was conducted, and
the materials were obtained from the Yunnan provincial library.
3.3 Data Analysis

Research Question 1: All data elicited from the 6th National Population Census
of China were fed into the SPSS 2.0 data analysis program for the statistical
frequency to measure the percentage of the index for describing and
generalizing the situation of minority education level in Yunnan.
Research Question 2: A content and thematic analysis were carefully conducted

with the interview data and policy document analysis. In the process of
analyzing the data, three necessary steps, i.e., domains, core ideas, and a cross-
analysis were used to construct common themes across the participants (Hill, et
al., 2005). In order to establish the reliability of the data, intra-coding was
employed, and afterwards, the data were developed into categories and themes
through refinement, comparison, and analysis. Complicated interactions among
these categories and themes were also examined. After a cross-analysis and a
member-checking on the data, the essential extracts of the interview transcripts
were elicited, and later translated into English from Chinese.

Historically speaking, PAPs for minorities have figured most prominently in
Yunnan’s implementation of central laws and policies. In Yunnan, the
concentrated areas of ethnic minorities have traditionally suffered from the low
level of economic and educational development. These areas are also confronted
with a shortage of human resources. The government has implemented a series
of particular preferential policies to promote the local population increase,
develop education, offer human resources training programs, and encourage the
regional economic development to alleviate poverty. PAPs are one method to
increase the proportion of minority students who can access higher education.
4.1 Current Situation of Minority Education in Yunnan

To understand the new situation of the minority education in Yunnan, the study
took the 15 EEM groups as well as the Han of Yunnan as samples. Relevant data
of population were collected from the 6th National Population Census of China,
and the researcher measured the percentage of the index for describing and
summarizing the situation of minority education in Yunnan by using SPSS 2.0
for frequency analysis of the statistical data.

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Table 5. Education Situation of the 15 EEMs in Yunnan, China

Population of Uneducated Primary Junior High Senior High Higher
Education School School School Education
YN (N=million) 3.393 20.043 12.591 38.131 26.361
Percentage (%) 7.99 47.19 29.64 8.98 6.21
Han (N=million) 1.954 12.653 9.028 28.593 20.095
Percentage (%) 6.86 44.39 31.67 10.03 7.05
EEMs 7.322 31.149 1.568 4.227 2.840
(N=million)
Percentage (%) 11.96 50.88 25.61 6.91 4.64
(Source of the population: https://www.yearbookchina.com/)
Note: The data for the educated population here only included students above
six years old, which meant the data of children under six years old (school age)
were excluded. For the population, three decimal places were used, while for the
percentage, only two decimal places were adopted. Higher education here
covered college, university, and postgraduate levels of education.
Based on the data, Yunnan education was mostly focused on the stage of
primary education. Its education level fell behind many other provinces in the
eastern part of China. Furthermore, almost half of the EEMs finished their
primary school (50.88%), a quarter of them could continue with junior high
school (25.61%). A small number of them were able to further rise to senior high
school (6.91%), and only a few of them finally reached higher education (4.64%).
What’s more, the data also revealed that the average years of Yunnan students’
schooling was 7.57 years. For the Han, it was 7.85 years, while for the EEMs, it
was 6.93 years. Among the different minorities, Naxi (8.53 years), Bai (8.12
years), and Jinuo (7.65 years) showed a higher than average level of education in
Yunnan, while the other 12 ethnic minority groups were lower. Compared with
the Han proportion (7.05%) at a higher education level, the EEMs percentage
was 4.64%, 2.41% lower than that of the Han.
Why is a higher education of such great significance in minority education

development? Chen’s finding showed that the status quo in the minority
education of Yunnan is still far from satisfactory (Chen, 2019). In China’s
context, for ethnic minorities, higher education functions not only to cultivate
the high-quality talents of minorities to serve the government’s unity and
stability, but also to accelerate the socioeconomic development of these minority
regions (Feng & Cheung, 2010).
Article 8 of the Higher Education Law of the PRC stipulates that:

In light of the characteristics and needs of ethnic minority groups, the
PRC assists and supports the development of higher education in
regions inhabited by ethnic peoples to cultivate ethnic talent and train
senior specialists among them (National People’s Congress, 2018, p. 3).

364
In reality, concentrated areas of ethnic minorities in Yunnan are significantly in

need of a strengthening of their development through the talent available from
higher education. Based on statistics of the 15 EEMs, the researcher statistically
calculated the numbers of illiterate/ semi-illiterate and those in higher
education, as shown below (Table 6).
Table 6. The proportion of illiterate/ semi-illiterate and higher education of the 15

EEMs in Yunnan (%)
Ethnicity YN Han EEMs Hani Bai Dai Lisu Lahu Wa
Illiteracy/ 7.99 6.86 11.96 14.70 5.74 11.52 18.80 15.91 14.22
Semi-illiteracy
Higher 6.21 7.05 4.64 2.93 7.63 3.91 2.60 2.67 2.44
education
Ethnicity Naxi Jingpo Bulan Pumi Achan Nu Jinu Deang Dulong
g g o
Illiteracy/ 7.20 9.62 14.62 14.77 8.28 16.13 9.20 19.63 16.92
Semi-illiteracy
Higher 11.46 3.70 3.42 7.77 4.67 5.68 6.21 2.06 5.98
education
The data showed that a considerable gap still existed between the Han majority
and the EEMs at both a low and high level of education. The EEMs’
illiterate/semi-illiterate people (11.96%) were almost double that of the Han
(6.86%), while Han’s higher education students were 2.41% higher than those of
the EEMs. Among the 15 EEMs, Naxi, Bai, and Pumi’s proportions of higher
education were a little higher than the Han, and Naxi had the highest ratio of
students who accessed college or university. However, some EEMs such as Lisu
(2.60%) and Deang (2.06%) had a deficient proportion in higher education,
whereas the illiterate/semi-illiterate ratios were very high. It showed that
“poverty and illiteracy always come together and feed each other, and this circle
needs to be broken” (Wan & Jun, 2008, p.148).
The 15 EEM groups were chosen on purpose as samples to represent ethnic

minority groups in Yunnan which were rationalized before. The low education
level inevitably hinders the local socioeconomic development. Through later
interviewing, it was found that some other factors were determining the
necessity of implementing PAPs for ethnic minorities in the NCEE. In the
following data, geographical remoteness and regional gaps, socioeconomic
determinants, linguistic barriers, etc. are prominent. Within these factors usually
brings forth the fundamental problems causing the academic differences among
different ethnic minority groups.
4.2 Three determinants of PAPs in Yunnan

Geographical Remoteness and Regional Gaps
For historical reasons, most ethnic minorities live in nomadic pastoral localities,
mountainous highlands, and border areas, where geographical conditions
severely restricted economic development. Although there are many supportive
policies to enhance Yunnan’s socioeconomic reforms, uneasy living and
educational conditions still largely exist, and geographical remoteness often

365
results in educational disparities for minority students. From a geographic

perspective, poor transportation in mountainous areas increases the difficulties
for minority students’ schooling. The data show that EEM students’ locations or
origins have gradually become a key element in the implementation of PAPs.
Those minority students need bonus points in their NCEE, which allows them
priority in university admissions over most Han students even when all the
other criteria are the same. A Lisu student from the Nujiang ethnic community
revealed that in his childhood, he and his fellow students often walked a long
distance to school and the conditions in his primary school were poor:
I still remember when I was at primary school, there was only one
classroom for two classes, and only three teachers. One was female, the
others were male. (Lisu S-2, KUST-Y2)
Nujiang’s poverty ratio was 38.4%, almost ten times that of the average
for China, and that leads to a high dropout rate as well. (Han Offical-2,
KEB)
In the interview, Mr He, who had abundant working experience for ethnic
minorities, said:
Nevertheless, how to work well with the introduction of good school
teachers is a hard task since difficult mountainous conditions usually
hinder teachers’ personal development. (Naxi Official-1, YPDE)
This finding agreed with Gil and Adamson (2011) who emphasized that a lack of
access to good facilities and qualified teachers usually resulted in minority
students becoming poorer performers than most of their Han counterparts (Gil
& Adamson, 2011). In Yunnan, minority education development varies from one
autonomous ethnic area to another. A Hani student mentioned that different
education conditions of ethnic areas to a large extent resulted in the differences
in the implementation of PAPs:
We have different education platforms. Surely PAPs are in need. (Hani
S-6, KUST-Y3)
Besides, the regional disparity between the rural and urban areas in autonomous
ethnic areas is also increasing. Compared with urban regions, many rural areas
have fallen behind in economic, educational, and medical services and
developments, and a large proportion of rural areas remained in poverty. Most
interviewees confirm that the educational gap is mainly derived from regional
disparities. Conversely, regional education disparities are inclined to be
enlarged with the fast-economic growth.
I think the imbalance of high-quality education resources that are
allocated between the city and rural areas also enlarges the gap between
the Han and the ethnic minorities. (Zhuang Adm-1, YMU)
In such a highly competitive country like China, educational development is

greatly influenced by some social determinants, particularly economic
development. Cultural differences among different areas and various ethnic
groups also play a critical role in education. It is consistent with what Li et al.
(2015) pointed out. He stated that after mass college expansion to higher
education in 1998 in China, rural youth from remote counties had less

366
opportunities to go to college or the elite Project 985 and 211 universities4 than
urban youth. There were even more significant gaps existing for disadvantaged
subgroups of rural youth from poor counties, such as female or ethnic minority
children (Li, et al., 2015).
The necessity of PAPs in the NCEE for higher education should be traced back
to primary education. In recent years, competition in examinations in China has
shifted from university entrance down to junior/senior high schools, and even
to primary schools. Enrolment in a key high school is now construed almost as a
dependable guarantee to enter college or university. It demonstrates the
importance of school conditions in children’s education. However, most
minority students typically have no access to key schools unless they happen to
live in those urban areas.
The farther away from cities, the fewer resources a school has. The fewer
resources a school has, the less it prepares its students academically for
Gaokao (NCEE). (Bai Adm-2, DU)
In Yunnan, one of the problems is severe poverty in some areas which manifests
itself in a small number of economic development opportunities and limited
educational resources due to ethnic and regional disparities and low quality of
local education systems. In China, the NCEE plays an important role in not only
reallocating educational resources but selecting talent for higher education.
Under the present circumstances, PAPs fill the regional gaps and increase the
proportion of higher education for more ethnic minorities which, in no small
degree, will determine their future academic and professional development.
Socioeconomic Determinants
The rapid socioeconomic development of China in the past decades has
provided ethnic minorities with both chances and challenges in overall
development. All the preferential policies have strongly promoted the
improvement in the livelihood of people in ethnic minority regions. But
comparatively slower economic growth in Yunnan still results in a lower
educational investment in minority areas. Reversely, lower level of education
hinders Yunnan local socioeconomic development. And it also causes poverty
and lower literacy conditions in some ethnic groups. Even as the overall level of
poverty has dropped, new inequality has increased. Practically, social
determinants play a critical role in the educational development of ethnic
minorities, particularly, economic development and cultural differences among
different regions and various ethnicities.
Economically speaking, educational quality is inseparable from economic
growth because education requires a good deal of financial input to
provide sufficient resource including qualified teachers and teaching
facilities, etc. (Han Official-2, KEB)
4Project211 and 985 are projects of key national universities initiated in 1995 and 1998,
respectively, by the Ministry of Education (MOU) of the PRC in an endeavour to found
world-class universities in the 21st century.

367
As Verhoeven and Zhang (2016) state that, the economic development of

territories in the remote mountainous areas, border areas, and pasturing areas
in the western parts of China lags far behind the national average level
(Verhoeven & Zhang, 2016). Yunnan’s situation exemplifies this.
The relative lagging of economic development of Yunnan mainly lies in its
weak foundation in talent resources. Inadequate educational investment is
destined to affect school conditions and therefore, the general quality of
education. Under such circumstances, both the central government of China
and some local, provincial governments like Yunnan have started to pay more
attention to ethnic affairs than previously.
Besides, agriculture and livestock are the primary sources of economic

development in minority areas in Yunnan. Concentrated areas of ethnic
minorities, in particular, depend on agriculture. As described by some
interviewees, most ethnic villages in the rural areas of Yunnan continue to use
very traditional farming methods with cattle and horses. Consequently, a small
employment market and some underdeveloped industries impose a relatively
low demand for high-quality labour and technology.
Some of us [EEM students] cannot concentrate on our study because we
have to labour in the fields for our parents. (Dai S-6, DU-Y1)
On the one hand, most rural ethnic minority families depend on farming and
labour for herding or subsistence agriculture. Parents often have to make a
living by farming, and thus the labour of all family members is critical to their
survival. On the other hand, the illiterate rural parents can at most support their
children to go to school but not help with the children’s studies even if they
want to. Lacking guidance of family education and parents-cultivated cognitive
strategies to manage schoolwork often degrades the ethnic minority students’
school records and increases their difficulties to be academically successful. To
some degree, this lack of development limits local people’s views of education,
which in turn impedes a positive motivation on minority students’ learning
during school days. Two teachers from YMU and KUST commented that:
Families cognitively/ culturally influence their children’s education.
Also, poor minority families cannot financially support their children’s
education. (Zhuang T-1, YMU)
I believe PAPs just attempt to put students from different socioeconomic
and educational backgrounds on an equal footing in the competition for
higher education. (Han T-2, KUST)
The three administrators from YMU, DU and CNU stressed that the purpose of
higher education for ethnic minorities was to cultivate more professional talents
to serve sustainable cultural and socioeconomic development in the
concentrated areas of ethnic minorities. It was vital to maintain the stability of
China, a state with multiethnicity, achieve equality and mutual respect among
different ethnic minorities, and ultimately promote cultural retention and
adaptation. Those minorities with a higher proportion of higher education
usually have more advanced social cultural and economic development in their
regional construction. Through the focus group interview, it was confirmed that
Bai and Naxi people have a comparatively higher level of education than most of

368
the other minorities in Yunnan. With a long history and their scripts, i.e. Baiwen
and Dongba, Bai and Naxi ethnic groups are culturally advanced. While Deang
students like to discuss their cooking traditions as well as board and lodging
etiquette rather than science or technology. Their language belongs to the South
Asia family but lacks any script. The Yunnan government encourages minority
university graduates to return to their hometowns by offering special provision
programs to “targeted-area students”. It means PAPs mandate lowered cutoff
score for college applicants from specially targeted concentrated areas of ethnic
minorities on the premise that these students commit to returning to work in the
targeted areas upon graduation.
PAPs state that college applicants who commit to working in 25
counties along Yunnan’s borders and three counties in Diqing
prefecture after their graduation will receive an additional five bonus
points on the NCEE. And for members of any ethnic group with a
population smaller than one hundred thousand, an additional ten bonus
points will be rewarded. (Naxi Official-1, YPDE)
However, despite PAPs having been implemented for decades, gaps that result
in ethnic minority students lagging behind in primary education later hinder the
general level of minority education. The effect of the considerable difference in
socioeconomic development has led to low investment at all levels of
educational sectors. Yunnan is a typical province in this case. Some ethnic
minority parents hold the view that it is too costly to send their children to
college and then remove them from schooling at an early age. Unfortunately,
many youths from the remote and poor mountainous rural areas drop out of
junior high school. Furthermore, the number of female teachers in the ethnic
regions is relatively small, which has greatly affected the education for both girls
and women, and hindered the development of female teachers.
Linguistic Barriers
Yunnan encompasses the minority groups’ native languages (L1), Mandarin
Chinese (L2), and a foreign language, typically English (L3). The multilingual
environment creates a triangular complex that increases possible policy
configurations nowadays. But the implementation of bilingual and trilingual
education still needs to be improved.
Concentrating on the ethnic assimilation and ethnic pluralism, bilingual or

trilingual education is essential to cultural integration and cultural pluralism.
Although progress has been made, shortage of qualified bilingual teachers and,
at a later stage, trilingual teaching resources, add to the difficulties that ethnic
minority students have to confront with at school. For example, a Bulang
student recalled his bilingual learning as follows:
We (Bulang children) had to read Chinese textbooks and immerse them
in Mandarin instruction as soon as we started primary school. We could
do as well as our Han classmates at the very beginning, but gradually
fell behind because language became an increasingly formidable barrier.
(Bulang S-4, YMU-Y3)

369
Standard Chinese (Mandarin) is a compulsory course for all Chinese students

from primary education. School curricula now require all pupils, including
ethnic minorities, to study Chinese. Mandarin Chinese is not only the national
language, but also a prerequisite for school education. Strenuous efforts have
been made to promote national cohesion and unity through popularizing
Putonghua as a lingua franca in China. With the emphasis on teaching and using
Mandarin in minority primary schools, the pressure on minority students to
learn L2 is unavoidable. A Jingpo MA student who majored in Humanities
specified the situation as follows:
Mandarin Chinese is difficult for me…[em] My [L2] writing proficiency
is weak, and I often find my writing is without originality and
creativity. In senior high school, my maths and physics were poor too.
Our teacher always criticized me for not reading and analyzing
questions clearly. (Jingpo S-3, YMU-MA1)
Some participants stated that L2 deficiency in practice affected minority

students’ regular school performance, but more importantly, influenced their
academic score in the NCEE. For some minority students who especially grew
up in concentrated ethnic communities where Chinese was hardly spoken, they
were less competent and competitive than their Han counterparts. It is an
essential factor that puts minority students at a disadvantage both in local school
education and in national examinations.
In our village, people all talk to each other in Dai or some in the Lincang
dialect. Those teachers of the village primary school didn’t speak
Mandarin as well. My Chinese scores in the NCEE were only 82 points
[out of the total 150 scores], so I nearly failed to enter university. (Dai
S-2, KUST-Y1)
Although under high pressure to learn L2, ethnic minority students are obliged
to study Mandarin Chinese on all accounts. The government’s policy is to
promote bilingual education in concentrated areas of ethnic minorities.
However, Mandarin Chinese must be given priority.
Bilingual education is necessary at the starting point of education. But
after middle school, it is formulated by the Ministry of Education
(MOE) that Mandarin Chinese is the only language of instruction
[except for English class]. [Mandarin] Not only helps them get more
chances of higher education, but have better job opportunities after
graduation. (Naxi Official-1, YPDE)
Also, Yunnan is one of the provinces in the west with the most limited English
teaching resources in China. In many primary or secondary schools that ethnic
pupils attend, mostly due to a severe shortage of qualified English teachers,
opportunities for ethnic minority students to learn English (L3) are scarce.
When I was at primary school, there was no English class offered. In
secondary school, we had a substitute English teacher. He was not an
English graduate, but a graduate in maths…I was hopeless in English
grammar, always feeling confused…Now at university, I can’t follow.
The English teachers all speak English in class.

370
The teaching of L2 and L3 was introduced in a top-down manner through the

medium of China’s national language policies into the curricula and practices of
local schools and universities. Especially at a basic level of education, the
experience of ethnic minority students in developing their language proficiency
often lacks symmetry. Furthermore, what the data from EEMs reveal is that the
students’ language deficiencies later even create difficulties in comprehending
those increasingly complicated school textbook materials when they study other
subjects like physics, mathematics etc. Unfortunately, it undermines minority
educational performance overall. Yunnan ethnic minority learners encounter the
dilemma that bilingual education is mainly implemented only in primary
schools. When students enter in secondary schools and universities, all school
formal education in L1 stops. The discontinuity results deficiency in both
languages for ethnic minority students. Moreover, it was found that L3 often
started from junior secondary school in most places in Yunnan. Trilingual
education at the higher education levels in China, not only in Yunnan, is
conspicuously absent. The sense of being on an unequal footing with majority
Han students and thus of being disadvantaged seemed to prevail among the
EEM interviewees. It has to be noted that concerning the minority groups in
Yunnan, these students have to take the NCEE in their L2, and L3 is also another
compulsory exam- course in the NCEE.
5. Implications of the Study

This study highlights the necessity for the implementation of PAPs in the
circumstances of Yunnan’s multi-ethnic but low-level minority education. To
redress these unfavourable constraints requires multi-dimensional interventions
by the government, schools, and ethnic minorities themselves, including their
communities and families in the context of Yunnan. Based on this study, three
types of implications are proposed.
5.1 Pedagogical Implications

Since schooling at a primary education level is one of the most influential factors
fundamentally contributing to ethnic minority students’ unsatisfactory academic
achievements and eventually in their NCEE performance (Wang, 2009), some
problems are emphatical to be addressed.
First, priority should be given to solving the problem of teacher shortages in

ethnic rural areas and strengthening professional teacher training programs with
special compensation packages provided for teachers’ personal development,
including substitute teachers who work in compact ethnic minority areas.
Besides, as is revealed by the study, regional disparity between the rural and the
urban frequently enlarges the educational gap. Thus, it is highly suggested that
the Yunnan local government consider providing more substantial financial
support by explicitly targeting ethnic minority regions, especially in the
mountainous, border, and rural areas, to strengthen the equipment of teaching
facilities and reduce the gap. For some poverty regions such as Nujiang etc.,
more boarding schools can be set up for students who are from border areas
starting from primary school due to the geographical remoteness (Li, 2014). It

371
may help consolidate schooling and provide a practical option for nomadic
students in sparsely populated and remote areas.
Second, although the research was carried on the node of the NCEE, it also
uncovered that similar educational opportunities for ethnic minorities should
not be confined to a fair admission to higher education after the NCEE. Instead,
equal education platforms should be reflected at starting points, processes, and
achievements from primary school. The actual difficulties in minority education,
especially in providing educational resources, require that a more systematical
minority education be tackled with an ultimate purpose of bridging the
educational gaps between different ethnicities where regional disparities still
exist. Moreover, at a higher education level, universities should consider
offering various elective courses to help minority students make a smooth
transition from primary education to higher education, and adapt to a uniform
academic assessment system at the tertiary level. Universities with ethnic culture
programs, like YMU, DU, and CNU, etc., should be aware of the significant
disadvantages of minority students caused by external factors and make more
considerable efforts to promote equal educational opportunities for them.
5.2 Socioeconomic Implications

Economic support for education is necessary to mobilize a series of
improvements with well-qualified teachers, excellent teaching facilities, and
even the enhancement of relevant research on minority education, which the
academic success of minority students is dependent on.
First, all higher education institutes in China started to charge fees since 1996,
and tuition fees have continued to rise. Rising college tuition fees have become
too high for some ethnic minority families to afford (Hayhoe, 2011), and this
prevents many poor rural minority students from continuing their higher
education (Li, et al., 2015). PAPs should not only focus on college admission, but
also help minority university students complete their academic attainments with
various stipends or scholarships after they enter universities. In particular,
effective measures should be taken to encourage more ethnic graduates to help
develop local social economies and to bridge the gap between rural and urban
areas in education.
Second, as China’s education system is extremely competitive, it has to be noted

that with the expansion of higher education, Yunnan ethnic minority students
are also facing unprecedented competition from Han majority and even other
ethnic minority groups with better social and economic backgrounds and
educational conditions. College graduates face a tough job market in recent year,
and those with better education background will have more opportunities for
career development. Differences in access to college will continue to be a
significant obstacle in achieving social equality and intergenerational mobility.
Higher education institutions can play a much more active role in promoting
multilingual and multicultural education by giving more emphasis to both social
integration and individual ethnic differences.

372
5.3 Language Ecological Implications

Linguistically, in Yunnan, except for the Hui, Man, and Shui minorities who use
Mandarin Chinese, other minorities speak 25 languages, have 22 written scripts,
and almost 6 million ethnic minority people are not able to speak Mandarin
Chinese (Dao & Hu, 2005). Language, as an essential instruction medium at
school, is the most prominent determinant influencing the level of minority
education in a cultural perspective (Wang, 2015).
First, Yunnan’s multi-ethnic social context is well-suited to bilingual, trilingual,

and even multilingual education, which is underpinned by the characteristics of
minority students’ different ethnic language backgrounds. Trilingual education
can play a decisive role in both social and economic development, and it can
provide a boost to cultural tourism in Yunnan as well, in which the links
between L1 and L2 can be effectively connected. Briefly, for a minority group, L1
is crucial for maintaining their linguistic and cultural heritage, ethnic identity,
and the cognitive development of their children (Gynan & Baker, 2011). L2 is
equally vital for social and economic integration, and L3 helps engage with
internationalization. However, some factors in bilingual or trilingual education
need to be emphasized. On the one side, the constant spread of the high status
accorded to L2 and L3 imposed an external pressure on the minority languages
(L1), which have the low social status due to the lack of associated economic and
political capital. L1 is becoming endangered while L2 and L3 are still reinforced
by systemic education mechanisms, such as the NCEE. On the other side, the
realistic situations should be considered, such as a lack of comparatively useful
resources, including qualified bilingual or trilingual teachers, teaching resources,
and trilingual learners’ difficulties in L3 acquisition in an EFL (English as a
foreign language) environment especially when ethnic minority students’ L1
and L2 have not been fully developed.
Second, China’s “The Belt and Road” (B&R) policy has shifted Yunnan from a
border province to the forefront of reform and is opening it up to Southeast Asia.
The coexistence of the three languages that ethnic minority people face in
Yunnan pushes them to take on the acquisition of L2 and L3. Moreover, L3 has
become an interlanguage between the local and global perspectives. The local
economies are woven into a global economy, including the flow of labour,
goods, tourism, and capital. When L2 and L3 become increasingly more
dominant than before, minority languages are endangered because promoting
these two languages can lead to cultural and linguistic imperialism (Ludwig,
Pagel & Mühlhäusler, 2018). Accordingly, it is suggested that the government
add some specific and supplementary regulations into preferential policies to
protect minority languages, especially those of small ethnic groups, to boost the
language vitality of their L1. At the same time, in minority education practice,
bilingual or trilingual education is a necessary procedure to improve the
ecological balance of multi-languages in Yunnan.

373
6. Conclusion
For decades, Yunnan’s education level has been comparatively lower than that
of many other provinces in China. PAPs intend to put minority students from
different socioeconomic backgrounds on an equal footing in higher education at
the critical moment of the NCEE. PAPs have helped a significant number of
ethnic minority students to become beneficiaries with better education
opportunities at university. Meanwhile, PAPs contribute to restore education
equality, compensate for the cultural tilt of the test toward fairness. This research
project is in agreement with the necessity of PAPs due to the geographical
remoteness, regional gaps, socioeconomic determinants, and linguistic barriers
of Yunnan ethnic minorities. Based on the data analysis, PAPs are currently
justified in Yunnan’s multi-ethnic social context and are indeed a significant step
towards ethnic equality in education. These policies provide considerable help
to ethnic minorities, especially to those whose academic attainment is not
sufficient for the NCEE owing to the external constraints of society, school, and
family, which are concurrently intertwined, to achieve equality in higher
education. However, PAPs are not a fundamental solution to the ethnic
education problem. Gaps still exist between the implementation of PAPs and
expectations. Even though the local government is supportive of minority
students and willing to accommodate their needs, especially at higher education
level by PAPs, limited education investment often paralyzes students’ academic
careers. This study calls for a more comprehensive set of policies for PAPs,
including issues of pedagogy, social economy, and even cultural and linguistic
diversity itself. Both the government and educators should be increasingly
aware of the great importance of bridging the relevant gaps in the education of
ethnic minorities in a modernized and multi-ethnic Yunnan, China.
Acknowledgement
The researchers would particularly extend thanks to Suranaree University of
Technology, Thailand; Also, Dongyuan Deng would like to express her gratitude
to the support of the National Social Science Fund of China (Grant No.
19XYY003), and the sponsor from research projects (Grant No. SKPJ201813;
skpyzd201704).
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About the Authors

Dongyuan Deng is an associate professor at Kunming University of Science and
Technology, China. She was a visiting scholar at the University of Alberta,
Canada, and now is a PhD at the School of Foreign Languages, Suranaree
University of Technology, Thailand. Her academic interests include language
planning and policy, ethnic minority multilingual education, EFL teaching and
learning. Presently she is hosting the National Social Science Fund of China
(Grant No. 19XYY003).
Corresponding Authors:
Sirinthorn Seepho was awarded her Doctor of Philosophy (Foreign Language
Education) from the University of Pittsburgh, USA. Her academic specialties
include English Language Teaching, Teacher Training, Content-based
Instruction, English as a Medium of Instruction, and Qualitative Research.
Andrew Lian is the President of AsiaCALL (Asia Association of Computer-

Assisted Language Learning) and currently Professor of Foreign Language
Studies in the School of Foreign Languages, Suranaree University of Technology,
Thailand. He was awarded his doctorate (French Language and Literature) by
the University of Paris IV-Sorbonne, France. His research interests are computer-
assisted language learning (CALL), neurolinguistics, and language learning
theories.

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Dr. Reem Khalid Abu-Shawish
Dr. Froilan Delute Mobo
Dr. Mohamed Ali Elkot
Dr. Anabelie Villa Valdez
Mr. Teody Lester Verdeflor Panela

Vol 19 No 4 April 2020

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Vol 19 No 4 April 2020

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IJLTER.

Society for Research and Knowledge Management

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational

Aims and Objectives

The main objective of this journal is to provide a platform for educators,

Indexing and Abstracting

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational

We are very happy to publish this issue of the International Journal of

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational

We are grateful to the editor-in-chief, members of the Editorial Board

The Editorial Board is composed of renowned people from across the

We will endeavour to ensure the reputation and quality of this journal

Editors of the April 2020 Issue

Restructuring the Teacher Education System in Vietnam ............................................................................................... 29

A Correspondence Analysis of Fifty-Five Japanese Historical First-to Fifth-Year English-as-a-Foreign-Language

Creative Teaching Strategy to Reduce Bullying in Schools ........................................................................................... 343

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

Addressing Domestic Abuse and Violence via a

Andrii Ya. Parfanovich

©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

women in family settings. It was validated by measurements,

Keywords: university education; pedagogic tools of non-formal settings;

1.1. Literature review

©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

conventional university approach to engage students to explore the issue from

2. Materials and methods

©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

2.1. The programme

Legal counselling Conflictology

Mock Talk Case-studies

Figure 1: “Legal and Psychological Domains of Domestic Abuse and Violence”

©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

1 Forms of domestic abuse and violence. How to recognise them. 2

©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

2.3. Major research-related ethical issues

©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Before Intervention After Intervention

©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

The figures in Table 3 illustrated a marked decrease in the approval of abusive

n = 21 57.87 74.11 48.58 69.13 43.21 0.783

The above suggests that the sampled students experienced a statistically

3.1. Results of Semi-structured Interview (EG students, 𝒏 = 𝟐𝟏, 𝒅𝒇 = 𝟐)

©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

4.1. Limitations of the study

©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

Towards De-Colonial Agitations in University

Bunmi Isaiah Omodan and Bekithemba Dube

Abstract. This study empirically conceptualised and rationalised

Keywords: university classrooms; decoloniality; ubuntugogy;

©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Decolonising the mindset is a confirmation to the fact that Eurocentric and

©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

2. The place of Curriculum in Afrocentric Pedagogy

The school’s curriculum itself has been conceptualized from multidisciplinary

The explicit curriculum according to Lebeloane (2017) is a deliberately planned

©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

3. Situating the Problems as lack of Africanised Pedagogy in the

Our encounter with students, most especially those studying science-related