Vol 20 No 5 May 2021

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Vol.20 No.5
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
(IJLTER)
Vol. 20, No. 5 (May 2021)
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER)
Vol. 20, No. 5
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VOLUME 20 NUMBER 5 May 2021
Table of Contents
A Review of Standardised Assessment Development Procedure and Algorithms for Computer Adaptive Testing:
Applications and Relevance for Fourth Industrial Revolution ......................................................................................... 1
Jumoke I. Oladele, Mdutshekelwa Ndlovu
The Development and Use of Improvised Science-Teaching Models: A Case of Natural Science Pre-Service
Teachers ................................................................................................................................................................................. 18
Wiets Botes
Digital Literacy and its Acquisition by Teachers and Principals at Educational Workplaces .................................... 38
Ahmad A. S. Tabieh, Mohammad Hamzeh, Basel Kh. S. Abu-Foudeh, Niveen Jarrar, Sahar Al-Manaseer, Aysha Al-
Shawabkeh, Rania Seikaly
Chronometric Constructive Cognitive Learning Evaluation Model: Measuring the Consolidation of the Human
Cognition Schema in Psychology Students' Memory ...................................................................................................... 56
Guadalupe Elizabeth Morales-Martinez, Maria Isolde Hedlefs-Aguilar, Janneth Trejo-Quintana, Yanko Norberto Mezquita-
Hoyos, Miriam Sanchez-Monroy
Research Supervision as an Antecedent to Graduate Student Progression in the Public Higher Institutions of
Learning in Uganda .............................................................................................................................................................. 73
Paul Netalisile Malunda, Juliet Atwebembeire, Proscovia Namubiru Ssentamu
Exploring Match Plate's Potential in Aiding Pupils' Writing Skills ............................................................................... 96

Finola Iba anak Iba anak Patrick, Azlina Abdul Aziz
Teachers' Classroom Management Styles and Student-Teacher Connectedness and Anxiety................................. 123
Ray T. Obispo, Gilbert C. Magulod Jr., Darin Jan C. Tindowen
Pre-service Social Sciences Teachers' Reflections on a Teacher Preparation Program .............................................. 159
Paul Nwati Munje, Thuthukile Jita
'Don't Delay Learning': Igniting Promotion of Pedagogical Transformation Strategies in Early Childhood Care
Education ............................................................................................................................................................................. 177
Shawe Thulebona, Nhase Zukiswa, Dube Bekithemba
Online Learning in the Quran Reading Class during Covid-19 Pandemic ................................................................. 142
M. Wildan Bin H. M. Yahya, Taqia Rahman, Asep Ahmad Siddiq, Parihat .
Connecting Theory and Practice: Pre-service Science Teachers' Adoption and Implementation of the
Demonstration Method ...................................................................................................................................................... 189
Rose Atieno Mutende, Winston Akala, Rosemary K. Imonje
Gamification in Higher Education (Case Study on a Management Subject) .............................................................. 211

Andrea Bencsik, Adriana Mezeiova, Bernadett Oszene Samu
Untangling Constructs of Characteristics of Effective Teaching at the Higher Institute of Sport and Physical
Education (Tunis)................................................................................................................................................................ 232
Aymen Hawani, Anis ben Chikha, Ghazwa ben Maaouia
Problem-Based Learning and Capstone Course Teaching Strategies for University Social Responsibility: The Case
of a Packaging Design Course ........................................................................................................................................... 249
Chinlon Lin, Hui Tu
Teaching Young Children Early Mathematics through Music and Movement.......................................................... 271
Kamariah Abu Bakar, Mohamad Azam Samsudin
The Impact of Contextual Factors on Learning of Agricultural Programmes in Technical and Vocational
Education Training Colleges, South Africa ..................................................................................................................... 282
Ramongwane Daniel Sephokgole, Sylvia Manto Ramaligela, Moses Makgato
The Effect of 'box-and-bead' Analogy versus Retrieval-based Learning on Retention in Chemical Kinetics among
First-Year Chemistry Students .......................................................................................................................................... 300
Taurayi Willard Chinaka
1

Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 1-17, May 2021
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.5.1
A Review of Standardised Assessment

Development Procedure and Algorithms for
Computer Adaptive Testing: Applications and
Relevance for Fourth Industrial Revolution
Jumoke I. Oladele and Mdutshekelwa Ndlovu

University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0225-7435
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1187-0875
Abstract. Teaching and learning have gone online in response to the

pandemic, which reveals the need for accurately tailored educational
assessments to ascertain the extent to which learning outcomes or
objectives are achieved. Computer Adaptive Testing (CAT) is a
technology-driven form of assessment that tailors items to a candidate's
ability level with empirically proven benefits over the fixed-form
computer based test. A systematic review was employed which shows
that item bank is a key requirement for CAT and the items must through
a rigorous item development process to ensure and maintain quality in
terms of content, criterion constructs and internal consistency,
determining the psychometric validation of behavioural measures while
leveraging on variances of Item Response Theory (IRT). Following the
item development stage is the need to compile validated items into
administrable forms using advanced computer software for automatic
test assembly and administration, such as FastTest which allows
specifying empirically tried algorithms for CAT from start to
termination of the test. This helps to ensure that assessment properly
leverages the advantages that CAT holds. Furthermore, the review
revealed that CAT has been widely applied with large-scale testing in
various fields by educational, health and psychological professionals
utilising different IRT models; however only in developed countries.
This brings to bear the need for adoption in other parts of the world, for
improvements in educational assessments. The interjections of 4IR with
AI considering emerging technology aids the CAT algorithm for
achieving expert and knowledge-based systems, being a requirement for
survival in today’s world.
Keywords: item bank development; test-forms; administration

algorithms; CAT; 4IR
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
2
1. Introduction
The world is battling with Covid-19 pandemic which has impacted the
continents in unimaginable ways. First reported in Wuhan City, Hubei Province,
China, on December 31, 2019, the virus has spread like wildfire worldwide with
106,673,989 recorded cases and a death toll of 2,326,773 as of GMT 01.31 on
February 8, 2021 (Worldometers, 2021). Statistics show that the virus has spread
into 58 African countries, having over four million recorded cases and a death
toll of one hundred and twenty-two thousand, one hundred and three, (122,103);
53,757 of which was recorded in South Africa as reported on April 19, 2021
(COVID-19 South African Online Portal, 2021; APO Group, 2021). With over
1.602 m, South Africa remains the worst-hit African country with about 34% of
the continent’s recorded cases and 44% of its death toll (Worldometers, 2021).
Efforts to flatten the curve in South Africa necessitated the adoption of a five-
level lockdown approach starting from Level 5 in March 2020 with severe
measures to curb the spread of the virus. The country moved gradually down to
(adjusted) Level 1 by September 2020 whereby day-to-day activity could
recommence, while adhering strictly to Covid-19 safety guidelines (The
Presidency, Republic of South Africa, 2020; South African Government Disaster
Management Act, 2020 Staff Writer, 2020). The ease of lockdown restrictions that
started in May 2020, despite the rapid rise of Covid-19 cases, by South Africa's
President was necessitated to salvage the country's deteriorating economic
situation, as experienced in other parts of the world (BBC News, 2020;
Vecchiatto et al., 2020).
The pandemic has resulted in national and international lockdowns to curb the
spread of the virus. The lockdown has impacted the educational sector just like
all other sectors of the economy with learning having gone virtual in most
technologically advanced countries of the world applicable to higher learning
institutions (Li & Lalani, 2020; The World Bank Group, 2020a, 2020 b). With
virtual learning comes the need for virtual assessments, also known as off-site
assessments, which requires the use of high-end technology, such as Computer-
Based Testing (CBT). CBT is a method of administering tests where
examinations are deployed through a computer terminal, and the responses are
recorded and assessed electronically, which can be fixed-form or adaptive (Alabi
et al., 2012). A fixed-form CBT is an examination in which the computer presents
all items to candidates regardless of their performance, usually presented from
the easiest to most difficult items with a limited number of parallel forms (Alabi
et al., 2012; Becker & Bergstrom, 2013, Oladele et al., 2020). The adaptive CBT,
also known as Computer Adaptive Testing (CAT), is a testing procedure that
employs on-the-fly techniques aligned to candidates’ ability levels to enhance
the accuracy of testing while reducing test length by up to 50% (Han, 2018;
Kimura, 2017, Reckase, 2010). As such, examinees are served items according to
their ability levels (difficult/easier), thus guaranteeing a personalised
assessment format (Aybek & Demirtasli, 2017). With CAT, a large bank of
administrable test items categorised by content, difficulty and parallel forms is
required. This review centres on item development, test-forms and CAT
algorithms while considering its broad applications and relevance for the Fourth
Industrial Revolution. The limitation of the review was identified while giving
directions for future research.
http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter
3
2. Item Bank Development for CAT

Item bank for CAT is a collection of calibrated test items based on the
parameters of difficulty, discrimination and pseudo guessing having gone
through rigorous item development procedures while indicating the history of
the items developed. Also, an initial CAT item bank could start with existing
paper-and-pencil items while adding new ones, which guarantees that items
maintain their psychometric properties while impacting the cost implication of
an additional number of items (Linacre, 2000; Thompson & Weiss, 2011).
Germain (2006) stressed that quality in item development must be valid in terms
of content, criterion constructs and internally consistent, determining the
psychometric validation of behavioural measures such as a test. A typical test
consists of items carefully developed to ensure that the test is valid, testing what
it purposes to test and reliable; that is, tests are consistent over multiple
administrations. Preliminary activities for item banking are discussed below:
Planning leads to decision-making: planning is necessary before drawing an item

bank for CAT, which is premised on a range of decisions arrived at based on the
test's purpose. Planning entails determining the test's objectives for curriculum
evaluation, students' motivation, placement and selection, remedial work
diagnosis, and formative and summative evaluation. Also, it is necessary to
consider the likely decisions based on the test results. Another major decision for
planning item bank development rests on the available resources considered
regarding resources needed in the test development, such as expertise and
personnel as well as the technology needed for test administration (Cella et al.,
2007).
Content analysis and test blueprint: provides a summary of curricular objectives

designed by a subject-specific expert in selecting testing domains. The content is
supposed to provide the learning experiences that will enable the test to achieve
its stated objectives. This analysis of the content helps the test planner determine
the relative importance of the content's various aspects and the emphasis on the
specifics. Based on this, a test blueprint, also known as Table Of Specification
(TOS), can be constructed.
As provided by Bloom’s Taxonomy, a TOS aligns with test content rather than
the curriculum content and, as such, the latter may be narrower than the former
in scope (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). It is a practical word given to the plan
for scripting items for a test. TOS is a two-dimensional table relating
instructional objectives to course content and specifying what proportions of
these are to be sampled by the test items. The table of specification enables test
experts to gauge examinees over knowledge (cognitive), skill (psychomotor) and
attitude (affective) depending on the domain of testing interest. It provides the
operational guides to ensure that a test addresses what it sets out to address.
The preparation of a table of specification requires:
1. The total number of items that will constitute the test. It is important to note
that a large item bank is required with adaptive testing and this should have
been adequately catered for at the planning stage in terms of expertise as
well as personnel engagements; and
4
2. The proportion of items developed per content areas, depending on the

emphasis placed on it during instruction and the amount of time spent, as
illustrated below drawn from topics in a statistics course:
❖ Frequency Distribution 10%
❖ Measure of Central Tendency 15%
❖ Measure of Variability 15%
❖ Measure of Relationship 40%
❖ Relative Standing 20%
3. Deciding on the proportion of items in each process objective depending on
the level of the cognitive behavioural objectives. The illustration is as
follows:
❖ Remembering (Recall of facts from short-term memory) 20%
❖ Understanding (Recovering appropriate knowledge from long-term
memory) 30%
❖ Applying (Using a procedure in a given situation) 15%
❖ Analysing (Breaking instruction into its constituent parts, how it relates
to one to another and to an overall structure) 15%
❖ Evaluating (Making judgments based on criteria and standards) 10%
❖ Creating (Placing components of instruction together to form a new,
lucid whole) 10%
4. Deciding on the quantity of test items to be constructed in each of the
content areas by finding out the respective percentage of the total number of
items (see Table 1).
5. Deciding on the quantity of test items to be written in each content area
of the cognitive behavioural objectives (see Table 1).
It is good to ensure that the sum of the approximated numbers of items should
be equal to the total number of the items desired in each of the content areas.
This is shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Test Blueprint for a Test in Statistical Methods

Cognitive Learning Domains
Understanding
Remembering
Content
Application
Evaluating
Areas
Analysis
Creating
(20%)
(30%)
(10%)
(10%)
(15%)
(15%)
Total
A (10%) 1 1 1 1 1 1 6
B (15%) 2 3 1 1 1 1 9
C (15%) 2 3 1 1 1 1 9
D (40%) 5 7 4 4 2 2 24
E (20%) 2 4 2 2 1 1 12
Total 12 18 9 9 6 6 60
5
A: Frequency Distribution; B: Measure of Central Tendency; C: Measure of Variability; D:

Measure of Relationship; E: Relative Standing (Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives)
Table 1 provides a framework for organising information about the students'

instructional activities (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). The foundation of the
practice of educational assessment is the extent to which students’ learning
outcomes are achieved guided be a table of specification when writing test
items, especially with standardised tests.
Item writing for CAT: this is activity-centred which entails preparing assessment
tasks for gauging students’ knowledge and skill gained from exposure to
teaching and learning. It is required that assessment tasks be precise and aligned
to learning objectives important for CAT leveraged on using the item
information function in terms of difficulty, discrimination and guessing
(Veldkamp & Verschoor, 2019). As such, professionalism is required for item
writing, which is germane to the effectiveness of CAT.
Steps identified for CAT item writing procedure were literature search,
formulation of new items or acquiring items from existing test forms where
available, field-testing conducted through a computer terminal, and
psychometric analyses for the final items selection (Cella et al., 2007; Petersen et
al., 2016). Expert evaluations should be carried out to ascertain face and content
validation leading to field testing. Thompson (2018) also outlined a four-step
procedure for item writing; however, it uses tailor-fit software. The first stage
consists of feasibility and planning studies using CATSim, and this precedes the
item bank development using FastTest, a comprehensive assessment ecosystem
(Thompson, n.d.). In the third stage, items are pilot tested using FastTest while,
at the fourth stage, item analysis is performed and other due diligence using
Iteman or Xcalibre. Xcalibre provides item response theory calibration for a wide
range of assessment types, using all the major dichotomous and polytomous
models. Its unique features allow for automatic report generation, with full
result tables and figures (item response functions and standard error functions)
already embedded. While reiterating that CAT is not easy, the goal is to ease the
task using clean software with no need for code writing while aligning with best
practices and international standards.
Zhang et al. (2019) developed CAT to assess internet addiction while

investigating related validity issues. The standardised scales used had a total of
59 carefully calibrated polytomous scored items and satisfying the IRT
assumptions of unidimensionality, as well as a good item-model fit. Also, items
did not function differentially. According to Downing (2006), specialised
training on item writing is as important as content knowledge. Quality item
writing skills can be ascertained by constant practice and critical reviews from
experts (Jozefowicz et al., 2002).
Item Review: High expertise is required in writing test items after which item
review is mandatory. Item review ensures clarity to all and gives evidence about
the quality of the items carried out by test and subject experts for content
6
quality; items void of ambiguity; identifying unintended clues to the correct

answer; items with no correct or multiple answers plausible distracters;
language difficulties; redundant words; grammatical faults; and sensitivity to
issues that could bring bias to the test, such as cultural and gender among
others. Item review is essential in the item development process leading to the
empirical trial, also known as face validity, which is geared towards ascertaining
that a test measures only the intended.
The gold standard is to have independent subject experts’ evaluatively correlate

test items with instructional objectives and blueprint (National Research
Council-NRC, 2004). Izrad (2005) reiterated that item review is central to the test
development process, assessment approaches and curriculum intentions. The
author also stressed the benefits of having a team of item reviewers as it
provides the benefit of interaction with colleagues to avoid the possibility of
idiosyncrasy and limited view of the topic to be assessed. As such, selecting an
appropriate sample of evidence will foster accuracy on decisions made from
educational assessments and enhance efficiency. Other relevant aspects of the
item review process are items scoring, availability of practice items, need for
separate answer sheet, the appropriate time for the actual test, score key to be
used as errors in score keys will create interpretation problems and test
administration information to be provided at the trial test stage (Izrad, 2005).
Trial/Pilot Testing: this is a means of subjecting proposed test items to testing

with a comparable group of students to the target group as a selection criterion.
Data generated from this exercise are used to assess test item quality based on
the item parameters of difficulty (denoted by b), discrimination (denoted by a)
and guessing (denoted by c) in alignment with the test model fit (Oladele et al.,
2020). Pilot testing in the item development process is essential before use with
the target group and requires sound planning concerning gender, age and
schooling level group required for the trials and administration modes.
Generally, Izard (2005) explained that trial testing would help establish item
parameters, the appropriate number of final test items, ascertain the
administration instructions' adequacy and if practice items would be required,
adequacy of testing time and students' responses pattern analysis.
Item Analysis: students' responses are analysed using a variety of methods. It is a

systematic evaluation of the effectiveness of each test item. Zhang et al. (2019)
explained that developing an item bank for CAT requires evaluation for
ascertaining unidimensional assumption of the item pool, a measure of only the
main latent trait; selecting the test IRT model-fit, assessing local independence of
the item pool for ensuring that within and across examinee response on an item
will not be influenced by other test items; assessing item pool monotonicity,
connoting that examinees with higher latent trait levels have a probability of
higher scores and that items functions at par for examinees who are of the same
ability level, also known as Differential Item functioning (DIF) (Aybek &
Demirtasli, 2017). According to Izard, 2005, item analysis is aimed at
determining:
7
Item difficulty: this index is a function of the skill level required by items
administered to a particular group and reported for a particular test. Therefore,
item difficulty is a measure of the proportion of examinees that answers an item
correctly, and so it is a direct function of examinees’ ability level. An
achievement test aims to have at least 90% of students completing all the items
unless the purpose is to test speed.
Item discrimination power: is the correlation between the item responses and
correct responses. It is a measure of how a single item separates high from low
ability level examinees. At worst, items analysis aids the identification and
deletion of items that do not fulfil this role and at best calls for necessary
amendment.
Pseudo Guessing: this connotes that examinees with very low ability levels have
some probability of answering one item correctly. For example, an examinee
with no requisite knowledge on a multiple-choice item with four options still has
a 25% chance to answer it correctly, based on guessing.
There are various models in testing, and the IRT model is commonly used with
CAT. IRT models the relationship between examinees’ performance on the test
of their ability levels. It is a theory that focuses on the item level of performance.
As such, IRT models examinees' performance at each ability level to each item
on the test. Standard unidimensional models are the one-parameter logistic
(1PL) model (difficulty parameter- b), the two-parameter logistic (2PL) (difficult
and the discrimination parameters- b, a) and the three-parameter logistic (3PL)
model (pseudo guess parameter- c to b and a)(Aybek & Demirtasli, 2017;
Oladele et al., 2020). Some benefits IRT brings to the educational testing table
include putting the examinees and items on the same scale: sample independent
score equating enables score correspondence between two tests expressed as the
item’s characteristic curves; examinee specific Standard Error of Measurement
(SEM) is based on individual ability levels computed as a reciprocal of the test
information across different ability levels. So the more information a test
provides at an ability level, the lesser the SEM and the features of examinees and
item on the scale enables the selection of items that provide full information for
examinees at theta ability level on which CAT rests as an advanced passing
scheme (Wang & Thompson, 2020).
Theoretical Models for CAT Item Analysis
Items analysis for CAT can be approached with dichotomous Item Response
Theory (IRT) deployed as the one, two or three-parameter logistic model
(Oladele et al., 2020). With the one-parameter logistic model, (Rasch model), the
probability of getting an item (i) correct at an ability level (θ) is expressed as:
1
𝑃𝑖 (𝜃) = Eq. 1
1+𝑒 −𝐷(𝜃−𝑏𝑖 )
e in the equation is an exponential constant with the value 2.718 (approximately)

while D is a scaling factor with the value 1.7 regarded as the “normal metric”.
However, the common practice is to set D to 1.0 as the "logistic metric” since the
normal ogive model is seldom used in real testing situations. Considering D's
8
value is paramount when studying or generating item parameters to ensure that

items are tailored to provide maximal information in examining examinee
proficiency using the IRT modelled unidimensionally and determinant of the
response model adopted (Wise & Kingsbury, 2000).
With the 2PLM, each item has its discrimination parameter denoted as a in the
equation as against fixing as ‘1’ across all items as practised with 1PLM. Thus,
the model is mathematically expressed as:
1
𝑃𝑖 (𝜃) = Eq. 2
1+𝑒 −𝐷𝑎𝑖 (𝜃−𝑏𝑖 )
Lastly, the 3PLM allows an Item Characteristic Curve to have non-zero lower
asymptotes; this is suitable for response data with high likelihood for guessing,
such as multiple-choice items, and is expressed as:
1
𝑃𝑖 (𝜃) = 𝑐𝑖 + (1 − 𝑐𝑖 ) Eq. 3
1+𝑒 −𝐷𝑎𝑖 (𝜃−𝑏𝑖)
The ci is the pseudo-guessing parameter which signifies the likelihood of low

ability examinees responding to item i correctly. Segall (2005) stressed that the
3PL is commonly used to model multiple-choice items scored dichotomously.
Using any of the IRT models permits the comparison of the examinees' ability
level based on item parameters used to estimate the probability of the
individual’s response to that item (Aybek & Demirtasli, 2017). For CAT,
employing IRT models, only suitable examinee ability level is selected from the
item pool in an iterative cycle from item selection to stopping criteria until the
individual's θ level is estimated accurately. A large items pool is required for
each theta level with uniformly distributed difficult, highly discriminating items
and low guessing parameters, which can provide greater measurement
efficiency (Segall, 2005; Wainer et al., 2000). Carrying out item analysis
concurrently with test administration is highly recommended (Linacre, 2000).
3. Test Forms and Administration

The next activity is to assemble the test into administrable forms, having
carefully undergone item writing. Through reviews to trial testing and analysis,
the test assembly process also impacts the final test's validity and score
interpretation for effective quality control (Izard, 2005). Test administration is
then carried out publicly in the test development process, as a way of striking a
balance between theory and practice (McCallin, 2006). Therefore, there is a
positive correlation between the standardisation of testing conditions and test
administration quality. Proctoring is also germane with off-site testing to curb
examination malpractices (Downing, 2006).
According to Wise and Kingsbury (2000), a CAT administration is a two-stage

process. At the first stage, a test item with an average level of difficulty is
administered after which the response is scored, and this forms the basis for the
next item selected. At the second stage, candidates’ responses are scored leading
to updating the examinees’ proficiency level. These stages go through a cyclic
pattern until some stopping criterion is met for a fixed or variable-length test
9
(predetermined number of items and a desired level of measurement precision,

respectively). The CAT algorithm follows an iterative process until the test
converges on a final proficiency estimate for a candidate. The author stressed
that, while adaptive testing administration is relatively simple in theory, the
practice is more complicated; as discussed under the CAT algorithm section of
this literature review.
Administered as a CAT, advanced computer software for automatic test

assembly such as FastTest is a tried-and-tested enterprise platform for high
stakes assessment which leverages on Artificial Intelligence for creating
equivalent test forms (Luecht, 2006; Thompson, n.d., 2018). Worthy of note is
that such technologies can provide greater ease for the test construction and
administration process while also enhancing the items' quality.
4. Algorithm for CAT

CAT has mainly been tagged with advantages that give it an edge over the
fixed-form of the test. Some of these advantages are shorter tests leading to
reduce testing time by 50% or more, equi-precision, examinee experience as CAT
provides appropriate challenges for each examinee leading to increased
motivation, and much greater security with item-set specific test administration,
all these being possible by leveraging on computer technologies (Thompson,
2011). While the advantages of CAT are appealing, there are strict procedures
that must be adhered to in ensuring that assessment properly leverages the
advantages that CAT brings to the table.
Starting point/Item selection: the starting point for CAT is taken as given, it could
be based on fixed values, randomly chosen values within a range or mean items
parameters. Using a pre-defined IRT models, candidates’ previous response
determines item selection from a calibrated bank, which is usually large. With
CAT, for candidates a small number of ability-appropriate items is required for
accurate ability compared to the fixed-form test, which presents the full length of
items to all candidates (Cella et al., 2007). Cella et al. (2007) further stressed that
initial item selecting should cover as much of the concept's continuum being
measured as possible. Item selection has three significant components, which are
item selection, item exposure control and content balancing (Han, 2018). Item
selection is driven by item information, with a preference for the most
appropriate items. CAT administration combines item selection and ability
estimation concurrently with little or no human intervention as the test adapts to
the examinee’s ability level (van der Linden & Pashley, 2009). For example,
administering easy items to a high ability level examinee makes no sense with
passing guaranteed, and vice-versa (Eggen, 1999; Eggen & Straetmans, 2000;
Thompson, 2009).
Score estimation: with CAT, psychometricians must select on the initial, interim
and final score estimates methods (van der Linden & Pashley, 2009). Some
modern score estimation methods are Maximum Likelihood Estimation (MLE),
Maximum Likelihood Estimation with Fences (MLEF), Bayesian Maximum a
Posteriori (MAP) and Bayes Expected a Posteriori (EAP) (Han, 2018). At the
initial stage, Bayesian methods are advised over maximum likelihood estimates
10
for a dichotomously scored test as it is not capable of producing accurate

estimates with related response patterns. At the interim score estimation stage, it
is expected that ability estimates converge quickly, which is satisfied by an
appropriate combination of ability estimator and item-selection criterion; a
popular choice being the EAP estimator combined with maximum-information
item selection. At the final stage of CAT, the goal is to provide the candidate
with an accurate estimate of their performance. Performance estimation can be
resolved using Bayesian methods such as EAP estimator, which aids in fixing
the ability estimate until accurate estimates are obtained. This shows that scores
estimation methods should be made carefully considering that these methods all
have their drawbacks. Other aspects that impact score estimates are the quality
of item pool, use of candidates’ collateral information, issues concerning on item
exposure, and item selection constraints (van der Linden & Pashley, 2009).
Van der Linden (2005) explained that, with CAT, the candidate's ability estimate
is updated after each new response, leading to the next item selected based on
the full information of the updated estimate. Although there are a variety of item
selection methods, Han (as cited in Oladele et al. 2020) stressed that modern
methods requiring less computer time are the Maximised Fisher information, the
b-matching, a-stratification with or without b-blocking, Kullback-Leibler
information, weighted likelihood information, and efficiency balanced
information. The choice of an item selection method with the highest
measurement precision is crucial to the assessment process. Adopted the Monte-
Carlo simulation approach for CAT feasibility studies is necessary to determine
the viability of method selection. Oladele et al. (2020) reported a-Stratification/b-
Blocking an empirically proven method for CAT leading to accurate ability
placement.
Termination criterion: algorithms for CAT should be specified as fixed-length

where all candidates receive an equal number of items adaptively selected from
the bank or variable-length tests items and needed number are adapted to the
candidate. Termination criteria could be the candidate ability level (θ estimate),
standard error of measurement (SEM) or item bank to be evaluated. While the
first two methods are premised on the candidates' parameter, the third method
is premised on item parameters. CAT is terminated when the ability estimate
stops varying significantly by administering additional items and which hinges
on the minimum information criterion. Therefore, a test terminates when there
are no items left in the bank, which provides a minimal level of information, as
specified by the item selection algorithm. Most utilised of these termination
criteria is SEM (Thompson & Weiss, 2011).
With a carefully calibrated item bank in place with the appropriate technological
integrations, a simple CAT begins by presenting an item with average difficulty
to a candidate as practised using the maximum likelihood approach to item-
choice early in the Adaptive Sequence (Segall, 2005). Although the starting point
of the test may not be critical to measurement, it could impact the psychological
state of the candidate wherein administering an item with high difficulty may
immediately lead candidates into despair while administering an item with low
difficulty may result in the candidate not taking the test seriously and so making
11
careless mistakes (Linacre, 2000). IRT is clearly at the heart of CAT in which
modern algorithms concepts are taken from and maximum likelihood and
Bayesian statistical estimation theories.
It is pertinent for test development to be based on a sound scientific basis and

that evidence of the scientific approach should be documented (NRC, 2004).
Downing (2006) reiterated that, although creating useful test items is greatly
improved by constant engagement, there are well-established item writing
ethics. This goes a long way to ensure the writing of cognitive appropriate items
in the process of test development. Psychometric testing is broad in its potential
application cognitive and non-cognitive measures. The outlined stages provide
an appropriate organisational structure for validating a testing program and
maintaining relevant educational testing standards (Downing, 2006).
5. Applications of CAT
CAT has been extensively applied in various fields by educational, health and
psychological professionals utilising different IRT models with over four
decades of practice. Weiss and Kingsbury (1984) examined the application of
CAT to educational problems, which were Adaptive Mastery Testing (AMT)
using the 1, 2 and 3PL models in a simulated study to compare the average
items used to reach a mastery/non-mastery decision for the conventional and
adaptive AMT procedures. Findings revealed that the adaptive test results in
higher ability estimation precision than fixed-form tests with fewer items.
Eggen and Straetmans (2000) employed CAT for classifying candidates through
simulation studies. Computation procedures used were based on statistical
estimation and statistical testing with five item selection methods (Maximum
Information (MI) at the candidate's current ability estimate, MI with content
control, MI with exposure control and MI with both content and exposure
controls). The effects of adding content and item exposure control based on the
1PL model were also investigated, and real data from a mathematics placement
test for adult learners were used. Findings revealed that the item bank's quality
is satisfactory for adaptive testing with a maximum of 25 items for each test
administration, reducing the number of required items to between 22-44% of the
required number with paper-and-pencil versions.
Ware Jr. et al. (2003) applied CAT to assess the impact of pain as a simulated
study using real data to select the most informative items for each candidate and
estimate impact scores according to pre-set precision standards. Findings
revealed that adaptive-based administrations impacted achievement without
compromising testing validity over time. Also, Kane et al. (2020) and Theunissen
et al. (2020) applied CAT in developing more concise Patient-Reported Outcome
Measures (PROM) using the Veterans RAND 12 Item Health Survey (VR-12)
deployed adaptively to decrease patients’ question burden, a 33% decrease.
Therefore, the CAT model was termed efficient in improving PROM as well as
patient experience.
CAT has also been applied to large-scale language testing programmes for
placement purposes such as The Quick Placement Test (QPT), Test of English as
12
a Foreign Language (TOEFL), Computerised Oral Proficiency Instrument (COPI)

and Basic English Skills Test (BEST) Plus. Others are Scholarship Aptitude Test
(SAT), the Test of Standard Written English, Student Description Questionnaire,
and ATP Achievement Tests, all under the College Board Admissions Testing
Program (ATP), Graduate Records Examination (GRE) and Graduate
Management Admission Test (GMAT) (Cella et al., 2007; Giouroglou &
Economides, 2004). These testing programmes are full-scale paper-and-pencil
testing before being implemented adaptively (Eignor et al., 1993). Way et al.
(2006) examined practical questions needed to be adequately answered before
the transition of testing programmes to online delivery forms using CAT
concerning K-12Assessments. CAT has also been implemented extensively in
licensing health professionals in the United States, such as the National Council
Licensure Examination-Registered Nurses and the National Registry of
Emergency Medical Technicians (Han, 2018; Seo, 2017).
6. Fourth Industrial Revolution and CAT

The Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) occupies a digital sphere driven by the
merging of technologies that makes it almost impossible to distinguish between
the physical, digital and biological divides. Some of the possibilities brought to
bear by the 4IR include the ease of connecting people by mobile devices, with
high processing power, large storage volume and a knowledge economy,
rapidly influencing intelligent behaviour in living and systemic engineering
multiplied exponentially by evolving expertise in many fields, one of which is
Artificial Intelligence (AI) (Bartneck et al., 2021; Schwab 2016; Singh et al., 2013).
AI is a wide-ranging branch of computer science premised on smart
technologies capable of performing human intelligence-based tasks. It adopts an
interdisciplinary approach, creating a paradigm shift in virtually every tech
industry sector (Builtin, 2019).
4IR riding on AI drives possibilities which are fast turning into realities, with
strong indication that the technologies underpinning the 4IR have a significant
impact on businesses (Schwab, 2016); and the educational sector cannot be left
out. As such, the sectoral response to 4IR must be unified and inclusive of all
global stakeholders, such as the public and private sectors, academia and civil
societies. The CAT algorithm leverages AI to achieve expert and knowledge-
based systems for accurate ability placement. The possibilities that 4IR brings to
the table, such as multiple connectivity through a high-ended computer device
and high storage capacity, strengthens CAT technology for educational
assessments. These possibilities are coupled with emerging technology
breakthroughs premised on AI that could be leveraged for educational testing
(Schwab, 2016). Butler-Adam (2018) challenged educational researchers to
identify the link of AI to curricula, teaching and learning while stressing the
need for people to have the skills required to thrive with evolving technology,
and be more of problem solvers, being adaptable and adequate in expressing
themselves in both the written and spoken word. These are achievable by
accurate educational assessments through sophisticated algorithms for adaptive
testing with CAT, an emerging technology-driven by 4IR. Applications of AI for
educational assessment hold the potential of shaping higher education with
exponential technologies such as CAT (Penprase, 2018).
13
7. Conclusion and Recommendation

The review has shown an exciting direction for ensuring accuracy in ability
estimation premised on the 3Parameter Logistic Item Response Theory model
made possible by the fourth industrial revolution and characterised by high-
ended adaptive technologies such as CAT in the realm of AI and apparent with
intelligent candidate ability estimation in an iterative process. Empirical studies
have provided evidence of reduced test lengths with CAT without watering
down score integrity. Lessons from the Covid-19 pandemic show the need for
higher institutions of learning to have online arrangements for teaching and
learning with suitable assessment platforms for accurate ability estimation while
leveraging on the wide technological possibilities greatly enhanced by the 4IR.
The onus lies on higher educational stakeholders in Africa to position
technology for pedagogical gain. While the traditional linear tests have mainly
been employed, it is imperative to ensure CAT practice in educational
assessment in Africa to actualise its gains at the higher levels of education with
most institutions moving to online teaching and learning. CAT for supporting
teaching and learning is an undeniable reality in the Covid-19 era and a way of
ensuring that the African continent falls in line with the rapid emerging
technologies characteristic of the 4IR era.
8. Limitations and directions for future research

The review carried out is majorly premised on foreign literature as CAT as an
assessment format is an emerging area of research in Africa. The workability of
CAT considering the realities of the African continent should be considered. This
calls for simulation studies on CAT as a direction for future research.
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Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 18-37, May 2021
The Development and Use of Improvised

Science-Teaching Models: A Case of Natural
Science Pre-Service Teachers
Wiets Botes
School of Education, Department of Natural Science and Mathematics Teaching,
Sol Plaatje University, Kimberley, South Africa
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3024-8969
Abstract. The study aimed to describe how a team of final-year pre-

service teachers followed the process of improvisation to develop and
utilise improvised science-teaching models during a teaching practicum
experience. Guided by a conceptual understanding of the process of
improvisation, this purposeful qualitative case study sought to respond
to a series of research questions. These research questions are: “What are
the issues that necessitate the need to develop science-teaching models
for a teaching practicum experience?”, “How could the process of
improvisation enable Natural Science pre-service teachers to develop
improvised science-teaching models for a teaching practicum
experience?” and “To what extent do the Natural Science pre-service
teachers utilise the improvised science-teaching models in their teaching
practicum?” Data collection methods such as spontaneous free-response
e-mail communications, a focus-group discussion, and the use of photo-
voice methodology yielded rich empirical data. The findings revealed
how the Natural Science pre-service teachers ultimately engaged with the
improvisation principles to develop improvised science-teaching models
from low-cost and recycled materials. The paper further describes how
the improvised science-teaching models were introduced in the pre-
service teachers’ Natural Science lesson delivery as part of a model-based
teaching approach. Findings from the study suggest that initial teacher
education programs render environmental and contextual consciousness
in shaping pre-service teachers for the diverse schooling contexts. The
study further suggests that initial teacher education programs be
intentional towards structuring module course material to make the skill
of improvisation accessible to pre-service teachers as part of their teacher
development.
Keywords: model-based science-teaching; improvisation; Natural

Science education; pre-service teacher development
©Authors
19
1. Introduction and background to study

Natural Science is informed by knowledge areas that deal with life and living,
matter and materials, energy and change, and earth and beyond. These topics
stem from various disciplines such as Biology, Chemistry, Physics, and Earth and
Space sciences (DBE, 2011). With these topics in mind, a key attribute towards a
quality Natural Science teaching experience is the ability of a Natural Science
educator to convey what Shulman (1987) decades ago referred to as sound
pedagogical content knowledge for scientific inquiry. The latter is regarded as a
specific instantiation of pedagogical content knowledge fit to the teaching of
Natural Science as a middle-school subject (Peel et al., 2019). This particular form
of pedagogical content knowledge includes a combination of science-specific
content knowledge, educational knowledge, and teaching methodology that
science educators should be equipped with to facilitate learners’ comprehension
of scientific phenomena (DHET, 2015; Pareek, 2019).
With this attribute in mind, the expectation is that Natural Science pre-service
teachers in development master the skill to teach Natural Science in an innovative,
inclusive and practical manner (Stears & James, 2011). In the context of initial
teacher education, one such way to develop this skill is through enabling pre-
service teachers to utilise a model-based teaching approach as part of their lesson
design and delivery (Peel et al., 2019). Over the past couple of decades, using a
model-based teaching approach has been increasingly recognised among the
science education community (Black, 1962; Perkins, 1986; Gobert & Buckley, 2000;
Ingham & Gilbert, 1991; Peel et al., 2019). Some claim that the idea of model-based
learning takes centre stage in K-12 science education (Bryce et al., 2016).
According to Harlow (2010) and Seel (2017), a model-based teaching approach is

understood as a teaching approach that brings together a teacher’s subject content
knowledge and teaching methodology. It compliments it with the aid of
explanatory models to assist learners in visualising an idea, system or process. In
other words, by following a model-based teaching approach, learners would be
able to link an abstract concept and a real-life situation. One such example
includes utilising a DNA double helix model to explain the characteristics of the
DNA structure. Another example could be a model that displays the atomic
structure of particles, hence representing the atom. In other words, a model serves
as a simplified representation of a system, which details critical aspects of the
system (Peel et al., 2019; Ingham & Gilbert, 1991). Thus, the understanding is that
a model-based teaching approach promotes visualisation in learners (Damelin et
al., 2017). The invisible (for instance, the atomic structure of the DNA double helix
structure) becomes visible through physical representation.
For this reason, the expectation is that pre-service teachers follow a model-based
teaching approach towards their teaching practicum since it would allow for a
more informed explanation of abstract biological, physical, and chemical
phenomena (Taber, 2017). This aligns well with the view of Pareek (2019) when it
is suggested that the utilisation of a model-based teaching approach allows for an
enjoyable “hands-on” and “minds-on” learning experience. Simply put, using
model-based teaching lends credence and reality to the abstract concepts and
20
terminology of science education (Okori & Jerry, 2017) and translates into a
learning experience that fosters learners’ ability to engage in scientific reasoning
(Dare et al., 2019). Other researchers remind us that a model-based teaching
approach in the science classroom stimulates learners’ general interest in the
subject of Natural Science (Tsybulsky, Dodick & Camhi, 2018).
Unfortunately, given the benefits towards the use of a model-based teaching

approach in the context of science education, several factors seem to restrict
middle-school Natural Science educators from using models in their lesson design
and delivery (Akuma & Callaghan, 2016; Harlow, 2010; Okori & Jerry, 2017;
Philip, 2019; Singh & Singh, 2012). In a South African teaching context, it has been
reported that although the South African Department of Basic Education
galvanised efforts and resources towards improving the quality of Natural
Science education (Munje & Jita, 2020), some South African scholars reported on
a multitude of issues that hampers science educators’ ability to implement a
model-based teaching approach in their teaching (Mtsi & Maphosa, 2016; Mupira
& Ramnarain, 2018; Mzuza & Van der Westhuizen, 2019; Ramnarain, 2020).
A study by Mzuza and Van der Westhuizen (2019) found that in the Northern
Cape province, which is the largest and most sparsely populated province of
South Africa, many schools in rural and disadvantaged areas were plagued with
Science classrooms. These classrooms were not well-equipped with the deemed
Natural Science teaching models. This echoes the view of local scholars such as
Du Plessis and Mestry (2019), who claim that ill-resourced Science classrooms
characterise a significant number of South African schools in rural and
disadvantaged areas. In addition, studies by Mabasa and Singh (2020) and Mupira
and Ramnarain (2018) shed light on the outdated science-teaching models that are
not aligned to the current national school curriculum, also referred to as the
Curriculum and Policy Statement document.
This particular issue, which is associated with the lack of science-teaching models
in selected middle-schools, harms the ability of pre-service teachers to
demonstrate their competence in pursuing a model-based teaching approach
during practicum teaching opportunities. Given the reality of ill-resourced
Science classrooms in selected schools in the Northern Cape province, national
scholars (Fleischmann & Van der Westhuizen, 2017; Mupira & Ramnarain, 2018;
Nkambule & Mukeredzi, 2017) and international scholars (Aadland, Espeland &
Arnesen, 2017) call on teacher development programmes to be intentional in
developing pre-service teachers’ capability to develop and utilise improvised
teaching models as a means to complement their model-based teaching approach
during teaching practicum opportunities.
Given the preceding argument, which described various issues associated with
the unavailability of science-teaching models, this study sought to document how
the process of improvisation enabled a team of final-year Natural Science pre-
service teachers to develop and utilise improvised science-teaching models for a
teaching practicum experience. Guided by a conceptual understanding of the
process of improvisation, this purposeful qualitative case study responds to a
21
series of research questions. These research questions are: “What are the issues
that necessitate the need to develop science-teaching models for a teaching
practicum experience?”, “How could the process of improvisation enable Natural
Science pre-service teachers to develop improvised science-teaching models for a
teaching practicum experience?” and “To what extend do the Natural Science pre-
service teachers utilise the improvised science-teaching models in their teaching
practicum?”
A response to these research questions will clarify the pre-service teachers’ ability
to strategise ways to develop teaching models, thus displaying the skill of
improvisation, which scholars such as Aadland, Espeland and Arnesen (2017) and
Ramnarain (2020) regard as a professional teaching skill. Consequently, their
development of the skill to improvise the design of science-teaching models
would positively impact their quality of teaching and allow learners to enjoy the
benefits of a more engaging and joyful science learning experience.
2. Problem Statement
This study was conducted in a School of Education at an institution of higher
education in South Africa. The study involved seven final-year pre-service
teachers specialising in teaching the subject Natural Science in the intermediate
phase, also commonly referred to as “middle-school” teaching. As part of their
teacher development, the pre-service teachers were placed in schools in the city
where the university is located for four weeks to perform practicum teaching.
During this time, the pre-service teachers expected to prepare and present lessons
that would allow a meaningful science teaching experience. This included the pre-
service teachers using a model-based science teaching approach that would elicit
a “hands-on” and “minds-on” learning experience, thus enabling learners to make
meaning of abstract science concepts. However, upon the pre-service teachers’
arrival at the schools where they had been placed to perform their practicum
teaching, the pre-service teachers realised that the science classrooms were ill-
resourced with little to no relevant science teaching models to use in their science
teaching.
Their frustrations with a lack of science-teaching models at their disposal were

communicated with their module lecturer, who also served as the Researcher and
author of this article. The realisation of the lack of science teaching materials
available to pre-service teachers during a practicum teaching experience
prompted my interest in conducting this study. This study sought to describe how
a team of final-year pre-service teachers followed the process of improvisation to
develop and use improvised science-teaching models during a teaching
practicum experience.
3. Conceptualising the process of improvisation in the context of initial

teacher education
The common understanding is that social challenges require systematic solutions
grounded in contextual and personalised expertise (Harlow, 2010; Ozuah, 2019).
In other words, through acknowledging the contextual expertise that individuals
22
have to offer, the process of improvisation seeks to create a solution that speaks
to them individually identified needs of others. To contextualise, this study
responds to a team of final-year Natural Science pre-service teachers’ need to
develop science-teaching models that would complement their Natural Science
teaching during teaching practicum opportunities.
Traditionally, the process of improvisation was recognised as a complex problem-

solving process in performing arts, drama, and music education (Barbara & Sam,
1957; Borko & Livingston, 1989; De Bruin, 2019; Erickson, 1982; Sawyer, 2004;
Yinger, 1987). However, more recently, the field of teacher education also adopted
the approach, with researchers describing how the experimental and open nature
of improvisation is considered helpful in dealing with teaching and learning-
related matters (Hickey, 2015; Sawyer, 2011). To be specific, studies by Aadland,
Espeland and Arnesen (2017) and Okori and Jerry (2017) described how the
process of improvisation assisted educators to structure teaching models from
low-cost and recyclable materials.
Improvised teaching and learning models serve as low-cost goods developed

from materials such as plastics, cardboard and tin cans, to name but a few (Akuma
& Callaghan, 2016; Holdhus et al., 2016). Yeboah, Abonyi and Luguterah (2019)
share a similar understanding of improvised teaching and learning models. They
refer to them as teaching models created from local and readily available
resources due to the unavailability of original teaching models. For educational
purposes, teaching models are considered highly effective towards promoting a
quality educational experience (Holdhus et al., 2016).
At its core, the process of improvisation is informed by three overlapping

principles. These include the principles of inspiration, ideation and
implementation. These principles ultimately manifest in the process of
improvisation (Eze, 2018; Ponzio et al., 2018). As a starting point, the principle of
inspiration serves as a space that allows for identifying and clarifying individually
identified needs and the drive towards the search for a solution (Philip, 2019).
Thus, the understanding is that the principle of inspiration allows one to
understand the extent to which the need impacts the professional capability of
others. Information related to the principle of inspiration can be obtained through
focus-group discussions, interviews, and surveying. However, obtaining an in-
depth understanding of the need of others requires one to form part of the reality
of others (Philip, 2019). This approach allows for a first-hand and personalised
“observed” experience (Wrigley & Stalker, 2017). Simply put, the principle of
inspiration is considered a product that derives from the individual needs of
others.
The process of improvisation further draws on the principle of “ideation”. As the

second core principle, ideation enables individuals to distil ideas into insights that
could serve as potential strategies to the needs identified (Aadland, Espeland &
Arnesen, 2017). This free flow of ideas and information sharing can also be
referred to as divergent thinking. Everyday activities used to capture the principle
of ideation includes focus-group discussions, brainstorming sessions and visual
23
representations of ideas. In this study, the principle of ideation was put into
motion when the team of final-year pre-service teachers strategised ways to
develop science-teaching models from low-cost or recycled goods. This approach
was followed to respond to the lack of teaching models available to them during
their teaching practicum duties.
The third and final principle that informs the process of improvisation is
prototyping and implementation (Eze, 2018). The principle enables an individual
to implement the strategy in an authentic “real-world” context. Prototyping is
seen as a process where the strategy that stems from the principle of ideation is
tested and re-tested to uncover unforeseen challenges that could negatively
impact the strategy’s effectiveness (Wrigley & Stalker, 2017). Once the strategy
has been re-defined, and the necessary adjustments were made to improve the
strategy, implementation can occur. The impact and effectiveness of the strategy
can be verified through various means such as focus-group discussions,
interviews, observations, reflective entries and surveying.
4. Research approach and methodology

The study followed a purposeful qualitative case study approach. The case
included seven final-year Natural Science pre-service teachers and their ability to
follow the process of improvisation to develop science-teaching models.
Permission was granted by the Postgraduate Research Ethics Committee of the
University of the Free State (Ethical clearance number - UFS-HSD2018/0073). As
the principal Researcher, one was tasked to ensure that all relevant role-players
involved in the study were consulted in advance (Creswell & Creswell, 2017).
Therefore, the Natural Science pre-service teachers were approached to give
consent to take part in the study. In addition, the team was also assured
confidentiality throughout the research process. It was also made clear that they
were allowed to withdraw from the study at any time. A consent form was signed
by each of the Natural Science pre-service teachers, which was archived for
record-keeping purposes.
The research site was situated in a School of Education at a South African

University. The School of Education offers a Bachelor of Education degree with
multiple areas of specialisation in the intermediate phase (grade 4 – 6 teaching),
senior phase (grade 7 – 9 teaching) and further education and training phase
(grade 10 – 12 teaching). For this particular study, the research participants
comprised seven final-year pre-service teachers specialising in the teaching of
Natural Science in the intermediate phase, also commonly referred to as “middle-
school” teaching.
The study aimed to describe how a team of final-year pre-service teachers

followed the process of improvisation to develop and utilise improvised science-
teaching models during a teaching practicum experience. In order to achieve this
aim, the study responded to three pertinent research questions. The use of
spontaneous free-response e-mail communications penned by the Natural Science
pre-service teachers shed light on the first research question of the study. The
question posed was to describe the issues that necessitate developing science-
24
teaching models for a teaching practicum experience. A response to this research

question would allow the team to follow a creative approach towards strategising
ways to circumvent the issue associated with science-teaching models. The rich
qualitative data obtained from the free-response e-mail communications were
captured, thematically analysed and transcribed.
Additionally, establishing a focus-group discussion between the module lecturer

and the team of final-year pre-service teachers was vital in responding to the
study’s second research question. The second research question sought to
investigate how the process of improvisation could enable Natural Science pre-
service teachers to develop improvised science-teaching models for a teaching
practicum experience. The team’s responses that stemmed from the focus-group
discussion were audio-recorded, analysed and transcribed. Besides the focus-
group discussion, the use of photo-voice methodology was also utilised to give
voice and expression to the improvised science models that the team created. The
use of photo-voice methodology further allowed for an in-depth exploration and
interpretation of the pre-service teachers’ models developed from low-cost goods
and recycled materials.
In order to respond to the aspects of credibility, reliability and validity (Creswell

& Creswell, 2017), the data derived from the spontaneous e-mail communication,
focus-group discussion and photo-voice methodology were shared among the
pre-service teachers. This study determined whether the transcribed text and
captured photographs were a true reflection of their accounts.
5. Findings
The three research questions of the study yielded rich empirical data. Table 1
provides a synopsis of the themes and categories that emerged from the study as
a point of departure. These themes and categories are also aligned with the
research questions of the study. Thereafter, a more in-depth interpretation and
descriptive explanation of the themes will follow.
Table 1. Synopsis of the themes and categories.

Research questions Data collection Themes Categories
technique
What are the issues E-mail Confronting the - Lack of science-
that necessitate the communication challenge teaching models
need to develop associated with the during teaching
science-teaching unavailability of practicums;
models for a teaching science-teaching - Lack of model-
practicum models based teaching;
experience? - Pre-service teacher
frustrations with
practical teaching.
How could the Focus-group Realising the need - Pre-service teacher
process of discussion to develop determination;
improvisation enable improvised science- - Envisioning a
Natural Science pre- teaching models meaningful Natural
service teachers to Science (NS)
25
develop improvised teaching and

science-teaching learning experience.
models for a teaching Photo-voice The development - Science models
practicum methodology of improvised designed from low-
experience? science-teaching cost materials;
models - Science models
designed from
recycled goods;
- Creativity and
innovation.
To what extent do the Photo-voice The - Model-based
Natural Science pre- methodology implementation of teaching in action;
service teachers improvised science- - Inquiry-based
utilise the improvised teaching models learning.
science-teaching
models in their
teaching practicum?
Responding to research question 1:

The first research question sought to describe the issues that necessitate
developing science-teaching models for a teaching practicum experience. With
this research question in mind, the Natural Science pre-service teachers’ responses
pointed to a predominant theme, namely “the unavailability of science-teaching
models”. Categories such as “lack of science-teaching models during teaching
practicums”, “lack of a model-based teaching approach”, and “pre-service teacher
frustrations with practical teaching” informed the challenge associated with the
unavailability of science-teaching models. Theme 1 is described next.
Theme 1: Confronting the challenge associated with the unavailability of

science-teaching models (Responding to the principle of inspiration)
The first principle that informs the process of improvisation is referred to as
inspiration. The principle of inspiration enables one to clarify individually
identified needs and is considered a driver towards searching for a solution. In
other words, it allows individuals to be creative towards strategising ways to
circumvent existing issues that might exist. This step was also crucial to
responding to the first research question of the study. In this study, the principle
of inspiration surfaced when the pre-service teachers voiced their concerns
regarding the unavailability of science-teaching models during teaching
practicum opportunities. This can be confirmed in spontaneous e-mail
communication penned by a pre-service teacher and communicated to the module
lecturer, who also served as the study researcher.
“Good day, Sir
Sir, the crits [lesson observation procedures] are next week. I’m already worried
because the class does not have any models for us to use. I mean I plan my NS
[Natural Science] lesson the day before just to find out that no models are available.
We are then forced to stick to the textbook because there is nothing that we can use
to show them [learners] how the plant cell really looks. Aren’t there any way to deal
with this?”
Participant 7; spontaneous e-mail
response
26
The subjective response provided by the pre-service teacher delivers multiple

meanings. In short, the response sheds light on the lack of science-teaching models
available to the pre-service teachers’ during teaching practice duties. This can be
confirmed by the pre-service teacher when it was mentioned that “I mean I plan
my NS [Natural Science] lesson the day before just to find out that no models are
available”. Furthermore, given the pre-service teacher’s intention to utilise a
model-based teaching approach, the unavailability of science-teaching models
negatively affects their ability to practice a model-based teaching approach, as the
pre-service teacher declared that “there is nothing that we can use to show them
[learners] how the plant cell really looks.” The pre-service teacher’s cry for help
in terms of circumventing the issue was also made clear when the pre-service
teacher posed the question “Aren’t there any way to deal with this?”. Therefore,
the assumption is that “something has to be done” to address the challenge
associated with a lack of science-teaching models.
The severity of the challenge was further reiterated in another e-mail response
that was communicated to the module lecturer.
“Hi Sir,
I was at your office but you were not in. Can I come see you tomorrow after school?
I’m a bit lost and need help with teaching aids [models]. I will be on campus around
3 [15:00] to hopefully fetch some equipment for my lesson this coming week.”
Participant 5, spontaneous e-mail response
The e-mail response provided by the pre-service teachers again reiterates the
complications surrounding the lack of teaching models available to the pre-
service teachers during teaching practicum duties. In this particular response
provided, one picks up a sense of urgency and desperation in the pre-service
teachers’ voice. This can be confirmed by the phrases “I was at your office, but
you were not in”, “Can I come see you” and “I’m a bit lost and need help”. In
addition, the phrase “fetch some equipment for my lesson this coming week”
points to the pre-service teacher’s intention to use teaching models to aid a model-
based teaching approach for a particular Natural Science lesson.

The second research question sought to describe how the process of improvisation
can enable the Natural Science pre-service teachers to develop improvised
science-teaching models for a teaching practicum experience. With this research
question in mind, a focus group discussion with the team of pre-service teachers
allowed for the formulation of the theme “realising the need to develop
improvised science-teaching models”. Categories that supported this theme
included “pre-service teacher determination” and “envisioning a meaningful NS
teaching and learning experience”. Theme 2 is described next.
Theme 2: Realising the need to develop improvised science-teaching models

(Responding to the principle of inspiration cont.)
To this end, the issue associated with the lack of science-teaching models was
clarified based upon the spontaneous e-mail communications communicated to
the module lecturer, who also served as the Researcher. Given this clarification,
the module lecturer decided to establish a focus-group discussion to circumvent
the issue identified, therefore responding to the study’s second research question.
27
The focus group discussion took place during the initial stages of the pre-service
teachers’ school visitation practical teaching process. During the focus group
discussion with the team of Natural Science pre-service teachers, the Researcher
asked, “What can be done to overcome the issue associated with the lack of
science-teaching models?” With this question posed, one of the pre-service
teachers had the following to say:
“Guys it’s a fact, most of us struggled with no equipment [science-teaching models].
Well, maybe we can try and make some of these things [science-teaching models]
ourselves, you know. We can just look around for stuff to use and just do. It can
just be basic or whatever, but at least the kids will see [observe]. That will also help
us to not only use textbook teaching the whole time.”
Participant 3, free-attitude verbal response
This response provided declares a pre-service teacher’s urge to follow the process
of improvisation to develop their science-teaching models. This statement can be
supported by the phrases “look around for stuff to use and just do it”. In addition,
the phrase “It can just be basic, or whatever” points to the pre-service teacher’s
intention to develop science-teaching models from readily available materials,
which in this case are recycled and low-cost goods. The phrases “will also help us
to not only use textbook teaching the whole time” and “at least the kids will see”
are indicative of a typical model-based teaching approach which would be helpful
towards deepening and promoting the learners’ understanding of complex
science topics in the Natural Science classroom. Both these phrases suggest that
the pre-service teacher wishes to establish a teaching environment that would
explain science-related topics more simplistically, thus promoting a quality
science learning experience.
The use of photo-voice methodology further shed light on how the process of
improvisation enabled the Natural Science pre-service teachers to develop
improvised science-teaching models for a teaching practicum experience. An
analysis of a series of photographs taken allowed for the formulation of the theme
titled “physical development of improvised science-teaching models”. Categories
that supported this theme included “science models designed from low-cost
materials”, “science models designed from recycled goods”, and “creativity and
innovation”. Theme 3 is described next.
Theme 3: The development of improvised science-teaching models

(Responding to the principle of ideation)
The second principle that informs the process of improvisation is ideation. The
principle of ideation enables individuals to distil their ideas into insights that
could serve as potential strategies to respond to the challenges identified. Given
the challenge associated with the lack of teaching models, the team of pre-service
teachers set out to put their creative ideas into motion, thus staying true to the
true meaning of ideation.
What follows next is a showcase of some of the improvised science-teaching
models that the pre-service teachers developed from low-cost and recycled goods.
The models were photographed, and the nature of the models is briefly described
in figures 1 to 4 below.
28
“The plant cell”
Model description
The model shown here provides a simple visual representation of the plant cell. The
model shows the different organelles that make up the plant cell. One further finds that
the model has an aesthetic appeal that would allow the Natural Science pre-service
teacher to communicate the different organelles of the plant cell to the learners. A closer
look at the model of the plant cell confirms its design made up of low-cost and recycled
materials such as a shoebox (representing the cell wall), condom (representing the
vacuole of a cell with a watery substance) and soap bars (representing the
mitochondria).
Figure 1. The plant cell as a science-teaching model.
“The DNA
structure”
Model description
The model shown here provides a basic yet visually appealing representation of the
DNA double helix structure. Although the different parts of the DNA double helix
structure are not clearly labelled, the learners could still distinguish the different
nucleotide structures (adenine pairing with thymine and cytosine pairing with
guanine) through colour matching (blue pairing with blue & pink pairing with pink).
For instance, the Natural Science pre-service teacher will demonstrate that the pink
marshmallow sweets represent a nucleotide pair comprising thymine and adenine. On
the other hand, the blue marshmallow sweets represent the other nucleotide pair
comprising guanine and cytosine. The Natural Science pre-service teacher will also
show the learners that the DNA structure is curved and spiral-shaped as the model
provides a three-dimensional representation of the DNA double helix structure. One
also finds that the model was designed from low-cost and recycled materials such as
carton and marshmallow sweets.
Figure 2. The DNA double helix as a science-teaching model.
29
“The water cycle”
Model description
The model shown here provides a visual representation of the water cycle. The different stages
involved in the water cycle are indicated with relevant labelling and drawings. What makes
the model unique is the fact that the natural pre-service teacher could capture the water cycle
as part of a system of events. To be specific, a closer look at the model reveals the four main
stages (evaporation, condensation, precipitation and collection) that inform the water cycle.
Again the model was designed to form low-cost and recycled materials such as the shoebox
(portraying the earth and atmosphere respectively), leaves (representing trees), gravel and
sand (representing the crust of the earth).
Figure 3. The water cycle as a science-teaching model.
“Lung model”
Model description
The model shown here are representative of how the lung functions in terms of the processes
of inhalation and exhalation in breathing. In this instance, the pre-service teacher created a
lung model from recycled materials such as a plastic bottle, two straws, an elastic band and a
balloon.
Figure 4. The lung model as a science-teaching model.

The third research question sought to describe the extent to which the Natural
Science pre-service teachers utilise the improvised science-teaching models in
30
their teaching practicum. Again the use of photo-voice methodology allowed for
the formulation of the theme titled “the implementation of improvised science-
teaching models”. Categories such as “model-based teaching in action” and
“evidence of inquiry-based learning” informed the theme. Theme 4 is described
next.
Theme 4: The implementation of improvised science-teaching models

(Responding to the principle of implementation)
The third and final principle that informs the process of improvisation is
implementation. For this study, the principle of implementation was seen as a
process whereby the developed science-teaching models were put to the test in an
authentic teaching space, thus responding to the third research question of the
study. This was done to determine whether the science-teaching models had any
significant impact on the quality of their model-based teaching.
In order to provide an account of this principle in action, the Researcher was able
to analyse, interpret, and describe how some pre-service teachers went about
using the improvised teaching models as part of their model-based teaching
approach during teaching practicum opportunities. What follows next is a
synopsis of two teaching scenarios that provides evidence of a model-based
teaching approach through the use of the photo-voice methodology.
Snapshot of teaching scenario A: Investigating how the respiratory system

functions through the use of a lung model
Observations made by the Researcher:

A closer look at this teaching scenario reveals how the Natural Science pre-service
teacher could use improvised science-teaching models in an authentic teaching
context. In this teaching scenario, the Natural Science pre-service teacher allowed
the learners to build lung models from recycled materials (plastic bag, plastic
bottle, straws, elastic band) to understand better how the respiratory system
functions. After the learners built their lung models from materials that the
Natural Science pre-service teacher provided, the learners showed how air is
pulled in and out of the lungs. The learners could demonstrate how the
diaphragm, as a thin skeletal muscle, contract and flattens when a person inhales,
31
which results in air being pulled into the lungs. They demonstrated that when a
person exhales, the diaphragm relaxes, which forces air out of the lungs. The
assumption is that the learners were challenged to observe how the diaphragm
contracts and flattens by using the improvised lung model. The learners were
tasked to collect and analyse data related to how the heartbeat’s tempo impacted
breathing patterns, as witnessed on the chalkboard.
Snapshot of teaching scenario B: Exploring how light reflects off surfaces
Observations made by the Researcher:

In this teaching scenario, the learners could investigate how a mirror alters how
light travels. The investigation allowed the learners to recognise that light travels
a straight line if reflected off a mirror. A closer look at the image shows that the
learners could track the light reflection by aligning it to the toothpicks pinned on
a sheet of paper pasted on cardboard. This allowed the learners to realise that light
travels straight line, explaining why shadows have the same shape as the objects
that cast them. Here, the light reflected off the mirror perfectly aligned with the
toothpicks pinned on a sheet of paper pasted on cardboard.
6. Discussion of findings
In the context of teacher education, the expectation is that pre-service teachers
specialising in the teaching of Natural Science education ought to develop the skill
to teach Natural Science subject matter creatively and practically (Aadland,
Espeland & Arnesen, 2017). One such teaching skill includes pre-service teachers
adopting a model-based teaching approach as part of their lesson design and
delivery (Peel et al., 2019). A common feature of a model-based teaching approach
includes pre-service teachers’ ability to infuse models as part of their teaching
delivery to ensure that learners make that critical link between abstract science
concepts and real-time visualisation (Nkambule & Mukeredzi, 2017). For this
reason, Dare et al. (2019) claim that a model-based teaching approach allows for a
more simplistic understanding of biological, physical and chemical phenomena.
32
Unfortunately, given the learning benefits of using a model-based teaching

approach, it has been reported that middle-schools in the Northern Cape
province, which are situated in rural- and disadvantaged areas, are plagued with
ill-resourced science classrooms (Mzuza & Van der Westhuizen, 2019). This, as a
result, impacts negatively on the ability of science pre-service teachers to follow a
model-based teaching approach, since science models in these classrooms are
either non-existent, outdated, or irrelevant to the current Natural Science school
curriculum (Du Plessis & Mestry, 2019; Mabasa & Singh, 2020; Mtsi & Maphosa,
2016).
This paper was concerned with the issue associated with a lack of science-teaching
models available to final-year pre-service teachers during a teaching practicum
opportunity. The study aimed to describe how a team of final-year pre-service
teachers followed the process of improvisation to develop and utilise improvised
science-teaching models during a teaching practicum experience. The paper
explores how the process of improvisation that is characterised by the principles
of “inspiration”, “ideation”, and “implementation” enabled the pre-service
teachers to develop improvised science-teaching models from low-cost and
recycled goods. Moreover, this paper also described the extent to which the pre-
service teachers were able to utilise these improvised teaching models as part of
their model-based teaching.
Guided by a conceptual understanding of the process of improvisation, this paper

shares empirical evidence of how the pre-service teachers followed the principle
of inspiration, which is considered as the first step towards the process of
improvisation. The principle of inspiration serves as a space that allows for
identifying and clarifying individually identified needs and the drive towards the
search for a solution (Philip, 2019). In pursuit of the principle of inspiration, the
pre-service teachers in the first instance confronted the lack of teaching models in
selected schools where they were placed to perform their teaching practicum
duties. The issue was made clear in several spontaneous e-mail communications,
which included phrases such as “I am already worried because the class does not
have any models for us to use - Participant 5” and “I plan my NS [Natural Science]
lesson the day before just to find out that no models are available - Participant 3”
that was communicated to the module lecturer.
The confirmation of this particular challenge paved the way towards the
realisation that something had to be done to address the issue at hand. This critical
step towards searching for a solution serves as the final key feature of the principle
of inspiration (Aadland, Espeland & Arnesen, 2017). Phrases such as “Aren’t there
any way to deal with this? - Participant 7” and “we can look around for stuff to
use and just do it ourselves - Participant 3” and “at least the kids will see -
Participant 3” are indicative of their intention to design their improvised teaching
models to support their model-based teaching. Moreover, the phrase “look
around for stuff to use and just do it ourselves” suggest that the teaching models
will be developed from low-cost materials such as plastics, cardboard, straws, tin
cans, to name but a few.
33
Given the reality of ill-resourced science classrooms in selected South African

middle-schools (Mtsi & Maphosa, 2016; Mupira & Ramnarain, 2018) and the pre-
service teachers’ drive to develop their teaching models, it is not surprising that
South African educational policy documents such as the National Curriculum and
Policy Statement (DBE, 2011) call on both pre-and in-service Natural Science
teachers to acquire the skill of improvisation that would enable them to develop
teaching models that would complement their science-teaching. Ramnarain (2020)
takes it a step further by suggesting that the skill of improvisation should be
regarded as a key Natural Science teacher attribute, which implicates how initial
teacher education programmes develop pre-service teachers for the teaching
profession.
Furthermore, this paper provided evidence of how the pre-service teachers

adhered to the principle of ideation as the second principle that informs
improvisation. The principle of ideation enables individuals to distil ideas into
insights that could serve as potential strategies to circumvent the needs identified
(Aina, 2013; Aadland, Espeland & Arnesen, 2017). The pre-service teachers were
able to put their creative ideas and insights into motion through developing some
science-teaching models. Although primary and simplistic in design, these
models were showcased in figures 1 to 4 and represented the plant cell, the water
cycle, the DNA double helix structure, and the lung model. A closer look at these
models concurs with some researchers’ understanding of science-teaching models
when it is regarded as objects that promote the visualisation of complex science
phenomena (Dare et al., 2019). The pre-service teachers’ models allow the invisible
(the DNA structure and the plant cell) to become visible through representation
(Taber, 2017).
Finally, the paper provided evidence of how the pre-service teachers followed the
implementation principle, which is regarded as the final principle of the
improvisation process. The principle of improvisation enables the educator to
ultimately put their designs to the test in a real-life teaching context (Aina, 2013),
as witnessed in teaching scenarios A and B. The use of photo-voice methodology
provided substantial evidence of how a couple of pre-service teachers could
infuse the science-teaching models they created. To be specific, a closer look at
teaching scenario A points to aspects of a model-based teaching approach.
This approach was linked to the pre-service teacher’s ability to engage learners in
a learning experience that required them to demonstrate how the respiratory
system functions by using a lung model. Another example of a model-based
teaching approach surfaced when the learners were tasked to investigate how
light reflects off a mirror on a piece of cardboard, thus obtaining a more informed
understanding of the topic “refraction of light” (see teaching scenario B). These
basic examples of model-based teaching suggest that learners might have been
involved in cooperative and collaborative learning. Considering the evidence
provided that learners acquired knowledge from their fellow peers instead of
relying solely on the instructional delivery of knowledge from the pre-service
teacher (see teaching scenario A).
34
7. Conclusion
The purpose of the study was to describe how a team of final-year pre-service
teachers followed the process of improvisation to develop and utilise improvised
science-teaching models during a teaching practicum experience. This was done
to promote the pre-service teachers’ quality of model-based teaching. The need
for this study arises from the challenge associated with the lack of science-
teaching models available to the pre-service teachers during school visitation
opportunities. The pre-service teachers’ ability to demonstrate improvisation
skills towards developing science-teaching models benefited their quality of
Natural Science teaching and impacted the learners’ Natural Science learning
experience.
In turn, the use of improvised science-teaching models allowed learners to engage

in a learning experience that is more “hands-on” and exploratory. Such a learning
approach simplified the learners’ understanding of Natural Science topics such as
plant cell anatomy and genetics and promoted their interest in these topics. As a
result, they could physically observe the different model structures (for instance,
the helix shape of the DNA molecule, nucleotide pairs that forms part of the DNA
structure and the different organelles that make up the plant cell).
This study holds a series of implications for future research in the field of Natural
Science teacher education. Given the reality of ill-resourced Science classrooms in
selected schools in the Northern Cape province (Mzuza & Van der Westhuizen,
2019), initial teacher education programmes should render environmental and
contextual consciousness through shaping pre-service teachers for the diverse
schooling contexts. Against this backdrop, initial teacher education programmes
should be intentional towards structuring module course material to make the
skill of improvisation accessible to pre-service teachers as part of their teacher
development.
Future research is needed on how improvisation could assist pre-service teachers’

model-based teaching in the different areas of specialisation such as Mathematics,
Geography and Technology education. In addition, future research could also
attempt to investigate what the pre-service teachers’ perspectives are towards
utilising improvised teaching models in the teaching and learning environment.
Acknowledgements
I want to thank the University of the Free State for allowing me to write this paper
for my PhD project. I also want to thank Prof Micheal Van Wyk and Dr Boitumelo
Moreeng, whose guidance, patience and enthusiasm enabled me to believe, try
and succeed in completing this paper.
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38

Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 38-55, May 2021
Digital Literacy and its Acquisition by Teachers

and Principals at Educational Workplaces
Ahmad A. S. Tabieh, Mohammad Hamzeh, Basel Kh. S. Abu-Foudeh,

Niveen Jarrar, Sahar Al-Manaseer, Aysha Al-Shawabkeh and Rania Seikaly
Middle East University, Amman, Jordan
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6762-6313
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1021-2336
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7988-490X
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3136-0274
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4865-6573
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3774-4156
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6258-7386
Abstract. This study investigates the digital literacy skills among workers
in the educational workplace in Jordon. A convenience sample of 139
teachers and 73 administrators spread over 173 public schools and 39
private schools was selected. The study followed mixed quantitative and
qualitative methods. Data were collected using two instruments: a semi
structured interview to investigate and monitor the digital literacy skills;
a questionnaire to measure the availability degree of the digital literacy
skills and the significant differences in the availability degree due to the
job title and the workplace. In this study, four areas represent digital
literacy skills: functional skills, information skills, digital competency in
the educational process and digital competency in empowering learners.
The availability degree of digital skills is medium in general and
statistically significantly higher in administrators than in teachers. The
results showed that private sector workers have better digital literacy
skills than their public sector peers. Finally, the study concluded that
functional and information skills increase digital competency in the
educational learning process and empower learners.
Keywords: digital competence; digital functional skills; digital

informational skills; digital literacy
1. Introduction
Education has become the most appropriate tool to reflect the requirements of the
market economy and the new society. The change in education foundations
accompanies a global process of reorienting education results towards the
globalised society and digital economy. Thus, the competitive employee must
know the details of his profession, know how to work in a team, be social, be stable
©Authors
39
in challenging situations, perform tasks and master many competencies necessary

for professional work, especially digital literacy acquisition. More focus should be
placed on digital literacy, as digital trends are growing and overlapping with the
cultural and educational world, in terms of cultural convergence, information
technologies and the impact on information and communication technologies
(ICTs), on new forms of communication. Therefore, digital literacy is concerned
with understanding and appropriately using modern ICTs and their functions in
work or daily life, represented by different teaching resources that teachers use,
such as e-textbooks, digital educational resources and the Internet, and the use of
various technologies while conducting lessons, such as distance learning, e-
learning, open online courses and open educational resources (Yelubay et al.,
2020).
Digital literacy is highly important because digital technology is an integral part

of modern society, promotes economic development, and helps face the
challenges and perspectives of modern digital society. Moreover, digital literacy
reflects the extent of digital technology use and focuses on the effort made to
eradicate technological illiteracy (Bosler et al., 2019). It also contributes to
developing new educational capabilities that stimulate social change through
various digital practices for future youth (Ehret & Čiklovan, 2020).
One of the distinguishing features of digital literacy in education is dealing with

large amounts of information, as digitisation is a technical, cultural and economic
reality. Simultaneously, an organisational fact is that as the amount of data
produced by humans and machines grows dramatically, the material costs related
to energy storage decrease. Furthermore, treat them (Bortolazzo, 2020).
The digital age sheds light on the educational phenomenon, as the current
generations are advocates of major changes taking place in the world:
globalisation, internationalisation and digitisation. These phenomena
increasingly affect educational systems, which led to changing the traditional
teacher-based and student-centred educational model into a widespread
educational model for digital technologies. This shift is related to future changes
and the nature of work and requires new competencies. Digital literacy in
education, training and learning provides various opportunities and challenges
to recreate the curriculum architecture according to the real needs in the labour
market (Catalano, 2019).
This study evaluates the importance of digital literacy to keep pace with
globalisation and technological developments among the emerging generations.
Therefore, scientific research continues to reveal the skills of digital literacy and
the degree of its availability among teachers and administrators of the Ministry of
Education in Jordan. Yelubay et al., (2020) showed that teachers lack digital
literacy and are incompetent in using digital technology. Moreover, Gabriella,
(2020) confirmed the attempts to implement or enhance digital literacy in basic
education networks are weak.
40
Moreover, this study reveals digital literacy skills and the degree of their
availability among teachers and administrators of the Ministry of Education in the
government sector and public schools. In the statistical report for the academic
year 2018/2019 by the Jordanian Ministry of Education, the number of teachers
and administrators working in the ministry across various governorates was
87,734 and 17,643, respectively (Al-Omari, 2019).
This current study is practically important because it is a recent study in the digital
literacy field. In this way, it enriches the Arab research and calls for researches to
pay more attention to this subject from different angles so that more
comprehensive studies are conducted, contributing to supporting theoretical
literature in general and Jordanian Arab research in particular.
This study provides a list of digital literacy skills, which reveals the strengths and
weaknesses of their degree of availability in teachers and administrators of the
Jordanian Ministry of Education. Therefore, it benefits the experts, researchers,
those concerned with digital literacy and those in charge of designing training
programs for teachers and administrators of the Ministry of Education on digital
literacy skills.
A report by the UNICEF, (2017) explained that one-third of the world's Internet
users are children and adolescents and the group that accesses the Internet the
most are young people (15–24 years old). This conclusion indicates the ease of
connection to the Internet, especially with the widespread ownership of
smartphones among school students and their involvement in digital literacy to a
large extent (Hanafy, 2019). Thus, digital literacy has become one of the features
of education in knowledge societies, where teachers and administrators of the
Ministry of Education are involved.
The current study investigates one of the top research issues as part of scientific
research priorities in the education sector in recent years (2011–2020) (The Higher
Council for Science and Technology, 2010). Hence, more studies are warranted on
digital literacy skills and their availability among teachers and administrators of
the Ministry of Education in Jordan.
2. Literature Review
Digital literacy skills are defined as open and dynamic processes dependent on
interactive communication, which require knowledge to use ICTs, especially the
Internet, and contribute to a new understanding of cultural creativity (Kumar &
Bhushan, 2020). Digital literacy is related to an individual's ability and knowledge
to access and use the technology needed to live, learn, and work in a society where
communication and accessing information are the basis of functioning efficiently
(Al-Omari, 2019).
A digitally literate individual must be able to use both cognitive and technical
skills. Cognitive skills are brain-based skills essential in acquiring, manipulating
and reasoning with data. Teachers at the Ministry of Education in Jordan must
41
have the fundamental digital skills to conduct engaging classroom sessions that
maximise students' learning abilities (Levy, 2018).
At an educational institute, a digitally literate teacher and administrator must

understand the importance of acquiring and using the correct information
efficiently to empower students so that they can create and produce innovative
work, evaluate and justify a situation, analyse and connect ideas, apply and use
knowledge learned, understand and explain concepts and recall facts.
While acquiring all the essentials from the world of digits, teachers and
administrators must be cautious about using the correct information. They have a
big responsibility to direct their students' minds to a safe and rich path (Bhaumik,
2020).
Another fundamentally important point for teachers and administrators is to

understand that technology has an expiry date. They must choose devices,
platforms and software programs wisely to avoid continuous change over short
periods. Although change and staying up to date are essential in reaching goals
and exceeding expectations for an institution, selecting reliable and well-tried
digital tools is the key to succeeding, which will provide a solid foundation to any
digital tool in place (Pettersson, 2018).
The administrative section in any educational institute ensures performance

efficiency in all departments. This section acts as a connecting link between senior
management and teachers. Besides, it motivates the workforce and ensures
achieving organisational goals. When the educational institute's digital system is
implemented, all employees must be familiar with and trained to use the same
software and platforms. Such decisions are made by the senior management, who
will ensure that all teachers are operating systematically.
Now that we have a clearer picture of what skills are needed for high competency
at the educational institutes in Jordan, we need to research the degree of their
availability in teachers and administrators of the Ministry of Education. Are such
skills available? If so, to what degree?
Pratolo & Solikhati, (2020) investigated digital literacy implementation in a

private junior high school in Temanggung, identified teachers' attitudes in
practising digital literacy and explored the challenges and coping mechanisms.
They used a qualitative research method, where the interviews were conducted
on a sample consisting of 10 teachers in the school. The results indicated that
computers and smartphones were used as digital devices. In practice, teachers
showed positive attitudes in terms of considering the syllabus as a core,
understanding the teacher's position, developing effective learning, using
multiple literacies and enhancing the four language skills. Meanwhile, lack of
technology, students' background, lack of time and limited budgeting were
obstacles in implementing digital literacy.
Gibbs, (2019) determined educators' beliefs about using technology in their

classrooms and their digital literacy knowledge and suggested effective
42
promotion tactics for professional development workshops. A mixed-methods

approach has been used in the study, where an online questionnaire was
distributed and interviews were conducted on a sample of 40 elementary (K-5)
teachers and in Delaware County, Indiana. The results indicated that teachers
need to acquire key digital literacy skills and feel comfortable teaching them
before leaving the professional development course.
On the other hand, Yazon et al., (2019) determined the relationship between
digital literacy, digital competence and educators' research productivity. They
followed a descriptive correlational research design, where a questionnaire was
distributed to a sample of 56 permanent faculty members at Laguna State
Polytechnic University, Los Banos Campus. The results indicated a descriptive
correlational and significant relationship between faculty members' digital
literacy and productivity.
McGuinness & Fulton, (2019) explored the role of the teacher's digital literacy
(TDL) among other schools' digital literacy (SDC) components in determining the
Digital Divide (DD) in Ghana's primary schools. The results indicated that the
accessibility, ease-of-use, design and duration of tutorials were deemed effective
in user engagement; however, several technological challenges were identified,
such as browser incompatibility, uneven sound quality and general Internet
connection issues, which disrupted the learning process.
Hosseini, (2018) examined teachers' perceptions about digital literacy instruction

in early elementary school grades to identify existing obstacles to digital literacy
education and support systems necessary to enhance instruction. A quantitative
descriptive approach was used by distributing an online questionnaire to a
sample of 37 kindergarten and first- and second-grade teachers in California. The
results indicated that early elementary grade students in this school district are
provided with more opportunities to practice computer literacy than information
literacy skills. Teachers identified the high student-to-teacher ratio, lack of time to
plan and teach technology lessons and limited self-management and
independence skills as major impediments to digital literacy instruction in the
early elementary grades. Conversely, they demonstrated that access to district-
level technology coaches and on-site technical support, opportunities to observe
demo technology lessons and their knowledge of grade-level technology
standards enhance their ability to teach digital literacy skills.
Tewari & Birla, (2018) examined the role of digital literacy of faculties on students'
learning of various specialisations. They used a quantitative descriptive approach
by distributing a questionnaire to a sample of 125 students from Denver Language
School. The results indicated that students from different backgrounds would
perceive the faculty's DL in their individualist way. The course (graduate and
postgraduate) influences students' learning experience and understanding.
Students in the current education scenario preferred the incorporation of digital
technology and digital platforms in teaching pedagogy.
43
Spante et al., (2018) established an understanding of referencing strategy to digital

literacy and digital competence over time, disciplines, countries, methods and
analysis levels. In this systematic literature review, three databases were used:
Web of Science, Scopus and Education Resources Information Center. Initially,
107 publications between 1997 and 2017 were found, with 28 addressing digital
competence and 79 digital literacy. The results indicated that future research in
HE addresses digital literacy or digital competence needs to pay more attention
to definitions' origin.
Furthermore, research needs to analyse how the different definitions might

complement or contradict each other. It also becomes important to clarify the
rationale for the preference of the specific selection of different definitions. Such
clarifications facilitate understanding the research effort linked to investigating
policy implementation or a more critical investigation linked to digital
competence or digital literacy.
Çam & Kiyici, (2017) identified digital literacy levels of prospective teachers in
terms of several variables. Quantitative method was used where a questionnaire
was distributed to a sample of 354 prospective teachers studying in different
departments of Sakarya University College of Education. The results indicated
that digital literacy levels were high in prospective male teachers (gender
variable) and computer education and instructional technology teaching
department (department variable). The research found that prospective teachers'
income levels did not affect their digital literacy levels.
Kumari & D’Souza, (2016) studied digital literacy levels among secondary school
teachers in Mangaluru Taluk. They used a quantitative method by distributing a
questionnaire to a sample of 73 teachers of private, aided and government schools
of urban and rural areas across Mangaluru Taluk. The results indicated that
digital literacy levels were average; the extent to which teachers in secondary
schools use ICT was average; no significant difference was observed between the
digital literacy level among teachers at secondary schools in urban and rural areas
in Mangaluru Taluk.
Quaicoe & Pata, (2015) identified the role of the teacher's digital literacy (TDL)
among other schools' digital literacy (SDC) components in determining Digital
Divide (DD) among Ghana's primary schools. They used a quantitative method
where a questionnaire was distributed to a sample of 17 schools in urban,
periurban and rural locations—randomly sampled from circuits in a metropolitan
region of Ghana. The results indicated that DD in the sample schools was
significantly influenced by TDL and ICT-related policy documents.
When the previous studies such as (Hosseini, 2018; Spante et al, 2018; Çam and
Kiyici, 2017; Kumari and D’Souza, 2016) in the literature are observed, it has been
detected that there are very few studies that focus on investigating digital literacy
skills for the academic employees of the educational workplaces. Thus, this study
is thought to be beneficial for the literature in terms of identifying the digital
literacy skills and providing suggestions to enhance these skills.
44
3. Research Methodology
3.1. Research Goal
The study investigates digital literacy skills and the degree of their availability
among teachers and administrators of the Ministry of Education. The current
study seeks to answer the following questions:
1. What are the digital literacy skills for teachers and administrators working
in the Ministry of Education in Jordan?
2. What is the availability degree of digital literacy skills among teachers and
administrators of the Ministry of Education in Jordan?
3. Is there a statistically significant difference in the availability of digital
literacy skills for the Ministry of Education teachers and administrators
due to job title and the educational workplace?
4. What is the effect of digital functional and informational skills on digital
competence in teaching, learning, evaluating and empowering learners?
3.2. Study Design

This study follows a mixed methodology that combines quantitative and
qualitative approaches to answer the above-mentioned questions. A qualitative
approach is used to detect digital literacy skills by conceptual analysis (Gibbs,
2019). the researchers identified the four open-ended question and applied on the
respondents, next they summarized and codded the answers text under each
question into manageable content categories (Hosseini, 2018), and then detected
the patterns(themes) which were the digital literacy skills for teachers and
administrators. A quantitative (descriptive) approach is used to measure the
degree of digital literacy availability. We measured the differences in digital
literacy due to job title and workplace by using MANOVA. Correlation analysis
was conducted to detect the relationship between digital functional and
informational skills and digital competence.
3.3. Participants
The study population consisted of all teachers and administrators of the Ministry
of Education in Jordan. The convenience sample consisted of 139 teachers and 73
administrators across 173 governmental sectors and 39 private sectors.
3.4. Data Collection

Two instruments were developed to collect data: an interview and a
questionnaire. A semi-structured interview was developed for teachers and
administrators of the Ministry of Education after reviewing the literature and
previous digital literacy studies. The instrument contains all digital literacy skills
summarised from the literature in addition to the open-ended question of what
are the digital literacy skills that teachers and administrators should achieve? The
participants will be asked in individual interviews with 15 experts to answer the
open-ended question and whether they agree with the skills already included in
this instrument as required skills for the study sample.
A questionnaire with a five-point Likert scale was developed according to the

final digital literacy skills identified by the semi-structured interview to determine
the degree of their availability in teachers and administrators of the Ministry of
Education and differences in digital skills due to experiences, educational level
45
and workplace. The questionnaires consisted of 40 skills categorised into four

themes: digital functional skills (8 skills), digital informational skills (13 skills),
digital competence in terms of teaching, learning and evaluation (11 skills) and
digital competence in terms of empowering learners (8 skills).
3.5. Validity and Reliability

To check the first instrument's validity and reliability (individual interview), we
composed the questions while consulting three academic leadership experts. The
instrument's initial draft was presented to two professors in education
specialising in digital literacy studies to be reviewed and get genuine feedback.
The instrument was presented to teachers and administrators with more than ten
years of experience, and feedback was taken for any improvements or
adjustments. Experts in evaluation and measurements reviewed the instrument
and checked the correlation between the interview questions and the study’s
questions. The instrument was presented to linguists to check the clarity of the
questions. Five experts with more than ten years of experience in the educational
field reviewed the list of digital literacy skills and open-ended questions. Then,
the instrument was adjusted accordingly.
To check the content validity of the questionnaire, we presented in its initial form
to several specialists in digital literacy studies to evaluate the questionnaire in
terms of accuracy, comprehensiveness of the themes and the affiliation of
paragraphs with each theme. The instrument was modified according to their
observations.
The questionnaire was then applied to a pilot sample of 30 teachers and

administrators of the Ministry of Education in Jordan that is different from the
current sample. The instrument showed that Bartlett's test for Sphericity is
significant at α = 0.05 and all eigenvalues are greater than one. Moreover, KMO
value was greater than 0.5 (Hair et al., 2010), meaning that the instrument has
enough validity to be used. The instrument's reliability was verified using
Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.97, which showed very good reliability (Pallant,
2005). Table 1 shows the correlation coefficient and Cronbach’s alpha according
to digital literacy skills.
Table 1: Constructive validity and reliability of digital literacy skills questionnaire

paragraphs
Validity Reliability
Creative thinking skill Bartlett's
No. of
Cronbach’s
Eigenvalue KMO test for Sig
alpha
Sphericity
Digital functional skills 8 4.82 0.91 899.53 0.000* 0.91
Digital informational
13 7.22 0.93 1650.48 0.000* 0.93
skills
Digital competence in
terms of teaching, 11 4.58 0.93 1707.88 0.000* 0.94
learning and evaluation
terms of empowering 8 5.47 0.90 1270.64 0.000* 0.93
learners
Overall 0.97
46
3.6. Analysis of Data

• Kolmogorov–Smirnov test examined the normality distribution. The
test showed that the sampled population is normally distributed with
D (200) = 0.083, P = 200.
• Content analysis was used to find the in-demand digital literacy skills
from the point of view of teachers and administrators of the Ministry
of Education in Jordan.
• Frequencies, means, standard deviations and ranks were used to
measure the degree of the availability of digital literacy skills in
teachers and administrators of the Ministry of Education in Jordan.
• MANOVA was used to measure the differences in the degree of digital
literacy skills in teachers and administrators of the Ministry of
Education in Jordan attributed to the educational workplace,
educational level and years of experiences.
• Correlation analysis was used to detect the relation between digital
functional and informational skills and digital competence.
4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Qualitative Results: The Digital Literacy Skills for Teachers and
Administrators in the Educational Workplace
The digital literacy skills survey was conducted by reviewing previous studies
and then conducting an individual interview with specialists in educational
technology to answer the open-ended question: What digital literacy skills should
be available to teachers and administrative staff in the educational workplace in
Jordan? After they provided the answers, the skills from the theoretical literature
and the answers' content were analysed, resulting in general axes, domains, and
items. The respondents divided the skills into two main axes, where the first is a
requirement for the second, and each axis was divided into two subdomains.
Figures 1–4 show the digital skills according to the designed model of the
respondents’ answers.
Figure 1: Digital functional skills
47
Figure 2: Digital informational skills
Figure 3: Digital competence in terms of empowering learners
48
Figure 4: Digital competence in terms of teaching, learning, and evaluation
The results in figures (1-4) indicate that the digital literacy skills classify into four
domains which are digital informational skills, digital functional skills, Digital
competencies in empowering learners, and Digital competencies in Learning-
Teaching processing. The researchers attribute these classifications of digital
literacy to the fact that educational technology experts understand the sequence
of technological skills that any workers should learn to acquire the overall skills
of digital literacy. Thus, workers become more aware of recent knowledge in
digital literacy and how to employ it. This result is consistent with that by Tewari,
S., and Birla, M (2018).
4.2. Quantitative Results

4.2.1. The Degree of Availability of Digital Literacy Skills among Teachers and
Administrators
Table 2 shows that the fields' means ranged between 3.68 and 3.49, with standard
deviations of 0.84–0.72. The value of the total arithmetic mean was 3.59, with a
standard deviation of 0.70; this indicates that the degree of availability of digital
literacy skills among workers in Jordan's educational workplace was medium.
49
Table 2. Means and standard deviations of the availability degree for the study
themes
Field Mean SD Rank Availability

degree*
Digital functional skills 3.59 0.81 2 Medium
Informational digital literacy 3.68 0.72 1 Available
Digital competency in learning, 3 Medium

3.57 0.76
teaching and assessment
Digital competence in empowering 4 Medium

3.49 0.84
learners
Overall 3.59 0.70 Medium

*Standard grade: not available, 1–2.33; medium, 2.34–3.67); available, 3.68–5.
Concerning digital functional skills, the values of the arithmetic averages were
3.72–3.42, with standard deviations of 1.11–0.98. The highest average was for the
item "choosing the right tool to search for educational information and use it to
create or record it" and the lowest average for the paragraph "digital information
awareness: knowing the types of databases that can be conducted by information
such as the electronic library web and others." We note that 88% of the skills were
of medium availability and the overall arithmetic average for this field was 3.59
with a standard deviation of 0.81 with a medium degree, indicating that the
degree of availability of digital functional skills among workers in the educational
workplace in Jordan was medium.
For the field of information digital literacy, the arithmetic averages ranged were
4.05–3.19, with standard deviations of 1.03–0.80. The highest average was for the
item "use common keywords to search for information via the Internet." The
lowest average was for the paragraph "informational digital organisation: using
the (social bookmark) to organise and share information.” We note that 54% of the
skills have been highly appreciated. In general, we note that this field's overall
arithmetic means was 3.68 with a standard deviation of 0.72, with a large degree,
indicating the degree of availability of informational digital literacy among Jordan
workers' educational workplace was available.
In the field of digital competence in the educational learning process, the values
of the arithmetic averages were 3.73–3.41 with standard deviations of 1.01–0.92.
The highest average was for the item "I use different websites and search
strategies to find various digital resources, choose and adapt them to my needs."
Furthermore, the lowest average was for the item "use digital technologies to
allow students to plan, document and monitor their work such as self-assessment
tests." We note that 90% of the skills was rated average. In general, the overall
arithmetic average for this field was 3.57 with a standard deviation of 0.76, with a
medium degree, indicating that the degree of availability of digital competence in
learning, teaching and evaluation among workers in the educational workplace
in Jordan was medium.
50
For digital competence in empowering learners, the values of arithmetic averages

were 3.65– 3.39 with standard deviations of 1.04–0.96 and a medium degree of
availability. The highest average was for the paragraph "I encourage students to
use digital technologies creatively to solve concrete problems and overcome
obstacles and challenges that would reduce the effectiveness of learning" and that
the lowest average for the item "I train students on how to assess the reliability of
the information and determine the information related to the activity under
study." A standard amount of 0.84 with a medium degree indicates that the degree
of digital competence availability in empowering learners was medium.
The researchers attribute this result to the fact that the training courses that school
staff, teachers and administrators take focus on the theoretical side of
informational literacy and lack the functional and practical side of using this
literacy.
The degree of availability of informational digital literacy among workers in the

educational workplace in Jordan was large. The researchers attribute this result to
the fact that informational digital literacy is widely spread among workers in
Jordanian schools, as the Ministry of Education provides free courses to obtain the
ICDL certificate, which provides them with many skills related to the Internet and
information and digital literacy.
The results indicated that the degree of availability of digital competency in

learning, teaching and evaluation among workers in educational workplaces in
Jordan was medium, which could be because computer laboratories in schools are
limited and unavailable, except for computer research teachers, and other teachers
have no opportunity to use these laboratories. Lack of training on how to use the
Internet and digital media in teaching, the curriculum length and lack of time due
to the classroom's momentum do not enable the teacher to benefit from the
Internet inside schools and constitute a barrier to employing digital skills.
The results indicated that the degree of availability of digital competence in
empowering learners was medium because the training provided to Jordanian
school personnel does not focus on employing these skills (such as taking into
account individual differences and preparing assignments) in a digital
environment.
These results are consistent with those in previous studies (Gibbs, 2019; Kumari
& D’Souza, 2016; McGuinness & Fulton, 2019; Pratolo & Solikhati, 2020) on the
existence of informational digital literacy to a large extent with medium digital
competence in learning, teaching and evaluation. Yazon et al., (2019)
demonstrated the existence of high digital competence in learning, teaching and
evaluation and the empowerment of learners.
4.2.2. The Significant Difference in the Degree of Availability of Digital Literacy due to
Job Title and the Educational Workplace
In Table 3, apparent differences were observed in arithmetic mean values to the
degree of availability of digital skills in general and each field between teachers
and administrators. The table also shows apparent differences in the values of the
51
averages of total availability and each field between workers in the public and
private sectors. Multiple variance analysis was used to examine the substance of
these differences and their statistical significance, as shown in Tables 4-5.
Table 3. Means and standard deviation of the availability degree according to job title
and educational workplace
Job title Educational workplace
Field Teacher Administrative Public Private

M(SD) M(SD) sector sector
M(SD) M(SD)
Functional digital skills 3.44(0.77) 3.87(0.79) 3.51(0.83) 3.91(0.62)
Informational digital 3.56(0.71) 3.90(0.69) 3.64(0.75) 3.84(0.54)

literacy
Digital competency in 3.47(0.75) 3.77(0.74) 3.52(0.79) 3.80(0.55)

learning, teaching and
assessment
Digital competence in 3.41(0.80) 3.64(0.89) 3.64(0.86) 3.61(0.72)

empowering learners
The overall tool 3.48(0.68) 3.81(0.70) 3.55(0.73) 3.80(0.50)
The researchers attribute these results to the fact that administrators are keen to
enrol in training courses to shift from teaching to management and achieve career
development. Thus, they become more aware of recent developments in digital
literacy and how to employ it. This result is consistent with that by Hosseini,
(2018).
The results in Table 4 indicate that differences in the degree of availability of

digital literacy skills according to job title were statistically significant at a level of
α = 0.05, with all p values being statistically significant (0.05 = α). The difference
was in favour of the administrative job title, where the arithmetic means were
higher than those for the teachers.
Table 4. Differences significance in availability degree due to job title (MANOVA).

Job title Error Macro
squares
squares
squares
average
Sum of
Sum of
Sum of
Square
Theme
df F Sig df df
Functional digital skills 9.184 1 9.184 15.097 0.00** 103.325 210 136.929 211
Digital information
5.251 1 5.251 10.671 0.001** 117.670 210 108.575 211
literacy
Digital competency in
learning, teaching and 4.325 1 4.325 7.719 0.006** 145.005 210 121.995 211
assessment
2.678 1 2.678 3.879 0.047** 98.533 210 147.683 211
empowering learners
Overall 5.063 1 5.063 10.790 0.001** 103.325 210 103.596 211
52
Table 5 shows that for the workplace variable, statistically significant differences
were observed at the level of significance of α = 0.05 in the degree of availability
of digital functional skills, digital competency in learning, teaching and evaluation
and digital literacy skills in general. The value of q was statistically significant at
α = 0.05, and the difference was in favour of the private sector workplace, as the
arithmetic means of their responses were higher than those for workers in the
public sector.
Table 5. Differences significance in availability degree due to the educational

workplace (MANOVA).
Educational workplace Error Macro
squares
average
squares
squares
Sum of
Sum of
Sum of
Square
Theme
df F Sig df df
Functional digital skills 4.923 1 4.923 7.833 0.006** 132.005 210 136.929 211
Digital information 107.263 210 108.575 211
1.312 1 1.312 2.568 0.111
literacy
Digital competency in 2.436 1 2.436 4.279 0.040** 119.559 210 121.995 211
learning, teaching and
assessment
Digital competence in 749 1 0.749 1.070 0.302 146.935 210 147.683 211
empowering learners
Overall 2.011 1 2.011 4.158 0.043** 101.584 210 103.596 211
This conclusion agrees with a previous study where workers in the private sector
were keener to possess and employ digital skills to maintain and advance their
work. Simultaneously, public sector workers are more confident in job security
and do not feel the need to develop in the digital field. These results are consistent
with Hosseini's study (Hosseini, 2018) while conflicting with Kumari & D’Souza,
(2016).
4.2.3. The Effect of Digital Functional and Informational Skills on Digital Competences
Table 6 and Figure 5 shows that functional skills and digital informatics affect
digital competence in learning, teaching, evaluation and empowerment of
learners, with a correlation coefficient value of 0.791, which indicates a high
degree of correlation. The impact percentage reached 62.6% and this relationship
is statistically acceptable, as the value of P was 351,404 with a significance level of
0.00; this value is statistically significant at the level of statistical significance of =
0.05.
Table 6. Simple linear regression of the relation between the axes of digital literacy
skills
Correlation coefficient (r) Impact ratio (R2) F Sig

0.791 0.626 351.404 0.000
53
Figure 5: Scatterplot of Correlation between axes of digital literacy
Therefore, having functional and informational digital skills would make workers
in the educational workplace more effective in communicating with students,
colleagues and parents, thus more effective in the learning and teaching process.
These skills also help students and direct them to perform their learning tasks
using the necessary technologies, which led to students' empowerment and
acquiring technical skills by exchanging technical expertise with their teachers.
5. Conclusion
This research was able to draw several conclusions based on the utilised two
instruments and their results as follows. First, the degree of availability of digital
literacy skills for workers in educational workplaces in Jordan was generally
medium. Second, in educational workplaces, administrators have a higher digital
literacy than teachers. Third, workers in the private educational workplace have
higher digital literacy than those in the public sector. Fourth, functional and
informational skills contribute to raising digital competence in learning, teaching,
assessment and empowering learners.
6. Recommendations
• Train the academic employees of the educational workplaces on digital
literacy skills and standards.
• To increase the investment and funds in digital literacy and development
of digital infrastructure at the educational workplaces.
• To include digital literacy programs in the curriculum of higher learning
institutions, taking into consideration that today’s students, will be
tomorrow’s employees.
• To conduct future studies about digital literacy skills for students in
different educational stages.
54
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the Middle East University, Amman, Jordan, for the
financial support granted to cover this research article's publication fee.
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56

Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 56-72, May 2021
Chronometric Constructive Cognitive Learning

Evaluation Model: Measuring the Consolidation
of the Human Cognition Schema in Psychology
Students’ Memory
Guadalupe Elizabeth Morales-Martinez

IISUE, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4662-229X
Maria Isolde Hedlefs-Aguilar

FIME, Nuevo Leon Autonomous University, Monterrey, Nuevo Leon, Mexico
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1138-9835
Janneth Trejo-Quintana
IISUE, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7701-6938
Yanko Norberto Mezquita-Hoyos

Psychology department, Autonomous University of Yucatan, Yucatan, Mexico
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6305-7440
Miriam Sanchez-Monroy
Tecnologico Nacional de Mexico-Instituto Tecnologico de Merida, Yucatan, Mexico
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5263-1216
Abstract. This study illustrates the application of the Chronometric

Constructive Cognitive Learning Evaluation Model to assess learning
about human cognition knowledge schema in 48 second-year psychology
students (79% females, 21% males). In the first phase, the participants
carried out a conceptual definition task based on the Natural Semantic
Networks technique. They defined ten target concepts related to the
course by using verbs, substantives, adjectives, and pronouns (definers).
Participants then rated the grade of relatedness between definers and
targets concepts. Subsequently, the present authors carried out a
computational simulation with data from the first study. In addition,
students participated in a semantic priming experiment. They
participated in a lexical decision task. Participants read pairs of words;
these pairs were sometimes related by cognition scheme or common
association, and sometimes were unrelated. The three tasks were applied
at the start of the course and the end. The computational simulation
analysis and ANOVA indicated that the initial pattern for conceptual
©Authors
57
activation had changed at the end of the course. Additionally, the initial
chronometric behavior of the human cognition schema of the participants
also changed at the end of the course. This evidence supports the idea that
cognitive evaluation tools can help assess the schematic behavior patterns
induced by academic learning.
Keywords: academic learning; knowledge scheme; cognitive evaluation;

semantic priming; psychology students
1. Introduction
Measuring learning is a core part of the academic life of students and teachers.
Learning assessments can be a valuable means of developing, modifying, and
improving the learning and teaching process. In this regard, Harlen (2007)
emphasizes the importance of determining exactly what should be evaluated
because such decision-making influences the creation of learning opportunities,
the selection of the content to be taught, and the design of teaching aids. This
intrinsic link between the assessment of learning and teaching allows students'
skills and knowledge to be certified, providing feedback to teachers on each
student’s learning progress, and providing information on the effectiveness and
quality of the educational system (Lambert & Lines, 2000).
The effectiveness and impact of evaluation on teaching and learning depend on

its validity, reliability, usefulness, and feasibility (Harlen, 2007). The design of
evaluation instruments that are valid and reliable requires a clear definition of the
phenomenon and a precise specification of which indicators related to the
phenomenon should be measured. These two aspects are difficult to establish in
academic learning since most of the mental objects of study in psychology (e.g.,
intelligence, emotions, consciousness), are intangible, and only indirect measures
exist to observe them. The difficulties in defining learning and its cognitive
indicators impacted its study in cognitive psychology. In this regard, Pozo (2006)
mentions that the issue of learning measurement has rarely been explored from
this perspective.
From the cognitive psychology perspective, the cognitive definition of learning

involves at least two relevant aspects. The first is the processing which relates to
how the individual receives the inputs, processes the information, and then
generates an output. The output is the second aspect, whereby the result of the
learning process becomes visible to the observer (e.g., through a motor response)
or leads to an unobservable expression (e.g., cognitive change). In line with the
second expression, Moreno (2010) defines learning as a permanent change in
mental structures due to a person's interaction with the environment. Thus,
academic learning can involve qualitative and quantitative changes in cognitive
knowledge structures due to the experiences a student is exposed to through
interaction with their academic environment. According to Bower (1975), learning
declarative knowledge involves incorporating new information nodes or new
relationships between them, producing changes in knowledge structures. Lopez
et al. (2014) point out that learning also implies the modification of the
relationships between the scheme's concepts and the changes in the weight of
these relationships.
58
According to this cognitive view of learning, Morales-Martinez et al. (2021)

mentioned that academic learning evaluation should involve measuring changes
in the organization of information, the mental structure and in the schematic
behavior (in terms of time and dynamic) due to the exposure to learning
experiences. The measurement of these learning aspects becomes even more
relevant in the current context; as Arieli-Attali (2013) stated, the 21st-century
society has an economy which is based on information. Hence, evaluation of the
complex properties of knowledge is central to academic training for students. In
this regard, cognitive psychology offers a wide range of techniques for measuring
changes in different cognitive structures. In the human memory study, some
techniques can measure changes in knowledge structures produced by
knowledge acquisition in different contexts, including the classroom. One
instance of this is the Chronometric Constructive Cognitive Learning Evaluation
Model or C3-LEM (Lopez et al., 2014; Morales-Martinez & Lopez-Ramirez, 2016;
Morales-Martinez, 2020; Morales-Martinez et al., 2017; Morales-Martinez et al.,
2015).
This model applies human information processing principles (serial and parallel)
to explore and explain how a student's mind forms knowledge structures when
studying a topic. In general, the C3-LEM proposes the combined use of
chronometric and mental representation techniques to evaluate academic
learning, taking into account the processes of selection, storage, and retrieval of
information learned by students. The model comprises of two evaluation phases
(Figure 1). The first refers to constructive evaluation of knowledge that implies
the application of mental representation techniques and computational
simulation to identify the evaluated knowledge scheme's organizational,
structural, and dynamic properties. The second phase, the chronometric
evaluation, involves the application of mental chronometry techniques that
measure the degree of knowledge consolidation in a student's memory. The
following sections present details on each evaluation phase.
Figure 1: Phases and components of the C3-LEM

(Source: Morales-Martinez et al., 2020)
2. Constructive Cognitive Assessment of Knowledge

Constructive cognitive assessment refers measurement of the organization,
structure, and dynamics of the learned knowledge scheme. The C3-LEM proposes
techniques for evaluating the mental representation of knowledge, such as the
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Natural Semantic Networks (NSN), to explore how conceptual nodes are

organized and structured in a student's memory. While studying the dynamics of
mental structures of knowledge, this model suggests the inclusion of neural
networks.
Figueroa et al. (1976) created the NSN to explore the meaning people give to an
object (e.g., a career, a class). This technique contemplates a definitional task.
Participants define a concept (target) with definers such as noun verbs, adjectives,
or pronouns. The participants complete this process of specifying definers within
a time window imposed by the researcher. Participants then weigh their definers
in terms of the degree of relationship they perceive them to have with the target.
Morales-Martinez et al. (2021) point out that some of the most relevant NSN
technique indicators include the frequency of the occurrence of the definer, the
semantic richness or J value, the M value or weight of semantic relevance, and the
Inter-Response Time (IRT). IRTs refers to the time that passes in the recovery and
writing of a definer. The authors make a special mention of this last indicator in
the following section since this work illustrates the usefulness of chronometric
indicators of knowledge. Previous work describes the other values (Morales-
Martinez, Angeles-Castellanos, et al., 2020; Morales-Martinez et al., 2021).
Additionally, a brief description of some NSN values is given in the data analysis
section of this article.
Lopez-Ramirez et al. (2014) proposed using the NSN in the educational field to
explore academic learning. They also suggested that the data obtained through
this technique could help computer simulations of schemata behavior (Lopez-
Ramirez et al., 2015). This proposal gave way to the C3-LEM, which contemplates
the application of NSN before and after students have taken a course, to extract
data that allow computer simulations to emulate the knowledge scheme's
behavior at the beginning and the end of the academic year. In addition, NSN
provides information about the meaning that students attach to the knowledge
learned (Morales-Martinez et al., 2015; Morales-Martinez et al., 2018; Morales-
Martinez et al., 2021; Morales-Martinez & Lopez-Ramirez, 2016; Morales-
Martinez & Santos-Alcantara, 2015).
Computational simulations can show how the schematic activity changes from
the beginning to the end of the course, given academic learning. For example,
Lopez et al. (2015) reported the changes in the scheme activation dynamic through
different domains of knowledge such as customer service, information systems,
and music. Moreover, computer simulations can also provide information about
connections between concepts that are not easy to observe without these tools. For
example, Gonzalez et al. (2013) explored the dynamics and emergence of high
school students' moral knowledge schema. They observed that computational
simulations could identify the information implicitly activated in a student's
mind, activating concepts that were not necessarily the most relevant in the NSN.
To illustrate this result, the authors reported that one parent's activation co-
activated the concept police officer. The co-activation of this concept seems to have
no semantic relationship with the first activated concept; however, when the
60
researchers considered the participants' social and cultural context, they noted a
relationship of psychological meaning.
In general, the NSN and the computational simulations provide indicators that
allow the changes in the mental representation that students form during learning
for a topic to be analyzed. The combination of NSN with experimental cognitive
studies empowers researchers to observe different cognitive aspects of learning.
For example, the inclusion of experiments based on the semantic priming
paradigm could provide information on a schema's chronometric properties. It
could help form a more integrative view of students' learning processes.
3. Chronometric Cognitive Assessment of Knowledge

Chronometric cognitive assessment of learning involves measuring the temporal
patterns of schematic activity. The C3-LEM provides several chronometric
indicators, such as the IRT; this is the time it takes for a definer to appear within
an NSN. The IRT can provide information on the cognitive nature of the concepts.
For example, Morales-Martinez and Santos-Alcantara (2015) reported how the
definers concepts with the greatest semantic weight tend to appear between 30
and 40 seconds, occupying between the third and fifth positions on the list.
Morales-Martinez (2020) surmised that this result might suggest that the M value
may be more related to the schema's organization properties than the ease with
which students access the schema content.
On the other hand, cognitive evaluation includes learning indicators as the

reaction times (RT); these are generally obtained from the application of semantic
priming studies. After this, a neural network classifies the RT to discriminate
whether the students had integrated the academic content learned during a course
into their long-term memory structures at the end of the course. The main
proposal of the semantic priming paradigm' is that the recognition patterns for
the stimuli (semantic or eidetic) are affected by the context that precedes them.
For example, when presenting a stimulus (word or image) which is preceded by
another semantically related stimulus, people will recognize the second stimulus
more quickly or accurately compared to when there is no semantic relationship
between both stimuli. Generally, semantic priming is explored through lexical
decision tasks (McNamara, 2005); these involve the presentation of pairs of words
with different relationships. The participant's task is to read the first word (prime)
and then read the last word (target) and decide if it is a word or non-word. Target
word recognition times can indicate whether there is a semantic relationship
between it and the target.
The recognition times, in the categorization of the word pairs with a schematic
relationship, are of particular interest in C3-LEM studies because they provide
information about the consolidation of the knowledge schema in memory. C3-
LEM proposes that semantic relationships between the word pairs related to the
evaluated knowledge schema do not exist in the student's memory before the
course, so the target recognition times in the schematic pairs will be significantly
different at the beginning of the course compared to at the end. Also, these will
61
differ from those obtained in the targets of word pairs with other types of semantic
relationships (e.g., associative, categorical, or unrelated).
The semantic priming effect produced by a schematic relationship is called

"schematic priming" (Lopez, 1996; Lopez & Theios, 1992). In academic learning,
schematic priming is present in word recognition tasks related to knowledge
schema that the student is learning on a course. When a student stores the
conceptual nodes learned in class in long-term memory, the recognition times for
schema words have decreased by the end of the course (e.g., Gonzalez et al., 2013;
Morales-Martinez, Lopez-Perez, et al., 2020). The opposite happens when
students do not consolidate the information learned in their memory (Morales-
Martinez, Angeles-Castellanos, et al., 2020).
On the other hand, some studies indicate that spatial strategies can affect the
recognition times for schematic words. For example, Urdiales-Ibarra et al. (2018)
explored the use of concept maps to reinforce the learning of a biology scheme
among high school students. They observed that only the group that used the
concept maps obtained a schematic priming effect in recognizing words
associated with the course. In contrast, the group which did not use maps, seem
not to have consolidated the information in their memory. From the present
authors' point of view, greater experimental controls in spatial strategies are
lacking in this study.
The exploration of new knowledge domains with C3-LEM studies can enhance
the comprehension of the cognitive process through which students’ progress in
their conceptual understanding in a domain of knowledge. These studies can also
provide information on the learning strategies that students use to expand their
learning. Thus, this work aimed to contribute to the formation of this body of
empirical evidence by exploring the cognitive properties of a knowledge scheme
on human cognition in psychology students. In particular, the main objective of
this study was to explore the cognitive changes on evaluated schema as a result
of academic learning. When students learn information from a course, the time it
takes them to access and retrieve this information from memory decreases from
the beginning of the course to the end. Thus, the authors looked for changes in the
temporal patterns relating to recovering information. Moreover, academic
learning should influence schema activation, and so the initial conceptual
activations at the beginning of the course should be different those at the end.
Bearing this in mind, another objective of this study was to observe variations in
the definers’ initial activity at the end of the course. Finally, if students
consolidated the course information in their long-term memory, then they should
cognitively access this information more quickly at the end of the course
compared with the beginning. Then, a final objective was to determine if the
recognition time for schema words was faster at the end of the course than the
beginning of the course.
62
4. Method
4.1. Study Design
The authors applied the NSN technique to observe behavior related to a human
cognition scheme and carried out a computational simulation based on Lopez and
Theios (1992). Subsequently, to explore the temporal properties of the
participants' knowledge schema on human cognition, the researchers designed an
experimental study based on the semantic priming paradigm with a lexical
decision task.
4.2. Participants
The participants were 48 second-year psychology students who took a course on
human cognition. The participants' ages ranged from 19 to 34 years old (M = 20.3,
SD = 2.5); of these, 38 (79%) were females, and 10 (21%) were males. All the
students were volunteers and gave informed consent to participate.
4.3. Instruments and Materials

The authors obtained a list of definers with the Protocol for the Collection of
Target Concepts and Central and Deferred Definers (Morales-Martinez, 2015).
This protocol is a procedure that allows the teacher to select target and definer
concepts that are central to the development of the course. The selected definers
were organized into pairs of prime-target stimuli (e.g., cognition-conditional,
cognitive-heuristic, perception-supervisor). The authors used these prime-target
pairs to form the experimental conditions for the semantic priming study. Also,
the researchers used EVCOG software to design, apply, and analyze data from
mental representation and semantic priming studies. The EVCOG also allows
computational simulations to be carried out on the NSN data (Morales-Martinez,
Angeles-Castellanos et al., 2020).
4.4. Procedure
Students performed a concept definition task based on the NSN technique
(Morales-Martinez et al., 2021). Participants had to define ten target concepts
related to human cognition schema. They used nouns, verbs, and adjectives as
definers to define each target concept. Participants then rated each definer on a
10-point scale based on the degree of relatedness to the target that the participants
perceived the definer to have. While 1 represented a weak definer or a poor
relationship to the target concept, 10 indicated a definer closely related to the
target concept. Subsequently, the researchers applied a Boltzmann neural
network with constraints satisfaction to the NSN study data. First, the researchers
used the EVCOG software to obtain the association weights matrix between the
definers. The software calculates the probability that two definers co-occur,
through a modified algorithm from Rumelhart et al. (1986) by Lopez and Theios
(1992) and Lopez (1996).
During the second phase, students performed a lexical decision task based on the
semantic priming paradigm. First, students participated in a practice session to
become familiar with the experimental activity. Later, the participants performed
the experimental task. Each experimental condition consisted of pairs of words
organized with an experimental sequence illustrated in Figure 2. First, a dot
63
appeared in the center of the computer screen for 500 milliseconds; it centered
each participant's attention. Subsequently, a prime appeared and remained on the
screen for 250 milliseconds. Then, a blank space appeared for 50 milliseconds.
Finally, the target appeared on the screen and remained until the participant had
performed the experimental task. The task consisted of silently reading the prime
and the target and then deciding whether the latter was well written. The study
duration for each participant ranged from 7 to 8 minutes, depending on their
characteristics.
Figure 2: A sequence of an experimental trial in the semantic priming study

Note: SOA = Stimulus Onset Asynchrony, ISI = Inter Stimulus Interval
5. Analyzing the Data

Three analyses were carried out on participants' data. First, the authors made a
visual inspection of the distribution of IRTs obtained from the definers in all NSN.
Then, the researchers explored the temporality pattern of the definers of the target
with greater semantic richness, in line with Morales-Martinez et al. (2021).
Semantic richness or J value refers to the number of definers that a person can
generate to represent an object. Subsequently, a computational simulation was
carried out on the concepts with the highest M values. The M value refers to the
quantitative judgment that a participant makes about the semantic relevance that
each definer has in representing the evaluated target. Finally, the authors applied
a repeated-measures ANOVA on the data from the semantic priming study.
6. Results
6.1. Qualitative analysis of the IRT of the NSN concepts
The authors visually inspected the inter-response times or IRTs to observe the
temporal pattern for definers before and after the course. Figure 3 shows that the
distribution bias of the IRTs contracts from right to left. This finding implies a
decrease in the recovery time for the definers after the course. Also, note that the
M-value for many concepts had increased after the course.
64
Figure 3: Inter-response times for the definers before and after the course
On the other hand, Figure 4 compared the IRT patterns obtained at the beginning
and end of the course between concepts with the highest and lowest semantic
weight reported in Morales-Martinez et al. (2021).
Figure 4: Comparison between definers' inter-response times for the target a) with
greater and b) less semantic richness at the beginning and end of the course
Figure 4 reveals that the targets with the greatest and the least semantic richness
(memory and consciousness) had changes in the content and relevance weighting
for definers. For example, although the students conserved the 60% of initial
definers to define memory, they showed a possible change in their understanding
65
of the meaning of this target; at the beginning of course, they gave greater weight
to definers related to structure, while at the end of course, students include,
among the most relevant definers, those related to the process and structure of
human memory. Additionally, there was a change in the IRT in terms of recovery
for the definers. For example, at the end of the course, the students gave greater
semantic relevance to the definers of storage and retrieval. In both cases, the
retrieval time window changed at the end of the course. Also, the common
definers of consciousness (attention, cognitive process, cognition) changed their
semantic weight (J value) and their access time at the end of the course.
6.2. Computational simulation

A computational simulation was carried out using data from the previous study
by Morales-Martinez et al. (2021). The objective was to observe the schematic
behavior of the definer concepts with the highest semantic weight (Table 1).
Table 1. Definers and semantic weights were obtained in the study by Morales-
Martinez et al. (2021)
Before course
Target Definer M
Cognitive psychology Cognitive process 159
Cognition Cognitive process 158
Attention Cognitive process 129
Memory STM 127
Reasoning To think 117
Decision making Choice 104
Perception Sense 97
Representation Schemata 95
Consciousness Mind 78
Problem solving Reasoning 64
After course
Target Definer M
Cognitive psychology Cognitive process 230
Cognition Cognitive process 259
Attention Filter 211
Memory Store 286
Reasoning Reasoning 239
Decision making Choice 222
Perception Sensation 182
Representation Schemata 261
Consciousness Attention 134
Problem solving objective 114
Note: M = semantic weight
66
The definers with the highest semantic weight at the end of the course were
activated with the restrictions satisfaction´s neural net. Then, the authors
observed the co-activation pattern. Tables 2 and 3 show the co-activations
obtained to the definer clamped of cognitive process. The authors selected this
definer because it has the highest appearance frequency and is among the definers
with the highest M value, according to the NSN, at the beginning and the end of
the course.
Table 2. Co-activated definitions for the stapling concept of cognitive processes before
the course
Definer Activation Definer Activation
Store * STM -
Analysis - Memory *
Learning * Mental -
Attention - Mind *
Selective attention - LTM *
Capacity * Models -
Brain * WM *
Science - Object -
Cognition * Observe *
Concentration - Options *
Concepts * Thought -
Behavior - Think -
Consciousness - Perception -
Choice - Processing -
Schemata - Cognitive process *
State of mind - Reasoning -
Stimuli * To reason *
Study * Reality -
Evaluation - Remember -
Focus * Memories *
Human - Recovery -
Imagen * Senses *
Information * Sense -
Internal * Symbols -
Interpretation * Solutions *
Logic * Vigil *
Note: * Co-activated − Inactive.
67
Table 3: Co-activated definitions for the stapling concept of cognitive processes after
the course
Definer Activation Definer Activation Definer Activation
Store * Implicit * Syllogism -
Alternatives - Unconscious * Normative -
Analogical - Inductive * Threshold -
Hot * Information *
Attention - Interpret *
Divided * Logic *
Sustained - LTM -
Absence * Memory *
Capacity * Mind -
Science * Goal *
Coding * STM -
Cognition * Attenuation -
Cold - STM *
Concepts - WM -
Conclusions * Neisser *
Knowledge - Objective *
Realize * Choices -
Decision - Direct -
Choice - Perception *
Schemata - HIP *
Initial state - Premises -
Stimuli * Problem *
Strategies - Processing -
Evaluation - Process *
Experience - Psychology *
Explicit - Reasoning *
Filter - Deductive -
Focus - Retrieve *
Gestalt * Reflector *
Heuristics * Representation *
Human - Selective *
Illusion * Semantics -
Images - Sensation *
To imagine * Senses -
Note: * Co-activated − Inactive.
Note that in the first and second phases, definers with implicit relationships and
those closely related to the activated concept were co-activated. However, during
the first phase, the number of definers related implicitly to the activated target
was greater than during the second phase. In the second part of the evaluation,
the computer simulation resulted in a balanced activation of definers with implicit
and direct relationships.
6.3. Semantic Priming Study

The authors conducted a repeated-measures ANOVA of 2 (course time: beginning
vs. end of the course) x 3 (semantic relationship: associative vs. schematic vs.
68
unrelated pairs of words) on the participants' data (Table 4), with p ≤ .01 as the
significance level.
Table 4: ANOVA of repeated measures between the factors of temporal relation and
state of knowledge
Factor Effect Error F p p2
df MS df MS
Course time (CT) 1 1454649.388 47 23443.495 62.049* .001 .56
Semantic relation (ST) 2 1759834.347 94 9784.957 179.851* .001 .79
CT * ST 2 83875.5138 94 4362.258 19.227* .001 .29
Note: N= 48. ANOVA = analysis of variance; df = degree of freedom; MS = mean square;
p 2 = partial eta squared. *p≤.001
The most relevant factor for word recognition was the semantic relationship
(p2=.72). The difference in word recognition time between the beginning and the
end of the course was more significant in the schematic condition (Figure 5).
Figure 5: Interaction graph between the semantic relationship factor and the course
time factor
7. Discussion
In cognitive psychology, student learning involves changes in the organization,
structure, dynamics, and temporality of the knowledge schemas students learn on
a course. In this work, the main objective was to evaluate, through the C3-LEM,
the dynamics and temporality dimensions of the schema on human cognition that
psychology students learned on a course.
In the NSN study, four different analyses were carried out; three were presented
in the previous article by Morales-Martinez et al. (2021). This article presented the
analysis of the appearance time patterns for the definers for each objective. In
general, the results showed a shortening of the IRT window towards the end of
the course (Figure 3). Other studies with similar data have not discussed the
69
implications of these findings. However, the present authors suggest that this
change in temporal pattern may indicate that the learning of a schema impacts the
level of accessibility for the information stored in the student's memory.
Another interesting observation is that the IRTs for the definer concepts with the
highest M-value seem to require an access time of between 20 and 40 seconds, and
they tend to appear between the 3rd and 5th position in the list of target concepts.
So, although these types of definers are considered the most highly relevant, they
are not the ones that are accessed the fastest. Morales-Martinez and Santos-
Alcantara (2015) obtained similar results; however, these authors did not
hypothesize about this result. From the present authors' point of view, the
definers with the highest M value may take time to appear because they have a
more significant cognitive load. That is, definers that have a greater weight in the
NSN may take longer to appear because of the number of concepts with which
they are associated or connected. Another possibility is that the M value indicates
the degree of complexity of the definer.
On the other hand, the computational simulations indicated that the co-activation
dynamics of knowledge schema evolve over the duration of the course. For
example, the computer simulation activated a large number of definers with
implicit relationships with the target at the beginning of the course. In contrast,
the number of activated definers with closer theoretical relationships to the target
had increased by the end of the course, although definers with implicit
associations continued to appear throughout the network. The present authors
hypothesize that this may agree with the results of the previous study (Morales-
Martinez et al., 2021), in which the semantic network changed from one with a
general approach to one where the student made use of more specific and
specialized concepts.
Finally, the reaction time analyses provided information on the changes in the
chronometric behavior for the scheme learned by the students. The ANOVA
indicated that there was a main effect due to the type of semantic relationship and
also given the application time factor. There was a significant decrease in the
recognition RTs in the schematic words, suggesting that the students stored
conceptual nodes related to the human cognition schema in their long-term
memory. Similar findings have been reported in various studies (e.g., Gonzalez et
al., 2013; Morales-Martinez, Lopez-Perez, et al., 2020); this suggests a change in
the level of consolidation of the scheme learned by the students.
8. Conclusion
The evaluation of learning is a cornerstone for enhancing students’ learning. It can
offer very valuable information to improve learning and teaching processes.
However, commonly, learning evaluation tools are designed to indicate academic
performance as a product while the cognitive processes involved in the academic
learning cannot be explored through these types of tools. Thus, this research work
contributes with a new cognitive tool to measure students’ cognitive gestion on
the information they receive and learn on a course. Here, the authors explored the
learning process among psychology students enrolled on a course on human
70
cognition. In order to achieve the outcome, we used NSN to observe changes in

the schema structure, computational simulation to explore the schema dynamic
and a semantic priming experimental technique to determine the consolidation of
information in the memory of students.
The data suggest that the learning derived from a course can be observed through
changes in the dynamics and schematic temporality. In this regard, the NSN
study's temporal analysis indicates a change in the level of accessibility for the
information stored in memory as a product of academic learning. Computer
simulations suggest that the number of activated conceptual nodes changes as the
course progresses. Additionally, the schema dynamics changed in terms of the
level of generality of the co-activated concepts. Apparently, at the end of the
course, the schema tends to appeal to more specific concepts but preserves
information on implicit relationships throughout the schema. In other words,
what has been learned is not lost but is modulated by new inputs. On the other
hand, the results indicated a change in the recognition time for the schematic
words, suggesting a consolidation of the course information in the student's long-
term memory.
In sum, this study's findings suggest that using the C3-LEM in learning
assessment can help cover needs that Arieli-Attali (2013) regard as central for 21st-
century students in terms of their academic training, namely assessment focused
on information processing skills without neglecting the knowledge measurement
itself.
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Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 73-95, May 2021
Research Supervision as an Antecedent to

Graduate Student Progression in the Public
Higher Institutions of Learning in Uganda
Paul Netalisile Malunda, Juliet Atwebembeire

and Proscovia Namubiru Ssentamu
Uganda Management Institute (UMI), Uganda
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8329-8209
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0464-9929
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4853-3968
Abstract. This study investigated research supervision as a key factor in

the progression of graduate students in the public higher institutions of
learning in Uganda. A cross-sectional survey design was used to conduct
the study. A total of 312 graduate students on masters' degree programs
were randomly selected from 4 public institutions of higher learning. The
study also included 20 research supervisors who were conveniently
selected and 4 purposively selected graduate school heads. A self-
administered structured questionnaire was used to collect the data from
the students. The supervisors and research school heads were
interviewed. The ordered logistic regression and content analysis
methods of data analysis were used to establish the contribution of
research supervision to the graduate students’ progression. The findings
revealed that the supervisor-supervisee relationship, supervisor
guidance and feedback are significant antecedents of the graduate
students’ progression. The study thus concluded that public institutions
of higher learning institute mechanisms that address the supervisor-
supervisee relationship, supervisor guidance and the promptness of any
feedback in order to enhance the students’ progression. The study
recommends that public institutions of higher learning institute i) annual
training programs that focus on promoting a good relationship between
supervisors and supervisees, ii) regular research seminars that bring
together the supervisors and supervisees and iii) regular meetings
between the administration, research supervisors and supervisees in
order to review the students’ progress. The institutions should also
emphasize adherence to the policy of giving feedback on the students’
research work within set time frames.
Keywords: research supervision; students’ progression; higher

institutions of learning

74
1. Introduction
Higher education is a crucial determinant of the global economy and development
(United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO],
2015). It is a key antecedent to economic growth and the attainment of the
Sustainable Development Goals (Fagoyinbo, 2013; Bloom, Canning, Chan & Luca,
2014). However, it can only play this contributory role when a considerate
proportion of graduate students successfully complete their programs on time
(Hebel, 1999 as cited by Eyangu, Bagire & Kibrai, 2014). Graduates at this level are
expected to exhibit the skills of innovation, problem solving and critical thinking
as these are necessary for addressing contemporary social economic issues
(Okwakol, 2009; Bateman & Coles, 2013; National Council for Higher Education
[NCHE], 2014a; Oluwajodu, Blaauw, Greyling & Kleynhans, 2015; Serrano,
Llamazares & Otamendi, 2015).
Unfortunately, less than 30% of the students who enroll on graduate studies in
higher education institutions in Uganda complete their program in the expected
timeframe, despite the efforts by these institutions to improve the completion rate
and reduce the number of dropouts (Ssenyonga & Nakiganda, 2020; NCHE, 2018).
Research studies conducted elsewhere in the world attribute the increasing delay
to complete to high attrition rates and the low completion rates of the graduate
students to the way that their research is supervised (Seidu, 2015; Akparep, Jengre
& Amoah, 2017). According to Seidu (2015), several research supervisors do not
provide sufficient support and guidance during the research process, with some
supervisors taking a long time to give feedback on the students' written work. The
low level of support from the supervisors is compounded by the various perennial
challenges that graduate students face including employment, family and
community demands (Wamala, Ocaya & Oonyu, 2012). In this study, we
examined the influence of research supervision on the graduate students’
progression in the public higher institutions of learning in Uganda.
Historically, similar to several African countries, Uganda’s higher education

system provides the much needed high caliber human resources for political,
social and economic development for a young independent country. In the early
1960s, the quality of education in general and higher education in particular was
rated the best in Eastern Africa (Sekamwa, 2000; Government of Uganda, 1992).
The quality of the education was explained by the conducive learning
environment, highly trained and dedicated academic staff, and suitable student –
lecturer ratio (Rabwoni, 2010). Furthermore, the education was relevant to the
needs of a young independent country to the extent that those who successfully
graduated were immediately absorbed into the virgin labour market. This was
largely because the graduates were equipped with an adequate level of
knowledge and skills that were tailored to the job market (Sekamwa, 2000). The
good quality of the education was attributed to the highly qualified lecturers,
well-equipped and well-funded institutions, adequate support services and staff,
and good governance in all institutions (Mukwanason, 2017).
Unfortunately, the 1960 - 1970 political and economic upheavals grossly affected
the quality of higher education (Ochwa-Echel, 2016). The introduction of market-
75
friendly reforms under the World Bank Structural Adjustment Program in 1987
and the de-regularization policies led to the liberalization of public services
including education. This led to the underfunding of the public sector by the
government (Namubiru, 2014, p.129). Although the World Bank Structural
Adjustment Program was considered to be the best approach to achieving
economic growth through savings and the efficient and effective use of resources,
it had a disastrous effect on the provision of social services such as education. The
liberalization policy led to a systematic reduction in the role of the state to provide
HE as a social service to its people, allowing market forces to penetrate and
influence the education provision (Nantege, 2007). These reforms also led to a shift
in government funding priority from advanced to basic education. This further
negatively affected the provision of quality higher education. Consequently, the
National Council for Higher Education was established under the Universities
and Other Tertiary Institutions Act 2001 to (1) regulate and guide the
establishment and management of institutions of higher learning and (2) to
regulate the quality of higher education, to equate qualifications and to advise the
government on higher education issues (NCHE, 2008, p.5).
Notwithstanding the numerous quality-related challenges, the demand for

graduate education has exponentially increased in the last two decades due to the
belief that higher education qualifications enable career growth that can increase
the opportunity to acquire a high paying job (Eyangu, Bagire & Kibrai, 2020).
However, the rapid growth in graduate student enrolment relative to the low
academic staff levels and disproportionate resource allocation appears to have
caused a poor research supervision environment. This has an impact on the
students’ progress (Kimani, 2014; Bacwayo, Nampala & Oteyo, 2017) and
completion rate. Public universities and other degree-awarding institutions in
Uganda are no exception to the challenge of the growing demand for higher
education.
Theoretically, the study is anchored in the social learning theory by Bandura

(1999). The theory stipulates that learning is influenced by the social context and
that it is reciprocal in relation to the environment (Bandura, 1999). The theory
emphasizes the importance of observing and modelling the behavior, attitudes
and emotional reactions of others, and it suggests that all behaviors are learned
through conditioning. Relating this to the supervisor / supervisee relationship,
the theory postulates that both the supervisor and supervisee significantly
influence each other. The supervisee's negative experience resulting from the
supervisor’s behavior may negatively affect the progress of the supervisee
(Henfield, Owens & Witherspoon, 2011 in Burt 2012). The supervision
environment such as a delayed response to supervisee's submitted work, the
unavailability of the supervisors, the lack of a cordial relationship between the
supervisor and supervisee, and poor communication may create a state of
helplessness on the part of the supervisee. The supervisee's response may be an
expression of disappointment and frustration which may lead to withdrawal
(attrition) and at worst, dropout. Interpreting the theory of social learning in the
current study, the supervisor is expected to correspond to the needs of the
supervisee in a realistic amount of time. Supervisors need a clear, concrete and
76
logical supervisory model of supervision. The way that the supervisor relates to
the supervisee has a lot of influence on the progress of the supervisee during the
research process. Using the social learning theory, this study has investigated the
influence of research supervision on the progress of students in higher institutions
of learning in Uganda.
Conceptually, research supervision, graduate students and student progression

are considered to be key concepts. Research supervision is the facilitation and
overseeing of the research project (Ssenyonga & Nakiganda, 2020), providing
leadership and guidance to the research students (Mutula,2011). The students’
progression is defined in terms of dropout rates, completion rates, retention rates
and the time to degree completion (Carlhed Ydhag, 2019). Student progression in
this paper refers to the advancement of the students through the established
stages of the program such as proposal writing, data collection and analysis and
thesis writing through to graduation. Graduate students, according to the Cobuild
Advanced English Dictionary (Graduate student, 2006), are students who have
completed their bachelor’s degree who are pursuing an advanced degree or doing
research in a specified area. Graduate students in this study included those
pursuing a master’s degree.
Contextually, there is an increasing number of students enrolling on graduate

courses in Uganda with the hope of completing within the stipulated time frame
(Ssenyonga & Nakiganda, 2020). Students who enroll on the masters’ programs
are expected to complete their studies in a minimum of 2 years. The first year
involves classroom work (coursework) and in the second year, the students are
expected to do a research project. Over 70% of graduate students successfully
complete the classroom phase on time. However, the students’ progression slows
down when they embark on the second phase of the research project (Ssenyonga
& Nakiganda, 2020; National Council for Higher Education [NCHE], 2018).
Currently, the average completion rates stand at less than 30% for students on the
master’s programs (Uganda Bureau of Statistics [UBOS], 2017). This low
completion rate is attributed to a range of factors that include the financial, family
and job-related challenges students encounter in their academic journey (Atibuni
et al., 2017). This is in addition to the institutional policies and procedures, limited
research facilitation and the quality of the research supervision (Kyaligonza,
Kimoga & Nabayego, 2015).
Given that the delayed completion and low completion rates are associated
mainly with the research-based programs (Ssenyonga & Nakiganda, 2020), the
purpose of this study was to establish the contribution of the research supervision
towards the students’ progress in the higher institutions of learning in Uganda.
The study was specifically guided by the following objectives:
i. To establish the contribution of the supervisor-supervisee relationship
to the students’ progression in the public higher institutions of
learning in Uganda.
ii. To investigate the contribution of the supervisors’ guidance on the
students’ progression in the public higher institutions of learning in
Uganda.
77
iii. To establish the contribution of the supervisors’ feedback towards the

students’ written work related to the progression of the students in the
public higher institutions of learning in Uganda.
The existing literature reveals that research supervision as a critical factor that
improves the completion time and attrition rates for university courses where a
research project is a requirement (Chiappetta-Swanson & Watt, 2011; Chireshe,
2012; Holtman & Mukwada, 2014; Van Rensburg, Mayers & Roets, 2016; Akparep,
Jengre & Amoah, 2017). According to Chiappetta-Swanson and Watt (2011),
research supervision can only contribute to the progress of the graduate students
when the supervisors provide adequate support and guidance during the
research process. In agreement with Emilsson and Johnson (2007), Chireshe (2012)
affirms that effective research supervision requires the supervisors to be well-
informed, available, approachable, supportive, helpful and patient. According to
Holtman and Mukwada (2014), the way that the supervisors perceive their role
and responsibilities, the approaches that they adopt and the constraints they
encounter determines the quality of the supervision. To enhance the research
supervision, Chireshe recommends regular graduate research seminars. Holtman
and Mukwada (2014), on the other hand, emphasized that effective supervision is
not only determined by the supervisors’ understanding of their role and the way
that they engage with their role. Institutional factors such as the supervisory
approaches, the use of student support facilities within and outside the university,
co-supervision and financial support also play a part. The key question is, how
adequate is the support and guidance that is provided by the research supervisors
in the pubic higher institutions of learning in Uganda?
It is important to note that a number of studies have established that graduate

students in many sub-Saharan Africa are not getting sufficient enough support
and guidance from their research supervisors (Atibuni et al., 2017). According to
Atibuni et al. (2017), some supervisors take a long time to give their feedback on
the students' written research work. The low support from the supervisors is
compounded by the many challenges that the graduate students face such as
employment, family and community demands (Ismail & Abiddin, 2011). To
address these challenges, several scholars (Clutterbuck & Megginson, 1999;
Arabaci & Ersozlu, 2010; Affero, Norhasni & Aminuddin, 2011; Chireshe, 2012;
Ali, Watson,& Dhingra, 2016) recommend that supervisors should build a cordial
relationship with their students during the research journey, be good mentors
who advise the students on the best way of conducting their research, be
experienced in research (have the necessary skills), be available for consultation,
give prompt feedback on the students’ written work and be dedicated, critical and
friendly as they guide and support their students during the research process.
Given the criticality of the supervisor-supervisee relationship in relation to the
performance of the graduate students as argued in the literature review, we
investigated the nature of the relationship between the supervisor and
supervisees and the support that is provided by the supervisors in the public
higher institutions of learning in Uganda and how they contribute to the students’
progression.
78
The central question in this study remains the following - what explains the slow
progression and high dropout rates of graduate students in the public higher
institutions of learning in Uganda? Several scholars (Ssegawa & Rwelamila, 2009;
Jinarek, 2010; Olorunnisola,2011; Wamala, Ocaya & Oonyu, 2012; Seidu, 2015;
Kyaligonza, Kimoga & Nabayego, 2015; Akparep, Jengre & Amoah, 2017; Atibuni
et al., 2017; Hadi & Muhammad, 2019) have carried out research to establish the
factors that explain both delayed completion and the high attrition rate at
graduate level. The study conducted by Wamala, Ocaya, and Oonyu (2012)
established that the completion rate for PhD students in Uganda was low relative
to the rate in developed economies despite the attrition rates being comparable.
According to Wamala et al, the determinants of delayed completion and the high
attrition rate were personal, academic or financial. Similarly, Hadi and
Muhammad (2019), in a study on the factors affecting postgraduate students in
Malaysia, established a strong positive correlation between the students’
characteristics, the institutional factors, the level of research supervision and the
students’ performance. Mutula (2011) pointed out the quality of the students
admitted, the failure of the students to balance their jobs and their studies and the
research supervision as some of the factors that impact on the progress of the
graduate students. Atibuni et al. (2017) attributed the low completion rates of the
research postgraduate courses to institutional and personal reasons. According to
Kyaligonza, Kimoga and Nabayego (2015), the low rates of completion are
explained by the scarcity of qualified supervisors to take on the mantle. In this
study, we focused on establishing the extent to which the research supervision
factor explains the progress of the graduate students in public higher institutions
of learning.
Finally, a number of scholars attribute delayed completion and the high dropout
rates at the graduate level to research supervision (Ssegawa & Rwelamila, 2009;
Jinarek, 2010; Seidu, 2015; Orellana et al., 2016; Akparep et al., 2017). According to
Orellana et al. (2016), the geographical distance between the supervisors and the
supervisee is one factor that affects the frequency of their interactions. Seidu
(2015) recommends addressing the relationship between the supervisors and
supervisees as a remedy for the delayed completion and high attrition rates.
Akparep et al. (2017) recommends that the supervisors and supervisees should
always formally write an explanation for the delayed completion to those in
charge of the graduate school. On the basis of this literature, we investigated the
challenges that the supervisors and supervisees in the public higher institutions
of learning in Uganda encounter as part of their research journey and the possible
remedies for the challenges.
3. Methodology
The study adopted a descriptive cross-sectional survey design. The target
population consisted of students on master’s programs who were in their final
stage of the research project, in addition to research supervisors and graduate
schools’ heads from 4 randomly selected public institutions of higher learning.
The study sample consisted of 312 master’s students that were selected through
random sampling. Out of the 312 self-administered questionnaires, 253 were
79
returned and after the process of data preparation, 210 were retained for analysis,
translating into a 67.3% response rate. Additionally, 20 supervisors were
conveniently selected while 3 graduate school heads were purposively selected.
A self-administered structured questionnaire (refer to appendix 1) was used to

collect the data from the students. The interview method was used to collect the
data from the supervisors and heads of the graduate schools. The questionnaire
involved 2 questions pertaining to the respondents’ background information.
Section B was composed of 10 items that sought to determine the respondents’
opinion of the supervisor –supervisee relationship, Section C involved 8 questions
that gathered their opinions on guidance, Section D consisted of 8 questions that
sought out the respondents’ opinion on feedback and Section E involved 11
questions on the students’ progress. The items in Sections B, C, D and E were
measured using a 5-point Likert scale with the following categories: Strongly
Agree (5), Agree (4), Non-committal (3), Disagree (2) and Strongly Disagree (1).
One item that sought out the opinion of the supervisees on how the research
supervision could be improved was included at the end of the questionnaire. The
questionnaire method was preferred in this case because of the respondents who
were geographically dispersed. This saved both time and money during the
study.
The interview guide (refer to appendix 2) included 4 items that sought

information on the available research supervision, the challenges that the
graduate students encounter during the research process, student progression
and how the progress of the master’s students could be enhanced. The interview
method was found to be suitable because of its flexibility. It also enabled more
probing of the issues under inquiry and enabled the seeking of clarity on both the
opinions and explanations given.
The data collected using the methods described above was triangulated for a
holistic understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. The instruments
were pre-tested using related samples from the public institutions of higher
learning prior to the actual data collection.
The results of the pretest revealed that the reliability coefficient (Cronbach’s
alpha) of the different sections of the questionnaire ranged from 0.731 to 0.867.
This is considered appropriate for this study (Creswell, 2012). Experts from the
NCHE checked the clarity and appropriateness of the instructions and questions,
after which the revision and modification of the instruments was completed.
Before the data were collected, informed consent was sought from the
respondents. The respondents were assured of their anonymity and
confidentiality. The ordered logistic regression model was used to establish the
extent to which research supervision contributes to the students’ progress. A
significance test was performed at the probability level of p< 0.05. The qualitative
data was analyzed by identifying the patterns in the gathered information,
creating the categories and finally, forming the themes. In the next section, the
findings of the study are presented.
80
4. Results
This section includes the descriptive statistical and qualitative results about the
background information on the respondents, the supervisor – supervisee
relationship, the guidance provided by the supervisors, the feedback provided by
the supervisors and the respondents’ opinions about the progress of their
research. It also includes the ordered regression results on the students’
progression.
Profile of the Respondents

Table 1 presents the findings on the background information of the respondents.
Table 1: Background Information on the Respondents

Variable Categories Number of Percentage
respondents
Gender Male 116 55.2
Female 94 44.8
How long have you One year or less 14 6.7
been on the MMS More than 1 year but less than 3 82 39.0
program? years
3 years or more 114 54.3
The results in Table 1 indicate that there are more male graduate students on the
master’s program compared to their female counterparts. This reveals a gender
parity issue at the graduate level of education. The results further demonstrate
that the majority of the supervisees have been on the master’s program for more
than the 2 year stipulated time frame for completing a master’s degree program.
Supervisor – Supervisee Relationship

The students’ views were sought on the supervisor-supervisee relationship. The
summary of the respondents’ opinions on the supervisor-supervisee relationship
are presented in Table 2.
Table 2: Distribution of the Respondents’ Views on the Supervisor-Supervisee

Relationship
Supervisor – supervisee relationship Agree Non- Disagree
committal
My supervisors are friendly 112(53.3%) 10 (4.8%) 88 (41.9%)
My supervisors are always available whenever I 102 (48.6%) 12 (5.7%) 96 (45.7%)
need them
I have sufficient interactions with my supervisors 122 (58.1%) 8 (3.8%) 80 (38.1%)
I regularly consult my supervisors on my research 126 (60%) 6 (2.9%) 78 (37.1%)
My supervisors are good mentors 94 (44.7%) 4 (1.9%) 112 (55.3%)
My supervisors make an effort to solve the 86 (41%) 10(4.8%) 114 (54.2%)
challenges that may hamper my progress
I regularly interact with my supervisors online 82 (39.1%) 8 (3.8%) 120 (57.1%)
My supervisors usually encourage me to progress 100 (47.6%) 6 (2.9%) 104 (49.6%)
My supervisors harass me 66 (31.4%) 2 (1.0%) 142 (67.6%)
I find my interactions with my supervisors stressful 92 (43.8%) 10 (4.8%) 108 (51.4%)
81
The results in Table 2 demonstrate the existence of a fair supervisor- supervisee

relationship. However, the results suggest that the majority of the supervisors
(55.3%) are not playing their mentorship role as expected. A large portion of the
supervisors appear not to be interested in the challenges that the students
encounter along the research journey which could inhibit their progress. The
results further demonstrate that only a few (39.1%) of the supervisors interact with
the supervisees online. Lastly, there is an indication of harassment by some
supervisors which may explain the stressful interaction between some of the
supervisees and their supervisors.
Guidance Provided by the Supervisor

Table 3 presents a summary of the respondents’ views on the guidance provided
by the supervisors.
Table 3: Distribution of the Respondents’ Views on the Guidance provided by the

Research Supervisors
Guidance Agree Non- Disagree
committal
I have a supervision schedule with my 112 (53.3 %) 20 (9.5%) 78 (37.2 %)
supervisor
My supervisors guided me in the selection of 164 (78.1%) 10 (4.8 %) 36 (17.1 %)
my research topic and fine-tuning it
I usually receive additional information on 72 (34.3%) 4 (1.9 %) 134 (63.8%)
my topic from my supervisors
My supervisors usually help me to access the 78 (37.1%) 10 (4.8%) 122 (58.1%)
relevant literature
My supervisors have the necessary 166 (79%) 26 (12.4%) 18 (8.6%)
knowledge and experience on my topic
My supervisors are keen to see how I address 94 (44.8%) 10(4.8%) 106 (50.4%)
the comments that they make on my written
work
I find the guidance that my supervisor gives 166 (79 %) 6 (2.9%) 38 (18.1%)
me on my research constructive
The guidance that my supervisor has given 158 (75.2%) 4 (1.9%) 48 (22.9%)
me has helped me gain competence in the
basic skills used when conducting research.
The results in Table 3 indicate that the majority of the supervisees (79%) received
constructive guidance from their supervisors. However, regarding accessing
relevant information to support their research, only a few students (37%) got
support from their supervisors. The results further suggest that the supervisees
have enhanced their basic research skills when conducting research as a
consequence of the guidance of the supervisors.
Feedback from the Supervisors

Views were sought from the respondents on the feedback provided by the
supervisors on their written research work. Table 4 presents a summary of their
responses.
82
Table 4: Summary of the Respondents’ Views on the Feedback Provided by the

Supervisors
Feed back Agree Non- Disagree
committal
My supervisors provide feedback on my 60 (28.6 %) 11 (5.2%) 139 (66.2%)
written work within 2 weeks after submission
The supervisors always do a thorough review 150 (71.4%) 6 (2.9%) 54 (25.7%)
of my written research work
I find the comments made by my supervisors 142 (67.6%) 6 (2.9%) 62 (29.5%)
easy to understand
The supervisors usually make encouraging 136 (64.8%) 4 (1.9%) 70 (33.3%)
comments on my written research work
My supervisors usually provide online 70 (33.3%) 6 (2.9) 134 (63.8%)
feedback
My supervisor provide constructive criticism 138 (65.7%) 8 (3.8%) 64 (30.5%)
on feedback
The feedback given by my supervisors has 70 (33.3%) 4 (1.9%) 136 (64.8%)
been helpful regarding my progress
The comments made on my research work 130 (61.9%) 6 (2.9%) 74 (35.2%)
have helped me to improve on my research
skills
The results in Table 4 indicate that the supervisors thoroughly review the
students’ research work and give clear, constructive and encouraging comments.
However, the results suggest delayed feedback from the supervisors and low
levels of online feedback. The results further suggest delayed progress as a result
of the supervisors’ feedback.
Students’ Progress
The study further sought out the opinion of the respondents on their progress in
line with the research project. Table 5 presents a summary of their responses.
Table 5: Distribution of the Respondents’ Opinions on their Progress in their

Research
Students’ progress Agree Non- Disagree
committal
I developed my topic within the first 146 (69.5%) 6 (2.9%) 58 (27.6%)
month after the commencement of the
research project
I regularly meet my supervisor as 90(42.9 %) 8 (3.8%) 112 (53.3%)
scheduled
My supervisors are happy with my 97 (46.1 %) 9 (4.3%) 104 (49.5%)
written work
I always submit my written work on time 83 (39.5 %) 3 (1.4 %) 124 (59.1%)
for review and assessment
I defended my research proposal within 6 64(30.5 %) 12(5.7%) 134 (63.8%)
months
I was able to address comments raised 94(44.8%) 5 (2.4 %) 111 (52.8%)
during my research proposal with ease
My research proposal was approved 87 (41.4%) 7 (3.3%) 116 (55.3%)
immediately on my first submission
83
I collected and analyzed my data within 71 (33.8%) 6 (2.9%) 133 (63.3%)

2 months after my proposal defense
I submitted my draft thesis within 2 52 (24.8%) 4 (1.9%) 154 (73.3%)
months after data collection
I defended my thesis within 4 months 62 (29.5 %) 9 (4.3%) 139 (66.2 %)
after the proposal defense
I am happy with the progress of my 94 (44.7%) 10 (4.8%) 106 (50.5%)
research
The results suggest the supervisees developed topics within the first month of
their research journey. The findings, however, demonstrate that less than 50% of
the respondents have been able to meet their supervisors as scheduled. The results
further indicate the delayed submission of research proposals for defense within
the first 6 months, with only 30% of the supervisees submitting on time. Despite
a fair proportion of the supervisees (>40%) addressing comments made at the
research proposal defense and having their research proposal approved,
progressing to the data collection and analysis stages, the drafting of the thesis
and the defense of the thesis drastically extends in duration.
Verification of the Hypotheses

To establish the contribution of the research supervision to the students’
progression, ordered logistic regression was conducted and the following null
hypotheses were tested:
i. The supervisor-supervisee relationship does not in any way contribute
to the students ‘progression.
ii. The supervisors’ guidance does not contribute in any way to the
students’ progression.
iii. The supervisors’ feedback on the students’ written work does not in
any way contribute to the students’ progression.
The findings of the logistic regression are presented in Table 6.
Table 6: Ordered Regression Results for the Students’ Progression

Students’ Progression Coefficients P>|Z 95% conf. interval
|
Supervisor-supervisee relationship 3.189 .000 2.745 5.275
Supervisors’ guidance 4.213 0.000 3.587 4.745
Supervisors’ feedback 2.345 0.023 1.978 3.105
Gender 1.103 0.489 -0.972 1.243
Pseudo R2 = 0.586, Number of respondents = 210, LR χ2 (4) = 1416.73, Prob > χ2 = 0.000
The results indicate that a unit increase in the supervisor-supervisee relationship

results in a 3.189-unit increase in student progression. This means that a better
supervisor-supervisee relationship enhances the students’ progression. Similarly,
the results indicate that a unit increase in the supervisor’s guidance leads to a
4.213-unit increase in the students’ progression. This means that the increased
guidance by the supervisors leads to improved student progression. Lastly, the
results reveal that a unit increase in the supervisors’ feedback results in a 2.345-
unit increase in the progression of the students, meaning that feedback is
correlated positively with student progression.
84
The results mean that the three null hypotheses were all rejected. This result
proves that the supervisor-supervisee relationship, the supervisors’ guidance and
the supervisors’ feedback significantly explains the variations in the students’
progression. Overall, the results demonstrate that research supervision is a
significant antecedent to the graduate students’ progression.
Upon expressing their opinion on how the research supervision could be

improved, the supervisees emphasized the enhancement of the supervisor-
supervisee relationship. In their opinion, more friendly and available supervisors
who give prompt feedback on the students’ research work are the key to
promoting the graduate students’ progression. The supervisees also suggested
that students should be given the opportunity to select their supervisors
according to who they will comfortably work with. The supervisees also proposed
regular meetings between the administration, research supervisors and
supervisees about the students’ progress.
The interviews with the supervisors revealed that they had a cordial relationship
with most of their supervisees. The supervisors further revealed that they offer a
lot of guidance during the entire research process. According to the supervisors,
they spend the first months of the supervision process exposing the supervisees
to the required research methods. During the interview, one of the supervisors
had this to say:
“Many of the students assigned to me lack the necessary research knowledge and
skills. A number of them cannot write a problem statement or even develop the study
objectives. So in the first two to four months, I take them through the basics of
research methods. This definitely impacts on the progress of many of the students.”
(Research Supervisor, 13th November 2020)
The information from the interviews with the supervisors revealed that the delay
in giving feedback was a consequence of the high number of students assigned to
them and the heavy teaching workload plus other administrative duties that they
are always engaged in. The supervisors also attributed the delayed completion to
lack of seriousness on the part of the supervisees. According to the supervisors, a
number of their supervisees belong to the working class and many of them
dedicate less time to research. The supervisors attributed the slow student
progression to the many students lacking the necessary research knowledge and
skills as well.
The interview information from the graduate school heads revealed that there are
a number of situations where poor supervisor-supervisee relationships have been
reported. According to the informants, reports about rude supervisors and
incidences of male supervisors sexually harassing female supervisees are
common. One head of the graduate school had this to say:
“Many of our supervisors have failed to build rapport with the supervisees making
their interaction with the students quite uneasy. It is also unfortunate to inform
you that we even receive cases of sexual harassment. We have actually stopped
allocating female students to some of our male staff because of complaints from the
85
female students about their sexual behavior. For extreme sexual harassment cases,
disciplinary action has been taken.” (Head of Graduate school,20th November, 2020)
Interviews with the heads of the graduate schools also revealed that some of the
supervisors do not have an interest in providing feedback. At times, the required
expertise in the area of study is required. This has resulted in the provision of poor
guidance. According to the heads, the teaching staff were allocated students
because it is required that the teaching staff conduct research supervision. Given
that some of the supervisors did not have the required expertise in their
supervisees’ area of specialization, they were only able to concentrate on the
methodology. One head of the graduate school had this to say:
“We have colleagues who hardly guide supervisees during the research process.
Quite a number of supervisors don’t thoroughly read through their supervisees
research work to get a basis for guidance. They just sign the research documents for
submission. To attest to this, some of our supervisors have confessed during
proposal or dissertation defense that they were too busy to do a thorough reading of
the students’ work and to offer the necessary guidance.” (Head of Graduate School,
24th November 2020)
In relation to the promptness of providing feedback to the supervisees, the

graduate school heads pointed out that delayed feedback is a major challenge
experienced in their schools. One key informant had this to say:
“Our Master’s students are having problems of availability of supervisors and
delayed feedback from their supervisors. Most of these students are working people
who prefer to meet their supervisors after work or over weekends which many
supervisors find inconveniencing. To make matters worse, some supervisors have
not embraced online supervision, they insist on hard copies of the students’ work”.
About delayed response, some supervisors take over a month with the students’
submitted work without giving feedback. I do sympathize with the supervisors given
their workload and the pressure to publish which could be some of reasons for not
being available and delay to provide feedback.” (Head of Graduate School, 3rd
December 2020)
The heads revealed that several students had made requests to change supervisors
after getting frustrated by the supervisors initially allocated to them. The change,
however, creates more delays in terms of completion.
The heads also attributed the issues related to the students’ delays in progress due
to lack of commitment on the part of the students and their inadequate
competence in research. Related to the suggestion of the supervisees, they
proposed regular meetings between the supervisors and the students in order to
put pressure on the students to progress faster.
5. Discussion of the Findings

The results revealed that research supervision significantly contributes to the
graduate students’ progress in public higher institutions of learning. These
findings are in alignment with the findings of the previous studies (Chiappetta-
Swanson & Watt, 2011; Chireshe, 2012; Holtman & Mukwada, 2014; Van
Rensburg, Mayers & Roets, 2016; Akparep, Jengre & Amoah, 2017) that highlight
86
research supervision as a major factor that explains the graduate students’

completion and retention rate.
The results revealed that the supervisor-supervisee relationship contributes

significantly to the students’ progression. The findings are in accordance with
those of Akparep et al. (2017) who established that the supervisor-supervisee
relationship is a critical factor in the students’ progression. However, Akparep et
al (2017) emphasized that for this relationship to have good results, it should be
based on honesty and hard work. This however was contrary to some of the
findings of this study that showed that the majority of students found interactions
with their supervisors to be stressful. In line with the recommendation by Watson
and Dhingra (2016), research supervisors should build a cordial relationship with
the students during the research journey and be good mentors who advise the
students on the best ways of conducting research. The findings further revealed
the sexual harassment of female students. It is important that the supervisors act
professionally whenever interfacing with students otherwise behaviors of this
nature will grossly impact on the quality of education in general. Akparep et al.
(2017) emphasized a morally upright relationship between the supervisor and
supervisees in order for supervision to bear harvestable fruits. It is imperative
that the institutions of higher learning put in place tough functional rules and
regulations that deter unprofessional behavior such as the supervisors sexually
harassing their supervisees.
Despite the significant contribution of supervisor guidance towards the students’

progression, the findings of the study revealed that several supervisors are not
providing the required support and guidance as mentors. These findings are in
agreement with those of Atibuni et al. (2017) who asserted that the graduate
students in many areas of sub-Saharan Africa are not getting sufficient enough
support and guidance from their research supervisors. The students on a research
project need adequate support and guidance from their supervisors in areas such
as the literature review, the development of the data collection tools and the
analysis of the data to enhance their progression (Chiappetta-Swanson & Watt,
2011). The findings revealed that the poor supervisor guidance is a consequence
of the supervisors’ heavy teaching workload, the high number of supervisees
assigned to particular supervisors and the supervisors’ lack of interest and
expertise in the study areas. In line with the aforementioned, it is imperative to
emphasize that effective research supervision calls for supervisors who are not
only well-informed but who are also available, approachable, supportive, helpful
and patient (Chireshe, 2012).
The results demonstrated that the majority of the supervisors delayed giving
feedback on the students’ written research work. These findings concur with the
findings established by Seidu (2015) about the supervisors taking a long time to
give feedback on the same. The delay in giving feedback as pointed out by
Henfield et al. (2011) has a negative impact on the progress of the supervisees.
Given that the graduate students expect to complete the course in a minimum of
2 years, the delayed feedback is a frustration due to the low completion rates with
some even some dropping out of the system. It is critical that the higher
87
institutions of learning implement the maximum 2-week duration for giving

feedback to the supervisees.
The findings indicate that the majority of the supervisees were able to develop
their topics within the stipulated 1-month period. However, a delay in
progression was identified after the research topic was developed. In order to
enhance their progress, the students were of the view that regular meetings
between the administration, research supervisors and supervisees should be
instituted to review the students’ progress. The students’ views concur with those
of Chireshe (2012) who recommends regular graduate research seminars with the
intention of enhancing the graduate students’ progress. Another way of
enhancing the students’ progress is to have the supervisors and supervisees
formally write on a regular basis as an explanation for delayed completion to
those in charge of the graduate school (Akparep et al, 2017).
Overall, the social learning theory (Bandura, 1999) was found to be relevant when
it comes to explaining the slow progression and low completion rates among the
graduate students. The negative supervision environment exhibited by the
stressful interaction between the supervisors and supervisees, the delayed
feedback and the lack of support and guidance are a source of disappointment
and frustration that negatively impact on the progress of the graduate students in
the higher institutions of learning. In line with this theory, the students’
progression can be enhanced when the supervisors are friendly mentors who
provide adequate support and guidance to the students while also promptly
providing feedback on the students’ written work (Clutterbuck & Megginson,
1999; Arabaci & Ersozlu, 2010; Affero, Norhasni & Aminuddin, 2011; Chireshe,
2012; Ali, Watson & Dhingra, 2016).
6. Conclusion
The paper focused on exploring research supervision as an antecedent to the
graduate students’ progression in the public higher institutions of learning in
Uganda. The study established that the supervisor-supervisee relationship,
supervisor guidance and supervisor feedback are significant antecedents of the
graduate students’ progression. However, the findings of this study suggest that
the relationship between the supervisors and supervisees is relatively poor, that
several supervisors do not provide the required support and guidance as
expected, and that the supervisors often delay giving feedback on the students'
written work. This is a deterrent when it comes to the graduate students’
progression in the higher institutions of learning. It is important therefore for the
issues related to the supervisor-supervisee relationship, supervisor guidance and
the promptness of the feedback to be addressed if students’ progression is to be
enhanced.
7. Recommendations
The graduate schools should institute annual training programs that focus on
promoting a good relationship between the supervisors and supervisees. The
higher institutions of learning should also organize regular research seminars that
bring together the supervisors and supervisees. The institutions should
88
emphasize adherence to the policy of giving feedback on the students’ research

work in a period of 2 weeks maximum. Finally, the higher institutions of learning
through the graduate schools should organize regular meetings between the
administration, research supervisors and supervisees to review the students’
progress.
8. Limitations of the study

The study had limitations that justify future research. Firstly, the study focused
on the masters’ students in public universities. In future researchers should take
into consideration all categories of graduate students in both private and public
higher institutions of learning to enhance generalization of findings. Secondly, the
study adopted a cross sectional design that gives a description of what is
happening at the time of the study. Future studies should consider using the
longitudinal or experimental designs to establish magnitude and direction of
causal relationship between research supervision and students’ progression.
Thirdly, the study limited its content scope to research supervision as a key factor
to graduate students’ progression in public higher institutions of learning in
Uganda. Future studies could consider other factors such as students’ personal
and financial factors could affect graduate students’ progression. Lastly, the study
focused on only two key variables- research supervision and students’
progression in higher institutions of learning. In future research, intervening
variable should be brought in perspective.
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Appendix 1
Questionnaire For Students
Dear respondent,
We are consultants in the School of Business Management of UMI. We are
undertaking a research on Research Supervision and Progress of Graduate
Students in Public Higher Institutions of Learning. As a student on the master’s
program in the final stages of the research project, you have a wealth of key
information that is of benefit to this study. The aim of this study is to investigate
the influence of research supervision on the progress of graduate students. The
information gathered will provide stakeholders with an understanding of the
status and challenges of students’ progress. The study is intended to give insights
into the formulation of policies on research supervision for better progression of
graduate students at the Institute. The information you provide will be treated
with strict confidentiality and will not in any way be personalized. You are not
expected to provide your name. I humbly request your cooperation in completing
the attached questionnaire.
Thank you in advance and I look forward to receiving your feedback.
Yours sincerely,
Paul Netalisile Malunda, Juliet Atwebembeire & Proscovia Namubiru
91
Section A: Profile of Respondents

In this section, you are kindly requested to tick the appropriate alternative
response
1 Gender Male Tick

Female
2 How long have you been on the One year or less
Master’s program? More than one year but less than
three years
Three years or more
Section B: Supervisor – Supervisee Relationship

Using the key given below, tick the right alternative that corresponds with your
opinion as they relate to you regarding Supervisor- Supervisee relationship:
Key: 1= Strongly disagree 2= Disagree 3=Non-committal 4= Agree 5= Strongly
agree
Item Supervisor – supervisee Strongly Agree Non- Disagree Strongly

relationship Agree committal Disagree
4 My supervisors are
friendly
always available
whenever I need them
6 I have sufficient
interaction with my
supervisors
7 I regularly consult my
supervisors on my
research
good mentors
9 My supervisors make
effort to establish the
challenges that may
humper my progress
10 I regularly interact with
my supervisors online
11 My supervisors usually
encourage me to
progress
12 My supervisors harass
me
13 I find interaction with
my supervisors so
stressful
92
Section C: Supervisors’ Guidance

opinion as they relate to you regarding guidance given by your supervisor:
agree
Item Guidance Strongly Agree Non- Disagree Strongly

Agree committal Disagree
14 I have a supervision
schedule with my
supervisor
15 My supervisors guided
me on selection of my
research topic and fine
tuning it
16 I usually receive
additional information
on my topic from the
supervisors
17 My supervisors usually
help me to access
relevant literature
18 My supervisors have the
knowledge and
experience on my topic
19 My supervisors are keen
on how I address
comments they make on
written work
20 I find the guidance my
supervisor gives me on
my research constructive
21 The guidance my
supervisor has given me
has helped me gain
competence in the basic
skills of conducting
research.
93
Section D: Feedback by the Supervisor

opinion on feedback given by your supervisor (s):
agree
Item Feed back Strongly Agree Non- Disagree Strongly

22 My supervisors
provide feedback on
my written work
within two weeks
after submission
23 The supervisors
always do a thorough
review of my written
research work
24 I find the comments
made by my
supervisors easy to
understand
25 The supervisors
usually make
encouraging
comments on my
written research work
26 My supervisors
usually provide
online feedback
27 My supervisor
provides constructive
criticism on feedback
28 Feedback given by
my supervisors has
been helpful to my
progress
29 The comments made
on my research work
have helped me
improve on my
research skills
94
Section E: Students’ Progress

opinion as they relate to your progress:
agree
Students’ progress Strongly Agree Non- Disagree Strongly

30 I developed my topic within the first
month after commencement of the
research project
31 I regularly meet my supervisor as
scheduled
32 My supervisors are happy with my
written work
33 I always submit in time my written
work for review and assessment
34 I defended my research proposal
within six months
35 I was able to address comments
raised during my research proposal
with ease
36 My research proposal was approved
after immediately after I first
presented it
37 I collected and analyzed my data in
two months after proposal defense
38 I submitted my draft thesis within
two months after data collection
39 I defended my thesis within four
months after the proposal defense
40 I am happy with the progress of my
research
95
Appendix 2
INTERVIEW GUIDES
For the Heads of the Graduate schools
The purpose of this study is to analyze the influence of research supervision on
the progress of graduate students at your university. You are kindly requested to
answer the questions to the best of your knowledge. The information given herein
will be treated with utmost confidence.
1. How do you assess research supervision of students on the master’s
program by the allocated supervisors?
2. What are the challenges that graduate students encounter during the
research process?
3. What is your assessment about the completion rates of the students on
masters’ programs?
4. In your opinion, how can progress of the graduate students be enhanced?
For the supervisors

The purpose of this study is to analyze the influence of research supervision on
the progress of graduate students at your university. You are kindly requested to
answer the questions to the best of your knowledge. The information given herein
will be treated with utmost confidence.
1. How do you assess progress of the students you are supervising on the
master’s program?
2. What are the challenges that you encounter as a research supervisor as you
supervise students on the Master’s program?
3. What is your assessment about the completion rates of the students on
masters’ programs?
96

Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 96-122, May 2021
Exploring Match Plate’s Potential in Aiding

Pupils’ Writing Skills
Finola Iba anak Patrick and Azlina Abdul Aziz

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2854-7062
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7800-3688
Abstract. Teaching of writing skills has become a growing concern for

teachers with the implementation of CEFR aligned curriculum in recent
years. Lack of relevant materials and resources is one of the contributing
factors to this concern. Furthermore, writing skill acquisition could pose a
challenge in the primary ESL classroom. Therefore, this study was
conducted in a suburban primary school with the aim to discover Match
Plate's potential in aiding pupils' writing skills. This research employed
action research as the research design, and utilised three data collection
methods, namely a pre-test and post-test, questionnaire and observation
checklist. A total of ten participants were involved in this study. The
findings revealed that there is a positive increment in the post-test results
as compared to the pre-test results. Based on the survey questionnaire,
most participants showed positive perceptions towards the use of Match
Plate. Additionally, the data gathered from the observation checklist
showed that participants were able to build sentences using Match Plate.
Hence, the findings suggest that Match Plate shows potential to support
pupils’ mastering of writing skills. Apart from that, pupils' positive
learning attitude could be observed throughout the treatment period.
Thus, it is highly recommended for teachers to resort to alternative
teaching aids for language teaching.
Keywords: Match Plate; potential; writing skill; perceptions; positive

learning attitude
1. Introduction
The English language was used as the medium of instruction in primary schools
and secondary schools when Peninsular Malaysia and East Malaysia were ruled
by the British from the late eighteenth until mid-twentieth centuries. After
independence, Bahasa Malaysia [Malay Language] was decreed as the national
language and as the medium of instruction in public schools. Even so, the
importance of English is very much evident due to globalisation and the
advancement of science and technology. Hence, the English language is
institutionalised as an important second language in the Education ordinance.
©Authors
97
A great number of local public university graduates were found to be

unemployed due to their inability to speak English (Selvaratnam, 2018). Krishnan
et al. (2017) noted that most fresh graduates could not comprehend the basic
questions asked in interviews. In fact, the interviewees’ answers often were
misinterpreted by the interviewers due to interviewees’ inappropriate choice of
words. Thus, realising the importance of English language competency in creating
better career pathways for the local graduates, the English Language Standards
and Quality Council was established in 2013 to improve the standard of English
in the country. A road map for English Language Education Reform in Malaysia
spanning 2015 to 2025 was developed. One of the key aims of the plan is to align
Malaysia’s English Language Education System with the Common European
Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). This framework represents the
global standard for the teaching and learning of languages. CEFR provides six
proficiency levels with detailed descriptions of what foreign or second-language
learners should be able to do using four language skills, namely listening,
speaking, reading and writing. CEFR thus provides a frame of reference for
English language learning, teaching and assessment. The cascaded training
programme was presented in tiers. However, the content delivery mostly
happened through mere transmission during the cascaded training due to time
constraints, and this left many teachers frustrated. Learning materials such as
textbooks and workbooks are CEFR aligned and sourced directly from overseas.
This explains the irrelevancy of textbook content considering the students’
background.
Consequently, students’ learning processes could be hindered as they are dealing

with unfamiliar content. A systematic review conducted by Akhtar et al. (2019)
revealed that students in English as a Second Language (ESL) often faced
challenges such as teaching methods, students’ attitude towards English, and
poor academic language writing ability in. Similarly, a study conducted by Ngu
and Aziz (2019) has revealed a number of challenges faced during CEFR
implementation, namely lack of training, non-local based textbooks, inadequate
ICT support, and limited teaching and learning resources. Hence, it can be
assumed that inappropriate teaching methods and textbook content play a
significant role in students' writing ability.
A large number of teachers admitted to having limited knowledge of and

exposure to CEFR (Ngu & Aziz, 2019). Having sound content and pedagogical
knowledge of the new curriculum is crucial for teachers as it would help them to
identify the students’ learning needs. Thus far, limited studies have been
conducted on the teaching of writing skills in the CEFR-aligned curriculum.
Therefore, this study was conducted to shed light on the use of alternative
instructional aids in the teaching of writing skills. The study, involving ten
participants, was conducted at a semi-urban school in Sarawak. . These
participants were selected purposely as this study was intended for low
proficiency pupils. Match Plate is a teaching-learning aid, designed to suit the
CEFR syllabus, and the main focus is sentence construction. The researcher
developed this idea as limited relevant exercises exist to be used by the low-
proficiency pupils to practise their writing skills.
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1.1 Problem Statement

The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) was
started with the establishment of the English Language Standards and Quality
Council (ELSQC) in 2013. Learning materials, including textbooks and
workbooks, are CEFR aligned and sourced directly from overseas. According to
Nawai and Said (2020), teachers expressed their concerns on the insufficient
teaching materials and assistance, as well as the inadequate number of textbooks
and workbooks distributed. In fact, many teachers had to find materials online or
prepare their own materials and share resources with others (Ngu & Aziz, 2019).
Nevertheless, pupils are expected to achieve A2 by the time they have completed
primary school education; making it crucial for them to achieve A1 upon entering
level 2. One of the detailed descriptors for A1 includes “Can understand and use
familiar everyday expressions and very basic phrases”. These descriptors applied
to all the language skills, namely listening, speaking, reading and writing.
However, pupils with a limited vocabulary may find it challenging even to
produce simple sentences, be it in writing or speaking tasks.
According to Graham and Perin (2007), the ability of children and adults to
compile meaningful writings, demands similar fundamental and essential
competency. In other words, one’s language competency is reflected through
one’s writings. A recent study conducted by Mohamad Uri and Abd Aziz (2018)
found that the teachers were able to accept CEFR positively, but they had very
limited knowledge and a low level of awareness of the framework. In line with
this concern, Aziz et al. (2018) emphasized that training needed to be aligned with
the local context so that teachers could find the input provided to be more relevant
to them and to their students.
The CEFR six-level global scale was developed with the intent of being open,
dynamic, and flexible in order to assist language learners in mapping the CEFR to
their assessment and syllabus (Mohamad Uri & Abd Aziz, 2020). With the six
detailed descriptors and “can do” statements included in the framework, teachers
could easily identify what type of expressions, phrases or sentences are expected
to be produced by the pupils regardless of their language skills. Additionally,
most of the tasks included in the textbook and activity book provide examples of
phrases or sentences with different sentence structures to be used for each task.
Yet, this might pose a challenge for the low-proficiency pupils due to their limited
vocabulary. In a recent study reported by Miin et al. (2019), pupils showed
significant improvement in sentence construction with the implementation of 4-
step sentence construction activities. As Match Plate is designed to aid pupils’
writing skill, especially in sentence construction, this study was conducted hoping
to provide an alternative teaching tool for teachers to teach writing skills which
are appropriate for the CEFR-aligned syllabus.
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1.2 Origin of Match Plate
Memory
Retention
(Multi-Store Match Plate

Model)
- activating Primary 2
Pupils’
memory
Positive Writing
Reinforcement - rewards as Skills
positive
(Operant reinforcement
Conditioning)
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework of Research Implementation
As illustrated in Figure 1, the research implementation is founded on two theories,

which are memory retention and positive reinforcement. The core idea of Match
Plate is mainly based on memory retention, which originated from the Multi-Store
Model as proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), and positive reinforcement
as included in the Operant Conditioning Theory proposed by Skinner (1938).
Match Plate consists of five shapes that are arranged in a line. Each shape
represents one sentence part that was used to form a sentence. The sentence parts
include a noun phrase, verb, preposition, adjective and proper or common noun.
Match Plate can be used for pupils to form sentences with a maximum of five
sentence parts. Apart from that, this innovation was carefully designed to fit the
Year 2 syllabus. This study was conducted to answer the following research
questions:
1. How effective is the Match Plate in aiding pupils’ writing skills?
2. What are pupils’ perceptions regarding the use of Match Plate in learning
writing skills?
1.2.1 Multi-store model by Atkinson and Shiffrin 1968

The Multi-Store model, as proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), refers to
multiple memory stores which are sensory memory, short-term memory, and
long-term memory. The processes involved are attention, rehearsal and retrieval.
The first process, called attention, involves transferring information from sensory
to short --term memory (STM). When a stimulus is presented, often in the visual
system, the stimulus will be registered instantly within the appropriate sensory
dimensions. The particular features of visual registration would enable us to
identify it as a distinct component of memory (Sperling, 1960). In this research,
the Match Plate consists of five different shapes. The shapes used in the Match
Plate are registered in the participants’ short-term memory as they recognise the
differences in each shape. After that, the second process will occur, which
concerns the information to be transmitted to the long-term memory (LTM). This
process is called rehearsal. Short-term memory can be regarded as the ‘working
memory’. Information has a tendency to disappear upon entering the short-term
memory, however, it requires more time to disappear compared to the time is
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takes to disappear from the sensory register. Therefore, there should be ample
opportunity for the individual to review the information. In this research, the
participants were given sufficient time to construct sentences by matching the
different shapes onto the plate, allowing them to retain the information, . Lastly,
the third process requires the individual to retrieve the existing information from
the long-term memory back into the short-term memory. In this research, the
participants gradually memorised the sentence structures by matching the shapes
onto the Plate. Therefore, the participants were able to retrieve their knowledge
on sentence structures and apply it during the administration of the post-test.
1.2.2 Operant Conditioning by B.F. Skinner

Operant conditioning, as proposed by Skinner (1938), is defined as a process that
aims to change specific behaviour by incorporating positive and negative
reinforcement. Skinner proposed this theory based on the findings of various
experiments that had been conducted (Shrestha, 2017). An example in an
educational setting is when a teacher gives rewards to active or well-behaved
students. Learning behaviour can be improved by incorporating an appropriate
stimulus and reinforcement, as averted by Skinner (1938). Individuals associate
particular behaviour and the consequence through operant conditioning.
Therefore, the students eventually realised that they would get rewards if they
participated actively in activities or behaved properly in the classroom. In this
study, the participants’ actions of matching the shapes onto the plate is considered
as operant behaviour. Meanwhile, the rewards given each time they successfully
match the shapes on the plate are considered positive reinforcement.
2.1 Writing Skills
Writing gained high social prestige as it plays a vital role not only in
communication, but also in education. Even with the advancement of technology,
writing still is not regarded as the conventional way of communicating, as one
still needs to acquire competency in writing skills to communicate with others
through social media. More important, though, is that most professional
communication, such as proposals, memos, reports and e-mails, demands
competent writing skills. Thus, writing undeniably is an essential skill. Writing is
a challenging cognitive activity that demands the learner's control over a variety
of circumstances (Nunan, 1989). In Malaysia, English writing skill is regarded as
the most challenging skill to be acquired by the students (Jusun & Yunus, 2018).
A study conducted by Shah (1999) concluded that the top three factors affecting
the students’ English language achievements were attitude and motivation, socio-
cultural factors and individual differences. On the other hand, undergraduate
students who majored in Teaching English as a Second Language (TESL) in
Malaysia stated that they preferred to speak English in English classes, but
acknowledged the need for the first language (L1) to complete their tasks quicker
(Manty & Shah, 2017). These two studies indicated that students’ learning
preferences or individual differences are crucial and need to be acknowledged in
English language learning.
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2.2 Writing Skill in CEFR-Aligned Curriculum

In 2013, Malaysia took a big step to elevate students' English language proficiency
through the implementation of the Common European Framework of Reference
(CEFR). This universally recognised framework provides a sound basis for
language qualifications. Besides, the framework includes six detailed descriptors
which are used to assess students' performance in language learning. Basically,
language users are classified into three main groups, namely Proficient users (C1
and C2), Independent users (B1 and B2) and Basic users (A1 and A2). The “can
do” statements are included for each level to help teachers assess their students’
performance in each language skill. Teachers need to refer to the descriptors
during the evaluation of their students’ performance.
There is a huge difference in writing in a CEFR-aligned curriculum as compared

to the previous curriculum known as Primary School Standards-Based
Curriculum (KSSR). In KSSR, the content of the textbook was arranged modularly.
Each topic contained a few suggested activities or tasks for each language skill:
listening, speaking, reading and writing, and also for the teaching of grammar
and language arts. For example, the writing tasks or activities included in the
textbook portrayed clear directions of how students should progressively
improve in their writing throughout the whole syllabus. Besides, teachers only
needed to adapt the activities to cater for their students' needs. On the other hand,
the content of the CEFR textbook did not provide for local contexts, causing
teachers to struggle to adapt the materials. The content mostly entails pictures and
is not arranged modularly. Most of the activities included require from students
to perform listening and speaking tasks, but not much writing. Furthermore, some
of the writing tasks require students to use the sentence structure of a spoken
language, such as, "No, it isn't". The sentence structures included in the textbook
suggest that grammar is taught covertly. However, this may lead to confusion
when it comes to proper sentence construction as pupils are constantly exposed
to the use of contractions. Besides, students then find it difficult to differentiate
between spoken language and written language.
2.3 Challenges of Teaching Writing Skills in ESL Classroom

Acquisition of writing skills is extremely challenging in ESL classrooms (Jusun &
Yunus 2018). Previous studies have shown that Malaysian ESL students are still
struggling with the acquisition of writing skills (Ghabool et al., 2012; Maarof &
Murat, 2013; Ien et al., 2017). Malaysian ESL students experience problems with
writing tasks, especially in language use, grammar and punctuation (Ghabool et
al., 2012). According to Misbah et al. (2017), a major obstacle to mastering writing
skills is students’ lack of vocabulary. Furthermore, students often make mistakes
in subject-verb agreement, pronouns, tenses, articles, prepositions and basic
sentence structures (Fareed et al., 2016). Hence, it definitely is not an easy task for
teachers to teach writing skills due to the many impediments students have to
overcome. Some of the challenges encountered by teachers in teaching writing are
students’ motivation, different proficiency levels and time constraints (Moses &
Mohamad, 2019). Most students are not interested in and motivated to learn
English writing. According to Dornyei and Ushioda (2010), motivation refers to
the effort and desire of an individual to pursue his or her goals. The students need
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to have motivation to give their best effort to learning. Hence, teachers need to
provide extrinsic motivation to keep them motivated.
According to Mukundan et al. (2005), the teaching of writing skills in Malaysian

classrooms has yet to be successful. Having to teach in a mixed-abilities classroom
is a common scenario for most teachers. However, many teachers still express
their concerns about providing suitable materials during the English writing class.
For instance, if the classroom consists of two proficiency levels, such as high
proficiency and low proficiency, it would be quite challenging for teachers to give
the instructions, as the gap is too big. In some cases, the advanced students may
complete the weaker students’ tasks instead of making an effort to assist them to
complete their work independently.
Another challenge that is often faced by teachers of writing skills, is time

constraints (Moses & Mohamad, 2019). Usually, it will take more than one lesson
for teachers to teach a new topic, especially when the students require more
practising time for them to understand the lesson content. It might lead to a major
drawback in the students' motivation and performance if the lessons were to stop
halfway, especially when the students are just about to form a new
understanding. This scenario is quite common in rural or suburban schools where
the English language is seen as less important because the teachers have to spend
most of their time on explanations.
2.4 Use of Jigsaw Technique in the Teaching of Writing Skills

The jigsaw teaching method was first discovered by Eliot Aronson in 1970, as cited
in Dabell (2019). This cooperative learning technique has resulted in many
successes. Jigsaw technique allows students to be assigned different roles, and
each student would have to play his or her role well in order to complete the task
as they are relying on each other. As none of the roles overlaps, students would
eventually try their best to accomplish the task and cooperate with their group
members. In this study, the same technique was adapted to the innovation,
though the participants were not grouped together. The participants were able to
experience taking on different roles despite having to work on the Match Plate by
themselves. A study conducted by Bafadal (2015) proved that the Jigsaw
technique is effective in teaching descriptive writing. Similarly, a study conducted
by Ardila and Ginting (2013) found that the application of Jigsaw technique
proved to be effective in improving students' ability in writing narrative texts.
Although these studies (Bafadal, 2015; Ardila & Ginting, 2013) revealed that this
technique is effective in improving students' paragraph and essay writing, the
researcher decided to incorporate Jigsaw techniques into the innovation in
teaching sentence construction in order to gain a better understanding of how
Jigsaw technique can be used to teach CEFR-aligned writing skills to lower
primary ESL students. It is hoped this technique will have a positive outcome by
improving the participants' performance regardless of the writing tasks, thus
providing new insights on the technique.
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2.5 Effective Strategies to Improve Writing in the ESL Classroom

According to Cole and Feng (2015), writing skill acquisition in the ESL classroom
context can be improved through the use of technology, pre-taught vocabulary,
various teacher influences, and the implementation of positive, diverse literacy
practices. In this study, the researchers implemented a variety of techniques,
namely journal writing, activating prior knowledge, pre-viewing vocabulary,
utilizing graphic organizers, scaffolded instruction, and increased teacher/peer
conferencing throughout a year with a group of ESL students (experimental
group), whereas another group of students (control group) were taught based on
the curriculum only. The data were gathered both quantitatively and
qualitatively. The findings suggest that the performance of the experimental
group improved in comparison to that of the control group, and the students in
the experimental group were able to identify their own weaknesses and strengths.
Chandran et al. (2019) conducted a study to assess Form 4 students’ writing

performance using the Hi-Five Fingers and Snack Bars via social media (Powtoon
and Facebook). The researchers implemented a product-based approach during
the administration of the pre-test and post-test, and also during the intervention.
The intervention was carried out for three months. During the intervention,
students were shown a video via Powtoon. After that, the students used Hi-Five
Fingers to brainstorm their ideas and Snack Bars as guidance for their essay
writing before posting their writings on a Facebook group which had been created
earlier for peer and teacher feedback sessions. The findings suggest that both Hi-
Five Fingers and Snack Bars had a positive impact on the participants' writing
performance. This could be due to their active participation throughout the
process, especially during the feedback session. As the feedback session involved
not only the teachers but also the students themselves, they were able to provide
constructive feedback and exchange new ideas.
2.6 Motivation in the Learning Process

Motivation undeniably is one of the determining factors of second or foreign
language learning success (Bradford, 2007; Dörnyei, 1998; Engin, 2009). In
language learning, motivation serves as a driving force for learners striving to
achieve their goals. There are four major factors that contribute to students’
motivation, namely competence, autonomy, interest and relatedness (Bandura
[1996], Dweck [2010], Murray [2011], Pintrich [2003], Ryan & Deci [2000], Seifert
[2004], as cited in Filgona et al., 2020). At least one of these factors must be present
to keep the students motivated. The more motivating factors present, the greater
the probability that students’ motivation will increase (Filgona et al., 2020).
According to a recent study of Omar et al. (2020), the implementation of

motivational strategies relies on teachers' perceived motivation in teaching. This
study was conducted in eleven public universities in Malaysia, involving 49
teachers altogether. The findings suggest that the most preferred motivational
strategy was proper teacher behaviour, while the least preferred motivational
strategy was to promote learner autonomy. According to Omar et al. (2020),
proper teacher behaviour is a strategy where teachers are enthusiastic about their
teaching, customise lesson plans to accommodate students' needs and provide a
safe learning environment. The teachers believed that these actions would
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motivate students in their learning, but they also were positive about the inclusion
of learner autonomy. In fact, some of the teachers preferred to discuss the topic
selections and the learning activities with the students.
3. Methodology
3.1 Research Design
For this study an action research design was employed, as the purpose of the
study was to implement the use of Match Plate in the teaching of writing skills
among Year 2 pupils. The main reason for employing action research was to gain
new insight about and understanding of the use of Match Plate for teaching and
learning English writing skills. The study comprised five stages, which began
with the identification of educational practices to improve learning, action
planning, implementation, data collection, and, lastly, reflection on the action. A
pre-test was done before the intervention. After that, the researcher developed a
teaching aid, called Match Plate, to be used as a supplementary tool during the
teaching and learning of English writing skills. Implementation took place as
planned, but with some modifications to the initial plan, as the Recovery
Movement Control Order (due to the Covid pandemic) had been extended. The
initial plan of including fifteen participants in this study was to no avail as some
of the parents still were reluctant to let their children attend school. Therefore,
only ten participants were able to be included, and they were given a set of Match
Plates to work on by themselves. After that, the researcher evaluated the
effectiveness of Match Plate in aiding pupils' writing skills by means of three types
of data collection, namely a pre-test and post-test, an observation checklist, and a
questionnaire survey. Lastly, the researcher reflected on the research
implementation, although there was only one cycle involved in this study. Hence,
all improvements and amendments were recorded as recommendations for future
study.
3.2 Research Procedure

The Match Plate is an adapted version of the concept of a jigsaw puzzle. A jigsaw
puzzle requires the players to fit pieces of different shapes to complete a picture.
The same concept was adopted for Match Plate, where the participants have to
find the correct shapes and fit them into a mould which is the Plate. The shapes
were arranged in a straight line as they represented one complete sentence. There
are five shapes altogether, and each shape represents one sentence part. The
sentence parts, which are represented in different shapes, are to be used to form a
sentence. Unlike the usual jigsaw puzzle game that would require the players to
use all the pieces to complete a puzzle, the participants may not use all the shapes
in the Match Plate. Hence, Match Plate can be used for pupils to form sentences
with a maximum of five sentence parts. A set of pre-tests was administered to the
pupils before the intervention was carried out. After that, the researcher
introduced Match Plate and demonstrated how to use the innovation to perform
a writing task. The researcher carried out the intervention once a week during the
writing lesson, which makes up a total of four sessions altogether. During the
intervention, the researcher conducted the writing lessons as usual, but the
writing tasks assigned to the participants required them to use the Match Plate to
accomplish the task. Each student was given a set of Match Plates to work on. The
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researcher had invited an expert teacher to observe the participants' performance.

This was done to ensure that the data gathered were valid and reliable. During
the last session, a set of post-tests was administered to the participants. The
researcher decided to assign a fictional name (pseudonym) to all the participants
for writing up the study to give anonymity to the participants.
3.3 Data Collection Methods and Data Analysis

In this study three types of data collection methods were employed, namely a pre-
test and post-test, an observation checklist and a questionnaire survey. The pre-
test was administered to the participants before the research implementation. The
pre-test and post-test comprised three sections: Section A, Section B and Section
C. Each section consisted of five questions which totalled fifteen questions.
Section A consisted of five 'sentence halves' questions; Section B consisted of five
'blanks filling' questions, and Section C consisted of five 'arranging words'
questions. Meanwhile, the post-test was administered to gather information on
and evaluate the participants' writing skills after the research had been
implemented. The post-test was constructed using the same type of questions, but
different items were included for each section. This enabled the researcher to
evaluate the participants' performance based on the same constructs and yet using
valid instruments for the assessment. This allowed the researcher to make
meaningful inferences based on the scores (see Messick, 1989; Moss, 1995).
During the implementation, an observation checklist was used to conduct a

formative assessment. The items included in the observation checklist were based
on a Revised Academic Success Model by York et al. (2015). However, some
modifications had been made as this model was designed for assessing college
students' performance. Hence, the researcher found it necessary to make some
modifications to the existing model in order to suit the research context. With
careful consideration, one of the elements in the model, which is career success,
was omitted. Therefore, the observation checklist was derived from five elements
only. Three items were included for each element. The checklist used 'yes' or 'no'
statements to make it easier for the researcher to observe the students'
performance. A column for 'written remarks' was included to enable the
researcher and expert teacher to jot down any outstanding behaviours or incidents
that were not included in the checklist. This checklist was used throughout the
implementation period.
Apart from that, the questionnaire was distributed to the participants to gather
their perceptions on the use of Match Plate in the lessons. The items in the
questionnaire were rated on a 4-point Likert scale. No safe or 'neutral' option was
included so that more specific opinions could be gathered from the survey
questionnaire. The items included in the questionnaire were aimed at determining
the extent to which the participants agreed or disagreed with the statements
regarding the use of Match Plate in learning English writing skills. The researcher
used descriptive analysis to interpret the data and thematic analysis was used to
interpret data gathered via the observation checklist, which served a purpose as
triangulation of data.
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4. Findings
4.1 Comparison of Results of Pre-Test and Post-Test
Table 2: Comparison of Results of Pre-Test and Post-Test

Pseudonym Pre-Test Post-Test Difference
(%) (%) (%)
Mirza 49 68 + 19
Qhaira 31 48 + 17
Amanda 46 57 +11
Jessie 45 57 + 12
Hanan 48 69 + 21
Alif 43 52 +9
Akif 52 74 + 22
Haikal 52 68 + 16
Brian 35 57 + 22
Eric 48 65 + 17
As illustrated in Table 2, there is a positive increment in the post-test as compared

to the pre-test. Based on the table, Alif showed the least improvement in the post-
test (9%), whereas Akif and Brian showed the biggest improvement in their post-
tests with a definite increase of 22%; Qhaira and Eric improved by 17% in their
post-tests. Meanwhile, Amanda showed a positive increment in the post-test with
11%, and Jessie improved by 12% in the post-test. On the other hand, Haikal,
Mirza and Hanan improved in the post-test by 16%, 19% and 21%, respectively.
This obviously demonstrates that Match Plate did improve the participants'
writing abilities. This could be owing to the Match Plate having been used
extensively throughout the study. By using Match Plate, the participants were
exposed to the sentence structures repeatedly, thus enabling them to memorise
the sentence structures.
Average Score Percentage between

Pre-Test and Post-Test
100
90
Average Score (%)
80
70 61.5
60 44.9
50
40
30
20
10
0
PRE-TEST POST-TEST
Figure 3: Average Score Percentage between Pre-Test and Post-Test
Figure 3 shows the difference between pre-test and post-test average score
percentages. There is a positive increment of 16.6% in the post-test. Therefore,
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Match Plate clearly brought positive changes in the participants’ writing skills, as
shown by post-test results.
4.2 Pupils’ Perceptions on Match Plate
Table 4: Pupils’ Perceptions of Match Plate

No. ITEMS Strongly Disagree Agree Strongly Mean Score
disagree agree
1. I can define each 0 2 6 2 3.0
sentence part when (0%) (20%) (60%) (20%) (MODERATE)
asked verbally.
2. I can differentiate the 0 2 4 4 3.2
sentence parts used in (0%) (20%) (40%) (40%) (HIGH)
the Match Plate when
asked verbally.
3. I can state the 0 0 6 4 3.4
examples for each (0%) (0%) (60%) (40%) (HIGH)
sentence part in the
Match Plate when
asked verbally.
4. I am excited to 0 0 6 4 3.4
complete (0%) (0%) (60%) (40%) (HIGH)
supplementary
worksheets using
Match Plate.
5. I enjoy using Match 0 0 5 5 3.5
Plate to build (0%) (0%) (50%) (50%) (HIGH)
sentences
individually.
6. I am motivated to use 0 0 3 7 3.7
Match Plate in (0%) (0%) (30%) (70%) (HIGH)
learning sentence
building.
7. I can give full 0 0 6 4 3.4
attention when (0%) (0%) (60%) (40%) (HIGH)
learning sentence
building using Match
Plate.
8. I am not afraid to ask 0 0 3 7 3.7
questions when I am (0%) (0%) (30%) (70%) (HIGH)
facing difficulties in
using Match Plate.
9. I enjoy competing to 0 0 4 6 3.6
complete the (0%) (0%) (40%) (60%) (HIGH)
supplementary
worksheet using
Match Plate.
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10. I am able to match the 0 0 3 7 3.7

puzzles with less
guidance. (0%) (0%) (30%) (70%) (HIGH)
11. I am able to write the 0 0 4 6 3.6

sentences with similar
sentence structures in (0%) (0%) (40%) (60%) (HIGH)
Match Plate correctly.
12. I am able to identify 0 3 5 2 2.9

the mistakes in
sentences when asked (0%) (30%) (50%) (20%) (MODERATE)
verbally.
13. I am able to rearrange 0 0 3 7 3.7

words into sentences
correctly. (0%) (0%) (30%) (70%) (HIGH)
14. I am able to create 0 3 5 2 2.9

simple sentences
without the help of (0%) (30%) (50%) (20%) (MODERATE)
Match Plate
independently.
15. I am getting better in 0 0 4 6 3.6

sentence building over
time. (0%) (0%) (40%) (60%) (HIGH)
As illustrated in Table 4, 50% of the respondents with a high mean score of 3.5
strongly agreed that they enjoyed using Match Plate to learn sentence building.
As Match Plate was an adapted version of a jigsaw puzzle, the participants found
it interesting to use this while learning sentence construction. Besides, most of
them had been exposed to the jigsaw puzzle game itself, so it took less time for
the participants to identify the assembling mechanism of the jigsaw puzzle
adapted into Match Plate. Furthermore, 70% of the respondents with a high mean
score of 3.7 strongly agreed that Match Plate motivated them to learn the English
language. As low-proficiency students placed such a high value on exam results
or performance in comparison to others, they rarely felt successful in their English
education, which led them to give up learning English and be hesitant to seek help
from teachers (Fukuda, 2019). Thus, motivation is indeed crucial in English
language learning, especially to low-proficiency pupils. In this study, Match Plate
not only promoted fun learning, but also served as a classroom energiser,
especially when students were struggling in English language learning.
Apart from that, 70% of the respondents, with a mean score of 3.7, strongly agreed
that they needed less guidance to match the puzzles. This indicates that the
participants were able to match the puzzles as they understood the mechanism,
helping them to accomplish the tasks. On the other hand, 30% of the participants
responded negatively to item number 12, which deals with the identification of
mistakes in sentences when they were asked verbally. This implies that three of
the respondents still were unable to grasp the concept. On the other hand, 80% of
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the respondents agreed and strongly agreed with item number 2, which indicates
that they believed they could differentiate the sentence parts used in the Match
Plate when asked verbally. This implies that two of the participants still were
unable to understand (make meaning of) the function of each constituent part of
a sentence, even after having used Match Plate. In sum, most of the participants
had positive perspectives on the use of Match Plate, but few of them were unable
to attain the learning outcome.
4.3 Observation Checklist
Table 5: Observation Checklist
WRITTEN
REMARKS
RESEARCHER
ELEMENTS CHECK-LIST ITEMS
TEACHER
EXPERT
YES NO YES NO
Pupils are able to define  - few are not

each sentence part when convinced with own
asked verbally.  answers (R)
- few are hinting

friends to give
answers (ET)
Attainment of
Learning
Pupils are able to   - few still unable to
Outcome differentiate the sentence differentiate
parts used in the Match (R & ET)
Plate when asked verbally.
Pupils are able to state the   - most can give

examples for each sentence examples especially
part in the Match Plate verb, preposition
when asked verbally. and noun phrase (R)
Pupils are excited to   -most pupils portray

complete supplementary positive responses
worksheet using Match while using MP (R &
Plate. ET)
Satisfaction in
Learning Pupils enjoy using Match   - most can work on
Plate to build sentences their own (ET)
individually.
Pupils are motivated to   - some even shouted

learn sentence building ‘yeay’ upon hearing
using Match Plate. MP to be used as the
writing task (R)
110
Pupils concentrated fully   -most pupils were

when learning sentence seen giving full
building using Match attention (R)
Plate.
Pupils are not afraid to ask   - some even use

questions when they are Malay language to
Persistence in facing difficulties in using ask questions (R)
Learning Match Plate.
- few of them choose
to ask their friends
and some are no
longer avoiding eye
contact (ET)
Pupils are competing to   - most pupils are

complete the competing to
supplementary worksheet complete the task
using Match Plate. the fastest
(R & ET)
Pupils are able to match   -most pupils were

the puzzles with less able to match the
guidance. puzzles
independently
Acquired
(R & ET)
Learning Skills
Pupils are able to write the   Pupils can write the
sentences with similar sentences with
sentence structures in similar sentence
Match Plate correctly. structure faster than
before
(R & ET)
Pupils are able to identify   - few are not able to

the mistakes in sentences identify the mistakes
when asked verbally. (ET)
Pupils are able to rearrange   -most pupils can

words into sentences rearrange the
correctly. sentence parts
Performance/A Pupils are able to create   - few still need
cademic simple sentences without guidance (R)
Achievement the help of Match Plate
independently.
Pupils are getting better in   - some pupils have

sentence building over been progressing
time. gradually (R)
As depicted in Table 5, both the researcher and expert teacher noted that the
pupils were observed competing with each other to complete the task using Match
Plate. Besides, the researcher and the expert teacher also agreed that pupils were
111
able to provide examples of verb, preposition and noun phrases when they were
asked verbally. These remarks indicated that pupils slowly were learning to
understand and differentiate each sentence part used in the innovation. The
researcher also noted that some pupils used the Malay language to ask questions.
This remark was included in the element of persistence in learning. These written
remarks indicated that pupils were doing whatever it took to overcome the
difficulties while using the innovation to complete the writing activity. Though
the pupils were asked to use this innovation individually, it did not stop them
from learning as they seemingly were more comfortable seeking their friends'
help.
5. Discussion
5.1 The effectiveness of Match Plate in aiding pupils’ writing skills
Based on the comparison of average score percentages in the pre-test and post-
test results, there is a positive increment with a value of 16.6% in the post-test.
This suggests that Match Plate is useful in aiding pupils in mastering writing
skills, indicating that pupils' memory retention had gradually improved over time
with frequent use of Match Plate. The particular features of visual registration
enable humans to identify them as a distinct memory component (Sperling, 1960).
In this research, the shapes used in the Match Plate were registered to the
participants' short-term memory as they recognised the differences in each shape.
Furthermore, the jigsaw technique provided the learners with an opportunity to
become responsible, autonomous learners (see Esnawy, 2016). Benson (2001)
states that autonomy is essential for effective learning, and learners' capacity to
take control over their own learning is reflected through their actions. This means
that once learners become autonomous learners, they are gradually developing
into more responsible and critical learners. With the use of Match Plate, pupils are
taking responsibility for their own learning, for they have to match the correct
pieces in order to form the sentences correctly. Besides, they will be able to
identify their own mistakes and learn from them.
5.2 Pupils’ perceptions regarding the use of Match Plate in learning writing
skills
As depicted in Table 4, the research participants had positive views on the use of
Match Plate in general. The questionnaire's most notable finding was that 50% of
the respondents strongly agreed that they enjoyed using Match Plate to perform
the writing tasks. This suggests that Match Plate promotes fun learning.
Meanwhile, 70% of the participants strongly agreed that they felt motivated to
learn sentence building with Match Plate. Dornyei (1994) states that a
motivational construct involves both instrumental and integrative motivation. In
this study, the participants were given rewards each time they had completed a
writing task correctly. The rewards acted as the stimulus or instrumental
motivation for the participants to accomplish the task well in future. As asserted
by O'Connor and McCartney (2007), the rewards which are offered as pleasant
stimulus would make students feel interested in their immediate task and
motivated to maintain their behaviour. Apart from that, 60% of the participants
strongly agreed that this innovation allowed them to compete healthily with their
friends. Verhoeff (1997) claims that healthy, diverse competition has much to offer
112
in education. In this study, the participants could be seen competing with each
other to match the sentence parts. The competition encourages pupils to challenge
their innate drive for competence as well as to engage in self-evaluation to
discover their intellectual and talent potential, as affirmed by Rogers (1959). This
process is important as it requires the pupils to build self-confidence and self-
awareness.
5.3 Triangulation of Data

The researcher used an observation checklist to triangulate the data gathered from
the tests and questionnaire. One of the written remarks that stood out most on the
observation checklist is that "some pupils are no longer avoiding eye contact". This
remark was written by the expert teacher under item number 8, which is, "Pupils
are not afraid to ask questions when they are facing difficulties in using Match
Plate". This item appears under the element of persistence in learning, and
indicates that some of the pupils used to avoid eye contact, and they might have
been reluctant to seek help before, even though they were facing difficulties with
a task. The phrase, "no longer" here indicates that the pupils were not avoiding
eye contact anymore, thus, it may be assumed that they had developed self-
confidence over time. On the other hand, 20% of the respondents disagreed with
questionnaire item number 2, which refers to the ability to differentiate the
sentence parts, categorised under "attainment of learning”; 30% of the
respondents also disagreed with item number 14, which states, "I am able to create
simple sentences without the help of Match Plate independently". This item was
included under "performance/academic achievement". These data correlated
with the written remarks in the observation checklist, which state, "few still unable
to differentiate and few still need guidance" (see items 2 and 14 respectively).
Therefore, these similarities in the findings imply congruence in the results of the
different data collection strategies, signifying that most of the participants had
positive opinions on the use of Match Plate, but few still were unable to attain the
learning outcome.
6. Conclusion
This research aimed to investigate the potential of Match Plate in aiding pupils'
efforts to master writing skills. The findings proved that Match Plate showed great
potential in helping pupils to learn sentence building. Generally, pupils
developed a positive learning attitude due to Match Plate, though a few of the
participants still were unable to differentiate the sentence parts and write
sentences independently. Hence, this study has shed light on the use of alternative
teaching aids in the teaching of writing skills. Note that no particular strategy for
teaching writing skills is prescribed, and it is crucial to acknowledge pupils'
diverse backgrounds and learning needs when teaching English as a second
language. The teaching aids used should cater for pupils' learning needs, be
appropriate in their contexts, and never settle for monotonous lessons, no matter
how challenging the teaching and learning process might be.
A few limitations in this study must be acknowledged. The main limitation was
the small sampling size, ensuing in the realisation that generalisations could not
be made. Another shortcoming in the study was the testing. Tests (pre-test and
post-test) were administered before and after the intervention. Therefore, it is
113
possible that the participants showed improvements in the post-test due to similar
items used in the pre-test, indicating their improvements may not be due solely
to the innovation. A few modifications are recommended for future studies in
this field, namely to include an erasable sheet for each shape to allow free-writing
sessions. The researcher also may consider integrating different language skills.
This would give a new direction to the study and enable the researcher to gather
richer data.
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Appendix 1: Pre-Test
Section A: Sentence Halves

Match the sentences below.
She are singing.
Maria hungry.
I’m doesn’t like cats.
The boys likes to sing.
My brothers don’t eat oranges.
Section B: Blanks Filling

Fill in the blanks using correct answers.
like is Eisha and Elisya are Aimin
1. _____________ goes to school.
2. Haikal and his friends ____________ swimming.
3. Mother _____________ jogging at the park.
4. I ____________ apples.
5. ____________ dance in the room.
117
Section C: Rearrange Words

Arrange the words and write the answers.
sing my sister to likes
1. ____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
I don’t orange juice like
2. ____________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
they swim on Wednesday
3. ____________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Iqwan an apple eats
4. ____________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
buy Husna and Inara a storybook
5. ____________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
118
Appendix 2: Post-Test
Section A: Sentence Halves
Match the sentences below.
My sister
like to bake
cookies.
The girls
am fishing.
Inara is reading a
storybook.
I likes to play with

her cats.
Hariz and are skipping.

Aryan
Section B: Blanks Filling
Fill in the blanks using correct answers.
don’t is They John sleeps
1. Khalis _______________ drawing.
2. She ___________ on the floor.
3. The boys ____________ like to eat chicken rice.
4. ______________ are baking in the kitchen.
5. _____________ is running from a dog.
119
Section C: Rearrange Words
Arrange the words and write the answers.
sandwiches he making is
1.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
pizza eating i’m in the kitchen
2.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
the ball they kick
3.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
in the boys dive the river
4.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
the floor Aniq and Khalis sweep
120
5.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Appendix 3: Questionnaire
No. ITEMS Strongly Disagree Agree Strongly

disagree agree
1. I can define each sentence

part when asked verbally.
2. I can differentiate the
sentence parts used in the
Match Plate when asked
verbally.
3. I can state the examples for
each sentence part in the
Match Plate when asked
verbally.
4. I am excited to complete
supplementary worksheet
using Match Plate.
5. I enjoy using Match Plate to
build sentences individually.
6. I am motivated to use Match
Plate in learning sentence
building.
7. I can give full concentration
when learning sentence
building using Match Plate.
8. I am not afraid to ask
questions when they are
facing difficulties in using
Match Plate.
9. I am competing to complete
the supplementary
worksheet using Match Plate.
10. I am able to match the
puzzles with less guidance.
11. I am able to write the
sentences with similar
sentence structures in Match
Plate correctly.
12. I am able to identify the
mistakes in sentences when
asked verbally.
13. I am able to rearrange words
into sentences correctly.
121
14. I am able to create simple

sentences without the help of
Match Plate independently.
15. I am getting better in
sentence building over time.
Appendix 4: Observation Checklist
RESEARCHER EXPERT WRITTEN

TEACHER REMARKS
ELEMENTS CHECKLIST ITEMS
YES NO YES NO
Pupils are able to define

each sentence part
when asked verbally.
Pupils are able to

Attainment differentiate the
of Learning sentence parts used in
Outcome the Match Plate when
asked verbally.
Pupils are able to state

the examples for each
sentence part in the
Match Plate when
asked verbally.
Pupils are excited to

complete
supplementary
Satisfaction worksheet using Match
in Learning Plate.
Pupils enjoy using

Match Plate to build
sentences individually.
Pupils are motivated to

learn sentence building
using Match Plate.
Pupils are fully

concentrated when
learning sentence
building using Match
Plate.
122
Persistence Pupils are not afraid to

in Learning ask questions when
they are facing
difficulties in using
Match Plate.
Pupils are competing to

complete the
supplementary
worksheet using Match
Plate.
Pupils are able to match

the puzzles with less
guidance.
Acquired Pupils are able to write
Learning the sentences with
Skills
similar sentence
structures in Match
Plate correctly.
Pupils are able to

identify the mistakes in
sentences when asked
verbally.
Pupils are able to

rearrange words into
sentences correctly.
Performance Pupils are able to create
/ Academic
simple sentences
Achievement
without the help of
Match Plate
independently.
Pupils are getting better

in sentence building
over time.
Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 123-141, May 2021
Teachers’ Classroom Management Styles and

Student-Teacher Connectedness and Anxiety
Ray T. Obispo, Gilbert C. Magulod Jr. and Darin Jan C. Tindowen

University of Saint Louis, Tuguegarao City, Cagayan, Philippines
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2914-6735
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6056-5287
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9165-0698
Abstract. The type of classroom management style employed by

educators has a considerable impact on their interactions with students.
The goal of this study is to understand more about faculty members'
classroom management methods and how they communicate with their
students in higher education. A combination of quantitative and
qualitative analysis techniques was used in this investigation.
Instructors emphasized an authoritative classroom management style,
which they claimed was an essential factor for successful teaching,
according to the report. Students were found to be satisfied with the
types of relationships they had with their teachers. However, when
teachers are classified according to their profile variables, there is a
noticeable difference in their classroom management types.
Furthermore, there is no significant association between instructors'
classroom management styles and the types of relationships that
students develop. The qualitative results of this study indicate that
teachers use a range of classroom management styles. The transcripts
revealed that, from the viewpoint of teachers, the classroom
management style is a combination of democratic and authoritative
types.
Keywords: classroom management styles; higher education; instructors;

student-teacher relationship
1. Introduction
Higher educational institutions in the Philippines have their own role in the
progress and development of society and aim to prepare scientific, technical,
managerial and administrative cadres in modern societies/for the workplace?,
which are the top concern of the educational system. Academia has an
important role in the improvement of a country’s workforce. The teacher, as one
of the most prominent figures in academia, plays an important role in students'
schooling and education. Teachers are vital in helping schools to deliver quality
education through the effective and efficient utilization of classroom
©Authors
124
management and discipline. Promoting the best learning environment possible

is the primary focus of the classroom teacher’s responsibility. As a result,
teaching is a dynamic occupation that is influenced by a variety of factors, which
include learner and teacher characteristics, school and community relations,
learning resources. While all of these factors contribute to a positive teaching
experience, it is widely acknowledged that the teacher-student interpersonal
relationship is critical to the teaching and learning process.
Classroom management styles are one of the factors that affect teachers'
classroom behavior (Rahimi & Asadollahi, 2012; Rokita-Jaśkow, 2016). The
degree of teacher participation with students and the type of control exercised
by teachers over their students are referred to as classroom management style
(Burden, 2020). Teachers who use a certain classroom management style can
have a significant impact on how they react to their students' actions and how
they educate them. Classroom management styles are an integral part of a
teacher's success in creating a healthy and productive learning atmosphere that
encourages students to obtain a high-quality education (Jones et al., 2014). As a
result, determining a teacher's classroom management orientation can aid in the
selection of acceptable or desired teaching activities in the classroom. It is
necessary to examine how teachers execute classroom management styles. From
an interpersonal perspective on teaching, a friendly classroom climate
unquestionably generates and retains an optimistic, warm classroom
atmosphere conducive to learning (Denscombe, 2012; Erasmus, 2019). This is
because both teachers and students need to feel at ease in their classrooms in
order for teaching and learning to be interesting, enjoyable, and meaningful.
The role of teachers in classroom management is critical to creating a proactive

learning atmosphere (Banks, 2014; MacSuga-Gage et al., 2012; Wolff et al., 2014).
Classroom management involves setting boundaries for mental, emotional,
physical, and intellectual environments (Burden, 2020). This makes for more
effective teaching and learning. There are numerous ways to assist teachers and
students in improving their interpersonal relationships. Different teachers argue
for varying degrees of student control. Some teachers prefer a structured
learning environment, while others prefer to build a comfortable learning
environment in which students feel free to take chances and be innovative
(Hornstra et al., 2015; Kangas et al., 2017).
One of the fundamental tenets of classroom management is a teacher's classroom

management style, which promotes both positive and negative interactions
between the teacher and the students (Aloe et al., 2014; Cangelosi, 2013;
Gremmen et al., 2016; Meece & Eccles, 2010). Some teachers often engage in
unpleasant interactions with students, such as criticizing bad posture, pointing
out errors, making derogatory remarks about improper social behavior, and
frowning to express disapproval (Jahangiri & Mucciolo, 2012; Lumadi, 2013).
Other teachers also believe it is their responsibility to point out where the
students have gone astray. Other teachers normally communicate with students
in a positive manner, such as complimenting good posture, praising
achievements, making flattering statements about acceptable social behavior,
125
and smiling to display approval (Fisher et al., 2012). In this manner, it can then
be stressed that the kind of classroom management style being utilized by
teachers significantly affects teacher and student-interaction and relationships.
Classroom management styles are consistently associated with variations in

student behavior. In fact, the ratio of positive to negative experiences between
teachers and students was eight to one in classrooms where students were on
task, attending, following directions, and participating appropriately (Gage et
al., 2018). These teachers were making pleasant comments to their students or
laughing, touching, and gesturing positively eight times for every time they
insulted, frowned, or did something similar. Teachers who have a structured
plan for discipline and procedures feel more in charge and informed, according
to certain studies on classroom management (Burden, 2020; Greenberg et al.,
2014). As a result, when teachers are able to concentrate less on discipline, they
may devote more time to creating a curriculum that encourages higher
achievement.
According to Brody (2003), there are four fundamental approaches to classroom

management styles. These include democratic, authoritative, autocratic, and
permissive or laissez-faire styles. The democratic management style generates an
environment of independence in the classroom, enabling students to
communicate their thoughts and desires while leaving the final decision to the
teacher. The autocratic model, on the other hand, indicates a coercive and
dictatorial approach to classroom management. Instructors who use this
approach rely on their own experience, expertise, and understanding while
ignoring the learners’ viewpoint. Furthermore, an authoritarian style imposes
restrictions and controls on students while also encouraging individuality.
Finally, the laissez-faire model signifies full control by the students with no
input from the teacher.
Higher education institutions, particularly Catholic universities which have

stricter policies and regulations than public and other private educational
institutions, are excellent places to learn about classroom management and the
instructor-student relationship. Most instructors employ a variety of classroom
management techniques which influence how students associate, interact, and
interact with their teachers. Some students are terrified of their teachers, while
others see them as collaborators. Some regard their teachers as second parents,
while others disregard their responsibilities as classroom teachers. The
researchers are perplexed by this situation because how students interact and
communicate with instructors has a significant impact on their learning process,
their perception of school as a learning environment, and their perception of
instructors who are on the cutting edge of knowledge building. The purpose of
this study was to determine whether there was a correlation between college
teachers' classroom management styles and the perceived types of student-
instructor relationships.
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Conceptual Framework
One major emphasis is on the basic idea that classroom management is an
important facet of daily instruction. Learning how to manage and discipline
every student affects the teaching and learning process which can be reflected in
the instructor-student relationship. To investigate teachers’ classroom
management styles in this study, four basic approaches to classroom
management were used, namely autocratic, authoritative, democratic and
laissez-faire or permissive (Brody et al., 2003).
a) Autocratic Classroom Management Style. This means that the instructor is the
classroom's sole authority figure; behavior standards are high but frequently not
developmentally appropriate; rules are created by the instructor and students
are not permitted to question them; and the instructor uses punishment and
external rewards to get students to obey. The students follow rules only when
the instructor is watching; students learn submission and very little about self-
control and assertion. Moreover, students’ relationship with the instructor and
with each other is undetermined; students may feel anger, fear, humiliation and
a desire for revenge.
b) Authoritative Classroom Management Style. The authoritative instructor
establishes boundaries and controls the students while also encouraging
individuality. This instructor also discusses why laws and decisions are made
the way they are. A disruptive student will be reprimanded harshly but
respectfully by the teacher. On rare occasions, this instructor will use discipline,
but only after careful analysis of the issue. The authoritative instructor welcomes
a great deal of verbal exchanges, including critical debates. Students are
conscious that they have the right to interrupt the instructor if they have a
pertinent question or remark. Students will have the opportunity to develop and
practice their communication skills in this area.
c) Democratic Classroom Management Style. It is characterized by instructors
helping students develop self-control; behavior standards are high and
developmentally appropriate; students help create rules and the instructor helps
them to practice the rules; the instructor uses logical consequences to help
students learn from mistakes. Additionally, students learn to think and act in
socially responsible ways; students' relationships with the instructor and with
each other are strengthened; and students feel safe in school.
d) Permissive or Laissez-Faire Classroom Management Style. This style occurs
when the instructor has little control of classroom life; behavior standards are
low; the instructor uses praise, rewards, cajoling and empty threats to try to
convince students to cooperate and the instructor ignores a lot of undesired
behavior. The classroom environment is chaotic, and students constantly push
boundaries and show disrespect; students learn self-centeredness and
manipulation skills. Furthermore, students’ relationship with the instructor and
with each other is undetermined, and students may feel insecure because of the
lack of predictability.
The relationship between students and teachers is critical in the classroom

setting (Myers & Clas, 2012). In a similar vein, the class environment is defined
as the collective expectations of students with respect to shared relationships
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within the classroom, lesson organization, and student learning tasks (Goddard
et al., 2015). It is worth emphasizing that the classroom atmosphere has a
significant influence on how students and teachers get along. Positive student-
teacher relationships help to rebuild and establish reciprocal ties that aid in
student retention (Riley, 2013).
Therefore, the instructor-student relationship is investigated in this study using

two (2) parameters: connectedness and anxiety. According to Thijs and
Fleischmann (2015), the establishment of a positive student-teacher relationship
helps students to explore their surroundings while knowing that they will be
reassured and protected if necessary. In most cases, such a relationship is
evaluated on two dimensions: connectedness and anxiety.
2. Method
Research Design
A mix of quantitative and qualitative methodologies was used in the study. Two
hypotheses were tested using descriptive-correlational analysis in the study's
quantitative component. The qualitative method, on the other hand, was
situated in the phenomenological framework of investigating teachers'
perspectives on a model classroom management style.
Respondents of the Study

Respondents in the survey included 45 college professors and 1,816 students
from a Catholic higher education institution in the Philippines who were
selected using stratified random sampling.
Table 1: Distribution of the respondents of the study

Student Instructor
Department
Sample respondents
School of Education, Arts, and Sciences (SEAS) 525 11
School of Accountancy, Business, and Hospitality (SABH) 544 13
School of Health and Allied Sciences (SHAS) 136 7
School of Engineering, Architecture and Interior Design,
611 15
and Information Technology Education (SEAIDITE)
Total 1,816 45
Research Instruments and Procedures

Instrument for Classroom Management Style
Teacher-respondents were asked to answer the Inventory of Classroom
Management Style (ICMS) developed by Wright (2005) for the Department of
Special Education at Indian University. The tool consists of 12 items and is
divided into four dimensions: autocratic classroom management style (3 items),
authoritative classroom management style (3 items), democratic classroom
management style (3 items), and laissez-faire classroom management style (3
items).
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Instrument for Teacher-Student Relationship

Student-respondents were asked to answer the student-instructor relationship
scale (SIRS), which was developed by Jarvis and Creasey (2009) and was used to
measure student-instructor relationships, specifically instructor connectedness
and instructor anxiety.
The research instruments were used with the sources' permission. Other
terminologies were modified by the researchers to suit the study's current
location. Prior to their administration to the respondents, these tools underwent
expert validation and reliability testing. Three experts in management and
research were invited to review the content of the questionnaires. After that, the
revisions were made by the researchers based on the recommendations of the
experts. After the expert validation, a reliability test was conducted to ensure
that the questionnaires were suitable for the respondents. Five teachers and ten
students were considered in the reliability test. The test showed reliability values
of .900 for the classroom management styles and .085 for the teacher-student
relationship. Hence, the two questionnaires were reliable and suited to the
present study.
Interview Session
In terms of the qualitative component, a semi-structured interview was
employed by the researchers to explore the instructor's typification of the ideal
classroom management style. The validated and pilot-tested interview protocol
included interview questions that addressed the specific research questions
about the instructors’ typification of the ideal classroom management style. The
interview session lasted between 20-30 minutes and manual transcription
produced 45 individual verbatim transcripts.
Quantitative Data Analysis

Frequency counts and percentages were used to provide the profiles of the
teachers and their prevailing classroom management style. The prevailing
classroom management style of teachers was based on their highest mean score
on the questionnaire.
Weighted mean was used to describe the types of relationships established by

students toward their instructors using the following range and qualitative
descriptions:
Qualitative Description
Range
Instructor Connectedness Instructor Anxiety
3.50-4.00 Very high level of connectedness Very high level of anxiety
2.50-3.49 High level of connectedness High level of anxiety
1.50-2.49 Low level of connectedness Low level of anxiety
1.00-1.49 Very low level of connectedness Very low level of anxiety
The independent sample t-test and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) were
utilized to determine significant differences in the prevailing classroom
management style of the teachers when grouped according to their profile
variables.
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The chi-square test was performed to determine whether there was a link
between teachers' preferred classroom management style and the types of
relationships students formed with their teachers.
Qualitative Data Analysis

The narratives of the teachers were coded and examined to identify the trends
and themes that were needed for the study. The multiple themes and trends that
emerged from the interview with the instructors were analyzed using thematic
analysis. The informants' categorizations and classifications were based on their
own understanding, true experience, and stream of consciousness gained from
interacting with different classroom management approaches.
The number of categories was finalized using the CERES criteria for the
determinations of categories by Ballena and Liwag (2019): (a) Conceptual
congruence, (b) Exclusivity, (c) Responsiveness, (d) Exhaustiveness, and (e)
Sensitivity. Conceptual congruence of themes was observed when all of them
belonged to the same conceptual level; in short, parallelism was observed in the
phraseology of themes. Second, exclusivity means that one identified theme
should mutually exclude the others; thus, overlapping of themes was avoided.
Third, responsiveness was maintained when the identified themes were the
direct answers to the research problems or objectives of the research. Fourth,
exhaustiveness was followed when the identified themes were enough to
encompass all the relevant data contained in the transcripts. Fifth and last,
sensitivity was observed when the identified themes were reflective of the
qualitative data; in short, they had strong and material support from the data.
Ethical Considerations
Participation of the respondents was entirely voluntary. The information
obtained was coded to ensure anonymity. Prior to the interview, participants
were invited to participate in the study, which was scheduled at a time that was
convenient for them and did not conflict with their academic work.
3. Results and Discussion
Table 2: Profile of the instructors

Frequency Percentage
Profile Variables
(N=45) (N=100.00)
Gender
Male 20 44.44
Female 25 55.56
Age
21-30 years old 10 22.22
31-40 years old 22 48.89
41—50 years old 6 13.33
51 and above 7 15.56
Civil Status
Single 9 20.00
Married 31 68.89
Widowed 5 11.11
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Number of Years in Teaching

At least 4 years 15 33.33
5-10 years 7 15.56
11-15 years 9 20.00
16-20 years 7 15.56
More than 21 years 7 15.56
Academic Rank
Assistant Instructor 4 8.89
Instructor 13 28.89
Senior Instructor 16 35.56
Assistant Professor 10 22.22
Associate Professor 2 4.44
Number of Subject Preparation
1 subject 5 11.11
2 subjects 9 20.00
3 subjects 18 40.00
4 subjects 9 20.00
5 subjects 4 8.89
Highest Educational Attainment
BS/ BA Graduate 3 6.67
with MA/MS units 12 26.67
MA/MS Graduate 18 40.00
w/ Doctorate units 6 13.33
Doctorate Graduate 6 13.33
Class Size
Less than 20 2 4.44
21-25 students 4 8.89
26-30 students 5 11.11
31-35 students 14 31.11
36-40 students 12 26.67
41-45 students 8 17.78
The instructors' profiles are shown in Table 2. The table shows that there are more
female respondents than male respondents in terms of gender. The majority of the
respondents are between the ages of 31 and 40 years old. Many respondents have
at least four years of experience teaching at the university level. The finding may
imply that many college instructors in the university are relatively young in the
teaching profession. Meanwhile, in terms of their academic rank, many instructors
are currently senior instructors. The majority of respondents had three subjects in
their instruction. It is also worth noting that the majority of university instructors
have a master's degree, which means they meet the Commission on Higher
Education's (CHEd) minimum requirement that college instructors have at least a
master's degree. Finally, in terms of their class size, the majority of the instructors
have at least 31-40 students in a class.
Table 3: Classroom management styles of instructors
Prevailing Classroom Management Style Frequency Percentage
Autocratic 6 13.33
Authoritative 30 66.67
Democratic 5 11.11
Laissez-faire 4 8.89
Total 45 100.00
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Table 3 shows the instructors' classroom management styles. The classroom

management style is a key concept in this research. The instructor's entire
classroom management style is referred to as the classroom management style.
This includes how the instructor organizes the learners' activities and learning
scenarios in terms of planning, advising, monitoring, and managing learners to
achieve specific goals and learning outcomes. The instructor-respondents'
evaluations revealed that they valued an authoritative classroom management
style as an important factor for successful teaching. In the present study, it was
revealed that the majority of the instructor-respondents are authoritative in terms
of their classroom management style. This means that teachers who use an
authoritarian classroom management style impose limitations and controls on
students while also encouraging independence. Instructors believed that
classroom rules and decisions should be communicated to students prior to the
instructors’ enforcing them. They are adamant believers in the value of rules and
procedures for successfully managing and instructing a classroom. This also
implies that when lecturing, teachers consider the possibility of allowing students
to ask pertinent questions. The findings are consistent with previous studies
which found that most teachers use an authoritative style of classroom
management (Lovorn & Holaway, 2015; Uibu & Kikas, 2014; Wubbels et al., 2014).
This is also due to the fact that college education emphasizes task-oriented
learning. As a result, the authoritative environment focuses on a well-structured,
fun-filled, and task-oriented classroom (Wubbels et al., 2006). Furthermore,
previous research has shown that authoritative teachers often use expected and
logically organized lecture methods (Barni et al., 2018; Greogory et al., 2012; Torff
& Kimmons, 2021). The results could further suggest that, since instructors are
authoritative in terms of classroom management, it is fair to conclude that they
often use the lecture form.
Table 4: Types of relationships established by students toward their instructors

Types of Relationship Mean Qualitative Description
Instructor Connectedness 3.58 Very High Level of Connectedness
Instructor Anxiety 3.03 High Level of Anxiety
Table 4 presents the types of relationships established by students with their

instructors. The students' evaluations of the types of relationships they
established with their instructors revealed that they related well to them. It can be
deduced that students have a strong bond with their lecturers. For adult learners,
developing connections and relationships with teachers is crucial since it will
boost their self-confidence and allow them to pursue new life chances (Goddu,
2012; Jackson, 2016; Laurillard, 2013). According to the findings, students believe
that their teachers are attentive to their needs; therefore they feel very comfortable
in class. Students are able to see how uncompromising their lecturers are as a
result of this. They understand that how they are treated in the classroom
demonstrates a caring nature on the part of their teachers. In addition, academic
motivation, behavior, and school success are all affected by a sense of
connectedness or commitment to teachers, as demonstrated by teacher care, as
well as teacher evaluation and expectations (Collie et al., 2012; Ford et al., 2019).
132
Students also talk to their professors about their issues and concerns. This means
that students often share their personal interests with their instructors, and have
already developed a sense of openness toward their instructors. These also
suggest that instructors have built solid, genuine relationships with their students.
According to Zeichner and Liston (2013), in order for a transformation of the
classroom to take place, teachers must see students as individuals and eliminate
traditional student-teacher roles and boundaries that discourage relationships,
focusing instead on a trusting learning environment built on mutual
connectedness.
Additionally, the anxiety of students toward their instructors was measured in

this analysis. The findings show that students are worried about their teachers.
Students agree with the assertion that they are afraid of losing their instructors'
confidence. This means that since students regard their instructors as purveyors
of experience and wisdom, they must always be treated with reverence as
learning facilitators. The above result supports the study of Banks and Smyth
(2015) who found that the learning climate is rich in circumstances that students
may interpret as stressful. As a result, teachers must create an atmosphere in the
classroom that is not emotionally threatening to the students. According to
Zvolensky et al. (2016), students' anxiety may have a range of behavioral,
cognitive, and physiological consequences. Anxiety causes unpleasant emotions,
anxiousness, and stress, as well as behavioral repercussions such as avoidance,
isolation, and procrastination in completing assignments. Anxiety can also be
triggered for external reasons, such as concern about others' impressions of their
writing, teachers' unrealistic expectations, and preoccupation with their writing
ability. Bailey and Phillips (2015) found that students who were satisfied with
their academic life and had low levels of anxiety and depression fared better
academically because they were interested in school and contributed to its efficacy
on a regular basis.
Table 5: Test of difference of the classroom management styles of instructors when

grouped according to their profile variables
Probability Values
Profile Variables Laissez
Autocratic Authoritative Democratic
Faire
Gender .603 .418 .393 .973
Age .229 .109 .109 .065
Civil status .327 .056 .026 * .244
Department .662 .072 .251 .451
Number of years in teaching .080 .027 * .066 .113
Academic rank .123 . 071 .057 .120
Number of subject preparations .238 .970s .243 .939
Highest educational attainment .659 .042 * .226 .478
Class size .202 .336 .059 . 871
* significant at 0.05 level
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When teachers with an authoritative classroom management style are grouped

according to their years of teaching and highest educational attainment, the table
reveals a significant difference. Additionally, when teachers are classified
according to their civil status, there is a significant difference between those who
use a democratic classroom management style and those who do not. Finally,
this study found that instructors' classroom management styles are unaffected
by their gender, age, department, academic rank, number of subject
preparations, class size, or monthly income.
Table 5.a: Post-hoc analysis on the significant difference of the democratic classroom
management style of instructors when grouped according
to civil status
Civil Status Mean Single Married Widow
Single 4.19 1
Married 2.17 .000* 1
Widow 2.61 .000* 0.890 1
*significant at 0.05 level
Table 5a presents a post-hoc analysis of the significant difference in teachers'

democratic classroom management styles according to civil status. According to
the table, single instructors are more likely to use a democratic classroom
management style than married or widowed instructors.
Table 5.b: Post-hoc analysis on the significant difference of the authoritative

classroom management style of teachers when grouped according to the number of
years in teaching
More
At Least 5-10 11-15 16-20
Civil Status Mean than 21
4 years Years Years Years
Years
At least 4 years 2.71 1
5-10 years 3.05 .052 1
11-15 years 4.25 .000* .061 1
16-20 years 4.65 .000* .024* .040* 1
More than 21 years 4.54 .000* .007* .056 .112 1
Table 5b summarizes the post-hoc analysis of the significant difference in

teachers' authoritative classroom management styles when grouped by years of
teaching experience. The findings indicate that there is a significant difference in
the authoritative classroom management style of teachers who have taught for at
least four years, eleven to fifteen years, sixteen to twenty years, and more than
twenty years. The findings imply that instructors with more than five years of
classroom experience employ an authoritative style of classroom management,
whereas those with at least four years of classroom experience are not that
authoritative in the classroom. This supports the study of Gregory et al. (2012)
who found that teachers with more years of experience are more likely to prefer
full control or authoritative control. As a result, instructors' views about
classroom management styles are heavily influenced by their years of teaching
experience. Teachers with less experience, on the other hand, were found to be
more egalitarian. Similarly, Unal and Unal (2009) pointed out that seasoned
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teachers are thought to have a combination of years of experience and a

repertoire of classroom skills and techniques. They usually have the ability to
prioritize assignments and pay attention to a limited range of important
classroom issues.
Table 5.c: Post-hoc analysis on the significant difference of the authoritative

classroom management style of teachers when grouped according to highest
educational attainment
Highest w/ w/
BS/BA MA/MS Doctorate
Educational Mean MA/MS Doctorate
Graduate Graduate Graduate
Attainment units Units
BS/ BA
2.75 1
graduate
with MA/MS
2.82 .956 1
units
MA/MS
4.43 .001* .001* 1
graduate
w/ Doctorate
4.58 .000* .000* .060 1
units
Doctorate
4.61 .000* .020* .052 .800 1
graduate
Table 5c presents the post-hoc analysis of the significant difference in the

authoritative classroom management style of teachers when grouped according
to the highest educational attainment. According to the table, instructors with
post-graduate degrees such as master’s and doctorates use an authoritative
classroom style, whereas instructors with bachelor's degrees and those enrolled
in a master's degree program do not use an authoritative classroom style. This
finding corroborates the findings of Schleicher (2016), who found that teachers
with advanced educational credentials possessed a structured authority to
manage the classroom because they had established a path for collectively
expanding the frontiers of their expertise and experience. This means that once
knowledge has been developed and confirmed, teachers can now project
experience in the field and are aware of what to expect from the students. As a
result, the consolidation of their knowledge allows instructors to use an
authoritarian classroom management style.
Table 6: Significant relationship on instructors’ classroom management styles and the

types of relationship established by students
Probability Values
Classroom Management Style
Instructor Connectedness Instructor Anxiety
Autocratic .127 .404
Authoritative .252 .094
Democratic .132 .387
Laissez-faire .595 .698
The table indicates that there is no correlation between teachers' predominant

classroom management styles and the types of relationships they form with their
135
students. As a result, their classroom management styles have no effect on their

students' ability to associate, engage, and interact with their instructors.
Instructors’ View of a Model Classroom Management Style

From the perspective of the instructors, their view of what constitutes a model
classroom management style is an important research query as this will serve as
feedback for them to improve their classroom tactics. Table 7 below presents the
clustered themes of responses of the instructors to their views of a model
classroom management style. Four major themes were deduced from the
responses of the respondents to an ideal classroom management style.
Table 7: Instructors’ views of a model classroom management style

Views of a Model Classroom Management Style Frequency Percentage
1. A mixture of a democratic and an authoritative types
20 44.44
of classroom management
2. Motivator and learner-centered instructor 12 26.67
3. A strict teacher in the classroom 8 17.78
4.Friendly and approachable instructor 5 11.11
Total 45 100.00
A. A Mixture of Democratic and Authoritative Types of Classroom Management

One of the instructors' primary perspectives reveals that their model classroom
management style is a hybrid of authoritative and democratic management
styles. This means that, despite the teacher's rules and policies, there is still room
for independence and freedom in the classroom. Additionally, previous research
has revealed that among the various classroom management styles used by
teachers, the combination of democratic and authoritative styles is the most
frequently used, as these two styles are inextricably linked and will undoubtedly
result in more positive outcomes for students (Flemming, 2016; Strawhacker et
al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2015). Furthermore, the findings also show that the
utilization of two classroom management styles among teachers attests to the
capability of teachers to handle student behavior in the classroom. This can also
be attributed to the fact that classroom instruction is a challenging task
performed in a difficult environment (Al-Madani, 2015; Kaiser & Stender, 2013).
With this concept, it can be inferred that the utilization of classroom
management styles may depend on the kind of classroom a teacher
experiences. Some of their verbalizations are as follows:
LI 1: “I employ democratic and authoritative classroom management
styles and, to the extent possible, I avoid hurting my students' feelings. I
have the utmost respect for my students' feelings, but I still enforce
rules to maintain order in the classroom.”
LI 4: "A model classroom management is a combination of democratic

and authoritative, which will give my students more opportunities to
interact with me and discuss academic concerns, but I still need to set
rules for them."
LI 5: "I use a democratic and authoritative style because it helps the

students to become very critical while they are aware of the discipline
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being implemented from the start of the classes. This also helps them
understand that learning and discipline go hand in hand.
LI 9: "The one who maintains discipline in the classroom. He would not

tolerate any disrespect to anyone in the class.
Furthermore, other themes that were transcribed from the responses of teachers
on ideal classroom management styles were (a) motivator and learner-centered
instructor, (b) strict in the classroom; and (c) friendly and approachable teacher.
The findings suggest that the views of teachers on the ideal classroom
management style focus primarily on the teacher. This means that the success of
classroom management depends primarily on the teacher’s characteristics.
Furthermore, previous literature also claims that an ideal classroom
management style will only be realized depending on the classroom setting and
even students’ profiles and behaviors (Davis et al., 2012; Jones et al., 2014; Macías
& Sánchez, 2015).
B. Motivator and Learner-Centered Instructor

Another theme that was revealed in the responses of instructors with reference
to the ideal classroom management style is that a teacher should be a motivator
and learner-centered. Some of their verbalizations are as follows:
LI25: "I believe that an ideal classroom management style relies on the
capability of the teacher. Furthermore, this can be realized if the teacher
is a motivator in the class in the sense that he always leads his students
towards effective learning. Also, he should always motivate his students
to strive harder in their studies, especially in the college setting, where
the survival of the fittest is important. Meanwhile, a teacher should also
be a learner-centered instructor in the sense that he serves only as a
facilitator of learning. "
LI32: "An ideal classroom management style, especially in the 21st

century educational landscape, is the idea that a teacher is a motivator
and has a learner-centered orientation. Especially if they are in a
Catholic school, students must see their teachers as motivators of
learning and success, and with that, other aspects of classroom
management will follow. Also, a teacher should have a learner-centered
orientation because, today, the center of learning is the student and not
the teacher.”
C. A Strict Teacher in the Classroom

It is also important to note that there are a substantial number of responses from
the instructors stressing that the ideal classroom management approach is a
teacher who is strict in the classroom. Some of their verbalizations are as follows:
L28: "A college classroom should be manned by a strict teacher,
especially with the behavioral problems of young people today. The more
the teacher is strict, the more discipline and order will be imposed in the
classroom.”
137
L45: "I consider myself a strict teacher because I always impose rules in
the class, because I want my students to build the values of
responsibility and discipline. Besides, this is the best way to ensure that
classroom management is really implemented in the classroom. "
D. Friendly and Approachable Instructor

The last theme that emerged from the responses of the faculty relating to
an ideal classroom management style is that a teacher should be friendly and
approachable. Some of their verbalizations are as follows:
LI5: "A classroom should have a teacher who is friendly and
approachable. Today, students really want a friendly teacher who really
knows the status of his students, not a terrifying teacher which can only
lead to fear.”
L40: "A teacher should be approachable and friendly in the classroom

with limitations and regulations. This is to build a harmonious
relationship between the student and the teacher. This also contributes
to the students' trust.
4. Conclusion and Implications for Further Research

The study concludes that instructors place a high value on an authoritative
classroom management style, believing it to be an important factor in successful
teaching. Furthermore, they have formed genuine student-instructor
relationships with their students, which should foster positive student
motivation and higher learning achievement among students. Instructors'
classroom management styles are based on formal authority while providing
students with knowledge, skills, and practice in the use of eclectic classroom
management which will enable them to become better teachers.
In furtherance of improving teachers' classroom management styles, the

university can continue to provide in-service classroom management training to
teachers. Instructors can study and use research-based classroom management
methods, as well as testing research-based teaching techniques. Furthermore,
college deans must be conscious of how their instructors' classroom
management orientations have been shaped by their cultural beliefs in order to
better form their instructors' classroom management orientations.
Instructors can also participate in regular social conversations with their

students. Teachers can demonstrate an interest in and empathy for students by
talking with them about their lives outside of the classroom. Instructors should
be interested in their students' opinions and ideas. Instructors should actively
seek and facilitate opportunities for students to express their thoughts and
opinions on academic subjects. Instructors should also use behavior
management techniques that clearly express goals and show concern for their
students. In addition, instructors can let students know when they have free
time before or after school, since this can be a valuable opportunity for students
who need to speak with an adult. The impact of using classroom management
styles on students' academic lives, such as academic success, study patterns or
other related variables may be investigated as a potential extension of this
138
research. Furthermore, if the findings of the current research agree with those of
other forms of educational establishments, such as government-owned schools
and other private schools, a similar study may be performed.
Prospective researchers may look into further variables that may be related to
teachers' classroom management styles, such as organizational behavior, teacher
effectiveness, teacher empowerment, and other teacher and student variables.
5. References
Al-Madani, F. (2015). Relationship between teachers’ effective communication and
students’ academic achievement at the Northern Border University. European
Journal of Educational Research, 4(2), 90-96. https://doi.org/10.12973/eu-jer.4.2.90
Aloe, A. M., Amo, L. C., & Shanahan, M. E. (2013). Classroom management self-efficacy
and burnout: A multivariate meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 26(1),
101-126. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-013-9244-0
Bailey, T. H., & Phillips, L. J. (2015). The influence of motivation and adaptation on
students’ subjective well-being, meaning in life and academic
performance. Higher Education Research & Development, 35(2), 201-
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159

Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 159-176, May 2021
Pre-service Social Sciences Teachers’ Reflections

on a Teacher Preparation Program
Munje Paul Nwati

University of the Free State, South Africa
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7948-9704
Jita Thuthukile
Faculty of Education, University of the Free State, South Africa
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1173-5251
Abstract. The need for quality education in South Africa and beyond
encourages research that interrogates the preparation of pre-service
teachers and their ability to teach in the classroom after graduation. This
qualitative paper focuses on the reflections of final year pre-service Social
Sciences teachers in a South African public university. Gibbs’ reflective
cycle is used as a lens. We used open-ended questions to gather data from
19 pre-service Social Sciences teachers to explore their preparedness and
readiness to teach in future. The research process constituted two phases.
Phase one was implemented from 10 February 2020 to 9 March 2020 and
phase two occurred in July 2020. Phase two was necessitated by the
negative educational implications of COVID-19. Findings indicated that
the participants faced challenges pertaining to content knowledge, which
was aggravated by the introduction of online learning due to COVID-19.
Despite these challenges, participants remained resilient and optimistic
toward the teaching profession. Deducing from their voices, we
recommend clarification of content in Social Sciences core subjects of
History and Geography. Balanced tuition for content knowledge and
pedagogy is recommended. Ongoing professional development is
needed for academic advisors concerning subject specifications and for
lecturers to empower them about remote teaching, communication, and
technological skills to improve teaching and learning. Regular
monitoring by the teaching and learning unit in the faculty is required to
identify challenges and to intervene where necessary. The varied
challenges of online learning also warrant the equipping of students with
the necessary resources to facilitate learning.
Keywords: content knowledge; COVID-19; online learning; pre-service

teachers; Social Sciences; South Africa

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1. Introduction
The clamor for quality education across the globe puts the spotlight on pre-service
teachers’ preparedness, readiness, and ability to teach effectively upon
graduation. Teacher education programs around the world aim at ensuring
adequate preparation of pre-service teachers since their output is reflected
through outcomes in schools where they teach (Hudson, 2011; Mkhasibe, 2018;
Tatto & Pippin, 2017). Mkhasibe (2018) noted that many pre-service teachers are
unable to perform their duties as expected by the training institutions and the
schools where knowledge is imparted to add value and improve learner
performance and experiences. This expectation explicates the massive investment
in teacher preparation globally in order to graduate quality pre-service teachers
(Hudson, 2011). Interestingly, Mayer et al. (2017) supposed that the perceptions
of graduate teachers represent the quality and value of the institutions that
prepared them. Therefore, adequate preparation of pre-service teachers
influences how they view themselves as professional teachers and the way they
teach learners.
Determining the characteristics of a well-prepared pre-service teacher is a

discourse on its own, however. Some scholars have argued that
content-knowledge acquisition by pre-service teachers is fundamental and
guarantees their preparedness and readiness to teach effectively (Mkhasibe, 2018).
Seemingly, those with insufficient content knowledge are generally ill-prepared
or demotivated to teach (Kenna & Poole, 2017). This aligns with the notion of
Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1999, p. 249) that “… teachers who know more teach
better”. Globally, teacher education programs envisage pre-service teachers who
are adequately prepared holistically to effectively deliver the curriculum (Petrarca
& Bullock, 2014; Tambyah, 2008). The lack of a holistic preparation approach
exposes some teacher training institutions to criticisms (Naylor et al., 2015).
According to Harte and Reitano (2015), the duration of teacher education

programs in some countries makes it challenging for effective incorporation of
adequate content knowledge and skills. In some instances, substantial focus is
placed on pedagogical skills at the detriment of content knowledge. For example,
Harte and Reitano (2015) argued that pre-service Geography teachers need to be
grounded in both physical and human geography to teach Geography effectively,
the lack of which will create imminent challenges. When teachers do not
understand the basic concepts in Geography, there are likely to be negative
repercussions on learners (Blankman et al., 2016). However, the way subjects such
as Geography are taught to pre-service teachers varies globally based on
contextual realities (Tatto & Pippin, 2017). Such variances lead to the different
experiences amassed by pre-service teachers globally.
The importance of content knowledge to pre-service teachers has been recognized

for decades and captured succinctly by Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1999). Tatto and
Pippin (2017) contended that the ability of individual teacher education programs
around the world to maintain quality in their teacher preparation in various
sectors is based on contextual realities, making standardization difficult to
achieve. Notably, the conceptualization of what a quality teacher education
161
program means is not linear (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999), although quality
assurance mechanisms are visible in higher education institutions globally. This
is exacerbated by the lack of a universal agreement of what constitutes content
knowledge in a teacher preparation program (Harte & Reitano, 2015), making this
line of argumentation somewhat contested and fragmented. This paper emanates
from impromptu discussions about pre-service teachers’ readiness to teach. The
varied perceptions that arose, including challenges with content knowledge in the
classroom during teaching practice, made it relevant to interrogate their teacher
preparation program in-depth.
1.1 Gauging pre-service Social Sciences teachers’ preparedness and readiness

Pre-service Social Sciences teachers face challenges in terms of the requisite skills
and content knowledge due to the broadness of the field. In the view of Tambyah
(2008), the knowledge base of pre-service Social Sciences teachers is problematic
in some teacher education programs, with the lack of relevant disciplinary
knowledge for many novice Social Sciences teachers a commonality. Apparently,
not enough is done in teacher education programs in many countries, including
South Africa, the United States, and England, to adequately equip pre-service
teachers with the necessary skills, including controversial topics which constitute
an important component of teaching and learning in Social Sciences (Chikoko
et al., 2011, cited in Nganga et al., 2020). In this regard, Nganga et al. (2020) argued
that pre-service teachers struggle to effectively identify, conceptualize, and teach
controversial topics in Social Sciences. Nganga et al. (2020, p. 78) further argued
that teacher education programs “… do not explicitly develop or recognize the
discursive and explorative methods associated with [the] integration of controversial
topics”.
Notwithstanding, there is evidence that pre-service teachers around the world are
generally positive about their preparedness to teach (Khalid et al., 2017; Mayer
et al., 2017). Still, there are exceptions in some domains, warranting a need for
improvement (Botha & Reddy, 2011; Stahl et al., 2016). Notable is that contextual
realities impose a variety of experiences on teacher education institutions and
pre-service teachers alike.
Final year pre-service teachers are most confident to teach when they possess the
required content knowledge (Hudson, 2011; Nganga et al., 2020). Effective
teachers are expected to possess a wealth of content knowledge, and to have a
good theoretical base and good pedagogical and instructional strategies
(Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999). These characteristics are possible based on
individual teacher education programs. Pre-service Geography teachers, for
example, are more likely to accumulate enough content knowledge and develop
the confidence to teach geographical skills if they are opportune to attend an
institution that provides for them the opportunity to complete many discipline-
specific courses in Geography (Harte & Reitano, 2015). Effective pre-service
Geography teachers therefore need to possess a good understanding of key
concepts such as map reading and physical geography (Harte & Reitano, 2015).
Various means, including reflections, can be used to gather information

concerning the quality of any teacher preparation program from pre-service
162
teachers (Tatto & Pippin, 2017). This approach engages pre-service teachers
through reflections to deeply interrogate their knowledge base and expertise,
their preparedness and readiness to face the teaching profession (Cochran-Smith
& Lytle, 1999). For example, in a study conducted by Harte and Reitano (2015),
participating pre-service teachers noted that although they had completed
Geography courses in school, it was merely composed of knowledge that can give
them a foundation to cope with Geography in the teacher education program.
Therefore, they needed more content courses in Geography during the teacher
preparation program to enable them to teach effectively after graduation.
According to these pre-service teachers, the content knowledge acquired in school
is almost irrelevant for two reasons: 1) the duration between when they completed
the Geography modules in school and university, and 2) the nature and approach
to Geography at the university which is now different as taught in school. To keep
pre-service Social Sciences teachers abreast with the changing content and
pedagogical practices, more content courses need to be completed for History and
Geography at the university.
This explains why Harte and Reitano (2015) argued that pre-service teachers who
have completed nine or more Geography-discipline-related courses were more
confident to teach Geography than those who have completed fewer courses.
According to Tambyah (2008), it is not uncommon for pre-service and novice
Social Sciences teachers to lack disciplinary knowledge. For example, Geography
teachers are expected to possess adequate content knowledge in human and
physical geography. Nonetheless, courses offered by the selected university to
pre-service Social Sciences teachers in Geography are more inclined toward
human than physical geography (see Table 1). This validates the need to explore
how the gap between expectations of trained pre-service Social Sciences teachers
and the courses the university offers impacts on their teacher preparation
program. The common rhetorical question likely to resonate is whether
pre-service Social Sciences teachers in South Africa are sufficiently equipped with
content knowledge for core subjects (History and Geography) upon graduation.
The emphasis on pre-service Social Sciences teachers in this study derives from
the fact that the social sciences provide an important platform for teachers to
change learners’ educational experiences from a broader perspective (Kenna &
Poole, 2017). The Department of Basic Education (DBE, 2011, p. 8) argued that:
“The subject Social Sciences consist [sic] of History and Geography ...
The Social Sciences curriculum aims to provide opportunities for learners
to look at their world with fresh, critical eyes and perhaps more
importantly, it aims to introduce learners to a world beyond their
everyday realities.”
The importance attached to Social Sciences explains why engaging pre-service

Social Sciences teachers to understand their preparedness and readiness during
their training and ability to teach after graduation is relevant. The paper therefore
pursues the following question: What factors influence pre-service Social Science
teachers’ preparedness, readiness, and ability to teach effectively upon
graduation?
163
2. Theoretical Framework
Gibbs’ experimental learning cycle which hinges on a six-stage reflective cycle
underpins this paper. The cycle provides a structure to analyze a situation (see
Figure 1). Gibbs’ reflective cycle has been used extensively in the health sciences
(Ardian et al., 2019; Li et al., 2020) and other disciplines, including education. For
example, Markkanen et al. (2020) used the cycle in Finnish school research aimed
at upskilling teachers’ ability to deal with challenging situations, enabling
teachers to intensively reflect on their learning. Gibbs’ ideology, developed in
1988, emanated from the experimental cycle of David Kolb (Gibbs, 1988). The
cycle allows for teaching and learning experiences and outcomes to be revealed
through debriefings using interviews and questionnaires (Gibbs, 1988). In the
view of Gibbs, the cycle can potentially contribute to locating the supposed
relationship between educational theories and practice. Hence, it is a perfect tool
to understand the preparedness and readiness of pre-service teachers. The focus
in this study is pre-service Social Sciences teachers.
Seemingly, learning opportunities become more relevant if experiences are

reflected upon (Gibbs, 1988). Feelings and thoughts are shared during reflection
to create room for the amelioration of any existing deficiency. For example, when
pre-service teachers reflect about what is learnt in relation to future practical
experiences as professional teachers, they may identify alignments and
misalignments. According to Gibbs, humans add value to themselves when they
think about what they do. Hence, learning is not only articulated best when done
by doing but also better when reflected upon to understand its successes and
challenges (Gibbs, 1988). Reflections produce accurate results, however, when
questions used for that purpose are correctly framed. The power of reflection
reinforced our decision to engage pre-service Social Sciences teachers in their final
year of study to reflect on their teacher education preparation using open-ended
questions.
1. Description:
6. Action Plan: What
What are you happened?
going to do
differently?
2. Feelings:
Your reaction
and feelings
5. Conclusion:
What have
you learnt?
3. Evaluation:
What was
4. Analysis: good and bad?
Make sense of
the situation
Figure 1: Reflective cycle. Adapted from Gibbs (1988, pp. 49-50)
164
Using Gibbs’ reflective cycle, Ditchburn (2015) demonstrated that when

pre-service teachers constantly reflect on their professional experiences, they are
likely to understand the complexities of teaching and learning better. Jang (2019)
also used Gibbs’ reflective cycle in a pre-service-teacher preparation program
with an emphasis on their technological pedagogical content knowledge.
Similarly, Ismail and Çavuşoğlu (2017) contended that reflection serves as both
an educational and transformational instrument amongst pre-service teachers as
the disjuncture between theory and practice is deciphered.
Likewise, Mazzola (2019), using Gibbs’ reflective cycle, argued that reflection can
potentially bridge the gap between passive and active learning in higher
education since it provides an opportunity for pre-service teachers to immerse
themselves deeper into what they do. In this paper, we use reflection to
understand what a teacher preparation program offers pre-service Social Sciences
teachers and how that aligns with their expectations and articulation of their skills
in the classroom. The power of reflection portrayed by authors such as Ditchburn
(2015), Jang (2019), Ismail and Çavuşoğlu (2017) and Mazzola (2019), further
justified its use in this study which focuses on pre-service Social Sciences teachers’
reflections on a four-year teacher preparation program.
3. Methodology
This qualitative case study aims to understand the perceptions of pre-service
Social Sciences teachers on a four-year teacher preparation program through
reflections guided by open-ended questions. The qualitative method was chosen
to allow participants to express themselves in their own words, void of
restrictions. This explains why certain themes that were not preempted emerged
from the reflections. Nineteen fourth year pre-service Social Sciences teachers,
who were part of the 2020 cohort in a South African public university,
participated. They participated voluntarily (McLain & Kim, 2018) by responding
to open-ended questions concerning their preparedness and readiness to teach in
future. The research project, which took place in 2020, comprised two phases. The
first phase was between 10 February 2020 and 9 March 2020 and the second phase
occurred in July 2020. The second phase, which was necessitated by COVID-19,
was meant to understand the impact of the pandemic on pre-service teachers’
preparedness and readiness based on its negative educational implications across
the globe. Since some challenges were raised during the first phase, it became
important to do a follow-up to understand whether COVID-19 had exacerbated
already existing challenges, thus with additional negative implications on the
participants’ teacher preparation program. Lockdown in South Africa, like in
other countries around the world, led to the introduction of online learning, with
numerous challenges for individual students based on context and circumstances.
Student participants 1–10 were interviewed during phase one and 11–19 during
phase two.
During the data gathering process, questionnaires were administered on

Blackboard for all interested final year Social Sciences students to participate, and
19 of them responded to the open-ended questions that were provided. Since it
was not a compulsory exercise, only those students who submitted completed
sheets of the open-ended questions were considered to ensure that no one
165
participated under duress. The aim was to obtain a detailed understanding of

concerns that emerged during an impromptu discussion during a lecture that
interrogated their preparedness to teach after graduation in 2021.
A thematic method was employed during data analysis. The data were manually
coded. This process included reading and rereading responses provided by the
pre-service teachers who participated for divergence and convergence. The
available data were then shifted to identify valuable information which was
arranged into themes. When data from various participants were placed into
themes for the first time, a need arose for merging of some themes to avoid
duplication and oversimplicity. The mergence gave rise to four main themes.
To ensure that information obtained from the participants was valid and credible,
they were asked not to include their names and any other identifiers on the
response sheets. Anonymity excludes the fear of victimization and the probability
for participants to be genuine in their responses (Pietilä et al., 2020). Also,
participating students were informed of their rights and the purpose of the
research. In terms of rights, participants were informed that the exercise would
not be graded and that there would be no penalties for not participating.
Permission to conduct the research was provided by the ethics committee of the
selected university.
3.1 Contextualizing the study

The study emanated from concerns raised by final year students during classroom
discussions meant to talk about their experiences accrued during the first lap of
their teaching practice. The discussions produced varied challenges encountered
by the participants, which included their inability to adequately engage with
content knowledge in core subjects, including History and Geography, during
teaching practice. Hence, there is a need to engage them formally and earnestly to
better understand their challenges and initiate ways to navigate them to ensure
the preparation of proficient professional teachers in future.
4. Findings and Discussion

The findings of the study indicated that although the participants presented
varying views and opinions regarding the teacher preparation program,
emanating from existing challenges, the kind of tuition and guidance received,
and their level of preparedness, there was unanimity that content knowledge
received in core subjects was inadequate. This has not, however, diluted their
enthusiasm to become professional teachers. Four major themes emerged from
the study: (i) challenges related to Social Sciences content knowledge in core
subjects, (ii) academic advising, (iii) pre-service-teacher preparedness and
readiness to teach, and (iv) the implications of COVID-19 on pre-service teachers’
readiness and preparedness to teach.
4.1 Challenges related to content knowledge in core subjects

Findings suggested that participants received limited content knowledge in core
Social Sciences subjects (Geography and History), with implications on their
ability to teach. This is corroborated by Kenna and Poole (2017), who explained
that teachers who lack content knowledge are generally ill-prepared and, in some
166
cases, demotivated to teach. For example, Participants 1, 5, and 10 expected to be

taught content knowledge in the core subjects throughout their four years at the
university. They argued that although they had received content knowledge in
these core subjects whilst in school, this was insufficient and could no longer serve
the purpose because, over the years, a lot had changed in depth and breadth of
these subjects, a view supported by Harte and Reitano (2015). Hence, the
participating pre-service teachers decried the fact that content knowledge in core
subjects was neglected as more tuition time was accorded to the learning of
teaching methods. However, there was a divided opinion concerning the amount
of tuition they received in each of these subjects. For instance, Participants 3, 7,
and 8 argued that enough content knowledge was received in History as opposed
to Geography. In agreement, P10 said: “I think that I have been adequately prepared
as a Social Science teacher … I have been trained in History content as well as teaching
techniques ….” There is a correlation between the claims of the participants
regarding the nature of tuition received in Social Sciences and what is obtained in
the university’s faculty rulebook for 2020. A snapshot of this correlation is
available in Table 1.
Contrary to the views of other participants, P1, however, claimed that content was
never taught: “I did not get enough training as a student-teacher … since my first year,
my lecturers never taught me Geography content … we never did map skills, physical
geography … We only received enough content on sub-field of Geography ….” Judging
from Table 1, the claims of P1 can be interpreted as the participant not having
received enough tuition in physical geography leading to a loss of confidence to
teach Geography effectively. This is also obtained from the disjuncture between
the various specializations offered in Social Sciences at the university (see Table 1)
and what the DBE expects from Social Sciences teachers in schools (see page 5). In
participants’ views, content-knowledge deficiency hindered them from
effectively teaching during teaching practice, considering that Social Sciences
teachers are expected to be knowledgeable in History and Geography (DBE, 2011).
In support of this finding, Harte and Reitano (2015) argued that Geography
teachers in training should be well grounded in both physical and human
geography to ensure effective teaching and learning. What emerges from the
concerns of P1 is that pre-service teachers who do not have a deeper
understanding of content knowledge are likely to be discouraged in the
classroom, a view shared by Kenna and Poole (2017). Drawing from a Caribbean
experience, Robinson (2017) considered content knowledge as a vital tool every
teacher needs in the classroom, the lack of which could potentially lead to low
levels of learner performance.
The disjuncture between school curriculum and university-course curriculum

explains why P1 struggled to teach during teaching practice, a thought shared by
P5. Similarly, P8 expounded by saying that, “I did not get enough training in
Geography. We have not been taught Geography in depth, but we are expected to teach
Geography at school during teaching practical and it is difficult for us to teach.”
Hudson (2011) and Nganga et al. (2020) agreed that teachers who do not possess
adequate content knowledge are not confident enough to teach. However, they
can possess deeper content knowledge that is not necessarily aligned with the
school curriculum.
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Table 1: Specializations and year courses at the selected university
Specialization & Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4

Courses
Life Skills, Social N/A Social Sciences Teaching of Teaching of

Sciences & 1: History. Social Social
Afrikaans First Sciences 1. Sciences 1
Additional Social Sciences
Language 2: Geography
Specialising in Life N/A Social Teaching of Teaching of
Skills & Social Sciences 1: Social Social
Sciences (LSSS) & History. Sciences 1. Sciences 2.
Sesotho Home
Language Social
Sciences 2:
Geography.
Specialising in Life N/A Social Teaching of Teaching of
Skills, Social Sciences 1: Social Social
Sciences & Sesotho History. Sciences 1. Sciences 2.
First Additional
Language Social
Sciences 2:
Geography.
History and Social Introduction to Housing and Geography Geography
Sciences (HSS) Geography Urban Teaching 1. Teaching 2
Specialisations Development.
Specialising in Life Environment

Orientation and and Climate.
Geography
History Introduction to Housing and Geography Geography
And Social Physical Urban Teaching 1. Teaching 2.
Sciences (HSS) Geography. Development.
History History
Specialising in Introduction to The Rise of Teaching 1. Teaching 2.
History and the 20th Nationalism in
Geography Century South Africa
History of (HIST2614).
South Africa.
Environment
20th Century and Climate
World History Studies.
The Rise of
Nationalism in
South Africa
(HIST2624).
Adapted from selected university’s Faculty of Education Rulebook (2020, pp. 124-135,
156-163).
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However, some participant responses somewhat question pre-service teachers’

understanding of what constitutes Social Sciences. For example, P6 confidently
said:
I have been adequately prepared as a Social Sciences teacher in its entirety … I’m
able to accommodate the learners in the classroom … I feel relatively confident going
into the teaching practice with the training that I have received this far in the
content of the core subject of History ….
P6 made a comparison between tuition received in History and Geography,

emphasizing a deficiency in Geography content. The excerpt from P6 questions
the relationship between what schools expect of Social Sciences teachers and what
knowledge institutions provide to prepare these teachers. According to the DBE
(2011), Social Sciences comprises History and Geography; hence, all pre-service
Social Sciences teachers on teaching practice are expected by schools to teach both
subjects effectively. This has placed many Social Sciences teachers in a dilemma.
Similarly, P4 observed that content knowledge in core subjects were taught
throughout the four years of the teacher preparation program, questioning
students’ ability to differentiate between pedagogical and content knowledge.
Based on these varied perceptions, it is important to interrogate academic
advising, a gatekeeper in terms of student teachers’ specialty, especially in Social
Sciences, during the teacher preparation program at the selected university.
4.2 Academic advising

Academic advising is meant to guide students on modules related to specific
specialties. Findings showed a divided perception concerning the services
provided by academic advisors and its impact on participants’ overall
preparation. Some participants maintained that academic advising was available
and useful, with Participants 2, 4, 6, and 5 being positive toward the services of
academic advisors. For example, P2 said: “I got academic advising in my first year;
they told me which modules to register for.” Similarly, P4 said: “I always go to academic
advising and I find it to be very useful.” P6 added: “I did receive academic advice
concerning which subjects I needed to register and do in order to qualify as a Social Science
teacher.” Additionally, P5 accessed relevant information beyond academic
advising: “In the first year, I got academic advice on which subjects I needed to take. Each
year, I refer to the Faculty Rulebook if I am uncertain.”
The positive perceptions enumerated toward the services of academic advisors
explain why P9 decried that the challenges they encountered were more due to
lecturers focusing more on what is convenient for them to teach, many being
History specialists who are expected by the university to teach Geography
modules. P9 explained:
The academic advisor told me about the modules that I had to register every year in
order to qualify to be a Social Science teacher … I think that most of the time,
lecturers teach what they are best in and that becomes a challenge ... I can say that
I understand History more than Geography, which makes me bias towards
Geography.
Furthermore, other participants argued that academic advising was either

inadequate or misleading. P10 cautiously elucidated:
169
… I received academic advice that informed me that Geography modules would not
be a necessary requirement to qualify as a Social Science teacher. As such, I only
completed History modules … I feel somewhat nervous about teaching a Geography
lesson given my lack of knowledge or training on the subject … I didn’t take
Geography lessons during my time at the university based on the academic advice
that I received. My nervousness can’t and shouldn’t reflect the training the
university offers.
The assertion of P10 does not portray academic advisors as incompetent but aligns
more with how Social Sciences specialties are designed at the university, often
derailing from what is expected in schools. This aligns with the view of Tatto and
Pippin (2017) that contextual realities significantly influence the quality of
teachers in individual spaces across the globe. This also attests Tambyah’s (2008)
notion that a clear understanding of what constitutes pre-service teachers’ content
knowledge in some teacher education programs across the globe is problematic.
P10 particularly questioned the delimitation of Social Sciences content knowledge
at the university that contradicts what schools expect of pre-service Social
Sciences teachers. To deduce from P10’s narrative that the responsible academic
advisor lacked certain professional and educational skills in their informing of
pre-service teachers (McGill et al., 2020) is thus contested.
Additionally, in terms of limited academic advising, P8 painted a different picture

of events, though with some caution:
I did not get enough academic advice on my first year and just saw myself doing
Social Sciences and Life Skills. I also think that the university should allow everyone
to choose their specialty, because choosing for us is not working and that is the
reason why we find teachers not doing their work … they are doing or teaching
subjects they do not like ….
Such perceptions are worth taking note of and attending to because the
perceptions of graduate teachers epitomize the quality and value of the
institutions that prepared them (Mayer et al., 2017). The existent challenges,
coupled with divergent views concerning the services of academic advisors and
the implications thereof, raise eyebrows concerning the preparedness and
readiness of the participating pre-service Social Sciences teachers, especially
because many of them were to begin teaching in 2021.
4.3 Pre-service teachers’ preparedness and readiness to teach

Despite existing challenges, most of the participants were generally positive and
eager to begin their teaching profession in the following year (2021). To begin
with, P3 considered their readiness and confidence to teach not optional,
irrespective of existing challenges: “We must feel confident; we must learn from the
teachers in school how to give classes [lessons] in Geography and History.” These
thoughts were reechoed by P1, who applauded teaching practice for assisting
them to learn more despite not getting enough preparation at the university
regardless of much anticipation: “I thought that [during] my fourth year, that’s where
I will be taught more about History and Geography [content] … but I taught myself
subject knowledge, not the university ….” Similarly, P3 mentioned: “… I feel we learn
much more during practical than the knowledge we learn at the university ….” However,
170
P2 supposed that much effort was still needed even at individual level to enable
them to become the professional teachers they were expected to be: “I am not as
prepared as I need to be. I still need to do more research on the content in Social Sciences
and gain more knowledge on the subject matter.” P9 agreed: “There are still some of the
things that I cannot understand … that I still want to learn or to be taught.”
Nevertheless, optimism was vivid in the words of P5:

I believe that by the end of the year [2020], I will be fully equipped to be a Social
Science teacher. I believe that my content knowledge of the subject is adequate and
that the rest of the year will prepare me well enough to deliver the content effectively
from 2021.
Also, worth mentioning is the undiluted eagerness of P8, who said: “I cannot wait
to finish my degree and go out there to show the world and learners how to teach Social
Sciences and how important social sciences are ….” Such elation does not imply,
however, that P8 was adequately prepared for the classroom, as can be deduced
from the following words: “The content is different from the one we are supposed to
teach … at school, we are expected to teach about things like mapwork … we have not been
taught about mapwork here ….” Mapwork emerged from the research of Harte and
Reitano (2015) as an important prerequisite for effective Geography teachers.
Within the Namibian context, Naxweka and Wilmot (2019) argued that when
teachers lack the skills to teach mapwork to students, there are likely to be
negative implications on their performance. Similarly, P9 commented on the
implications of a knowledge gap in the teaching and learning process: “… it
becomes difficult to teach learners something that you hardly know … At some point, I
am not good with the strategies to use when I teach Geography and I am not good with
mathematics.”
Similarly, P3 explained: “In Geography, we only learned about the concepts … We have
also just learned about history and what history is all about ….” It is worth noting that
Geography content knowledge received in school is meant to serve as a
foundation to enable pre-service teachers to cope with tuition at university, where
it is expected that pre-service teachers will be assisted adequately to acquire a
deeper understanding of content knowledge. This is because the nature of and
approach to Geography at university have changed over time, especially with the
advent of technology. Pre-service teachers need to be knowledgeable in both
physical and human geography content to effectively teach in the classroom. This
aligns with the view of Blankman et al. (2016, p. 425) that many teachers in
training are not conversant with the basic concepts of Geography teaching. In a
rather concerning tone, P8 expressed ongoing reservations about the level of
preparedness: “I have been concerned about the quality of my training before fourth year
because I do not know how to produce things that CAPS want us as Social Sciences
teachers to produce.” Comparable sentiments, although somewhat optimistic, were
echoed by P4, who said: “I always questioned if I was ever ready, but as time went on,
I worked on my self-confidence and -esteem.”
Furthermore, when asked about the ability to teach Geography effectively, P1

expounded: “… I don’t have enough subject knowledge. The faculty did not develop me
that much.” In agreement, P2 added: “We did not really focus on the content that we
171
would have to teach when we start teaching. Not much focus was given to Geography; we
mostly focus on History.” To emphasize the neglect of Geography content
knowledge, P9 explained: “What we learned about History was sufficient … for
Geography, it was not sufficient, because I still struggle on how to teach learners maps
because I have not been taught ….” The concerns of these participants are supported
by Mkhasibe (2018), who reiterated the importance of accumulating enough
content knowledge, which determines teachers’ ability to teach effectively. For
participants such as P8, the confidence to teach derives from the fact that teaching
practice provided a space to accumulate sufficient content knowledge compared
to the university: “I feel confident, not because I have received enough training, but
because I have been doing teaching practice for the past years … I interact and
communicate with my mentors if there is something I struggle with.” Although the
assertion of P8 cannot hold true for all pre-service teachers, it does indicate that
the context of teaching practice and the mentors involved contribute in shaping
pre-service teachers either positively or negatively.
Apart from the challenges, P1 contemplated strategies to overcome existing gaps:

The training was not enough … I lack the subject knowledge of Social Sciences.
When I teach Social Sciences, I must rely on the knowledge and skills I developed
from high school … I must do more research and borrow books from the library to
develop my History knowledge.
P7, however, was more concerned about pedagogical gaps: “I am nervous about
… 2021 because I am not sure whether the learners will understand me when I present
the lesson to them.” It should be noted, though, that most of the participants were
satisfied with the pedagogical aspect of their training. Despite the positive
perceptions participants revealed, numerous challenges obstructed their
journey to become professional teachers. Their circumstances were exacerbated
by the global implications of COVID-19 on the educational sector.
4.4 Implications of COVID-19 on pre-service-teacher readiness and

preparedness to teach
The impact of COVID-19 on teacher preparation cannot be denied (Hartshorne
et al., 2020). The advent of COVID-19 precipitated an end to face-to-face tuition
and the introduction of online learning in South Africa and beyond, with varied
implications. It emerged that online learning exacerbated existing challenges
faced by the participating pre-service teachers. P13 elucidated as follows:
COVID-19 has had a very negative impact on my teacher preparation program. I
am a very practical person; learning online is very difficult for me as I do not have
all resources needed to pursue meaningful learning and the submission of tasks and
attending of online classes ….
Online assessment is a challenge for students within and beyond the borders of
South Africa (Kabir et al., 2021). This explains why P14 indicated preference for
face-to-face teaching: “I would have gained more experience in face-to-face lectures
rather than online learning.” To boost this argument, P11 explained the limited
assistance experienced from some lecturers during online learning and its
implications:
172
Many lecturers have not assisted us … Some do not properly communicate about
assessments and what is expected of us during this time. This has caused confusion
and a great deal of stress. I do believe that we have lost valuable time which could
have been used to equip us better ….
The impression that online learning exposed the inadequacies of many lecturers,
especially regarding their communication and technological skills, was reechoed
by P16:
COVID-19 has primarily impacted my teacher preparation program by adding a
layer of uncertainty with regards to the delivery of content. In some modules, there
is limited communication and in others where there is communication, much of it
is not clear or concise in its execution. This has established a skeptical perspective
on the online teaching and learning experiences in that the competencies of some
lecturers are brought into question as it relates to technological proficiency.
Naylor et al. (2015) noted that criticisms toward teacher training institutions are
not uncommon and are due to varied reasons. The exacerbation of these
challenges during a pandemic such as COVID-19 cannot be overemphasized. P15
supposed that intermittent internet connectivity worsened the situation:
“… internet connection is not up to standard … it takes me longer than it should to do
assignments due to my poor internet connection.” Internet connectivity is a major
challenge for online teaching and learning in South Africa and beyond (Omodan
& Ige, 2021; Paudel, 2021), with students residing in rural communities being the
most affected (Molise & Dube, 2020). Similar thoughts were echoed by P14, who
felt demotivated as online teaching worsened existing circumstances: “It has even
been very difficult for some of us to learn or acquire knowledge through face-to-face
sessions. Some of us are not even motivated anymore because we are losing hope on our
studies …” P12 further explicated the disadvantages of online learning and the
implications thereof:
I am used to going to class … ask questions about something I don’t understand.
Now, I must accept everything and make peace with the fact that everything
changed. My performance has dropped significantly because of the challenges … At
home, we don’t all have … Wi-Fi or a laptop or even money.
In the view of Itmeizeh and Farrah (2021), learning is likely to be more effective if
online learning is combined with some degree of face-to-face interaction between
lecturers and students.
Existent challenges were expounded by P17, who expressed uncertainty about

their future as professional teachers: “… I could not practice my teaching skills in a
school setup … I have not been able to get into a school … I am not sure how or when or
if I will be getting my degree this year.” P18 felt that online learning was
overwhelming and psychologically torturing:
COVID-19 has played a lot of mind games with me since the start of lockdown. I
kept on feeling lost regarding my studies. I kept on feeling like I missed something
or [am] behind with my work because of the lack of communication from some of my
lecturers. In some subjects, I am still in the dark and haven’t received any form of
173
assignments or an activity. The closer we move to the end of the year, the more
anxious I get about those subjects where I haven’t heard much of.
Worthy to note is that P18 and P15 were adamant that not all lecturers left them
in the dark. For example, P18 explicated: “Other subjects I feel confident, thanks to
regular communication and activities from the lecturers.” In agreement, P15
acknowledged the effort of lecturers who consistently communicated with
them, thereby ameliorating the stress of many students.
Generally, some research participants were of the view that despite the negative
connotations of online learning, it was unprecedented and had some advantages.
For example, P13 gave an honest balance sheet of online teaching in the following
words:
I honestly think that there’s nothing that could have been done differently … the
university tried its best to keep everything going … The lecturers and us the
students, we tried our best to keep up with the work, but the pandemic was just way
above us. There is nothing that could have been done.
Interestingly, P15 described online learning as a learning curve:

… distance learning has prepared me for the real world … I don’t have a lecturer
reminding me every time to go to class … that I have an assignment … now, as an
individual, I need to seek for information without someone always reminding me.
P13 agreed: “Nevertheless, this pandemic has taught me how to work under pressure …
taught me to be self-disciplined through difficulties.” To debunk negative perceptions
toward online learning, P16 said: “Despite the online learning experience being
somewhat of a mixed bag, I would not suggest that my preparedness for the teaching
profession has been severely impacted … There are other variables that require
consideration, like the availability of technology ….” The congruence of views
participants raised about online learning indicates that despite existing challenges
there is hope if appropriate measures are put in place.
5. Conclusion
The paper focused on the reflections of final year pre-service Social Sciences
teachers to understand their preparation using Gibbs’ reflective cycle as a lens.
After thematic analysis, four themes emerged: challenges related to content
knowledge in core subjects, academic advising, pre-service-teacher preparedness
and readiness to teach, and implications of COVID-19 on pre-service-teacher
readiness and preparedness to teach.
Based on the findings, we recommend that universities should clarify Social

Sciences content, specifically History and Geography, in order to align it with DBE
expectations and what is applicable in schools. A balanced tuition for content
knowledge and pedagogy in Geography and History is imperative. The teaching
and learning unit of the Faculty of Education should put in place mechanisms to
regularly check whether students are receiving the expected content knowledge.
Currently, some challenges exist due to oversight by relevant authorities who
ought to revisit what students are taught on a regular basis to intervene where
necessary. Such interventions should include ensuring that responsible lecturers
174
have relevant qualifications/skills to provide adequate content knowledge to

pre-service teachers. Lecturers also require ongoing professional development on
remote teaching to improve their communication and technological skills. The
varied challenges of online learning warrant the equipping of students with the
necessary resources to facilitate learning.
The findings of this research contribute to ongoing discourses on teacher

preparation, particularly in South Africa and beyond, and bring to light some
challenges pre-service Social Sciences teachers in South Africa encounter due to
the nature of training provided. This research is limited because it focused on
pre-service Social Sciences teachers in one university in South Africa. Further
research in other universities is therefore encouraged for a broader understanding
of the experiences of pre-service Social Sciences teachers during their teacher
preparation program.
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177

Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 177-188, May 2021
“Don’t Delay Learning”: Igniting Promotion of

Pedagogical Transformation Strategies in Early
Childhood Care Education
Shawe Thulebona, Nhase Zukiswa and Dube Bekithemba

Faculty of Education, School of Social Sciences and Language Education,
University of the Free State, South Africa
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8644-6649
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4557-9880
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4327-7838
Abstract. The global pandemic COVID-19 has forced traditional teaching

pedagogies to meet the new educational demands such as remote
learning. The safety measures and regulations of COVID-19, such as
social distancing, have challenged all facets of education to transform
their pedagogical strategies to mitigate the spread of the pandemic, but
the rate has been slow to catch up the lost learning time in Early
Childhood Care Education (ECCE). This study, underpinned in critical
emancipatory research, responded to two questions: what are the
challenges of ECCE in the context of COVID-19 and how ECCE could
adapt ways of promoting transformative pedagogical strategies. This
article underpins the notion that ECCE practitioners should be equipped
with novel technology methodologies that replace traditional face-to-face
teaching and learning. However, it is reasonable to believe that face-to-
face teaching and learning will not be totally replaced by any other new
methodology or fads; it will remain important for some years to come,
especially in the lower level classes. A hybrid approach of using both the
in-person and distance learning strategies for flexibility and
manageability by both learners and practitioners seems promising at the
moment. In short, this paper explores the challenges to explore promotion
of pedagogical transformation strategies in ECCE, and offers some
correctives because this will be an ongoing issue for years to come. There
are no easy solutions to be packaged in fancy terminology. We argue that
the early promotion of transformative pedagogical strategies will assist
the children and make the practitioners’ work more flexible and
understandable.
Keywords: early childhood; pedagogical; hybrid approach; correctives;

challenges
©Authors
178
1. Introduction
The world went into unprecedented trajectories which was ignited by the spread
of COVID 19 like bush fires. COVID 19 “was first hinted at in Wuhan city of the
Hubei province in the people’s republic of China” (Tanhan et al., 2020). In April
2020, “there were slightly over three million confirmed cases of COVID-19, and
211,321 deaths globally” (Roser et al., 2020). The world pandemic reconfigured
many facets of life, including the need to rethink the pedagogical approaches used
in teaching and learning (Dube, 2020). The global pandemic saw many systems of
life halted as a way to curb the spread of the virus. To control the spread of the
virus, South African government was the temporary closure of learning sites. The
26th of March 2020 will be remembered in history as a day in which the South
African government closed Early Childhood Care Education (ECCE) centres to
protect the learners from the virus. However, the ECCE learning sites’ closure
necessitated the need for pedagogy scholars to rethink alternatives to ensure
teaching and learning continued despite the pandemic. With COVID-19
restructuring all facets of life, attention was given to the upper grades of school
and the importance of ECCE was overlooked (Neuman & Powers, 2021). The
focus, especially in the South African context, was to find ways in which Grade 12
and university students could save the academic year, so online learning become
the ideal mode of learning despite the new, challenging variables involved. While
the move was noble, desirable, and doable, it marginalised the ECCE learners,
who were not catered for by the Department of Social Development. The
Department of Social Development became silent on discussing learning
strategies to address the gap created by closing face-to-face learning and the
onward movement to online learning. Thus, this paper will focus on the missing
participants of the current online learning arrangement: the ECCE learners. To
address the needs of this forgotten category of learners, there is an inevitable need
to transform the ECCE’s pedagogical strategies to resonate with the current trend
of teaching and learning in replacing the traditional face-to-face approach. Based
on the preceding, we argue that, in light of the COVID-19 pandemic, there is a
need for transforming the pedagogical strategies in ECCE to align teaching and
learning with global trends such as virtual or online learning.
This paper comes amidst various studies that have been conducted on ECCE and
education, such as Makarova and Makarova’s (2018, p. 56) study on “blending the
pedagogy and digital technology to transform the educational environment. They
pointed out that digital technologies infuse the lives of 21st-century learners, and
help teachers recognise the instructional potential of these technologies while they
seek ways to utilise them in support of learning effectively”. They argued that
transformation in any field is never easy, especially in education. In their
conclusion, they mentioned that “blending digital educational tools with
innovative teaching technologies in the teaching and learning process helps
trainees improve their skills and gain experience in the following areas:
identifying, selecting, and solving a problem” (Makarova & Makarova, 2018, p.
56).
De Sousa et al. (2019) in their study on “Participatory pedagogies, where need of

various stakeholders to participate in learning experiences. held that the challenge
was on how within the right approach and they concluded “that providing the
179
space and time for all to share their voice and insights is vital to recognising
participation as the best solution against the abstract nature of the mainstream
transmissive pedagogy” (p. 299).
Formosinho and Pascal’s (2017) paper titled “Pedagogy development” in

Assessment and Evaluation for Transformation in Early Childhood cited John Dew and
Paulo Freire’s view that as much as there are two pedagogies – transmissive and
participatory – the practitioner needs to choose the most relevant that will make
a child an active participant while learning. They explained the difference
between the two listed examples and chose transmissive pedagogy as the best
solution to promoting relevant learning and social cohesion. In contrast, with
participatory pedagogy the teacher’s role is to organise the environment and
observe the child to understand and respond to it. Therefore, during pedagogical
strategies transformation, the practitioners need to integrate the two types of
pedagogies and develop strategies that will be more appropriate for children at
the ECCE.
Manning et al.’s (2017, p. 2) study on ECCE identified that “higher teacher

qualifications are related to improvements in supporting children’s development,
including supporting the language-reasoning experience; supervision, and the
scheduling of activities; organisation and room arrangement; providing varied
social experiences for children; and creating a warm and friendly environment for
interactions”. They concluded their research by arguing “that the early childhood
sector’s professionalisation through more qualified staff may lead to significant
gains for children and their families and life-long outcomes that will benefit all of
society” (p. 2).
Kuusisto and Garvis’ 2020 study on ECCE explained that “due to societal change
and the increasingly intensified migration of recent years, most countries are
undergoing notable demographic changes. As a result, early childhood education
and care (ECEC) has commonalities across the national contexts, with shared
values and pedagogy aimed at supporting children in being democratic (p.279)”.
They concluded their paper by arguing that there is a growing number of ECEC
settings due to social change. As a result, the ECEC is often the first societal arena
where super-diversity begins. After a thorough review of these previous research,
this paper is unique because it argues for the transformation of pedagogical
approaches to align them with the new normal characterised by virtual learning
as necessitated by the COVID-19 pandemic. It is also unique because it uses
decoloniality theory to argue for localised learning strategies that resonate with
African ideologies even in online teaching and learning.
This paper is arranged as follows: theoretical framework; the challenges of

transforming ECCE in South Africa; how transformation can be achieved at ECCE
centres; findings; and conclusion. The following section addresses the theoretical
lens of this paper, which is decoloniality.
2. Theoretical Framework
This article is underpinned by decoloniality theory. Wanderley and Barros (2018,
p. 79) argued that decoloniality theory “has its roots in Latin America under
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leading scholars such as Walter Mignolo, Maldonado-Torres, Quijano, and

Dussel”. It “was borne out of a realisation that ours is an asymmetrical world
order that is sustained not only by the colonial matrices of power but also by the
pedagogies and epistemologies of equilibrium that continue to produce alienated
Africans” (Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2013, p. 11). Furthermore, “decoloniality rejects
modernity (especially when it contributes to the symmetry of power), which is
located on the oppressed and exploited side of the colonial difference, in favour
of a decolonial liberation struggle to achieve a world beyond Eurocentric
modernity” (Grosfoguel, 2011, n.p.). The struggle of decoloniality scholars is
“against the invisible vampirism of imperialism technologies and colonial
matrices of power (coloniality) that continue to exist in the minds, lives,
languages, dreams, imaginations, religion and epistemologies of modern subjects
in Africa and the entire global South” (Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2013, p. 11).
Decoloniality is about “acknowledging that knowledge is produced from a
particular dominant space and that individuals think, know, and act from a
particular position” (Muthukrishna & Engelbrecht, 2018, p. 4). With this in mind,
decoloniality emancipates us to advocate the importance of ECCE practitioners,
who by default or design are marginalised in the learning process despite the
significant role in child development. With decoloniality, the paper advocates for
transformative pedagogies that address the ECCE learners’ lived realities in the
context of a new reality such as COVID-19. By couching this paper in
decoloniality, there is an impetus for reconfiguring local pedagogies to enhance
teaching and learning as opposed to centring learning on Western ideologies,
which may have little significance on the ECCE learners (Seehawer, 2018). With
this in mind, decoloniality critiques the superficial worldwide spread of Western
knowledge and the dominance of Western culture at the expense of local
epistemologies. This theory aims to critique, reformulate, and re-envision power,
knowledge, and change, which can reconfigure teaching and learning in a time of
crisis – such as COVID-19 – through the adoption of localised pedagogies that
resonate with ECCE learners in the South African context.
The following section focuses on the challenges of ECCE in South Africa.
3. The Challenges of Transforming Early Childhood Care Education in

South Africa
This section responds to research question one: what are the challenges faced by
the rural ECCE centres during COVID-19? According to Atmore et al. (2012), even
prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, the challenges were vast, and they can be
classified as socio-economic inequalities, infrastructure, lack of practitioner
training, and a lack of parental interest in children’s education. The first challenge
discussed is the social-economic inequalities.
3.1 Socio-economic inequalities

The worldwide pandemic (COVID-19) was a sad reminder that in South Africa,
and perhaps the world over, social inequality is real, and the struggle to address
it is still far from being over. COVID-19 widened the rich-poor divide in all facets
of life, such as education, especially the rural ECCE learners (Buheji et al.,
2021). As such, the rural ECCE centres were worst hit by COVID-19 due to low
socio-economic disparities. Children with high cultural capital could mitigate the
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lack of face-to-face teaching and learning by embracing technologies and

outsourcing private teachers to assist ECCE learners. Furthermore, urban learners
with cultural capital could access social media and television, which helped
ensure that teaching and learning were not interrupted.
Mahaye (2020) suggested that the South African government believes that digital
equipment should be installed in various schools to support technology-based
learning by all learners in South Africa. However, the implementation is slow, and
when it happens, more urban learners are beneficiaries than rural learners. This
implies that rural learners continue to rely on the traditional method of chalk-and-
board teaching, which requires that participants must be present in class, a
situation that seems far from being possible given the need for social distancing
and keeping the number of learners as low as possible to curb the spread of
COVID-19. Bearing this in mind, scholars prone to social justice and decoloniality
problematise structures that continue to marginalise learners based on their
geographical setting and financial strength. While addressing COVID-19, all
learners need to be catered for based on both the principle of equality and equity
as a counter-hegemonic strategy against a system that undermines and relegates
rural students to the periphery of development. To this end, new avenues of
learning are indispensable (Mirriahi et al., 2015; Wikramanayake, 2005) to inject
hope for social and economically excluded learners despite their geographic
location. Informed by the preceding, we submit that the government has an
opportunity to address the rich-poor divide in the learning context, which has
characterised South Africa over the years (Jedwab et al., 2020). The rural ECCE
centres continue to suffer due to socio-economic inequalities, and COVID-19 is a
reminder that rural learners face various trajectories which present a double
tragedy for them.
3.2 Lack of infrastructure

The other challenge faced by rural ECCE learners is the lack of infrastructure to
support the teaching and learning amid the COVID-19 pandemic (Anand et al.,
2018). Infrastructure includes many things such as building, network, roads and
electricity among many other things. In this paper, infrastructure refers to
communication networks such as television and internet connectivity to support
online learning. As of March 2020, there was a fallacy that all schools were ready
to move to online learning automatically, and there was an intentional denial that
rural schools were not ready due to lack of infrastructure. Rural schools are in the
peripheral experiencing various challenges which among them is access to
technology to support teaching and learning in the time of crisis such as COVID
19. This is cemented by Dieltiens (2008, p. 40), who argued that “rural schools
certainly have problems particular to them; predicaments which require systemic
effort and creative ideas most.” The economically disadvantaged South African
child cannot access these provisions adequately. Lack of electricity impacts
connectivity and access to online learning resources, impeding the novel idea of
moving teaching and learning from traditional face-to-face to online learning. This
negates, of course, the effective integration of technology among rural learners
(Dzansi & Amedzo, 2014). In addition, Xafis (2020) argued that the disadvantaged
rural ECCE learners are further affected by the misdistribution of power, money,
and resources, which in decoloniality must be teased, exposed, and challenged to
182
produce a world order where both urban and rural leaners are not pushed to the
periphery of development by merely being born to rich or low-income families.
Thus, this paper calls for a transformation in the social development sector to
ensure that rural learners are put into the centre of learning by the equitable
distribution of teaching materials and adequate connectivity, which can help
support remote learning for all learners.
3.3 Lack of teacher re-training

ECCE learners are disadvantaged because of the lack of re-training for educators
who are still adjusting to the new normal. The training teachers receive in their
initial teacher education does not remain relevant forever, igniting the need for
re-training educators to meet the new demands, especially those brought about
by the pandemic. The pandemic exposed the need to rethink education by re-
training teachers to meet the needs and demands of online teaching and learning
(Whalen, 2020). On this note, we agree with the World Bank (2020, p. 10) that
“very few classroom teachers have received training in online instructional
approaches and tools. If teachers need to support the online learning of their
students while schools are closed, they would need to be prepared to do so before
the schools are closed”. However, in South Africa, there was an incorrect
assumption that all educators were ready and equipped with online teaching and
learning materials; however, some were clueless on its usage, thus depriving
learners of teaching and learning time, especially those in the rural context. Such
scenarios dehumanise learners who are saddled with ill-equipped teachers who
cannot prepare for the teaching and learning process under the COVID-19
pandemic. This situation is not peculiar to South Africa alone but the world over.
König et al. (2020) commented on the German context by arguing that there is a
general lack of teacher competence such as in their technological pedagogical
knowledge and teacher education learning opportunities about digital teaching
and learning. In light of this challenge, ECCE practitioners are inevitably trained
to ensure success for teaching and learning in the COVID-19 context (Darling-
Hammond & Oakes, 2021). Regarding ECCE, we agree with Hemmeter et al.
(2021, p. 206) that the effectiveness of ECCE will likely “require a broad range of
professional development activities and support for staff interactions with
children”.
3.4 Insufficient parental involvement in children’s education

Another challenge faced by rural ECCE learners is insufficient parental
involvement in educational matters due to various reasons. Mishra and Vij (2020)
lamented the insufficient parental involvement in supporting teaching and
learning, and COVID-19 has worsened the situation. Most rural parents lack the
skills, resources, and understanding to support online learning at ECCE centres.
South Africa faces the same challenge of lack of infrastructure, especially in the
rural context, coupled with poor connectivity and a limited number of devices in
a family. Thus, any success of ECCE teaching and learning has one of its variables
as parental involvement. This is because parental involvement positively impacts
children’s holistic development and, therefore, quality ECEC education (Oke et
al., 2020). Therefore, parents, guardians, or siblings need to assist these young
children with their schoolwork to ensure they are well developed and understand
that education is important. While this may be a noble call, it is based on the
183
fallacy that parents have to know how to assist in the teaching and learning of
ECCE learners. Parents should have a degree of training and enlightenment to
assist learners effectively. Thus, it is essential that while the call is there to train
the educators on their role in the teaching and learning in ECCE, the department
of education should develop a programme where parents can learn the basics of
teaching and learning to assist learners. This approach has the potential to
transform ECCE in South Africa through professionalising parental involvement.
Considering the challenges, pedagogical adjustment is inevitable to redress the

trajectories faced by rural ECCE learners in the COVID-19 context. The following
section addresses what we think can help transform teaching and learning among
the ECCE learners in rural areas from a decoloniality mindset.
4. Igniting Transformation of ECCE : No to Delayed Learning

In this section, we discuss how ECCE can be transformed towards addressing
rural learners’ lived realities and facing various vulnerabilities that the COVID-19
pandemic has exacerbated. As a result of this, ECCE scholars should continue to
probe and suggest ways to improve teaching and learning while staying sensitive
to values such as social justice and inclusivity. In this paper, we based arguments
for transformation on decoloniality. This theory argues the need to include all
people as a counter-strategy against ontological density where people are
categorised on race, geographic location, and other forms of exclusion. The first
point we discuss in this section is new pedagogical strategies.
4.1 New Pedagogical Teaching Strategies

Transformation is essential to the response of trajectories of ECCE teaching and
learning in the COVID-19 context. Such transformation is centred on innovative
teaching strategies that resonate with the lived realities of rural learners in South
Africa. Pedagogical strategies cannot remain constant, and COVID-19 has become
a wake-up call for scholars who need to continue with research that can ignite
new teaching and learning strategies. In so doing, we agree with Du Plessis and
Mestry’s (2019, p. 5) observation that “there is a need to put strategies in place to
improve the working conditions of teachers and the teaching at rural schools, to
improve learner achievement across the rural areas of South Africa”. The success
of pedagogical transformation has many variables. One variable is that educators
need to be lifelong learners and upgrade themselves with new technological
innovations in teaching and learning. Life learning should be central to the
teaching profession, which translates to confidence, recognition, and
emancipation for the educators and the learners. South Africa requires teachers
with the highest qualification in ECCE instead of a diploma in teacher education
or certificate, which has characterised many ECCE educators. For ECCE to
participate in modernity and gain recognition in decoloniality thinking, lifelong
learning is inevitable to equip educators with new or emerging trends in teacher
education, especially ECCE. Another variable is the willingness to unlearn in
order to learn.
In some cases, educators are resistant to changes, especially when perceived as

bringing additional workloads, yet such innovation is intended to make the work
easier. With this in mind, we agree with Schwartz (2006, p. 450) that “curriculum
184
planners, with all good intentions, have compiled volumes of well-conceived

educational action plans, choosing specific materials and activities for their pre-
conceived target: curriculum receivers and students, only to find that the
curriculum users and teachers are not prepared for the innovations.” While this
may have a certain degree of validity, we also note Stabback’s (2011, p. 2)
“observation that curriculum developers need to take into account where a
country is, in terms of the current breadth and depth of the curriculum; attainment
levels; the quality of teachers; and the range and effectiveness of teaching, learning
and assessment practices.” Thus, looking at rural ECCE teachers, the government
must avail the resources that equate “rural teachers with their counterparts in
urban centres. In so doing, teachers need to be empowered in unthreatening ways,
as teacher knowledge is the biggest factor in the implementation of the
curriculum” (Quyen & Khairani, 2017, p. 166). While this is very important, rural
educators have a responsibility by engaging in a struggle which emancipates
them. This struggle can involve many facets, including consistently challenging
the department of education to relook into the plights of rural learners. Apart from
challenging the department, educators need to be lifelong learners to hear their
voices, which is essential for transformation. Also, they need to adopt best
practices that have contributed to the development of teaching and learning in the
rural areas of some countries in Africa and beyond. In decoloniality thinking, rural
ECCE teachers need to participate effectively in their own emancipation,
especially adopting new pedagogical strategies such as online teaching and
learning, which have become the new normal due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
4.2 Improvement of Infrastructure for Rural ECCE Centres

As a developing country, South Africa can enact structures for rural learners to
cater to social distancing. This is because South Africa can build schools for urban
areas and have the resources to assist rural learners. Through decoloniality, we
need to continue to encourage educational authorities to uphold the ontology of
rural learners by providing basic infrastructure to enhance teaching and learning.
Decoloniality is against the notion of exclusion of rural learners; thus, scholars
prone to social justice need to continue to problematise the skewed distribution of
resources favouring urban cities. Informed with decoloniality, this paper agrees
with Oloruntegbe and Collins’ (2011, p.443) view that “successful reforms are
initiated from the grassroots (bottom-up), particularly by teachers and learners
who have first-hand experience of the realities of online learning” in the COVID-
19 context.
Infrastructure not only entails building for teaching and learning, but
technological support which includes the learning devices and connectivity that
support teaching and learning in the COVID-19 era. The transitioning from face-
to-face to online learning is inevitable and resonates with the lack of
infrastructure, such as connectivity, that not “only places a damper on academic
matters but also on strategies implemented in various contexts to fight COVID-
19” (Dube, 2020, p 140). Thus, any meaningful transformation needs support from
the department, which has shown the potential to provide resources, especially in
advantaged communities. Thus, in line with the principle of equality and equity,
there is a need to prioritise rural learners and ECCE with appropriate
infrastructure. The success of this lies in the collective problematisation of rural
185
exclusion with an intention to construct conducive learning. It should not only be

rural people waging war against exclusion, but anyone who believes in social
justice as an ideal principle to ignite a better society for all. Through this, teaching
and learning for ECCE are not delayed, and in the process, transformation for the
betterment of all.
4.3 Collaboration with Social Justice-oriented Stakeholders

There was never a more critical time in human history when collaboration is
essential, and a means to ensure the survival of humankind. Following the
scourge of the pandemic, countries have shared technology and knowledge of
surviving the pandemic, which has caused immense suffering to humankind. This
collaboration is inevitable within education to construct meaningful learning
conditions and improve rural ECCE learners and educators’ conditions. As
suggested by Komives et al. (1998, p. 74), “collaboration is purposeful, builds
commitment towards positive change, includes people with diverse points of
view, and empowers those involved in making decisions that affect their lives and
professions.” Transformation centres around collaboration and ECCE educators
can tap into the various players oriented to social justice to construct meaningful
learning for rural learners. Decoloniality reinforces the need for collaboration, but
this should be sensitive to social justice inclusion and the rehumanisation of all
people. It is against any form of collaboration that subdues the vulnerable
members of society. Instead, decoloniality strives for equal presentation for all
actors to ignite learning that embraces diversity and appreciates differences. In
other words, transformation is essential and ensures that there is no delay in
learning for rural ECCE teaching and learning.
5. Conclusion
This article discussed the challenges of transforming ECCE in the South African
context. The discussion from various literature revealed the different aspects that
still need to be considered by ECCE and the government at large. If in South
Africa, we are for a solid, quality educational foundation that is equal for all
children across cultures and environment, the government needs to take urgent
steps to enhance teaching and learning in ECCE centres. This paper is centred on
decoloniality and argued that rural learners’ challenges should be addressed as
an act of rehumanisation and transformation. It ended by noting how the teaching
and learning of ECCE can be transformed to achieve excellence in rural learning.
Informed by decoloniality, the paper argued that learning must not be delayed
further and that collaboration devoid of the suppression of others is an essential
step to configure conducive learning conditions for rural ECCE in the COVID-19
context. Finally, in this study, challenges and correctives have been explored,
emphasising teamwork among all the stakeholders, including the social justice
advocates and government who needs to tackle infrastructure inequalities,
especially in the rural centres and impoverished areas. Also, equipping educators
with new technologies and methodologies through interactive refresher courses,
seminars should be actively pursued. Continued eager development is essential
as the paper demonstrates. Socio-economic distractions must be addressed for a
quality educational system that honours, respects, and enriches the culture,
history, and human dignity for all learners.
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Acknowledgements: This study was made possible through the funding from
DHET and EU on Early Childhood Care Education given to the University of the
Free State.
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142

Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 142-158, May 2021
Online Learning in the Quran Reading Class during

Covid-19 Pandemic
M. Wildan Bin H. M. Yahya

Universitas Islam Bandung, Indonesia
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7544-1404
Taqia Rahman
Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6850-2865
Asep Ahmad Siddiq and Parihat

Universitas Islam Bandung, Indonesia
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0617-1305
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7559-8463
Abstract. The COVID-19 pandemic has forced higher-education

institutions to switch to emergency online learning. This situation has
also challenged the Muslim communities and institutions across the
world to shift to the online mode of teaching Quran and Islamic studies.
This research explored undergraduate students’ and instructors’
perceptions of the emergency online learning of Quran reading in
Indonesia. Several aspects were analysed to compare the students’
perspective towards face-to-face class versus online learning, including
class interaction, learning experience, motivation, satisfaction and
comfort level. The study also compared students’ Quran reading
performance in the online-learning setting with the records from a
traditional face-to-face class during the previous year. The survey and
performance data were obtained from 923 students. The findings
indicated no significant difference in students’ performance between
Quran reading classes in face-to-face and online classroom settings.
Furthermore, although students and instructors felt that some aspects
had changed, they generally tended to accept the Quran class in online
mode. This is likely because, amidst the pandemic, students and
instructors have no other options except to adapt to the rapid change
and embrace the transition. Nevertheless, the study indicated signs of
fatigue and reduction in the students’ acceptance of the Quran online
learning over time.
Keywords: Quran reading; e-learning; Muslim student; reading skill;

Quran recitation
©Authors
143
1. Introduction
The spread of the new COVID-19 corona virus has led to serious changes in
social interaction and organisation around the world, including the profound
interruption of the education sector (Murphy, 2020). As the United Nation’s
Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) reports, the
pandemic has affected the education of more than a billion students in 137
countries worldwide (UNESCO, 2020). The pandemic has resulted in the closure
of higher-education institutions and schools all over the world, consistent with
government guidelines for implementing social distancing that might help to
contain the infection and reduce overall fatalities from the virus (Rashid &
Yadav, 2020). As a result, educators and learners have had to quickly adapt to
remote learning online (Carrillo & Flores, 2020).
This situation also challenged the Muslim communities and institutions across
the world to shift to the online mode of teaching Quran and Islamic studies. In
many places, such as Africa, Southeast Asia, Malaysia and Pakistan, the Quran
learning and reading class traditionally takes place in classes or masjid (mosque)
through a face-to-face approach, and assessments use pencil and paper (Raja
Yusof et al., 2011).Teaching Quran recitation and its rule (tajweed) is quite
different from other subjects; evaluating oral performance is the means of
measuring students’ skills and learning outcomes (reading, flow, elocution,
pronunciation, tempo and segment prolongation).During the session, students
typically sit in front of a bench on the floor and the instructor sits at the front of
the classroom. The instructor then asks the students to open up the textbook or
the Quran and locate a certain page, or surah, to recite together. For practice, the
instructor would call on each student individually, listen to his Quran recitation
and correct the student’s reading with the right pronunciation and tajweed (Noh
et al., 2013). No doubt, the face-to-face approach is the best teaching method.
However, under the current circumstances, Muslim communities had to shift to
the online mode of teaching Quran to reduce face-to-face contact and contain the
spread of COVID-19. The rapid, abrupt and forced shift from face-to-face to
distance/online learning has introduced not only many questions and
constraints on the quality and effectiveness of education, but also opportunities
to investigate.
The current study investigated students’ performance in Quran-reading skills

during emergency online learning in an undergraduate program as a case study
in Indonesia. The study also examined students’ and instructors’ perceptions of
the adoption, use and acceptance of Quran online learning during the pandemic.
Furthermore, the study explored the key issues of Quran online learning,
compared with face-to-face classroom learning. The following sections review
the literature addressing the rise of online learning during the COVID-19
pandemic and the resulting learning of Quran reading. The authors then
describe the research methods and presents findings and discussion, before
drawing conclusions. In particular, this research was performed to:
144
1- Measure the performance of students in Quran online learning to examine

whether the online learning can potentially substitute the face-to-face learning
environment;
2- Investigate the student’s level of acceptance of Quran online learning; and
3- Determine the benefit and disadvantages of Quran online learning as
compared to face-to-face classroom learning.
The expected result of this study improved understanding regarding the

acceptance and effectiveness of online distance learning, especially in a Quran-
reading class. This research is a valuable contribution to enabling educators and
Muslim communities to improve the effectiveness of Quran-reading classes in a
situation that forces them to continue learning online.
2.1. Growth of Digital Technology for Virtual Learning and Online Education
The online learning setting for higher-education institutions is an emergency
strategy for following the COVID-19 physical-distancing protocol (O’Brien et al.,
2020). A broad variety of terms identifies online learning systems, such as: e-
learning’, remote teaching, distance learning, and emergency education
(Murphy, 2020). Online learning delivers educational programmes to students
whom distance has isolated from teachers, using the Internet, computer devices,
connectivity, and communication technologies. Online learning can be described
as educational experiences using various devices (e.g. computers, tablet,
smartphones, laptop) with Internet connectivity in synchronous or
asynchronous settings (Dhawan, 2020). The organisation of synchronous
learning enables students to attend a live class where educators and learners
have real-time interactions and direct feedback. However, in asynchronous
learning settings, the teaching and learning process does not occur at the same
time.
2.2. Previous Studies on Comparison of Face-to-Face and Online Learning

Several empirical studies analyse the quality and effectiveness of online learning
in comparison to traditional face-to-face learning, from various aspects. Online-
learning proponents argue that online learning offers several advantages,
including eliminating the barrier of distance, as it enables reaching any location
that offers a device and Internet access (Ni, 2013); providing learning
environments with increased convenience and flexibility (Capra, 2011); offering
time cost-effectiveness (Luaran et al., 2014) and enhancing the learning
experience with interactive media. However, opponents are aware that online
learners might feel isolated and disconnected (McInnerney & Roberts, 2004) and
anxious (Bao, 2020; Sundarasen et al., 2020), thus, possibly reducing students’
engagement and participation. Furthermore, for the instructors, preparing and
developing content for online learning may be more time-consuming (Capra,
2011) and less comfortable for the instructor (Fein & Logan, 2003), who may feel
a lack of control and the absence of real interaction (Coppola et al., 2001).
Many researchers have performed several studies regarding students’

performance in the two different learning modes. For example, Dondorf et al.
145
(2016) compared the face-to-face classroom learning setting with an online

learning setting in a mathematics course in an undergraduate programme and
found that the students in the classroom performed much better than the
students in the online learning setting. The result could relate to reduced student
motivation in online learning. Patricia (2020), who investigated 270 college
students’ perception and acceptance of online learning, identified a similar
finding in emergency online learning during the pandemic, namely, a reduction
in the students’ cognitive skills (i.e. knowledge, focus, engagement, involvement
and interest). On the contrary, Ni (2013) provided evidence that students’
performance in a public administration class, as measured by grades, was
independent of the learning mode. Furthermore, Gonzalez (2020) analysed
students’ performance during the pandemic and concluded that students
performed significantly better in the online-learning format, compared to
student performance reflected in records of the face-to-face class from the
previous year.
2.3. Quran Recitation Learning

As of 2015, there were an estimated 1.8 billion Muslims around the world (Pew
Research Center, 2019). Approximately 80% of Muslims are non-Arab,
comprising around 1 billion people worldwide today. From the perspective of
their religious faith, this large number of people has a common need; they all
need to learn the Arabic language to enable them read the Quran. The Muslim
views the Quran as Allah's (God’s) words, preserved verbatim. Therefore, only
Arabic Quran is perceived as the Quran, and Quran in any other language is not
considered the Quran but rather the Translated Quran (Abdullah et al., 2016).
All Muslims must use the Arabic Quranic words and verses in their formal
prayers (i.e. salat), regardless of whether they are native or non-native Arab
speakers (Shihab, 2007). Reading the Quran is one of the strongly recommended
practices for Muslims, and it should be performed cautiously so that
pronunciation is not mistaken. This mandate has created an unusual social
phenomenon, namely, training many non-native Arab Muslims in the
complicated phonological rules of the Arabic language, in the context of
pronouncing and reciting the Quran correctly (Zarif et al., 2014). The Quran
reader must follow a law of pronunciation, intonation, prolongation, stress and
stretch, and tempo, to properly perform the recitation, referred to as the tajweed
rule (Czerepinski & Swayd, 2006). For this reason, reading the Quran is one of
the challenging tasks for most non-Arab-speaking Muslims, including those in
Indonesia.
In many places, instructors of the Quran, often known as Ustaz, have

traditionally taught the Quran-reading class in the face-to-face classroom (Raja
Yusof et al., 2011). However, in the last 10 years, several countries have
developed the Quran online class for Muslims who may not have convenient
access to a masjid (mosque) or madrasah (Islamic school). The Quran online class
mostly takes place in the synchronous learning environment, where the students
attend live lectures or online private classes using video conferencing software
and a program that displays pages of the Quran. The student reads the verse
and the tutor corrects him if he makes a mistake. Occasionally, the class also
146
takes place in asynchronous learning environments, where the student learns

individually from speech-recognition software for the Quran, capable of
automatically checking the tajweed and identifying errors in Quran recitation.
Despite this increasing trend, Quran online learning has not been massively
adopted by many Muslims around the world, and to date, literature regarding
the students’ acceptance and its effect on Quran-reading performance has been
limited.
3. Methodology
3.1. Research Site, Participant and Research Design
This study aims to investigate students’ performance in an online Quran class
and their acceptance during the COVID-19 pandemic of the emergency online
learning in undergraduate programs at the Universitas Islam Bandung
(UNISBA), Bandung, Indonesia. The students’ performance (grades) in six
online remote classes held between May 20 and August 21, 2020 (second
semester of the 2019/2020 academic year) were compared to students’
performance records from eight face-to-face classes run in 2019.The teaching
process during online class, including number of course meeting, course content
and tools, and assessment indicators, was designed as closely as possible to face-
to-face Quran class performed in previous years to provide comparable
conditions. The assessment indicators to gauge the students’ performance are
later discussed in the next section. All procedures were granted the university’s
ethical-practice approval. The Quran reading class is one of the required courses
at the university, designed for all students in any undergraduate study
programme and offered to the students three times every semester. Students
who earn a minimum grade of 60 points get a certificate, required for
graduation. Otherwise, a remedial class is offered to the student who does not
meet the course criteria. The course has been implemented for more than 30
years, regularly conducted in classes through a face-to-face approach and
assessed through class-interaction. However, following the rise of COVID-19
cases and starting on March 14, 2020, the university shifted to emergency remote
education using online settings.
Besides the student performance records, this study also used student survey
responses from six Quran online classes to assess the students’ perception of the
online learning system. Online questionnaires were distributed to the students
prior to the course and at the end of the lecture series. Students’ participation
was anonymous and voluntary, and those who agreed were required to
complete the consent form before filling out the questionnaires. A total of 937
students were asked, but only 923 students (557 female and 366 male) completed
the form. In the pre-course questionnaires, students were required to provide
their gender, year of study, age, study program, experiences in reading Quran,
and duration of study they expected to enable them to read Quran fluently. In
the post-course questionnaires, students were asked about their perception of
Quran online learning. The questionnaire for students included demographic
items, questions to assess students’ attitude towards face-to-face Quran class
versus Quran online learning, learning experience, learning comfort, motivation
to participate in the class, cognitive engagement, and class interaction. The
147
questionnaire was adopted from the work by Ni (2013), (Dondorf et al., 2016)
and (Luaran et al., 2014) about the issues related to students during online
education. The questions are presented later in Figure 2 and Figure 3 in results
and discussions section. The respondents’ average age was 19.9 (SD =1.84) and
the reported course disciplines were: 26.82% Economics and Business, 17.7%
Religion and Education, 12.9% Engineering, 14.4% Basic Science, 8.2% Law and
4.4% other. Furthermore, to investigate the instructors’ perceptions, they also
received the questionnaire. The questionnaire for instructors included
demographic items, questions to assess instructors’ attitude towards the
changing role during online learning, instructor preparation program (demand
on their time), and interaction barriers. The questionnaire was adopted from the
paper presented by Kebritchi et al. (2017) concerning the issues related to
instructors during online education. The questions are presented later in Figure
5 in results and discussions section. Instructors who agreed to participate each
received an online questionnaire package to complete and return to the
researchers. A total of 11 instructors responded.
3.2. Tools and Mode of Teaching

The Bilhikmah Quranic approach that the author developed in the early 1990s
was used as the learning approach to Quran reading. It is a phonetic method
consisting of four books, starting with training in single Arabic letters with all
vowel symbols (harakaat) in Book 1 and the introduction of the connected form
of the Arabic letters in Book 2. Further, in Book 3, the symbols and letters are
combined with the progressive improvement of tajweed rule. In addition, Book 4
provides comprehensive rules of tajweed for advanced students/users. For each
book, the instructor of Bilhikmah begins with the overview of the basic rules and
how to speak the written word or letter, then asks the students to read
individually one set of phrases or more. The set of phrases that are presented in
Bilhikmah books are all derived from the Quran. The students must be competent
in each lesson before progressing to the next book. UNISBA has used the
Bilhikmah approach continuously to teach undergraduate students to read the
Quran.
In order to create equivalent learning experiences between the two teaching

modes (face-to-face and online), the material content and the arrangement were
structured to be as similar as possible. Table 1 displays the comparison of the
content delivery across the two teaching modes. The online teaching session
included 14 teaching meetings, each lasting 60 minutes, precisely the same
duration as the pre-lockdown face-to-face classroom meeting. Furthermore, all
course materials were delivered using Zoom teleconference software. The
students received physical and digital versions of the textbook and could choose
and use the version they found more convenient. During the learning process,
PowerPoint presentations replaced the blackboard. The instructor would display
the Arabic alphabet or Quran verses (depending on the class) to recite together.
The instructor would initially demonstrate the correct pronunciation of the
Arabic letters or the Quran verses, and the students would subsequently repeat
and replicate the recitation. During practice, the individual student would have
a private lesson with the instructor for about five-to-ten minutes. Like the face-
148
to-face classroom, the instructor would call the students one-by-one to evaluate
their recitation. The remaining students were asked to mute their microphones
and practice on their own while awaiting their turn. Students with questions or
comments could type the question in the comments box or speak directly by
turning on their microphones.
Table 1. Comparison of Content Delivery

Mode of Teaching Classroom Online-learning
(control group)
Textbook and readings for tajweed theory Bilhikmah Bilhikmah digital
Discussions Classroom interactive Video conference
Lectures Instructor and board PowerPoint
Reading Assessment Classroom interactive Video conference
3.3. Students’ Performance Assessment Indicators

To assess the students’ performance during Quran online learning, similar to
face-to-face classroom learning, students were divided into different subclasses
based on their pre-course placement-test result. The placement addressed the
wide range of students’ skills in reading the Quran. Table 2 shows the indicators
and performance grades, according to the number of students who were placed
in seven different sub-classes based on their Quran reading skill. A similar
Quran reading-skills indicator system also appeared in a study by Supriyadi and
Julia (2019). The placement test was administered before the course started. The
students were individually asked to read the random verse in the Qur'an and the
instructor assessed the reading. In addition, the same tests were performed
again at the end of the course to evaluate the students’ improvement in reading
the Quran.
Table 2. Quran Reading Skills Indicators

No. Sub-class Key Features Performance
grade
1 Very Fluently and correctly reading cursive letters 80 – 99
Advanced Fluently reciting the makhraj
Correctly applying and comprehending the tajweed rule
Reciting the Quran with correct tempo and rhythm
2 Advanced Fluently and correctly reading cursive letters 70 – 79
Fluently reciting the makhraj
Somewhat correctly applying the tajweed rule in
reading
3 Pre-advanced Fluently and correctly reading cursive letters 60 – 69
Reciting the Quran with a slow tempo but not halting
Still incorrectly applying the tajweed rule in reading
4 Intermediate Be able to read the cursive letters but only 3 to 4 letters 50 – 59
Be able to read the makhraj is still incorrect or swapped
5 Pre- Be able to acknowledge single Arabic letters but some 40 – 49
intermediate letters are still frequently swapped
Slowly or haltingly reading the cursive letters
6 Elementary Be able to read the single Arabic letters but not the 30 - 39
cursive letters
7 Beginner Not be able to or barely acknowledge single Arabic <29
letters with the vowel
149
4. Result and Discussion

4.1. Students’ Performance
The researchers obtained a total of 923 students’ performance data (grade)in the
Quran reading class in the online-learning mode, then compared them with the
control-sample data of 1,239 students in the Quran reading class conducted in
face-to-face learning mode in 2019 (before the pandemic). Table 3 shows the
comparison results.
Table 3. Performance of Students in Online vs. Classroom Learning

Average Performances
Number of
Mode of learning Pre-course
students Post-test Differences
test
Classroom learning 1,239 66.15 70.95 +4.80
Online learning 923 65.32 70.31 +4.99
On average, the students in the face-to-face classroom improved their
performance from 66.15 on the placement test to 70.95 on the post-course test.
Comparatively, in the online-learning students achieved, on average, 65.32 on
the pre-course test and 70.31 on the post-course test. Thus, the face-to-face
classroom students increased their performance by 4.80%, whereas the students
in the online setting improved their performance by 4.99%.In comparison,
Figure 1 displays the results for each individual student. The students’ grades on
the pre-course test appear on the x-axis, while the results of the post-course test
appear on the y ordinate. The blue dotted line displays the trend line for the
students’ performance in face-to-face learning mode whereas the orange dashed
line represents the trend line for online-learning students.
100
PTclassroom = 0.646 PcTclassroom + 28.07 Classroom
R² = 0.63
80
Online Learning
Post-test (PT)
60
Linear (Classroom)
40 Linear (Online
PTonline = 0.676 PcTonline + 26.28 Learning)
R² = 0.61
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Pre-course test (PcT)
Figure 1. Performance of Students in Online vs. Classroom Learning – Individual

Results
The graph illustrates both trend lines showing a steady increase, indicating that
students who performed well on the pre-course test were more likely to score
better on the post-test, and vice versa. The correlation coefficient of the
classroom trend line is 0.63, while the coefficient for the online-learning trend
line is 0.61. Several outliers were found for both learning modes. In general, the
result in the figure shows that students performed similarly in the face-to-face
classroom and online-learning mode. Moreover, the trend line of the online-class
150
students was slightly higher than that of the face-to-face students. This is likely
due to the lack of students’ performance data at a grade below 40, the limitation
of this study.
Furthermore, Welch’s t-test, which Ruxton (2006) recommends for samples with
unequal variances and sample sizes, was performed to assess the statistical
significance. The results indicated no statistical significance between the online
and classroom learning in this research (p = 0.1203), indicating that student
performance in Quran reading, as measured by grade (on a scale of 0–100), is
independent of the learning mode. The result is similar to findings in previous
literature (Gonzalez, 2020; McLaren, 2004; Ni, 2013), suggesting that students
performed comparably in both face-to-face and online-learning modes.
4.2. Students’ Perceptions

In addition to the performance assessment, the survey was also administered
after the course to assess the students’ perception of and satisfaction with the
online course, compared to traditional classroom learning. Several factors were
analysed, including class interaction, learning experience, motivation,
satisfaction and comfort level, and Figure 2 presents the results. In terms of
learning comfort, the majority of the students reported a ‘medium’ feeling about
the comfort level of participating in the online format. Surprisingly, 25% and 3%
of students perceived a moderate and a significant increase, respectively, in
comfort level during the online class. Previous research supports the finding
(Hanafi et al., 2019), stating that Quran lessons in online format can enhance
students’ comfort because the environment is less intimidating than the
traditional classroom, for students who are reserved and afraid of direct and
open feedback from either the instructor or their classmates. When asked about
the quality of their learning experience, more students perceived that the
experience improved when the class performed in the online setting, compared
to the traditional classroom learning. However, despite the positive opinions
about online learning, the majority of the students felt that the quality of
interaction with other students and the instructor decreased, along with a
slightly reduced motivation level. Motivation is one of the important keys
affecting students’ behavioural intention to achieve a goal during the learning
process. Highly motivated students are likely to participate in self-monitoring
activities that support them in achieving their goals (Kemp et al., 2019). Thus,
the reduction in motivation is an essential challenge during the shift to an
online-learning setting.
The surveys also asked the students about their perception of the online learning
setting, on a scale of 2 (strongly agree) 1 (agree), 0 (neutral), -1 (disagree) and -2
(strongly disagree). The results, the distributions and the average score of the
students’ perceptions appear in Figure 3. Students tended to feel that online
learning is useful during studies but is more time-consuming than face-to-face
learning, although most of them perceived the statement neutrally. The majority
of the students tended to disagree that online learning can provide more benefits
than drawbacks. Moreover, most students claimed that they have learned more
effectively in the face-to-face learning setting.
151
Although students felt that some aspects had slightly changed when they moved
to online learning, they generally tended to accept online learning. This could be
because the pandemic has likely made the students initially hesitant to change
more accepting of the emergency online-learning mode. After all, they had no
other options than adjusting to this new situation. These results also accorded
with the research by Ayebi-Arthur (2017), a case study of college students in
New Zealand, severely affected by earthquake activity. The author observed that
the college students were more open to emergency online learning after the
catastrophic incident.
In comparison to traditional classroom Mean (N=923)

Students' response distribution
instruction, in this online course ....
1. The quality of my learning experience 3% 26% 27% 41% 3% 0.17
2. The quality of interaction with other

21% 38% 23% 16% 2% -0.59
students
3. The quality of interaction with the
15% 35% 30% 18% 2% -0.43
instructor
4. My motivation to participate in class
activities
8% 25% 38% 25% 4% -0.08
5. My comfort level of participating in class

6% 24% 43% 24% 3% -0.07
activities
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Definitely Decreased (-2) Somewhat Decreased (-1) No Change (0)

Somewhat Increased (+1) Definitely Increased (+2)
N = 923, Rated on a 5-Point Scale

Figure 2. Post-Course Questionnaire about Online Learning Interaction
Questions Students' response distribution Mean (N=923)
1. Online learning is useful during the

5% 21% 45% 21% 8% 0.05
studies
2. Online learning is more time-consuming

5% 24% 40% 21% 10% 0.07
compared to classroom learning (reversed)
3. Online learning suffi ciently replaced the

7% 19% 32% 31% 11% 0.21
classroom learning
4. I would have learned more effectively in

2% 6% 30% 34% 28% 0.80
the face-to-face learning setting (rev ersed)
5. Online learning can give more

14% 26% 40% 17% 3% -0.30
advantages rather than disadvantages
6. I will recommend online learning 13% 21% 35% 22% 9% -0.08
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Strongly Disagree (-2) Disagree (-1) Neutral (0) Agree (+1) Strongly Agree (+2)
N = 923, Rated on a 5-point scale (red = strongly disagree (-2), yellow = neutral (0), green
= strongly agree (+2))
Figure 3. Post-Course Surveys about the Students’ Perception of the Online Learning
152
Furthermore, students are susceptible to ‘online learning fatigue’, the sense of

boredom and exhaustion that students feel from attending many live lectures
multiple times (Wiederhold, 2020). On a variety of occasions, the continuous use
of technology may cause fatigue. Sitting for a prolonged amount of time in the
same setting will induce both emotional and physical drains. In this study, to
investigate the students’ perception of online learning repeatedly over time, the
responses were analysed for two different periods; May to June 2020 (𝑁=228),
the early stage of online learning, and July to August (𝑁=694), the stage when
online learning had been fully implemented. For each period, the students were
asked whether they recommend the Quran recitation class in online learning
mode. The results appear in Figure 4.
The findings showed that students’ acceptance of the online mode in the
learning period of July to August (-0.53) was significantly lower than the early
period of the online-learning shift (0.21). The t-test result showed the statistically
significant difference between the students’ acceptance during the early period
and several months later (p = 0.000). Students likely were still excited the first
time they switched to emergency online learning and gradually became
exhausted after several months with countless online classes. Previous studies
supported such results (Bao, 2020; Lee, 2020; Sundarasen et al., 2020; Wang &
Zhao, 2020), suggesting that online learning can be one main cause of student
stress and anxiety.
Survey Students' response distribution on

Mean
period I will recommend online learning platform
May-June 7% 18% 35% 25% 15% 0.21

N=228
July-August 15% 22% 35% 21% 7% -0.53

N=694
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Strongly Disagree (-2) Disagree (-1)

Neutral (0) Agree (+1)
Strongly Agree (+2)
Different Periods
N = 923, Rated on a 5-point scale
Figure 4. Students’ Acceptance of Quran Recitation Class in Online Mode over Two
4.3. Instructors’ Perceptions

The instructors were also asked to fill out a questionnaire after the course, about
their perceptions of the online-learning mode. The questionnaire package
contained questions from previous research, on several issues and challenges
related to instructors, including time management, transitioning from face-to-
face to online, instructors’ lack of interest in online courses and communication
barriers(Anderson et al., 2011; Crawley et al., 2009; Kebritchi et al., 2017). The
results appear in Figure 5.
153
Questions Instructors' response distribution Mean (N=11)
1. I am satisfied with online teaching 18% 45% 37% 0.18
2. Online learning takes more time to

36% 9% 55% 0.18
prepare, plan, and teach (reserved)
3. I feel comfortable switching to the online -0.09

37% 45% 18%
for mat
4. With online learning I find difficulties to

communicate with the students (reserved)
36% 18% 46% 0.09
5. Online learning can give more

disadvantages rather than advantages 27% 18% 55% 0.27
(reserved)
6. I will recommend online learning

platform
0% 55% 45% 0.45
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Do not agree (-1) Undecided (0) Agree (+1)
N = 11, Rated on a 3-point scale (yellow = do not agree (-1), green = neutral (0), dark
green agree (+1)).
Figure 5. Post-Course Questionnaire about the Online-Learning Platform from
Instructor’s Perspective
Feedback responses were obtained from 11 instructors. Although the majority

tended to feel satisfied with the online-learning format, they also felt that it takes
quite a bit more time than face-to-face learning to design, prepare and teach the
online class 𝑛=6 (55%). The result agreed with previous studies (Capra, 2011;
Cavanaugh, 2005; Humphries, 2010), which show that online learning could
demand more instructor time. During the pandemic, the instructors had to
redesign and re-plan the curriculum, develop the content delivery and create the
new assessment method. This new activity resulted in overwork, anxiety and
stress among instructors and academic staff (Rashid & Yadav, 2020). Moreover,
in this study, the instructors did not feel comfortable switching to the online
setting 𝑛=4 (36%) and had difficulties interacting with the students 𝑛=5 (45%).
The discomfort may have been associated with their concerns about interacting
and communicating with the students; the surveys showed that the instructors
felt the reduced interaction with the students. Although in online learning, the
instructor is still able to communicate with students visually and audibly, it may
be the lack of the personal touch that reduces the effectiveness of the
communication. In the online-learning format, the instructors have difficulty
taking cues from students’ verbal and nonverbal interaction that they usually
had in the face-to-face classroom (Crawley et al., 2009). Instructors’ comfort level
with technology and online education is important, because it affects instructors’
desire to teach in an online setting (Fein & Logan, 2003; Osika et al., 2009).
Making sure that the instructors are comfortable with new technology and how
to utilize it is important for its effectiveness.
However, despite the issues arising during the online study, the majority of
instructors were satisfied with the online class and tended to recommend the
Quran class performed in the online-learning setting. Although most of them
154
perceived it neutrally, surprisingly, no instructor rejected the online-learning

format. Similar to the student observation, it seems that amidst the pandemic,
instructors have no other choice but to adjust to the dynamic situation and
embrace the transition.
Overall, students and instructors tend to accept the Quran class in online mode.
The study indicated that altering the Quran reading class to an online setting can
be quite simple. Commonly used video-conferencing software can accommodate
the main features of learning Quran reading, namely, the real-time audio, visual
and text. Also, students are now regularly taught in online-learning formats
during the pandemic, and they seem to have adapted to the change. Despite all
these promising adjustments, several issues relating to online students and
instructors were identified. Issues relating to students covered their readiness,
reduced motivation, difficulties in classroom communication, potential fatigue
and rising anxiety. Issues related to instructors included reduced comfort level,
difficulties in classroom interaction and time-management concerns. Higher-
education institutions play a critical role in improving the standard of online
education by helping students, instructors and the development of the learning
content (Kebritchi et al., 2017). The potential fatigue and anxiety that the student
feels during online learning must be relieved in many ways, to make sure that
students can successfully and effectively participate in online learning (Bao,
2020). Proactive initiatives to support the well-being of students and academic
staff are now required during the pandemic (Flores, 2020). Regarding issues
related to instructors, the higher-education institution must provide sufficient
training and professional development for the instructor on how to use the
current technology, as well as how to engage in online classes. During the
pandemic, the instructors are teaching in the context of emergency online
learning, but not necessarily properly designed learning (Murphy, 2020). Thus,
training is expected to help solve these issues in the future.
In addition, higher-education institutions can continuously assess—through

polls, evaluations, surveys, interviews and analysis of course design—what
contributes to better and more effective online learning during this pandemic.
As the assessment continues and the effectiveness of teaching and learning in
the online setting improves, we hope that students, too, can adapt to and benefit
from this new emergency online learning more effectively. Furthermore, to
improve the students’ learning experience during the emergency online learning
in the Quran reading class, instructors can develop such strategies as
incorporating multimedia to enhance the teaching content delivery. The rise of
the adoption of speech processing and recognition software for the Arabic
language (Noor Jamaliah et al., 2015) could benefit developing and
incorporating Quranic-verse-recitation recognition software into the design of
Quran online courses. The software can automatically check the tajweed, identify
errors in Quran recitation and show exactly where errors have occurred
(Mohammed et al., 2015). This option provides students with the chance to make
numerous attempts to master the Quran reading, without the need for instructor
supervision.
155
5. Conclusion
This research explored undergraduate students’ and instructors’ perceptions
and acceptance of the emergency Quran online learning in Indonesia. Several
aspects were analysed, including class interaction, learning experience,
motivation, satisfaction and comfort level. The study also compared students’
Quran-reading performance on an online learning platform with the records
from a traditional face-to-face class from the previous year. The survey and
performance data were obtained from 923 students of the Universitas Islam
Bandung (Indonesia), between May and August 2020, when all universities had
to shift to distance learning because of the corona virus outbreak. The findings
indicated no significant difference in student performance between the online
mode and the face-to-face classroom setting. Furthermore, although students
and instructors felt that some aspects had changed, they generally tended to
accept the Quran class in online mode. This is likely because, amidst the
pandemic, students and instructors have no other options except to adapt to the
rapid change and embrace the transition.
While the online class provides a comparably effective learning alternative, we

should realise that online learning has its benefits and drawbacks. It is
reasonable that students feel fatigue or less motivated toward online learning.
The study indicated the reduction over time in the students’ acceptance of the
Quran online learning. It is likely that students were still excited when they first
switched to learning new technology and gradually became exhausted after
several months with countless online classes. Providing students with a support
plan, including phone numbers, email or online messaging where students can
contact staff, is important. In addition, it is necessary to provide proactive
initiatives to support the well-being of the students, instructors and academic
staff during the pandemic. We conclude that the online-learning setting is
practical, affordable and adaptable for use with Quran recitation classes in
Indonesia, beyond the prevailing pandemic, as students and instructors seem to
have become more open to the online learning setting.
6. Limitations
There are some limitations to this study. The initial student performance (grade)
in the face-to-face class and the online class were not at the same level and could
cause bias in the results (Hanafi et al., 2019). The research also had insufficient
data for students with an initial performance at a grade below 40; thus, the
performance of students with very limited Quran-reading skills was not known.
Another limitation of this research is that during the study, students were asked
about their perception of Quran online learning as compared to traditional face-
to-face learning. However, some students had not previously enrolled in the
traditional face-to-face Quran class in the university, and thus, they had no
comprehensive picture of the differences between the Quran class face-to-face
and in an online setting. Nevertheless, the pre-course survey result reveals that
the majority of the students had learned the Quran for years; hence, it is
expected that this would provide them with the clue of the typical traditional
Quran learning.
156
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189

Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 189-210, May 2021
Connecting Theory and Practice: Pre-service

Science Teachers’ Adoption and Implementation
of the Demonstration Method
Rose Atieno Mutende, Winston Akala and Rosemary K. Imonje

School of Education, University of Nairobi, Kenya
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0030-1113
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0548-5815
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0945-6034
Abstract. This study examined adoption and implementation of the

demonstration method by Bachelor of Education (BEd) Science students’
during teaching practice (TP), which lasted 14 weeks. Data were collected
using questionnaires and interview schedules. The data analysis
techniques comprised descriptive and inferential analysis. Findings
indicated that i) the school-based experiential learning as designed and
implemented is not sufficient to modify the Bed (Science) students’ prior
frame of reference for the integration of interactive instructional practices
in the demonstration method; ii) despite pedagogical supervision, the
pedagogical knowledge and repertoire of skills learnt was not sufficient
to effect a major increase in the instructional practices implemented; iii)
the Bed (Science) students’ developmental needs persisted to the end of
teaching practice because the pedagogical support provided on TP was
not sufficient to address them; iv) although pre-service teachers have the
potential for immediate improvement of their adoption and
implementation of interactive instructional practices, they require a clear
frame of reference before exposure to the context of their professional
work without which they cannot effectively leverage a significant
paradigm shift. The study provides several recommendations based on
the findings.
Keywords: instructional practices; constructivist; demonstration method;

supervision practices
1. Introduction
Interactive teaching methods are a major focus of the current reform efforts in
science education. Research has established that appropriate application of
interactive teaching methods facilitates the construction of scientific knowledge
and enhances learners’ potential for development of critical thinking and
problem-solving (Burrows & Slater, 2015). In particular, the demonstration of
complex abstract scientific concepts or process skills have been found to promote
©Authors
190
learning, hence, are considered the hallmark of science teaching. Biadgelign (2010)
opines that, because demonstrations entail learners observing while listening to
explanations of processes, their critical thinking and creativity are stimulated.
Critical thinking and creativity allow for modification of conceptual
understanding and generalisations. Learners are then able to connect theory to the
demonstrated experiment, and to the natural phenomena and everyday practices.
Learning then becomes meaningful.
As observed by Feiman-Nemser (2010), by the time pre-service science teachers

enter into teacher education programmes, they have already experienced
application of teaching methods from their earlier socialisation and observation
of the teaching and learning process as students of science education. They thus
hold preconceptions about the application of such methods based on a limited
understanding of science teaching. Darling-Hammond (2010) cautions that the
preconceptions must be transformed, otherwise the pre-service teachers will teach
the way they were taught, which, therefore, will not facilitate knowledge
construction among learners. In this regard, pre-service science teachers should
be helped to develop adequate conceptual and practical knowledge of teaching
methods in their pedagogy courses (Duit et al., 2008; Gunckel, 2013; Ochanji et al.,
2015; Odundo et al., 2018).
Problem statement
Teacher education programmes across the world have been criticised over time as
being more theoretical and disconnected from professional practice (Beck &
Kosnik, 2002; Fraser, 2007; Ketter & Stoffel, 2008; Kosnik & Beck, 2009).
Consequently, they produce teachers who are not practitioners and who cannot
appropriately apply interactive teaching methods. This has been demonstrated to
be the case for Sub-Saharan Africa where the demonstration method and other
forms of interactive teaching are not widely applied (Bunyi et al., 2013; Centre for
Mathematics, Science and Technology Education in Africa [CEMASTEA], 2009;
Strengthening of Mathematics and Science at Secondary Education [SMASSE]
Project Impact Assessment, 2007). Remarkably, a survey of science teaching
methods in secondary schools in Sub-Saharan Africa confirms that many science
subject teachers experience difficulties with the concept of demonstration, and
many more do not apply the demonstration method in their lessons even when it
is necessary (Cheruiyot et al., 2015; SMASSE Project Impact Assessment, 2007).
This implies that many science teachers in Sub-Saharan Africa have inadequate
pedagogical knowledge and skills to apply the demonstration method.
Furthermore, Nasimiyu (2017) found that teacher preparation programmes in
Sub-Saharan Africa are narrow in scope and in their repertoire of skills and
opportunities to facilitate the development of learner-oriented pedagogies.
Additionally, research has consistently indicated that the gap in the transfer of
teaching skills from university-based learning to real classrooms still persists
(Korthagen & Kessels, 1999; Leijen et al., 2015; McGarr et al., 2017; Shaharabani &
Yarden, 2019). This brings into focus the appropriateness of pre-service teacher
adoption and implementation of method-specific instructional practices, as
demonstrated during teaching practice.
191
Purpose of the study

This article contributes to the existing knowledge on pre-service science teacher
preparation by focusing on pre-service science teachers’ adoption and
implementation of the demonstration method. Specifically, the following research
question were addressed;
1. Is there any significant difference in the BEd(Science) students’ adoption
and implementation of the demonstration method at the onset and
towards the end of teaching practice?
2. In what ways do the pedagogical supervision practices support the
BEd(Science) students’ adoption and implementation of the
demonstration method?
Constructivism in the pedagogy of science education
Pre-service science teachers' preconceptions of application of teaching methods
are more theoretical and abstract, hence difficult to implement in real classrooms.
To help pre-service teachers to re-conceptualise their pedagogical knowledge and
skills of application of teaching methods, science teacher education programmes
need to adopt a practice-based philosophy anchored in constructivism (Ball &
Forzani, 2011; Forzani, 2014; McDonald et al., 2013). Drawing from the above
epistemological root, the most profound challenge for pre-service science teachers
is not the acquisition of knowledge about teaching methods, but making personal
sense of constructivist instructional practices (Schön, 1983).
In a bid to reorient the teaching methods to a constructivist pedagogy, researchers

(Ball & Forzani, 2011; Grossman, 2018; Kloser, 2014; McDonald et al., 2013; Sherin
et al., 2011; Trna & Trnova, 2015; Windschitl et al., 2012) have decomposed
teaching methods into short, explicit, learner-oriented specified instructional
practices that pre-service teachers can implement. Implementing these
instructional practices in a context similar to that of their professional work
coupled with adequate pedagogical and technical support has the potential to
promote the integration of constructivist instructional practices in teaching
(Meyer & Land, 2006; Yilmaz, 2011).
The demonstration method in science teaching

Demonstration in science teaching is a planned manipulation of scientific
apparatus and materials so that learners observe first-hand scientific principles or
laws. Scientific concepts are made easier to comprehend and connect to real-life
experiences if explained alongside an observed demonstration (Basheer et al.,
2017). This implies that the teacher must be competent enough to design the
learning material in a manner that will explicitly show how theory connects to the
process under demonstration, and to the natural phenomena, which then leads to
knowledge construction.
Teacher preparation for application of the demonstration method

Over time, researchers have explored pre-service teacher preparation for teaching
methods (Amobi & Irwin, 2009; Cardoso et al., 2011; Ciminelli, 2009; Ghousseini
& Sleep, 2011; Kazemi et al., 2009; Kloser, 2014; Lampert et al., 2010, 2013; Warner
& Myers, 2008). The findings indicate that, for pre-service teachers to adopt and
192
effectively implement a teaching method, they should be helped to prepare

appropriate instructional tasks that are short, explicit, learner-oriented and
anchored in constructivism. In particular, based on an analysis of literary sources,
Trna and Trnova (2015) report that teacher preparation for application of the
demonstration method hinges on principles that teachers must put into
considerations when implementing the instructional practices embedded in such
method. They include: (i) learners predict the outcome of the demonstration; (ii)
allowing discussions on the concept under demonstration; (iii) performing the
demonstration alongside explanations focused on key aspects; (iv) discussing
results obtained; (v) providing appropriate analogies based on the concept
demonstrated. These principles inform the instructional practices that teachers
must integrate in their application of the demonstration method.
Other researches on teacher preparation report the instructional practices to

include:(i) provision of a guideline for engagement in to the activity and engage
students in the investigation to provide concrete experience (Kloser, 2014); (ii)
elicit and expose learners’ existing knowledge of the concept under
demonstration, and facilitate classroom discourse so that learners predict the
outcome (Grossman, 2018; Kloser, 2014; Windschitl et al., 2012); (iii) facilitate an
evidence-based explanations discourse to explain phenomena by making a
connection between the target science concept, the process under demonstration
and the natural phenomena (Warner & Myers, 2008; Winschitl et al., 2012); (iv)
review key points of the learning material, assess students’ learning in the context
of teaching and provide follow up activities to connect the learning to real-life
(Duncan & Clemons, 2012; Webster et al., 2009). Tesfaw and Hofman (2014),
Ochanji et al. (2015) and Usman (2015) aver that, for effective adoption and
implementation, pre-service teachers should be allowed to rehearse, enact and
reflect on their pedagogical understanding and skills of the instructional practices
amid support from peers and lecturer; hence experiential learning, which is the
underpinning rationale to teacher preparation for application of teaching
methods. Thus, a focus on the implementation of short, explicit, learner-oriented
constructivist teaching tasks enables the operationalisation of the demonstration
method into short, observable and measurable activities.
Experiential learning in pre-service science teacher education

Proponents of experiential learning (Dewey, 1938; Kolb, 1984; Piaget, 1954) assert
that it serves to connect theory to practice and comprises reﬂective activities
embedded in practice-based learning and anchored in constructivism. Further,
the proponents argue that effective acquisition of pedagogical knowledge occurs
if the learner is provided the opportunity to demonstrate their learning to more
knowledgeable others who offer support. This implies that effective experiential
learning should be mediated in a social learning environment with pedagogical
support and opportunities for collaborative reflections. Such collaborative
reflections draw on the pre-service teachers’ own experiences of exposure to and
enacting of the instructional practices and linking the same to research-based
knowledge and classroom practices (Leijen et al., 2012; Mannathoko, 2013;
Odundo et al., 2017). In particular, collaborative reflective activities in experiential
learning elicits and exposes misconceptions, making the pre-service teachers
aware of areas of growth, which, if addressed, improves their application of
193
teaching methods to new but similar contexts (Ayot & Wanga, 1987; Gok, 2012;
Mannathoko, 2013). Consequently, any mismatch between the pre-service
teachers’ existing conceptions, and the envisaged future teaching practices get
addressed (Britton & Anderson, 2010; Gok, 2012; Grossman et al., 2009
Hismanoglu & Hismanoglu, 2010; Schreiber & Valle, 2013). Ultimately, they build
up a repertoire of examples, visions and skills and, hence, make personal sense of
the instructional practices. To promote the adoption and integration of interactive
instructional practices further, pedagogical supervision and assessment must be
conducted by experienced subject specialists who are informed of the current
reforms in teaching methods and are well-versed in the criteria for pedagogical
supervision and assessment (Idris, 2016; Milanowsik, 2011).
Related studies
Concerns that Africa, and Kenya in particular, is substantially underrepresented
in the uptake of science-related courses and jobs is linked to the pedagogical
practices of teachers, which are below expectations (Mukhwana, 2020; Sichangi.,
2018). Specifically, the demonstration method is a pedagogical intervention
targeting teachers and advanced for enhancing learner outcomes in science
subjects. However, studies conducted on pre-service science teachers’ application
of the demonstration method are generally comparative or focus on the
effectiveness of, or evaluation of the method on learners (Adekoya & Olatoye,
2011; Basheer et al., 2017; Crouch et al., 2004; Daluba, 2013; Giridharan & Raju,
2016; Meyer et al., 2003; Moll & Milner-Bolotin, 2009; Trna & Trnova, 2015;
Watson, 2000). Few studies endeavour to address the pre-service science teachers’
adoption and integration of interactive instructional practices in the
demonstration method at secondary schools (Basheer et al., 2017; Odom & Bell,
2015). Studies on supervision of teachers as they learn to apply interactive
methods have been undertaken (Darling-Hammond & McLaughlin, 2011;
Fishman et al., 2003; Opfer & Pedder, 2011; Zembal-Saul, 2009), but more research
on supervision of pre-service teachers’ application of the demonstration method
is needed. This indicates a need to examine pre-service science teachers’ adoption
and implementation of the demonstration method, during teaching practice at
secondary school.
3. Methodology
Research approach and design
The study problem and research questions seek to systematically describe the
practices of participants (Loeb et al., 2017). As such, the study is anchored on the
survey design to explore pre-service science teachers’ adoption and
implementation of the demonstration method during TP.
Population and sampling procedure

The target population was 145 BEd(Science) students who were stratified into
three (3) categories based on the three teaching subjects, namely chemistry,
physics and biology, comprising 45, 64 and 36 students, respectively. The
categories were homogeneous within themselves. The determination of the
sample was obtained using Yamane’s (1973) formula.
𝑁
𝑛=
1 + 𝑁𝑒 2
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where;
𝑛 =The desired sample size
𝑁 =The population size
𝑒 = The error limit = 0.05 (as suggested by Yamane, 1973)
Source: Yamane (1973)
The resulting distribution of the sample across the strata was 33, 47 and 27 for
chemistry, physics and biology, respectively, hence a sample size of 107. Since the
population strata were relatively small, disproportionate stratified random
sampling was used (Cochran, 1997). The sample (n=107) had completed the
mandatory educational foundation and pedagogy courses. An equal number of
Head of Department (HoS) (n=107) and pedagogy lecturer (n=3) who taught the
subject methods course, namely biology, chemistry and physics, were key
informants and, therefore, purposively selected (Cohen et al., 2010).
Methods of and instruments for data collection

Data on participants’ adoption and implementation of the demonstration method
as well as the data on the pedagogical supervision practices were collected at the
beginning and at the end of TP using questionnaires (Appendices 2 and 3). The
pedagogy lecturers were interviewed using an interview schedule (Appendix 4)
at the end of TP and provided data regarding the what and the how of the
participants’ preparation for adoption and implementation of the demonstration
method. The TP session last for 14 weeks of supervised teaching.
The instrument analysis for content and construct validity indexes, and sampling
adequacy tests were conducted and the results (Appendix 1) revealed that the
constructs were valid (Liu, 2010; Williams et al., 2012). The reliability index of the
instruments was computed using Cronbach’s alpha and found reliable (Drost,
2012; Nunnally, 1978).
Methods of data analysis

Inferential statistics were used and t-test assessed the mean difference in the
adoption and implementation of the demonstration method at the beginning
and at the end of TP. Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient technique
was used to conduct a correlation analysis. SPSS version 23 software was used to
perform the analysis.
Ethical issues
The principles of integrity, respect, responsibility and competence were applied
throughout the study (Creswell & Creswell, 2017).
4. Results
Is there any significant difference in the BEd(Science) students’ adoption and
implementation of the demonstration method at the onset and towards the end of teaching
practice?
The total average scores for the participants’ adoption and implementation of the
demonstration method (Appendix 2) and the pedagogical practices of the HoS
and university supervisors (Appendix 3) are as in Table 1 below.
195
Table 1: Statistics for application of the demonstration method and pedagogical

practices of the HoS and university supervisors
Total average score
Variables N Mean %Mean SE SD Skewness SE
Onset of teaching 107 3.8526 77.1% 0.0382 0.3933 -0.167 0.235
practice
End of teaching practice 107 4.0349 80.7% 0.0431 0.446 0.021 0.234
HoS Pedagogical
Supervision Practices 107 2.1761 43.2% 0.0451 0.4669 0.511 0.234
University Supervisors’
Pedagogical 107 3.1939 63.9% 0.0921 0.9486 -0.409 0.235
Supervision Practices
Results of the adoption and implementation of the demonstration method

(Appendix 2) showed:
Items 1-2: towards the end of TP, 97% (66, 38) of participants demonstrated
adequate ability to design the procedure of activities for the lesson, while 82.3%
(37, 51) were able to formulate appropriate objectives to guide their teaching
towards an instructional goal. This suggests that the majority had adequate
conceptual and pedagogical knowledge of the instructional practices.
Items 3-6: most participants appear to have come into TP with a clear frame of
reference regarding instructional practices of assembling the demonstration
equipment, facilitating learners to predict the outcome of the demonstration and
assessing learner thinking. However, only 20% (3, 18) at the onset and 31.8% (14,
20) towards the end of TP explained the demonstration process and made
connections to the scientific concept and natural phenomena. This suggests that
68.2% persistently failed to implement the practice. Notably, there was an increase
in the instructional practices implemented during TP.
Items 7-8: the participants appear to have come into TP with a concrete frame of
reference of the instructional practices of directing learners’ observation on
specific aspects/processes of the demonstration activity. However, only 21.9% (3,
20) at the onset and 31.7% (13, 21) towards the end of TP could facilitate evidence-
based argumentation, suggesting that 79.1% found the practice difficult to
implement. Nonetheless, the participants who implemented the practice
increased during TP.
Items 9-10: the participants highlighted key points of a demonstration activity and
provided follow-up assignments. This suggests that the majority had a concrete
frame of reference for the practices. However, towards the end of TP, the number
of participants who provided follow-up assignments to the demonstration
reduced from 95.3% (64,37) to 93.4% (62,38), suggesting that 1.9% participants
likely had only superficial pedagogical knowledge because they refrained from
use of the practice.
Effect of TP on the application of the demonstration method

The total average score results on the application of the demonstration method
(Table 1) was M= 4.0349, SD=0.446, up from M= of 3.8526, SD=0.03933. This
revealed an increase in the instructional practices implemented, suggesting that
196
some participants learnt the practices on TP. However, the fact that the increase
was low suggests that the demonstration method as learnt at university and
implemented on TP is not as efficient as it should be. The participants appear to
have had a persistent inadequate frame of reference for the implementation of the
instructional practices.
On the effect of TP on the integration of instructional practices in the

demonstration method (Table 2), the results show [Mean Difference=0.19020
(3.6%), SE = 0. 05641, (t (105) = 3.372, p < .001).
Table 2: Mean difference in adoption and implementation of the demonstration

method on teaching practice
Sig.(2-
Paired Differences T Df tailed)
95% Confidence
Std. Interval of the
Mean Std. Error Difference
Difference Deviation Mean Lower Upper
Pair 1 .19020 .58078 .05641 .07835 .30205 3.372 105 .001
The difference, even though small, is statistically significant and affirms that,
despite pedagogical supervision, the pedagogical knowledge and skill held were
not sufficient to effect a major increase in the instructional practices implemented.
In what ways do the pedagogical supervision practices support the BEd(Science) students’
adoption and implantation of the demonstration method?
The pedagogical supervision practices were as indicated in Appendix 3. The
results at the onset (Table 1) show the total average score on pedagogical
supervision practices as M=2.1761 (43.2%), SD=0.4669 and when “often” and
“always” are combined, the majority of the HoS were reported not to have guided
the participants in lesson preparation and implementation, nor to have guided
them appropriately to link theoretical knowledge and classroom practices.
Additionally, the timeliness and adequacy of the feedback they provided did not
support the implementation of instructional practices among the participants. As
noted earlier, the HoS were not obligated to provide pedagogical supervision.
Nevertheless, 69.8% (32, 42) participants reported that they used the supervision
feedback for subsequent teaching, suggesting that, if mandated and empowered,
the HoS can provide appropriate pedagogical support, which can increase the
instructional practices implemented by the participants.
The total average score for the pedagogical supervision practices of university
supervisors (Table 1) was M=3.1939 (M%=63.9%), SD=0.9486, revealing mixed
results when “often” and “always” are combined. Specifically, the majority of the
participants reported having received timely feedback of the supervision which
was linked to their classroom practices. Further, the feedback informed the
participants’ subsequent teaching, with areas pointed out to improve their
implementation of the demonstration method. On the flip side, when “rarely” and
“never” are combined, the results showed that the university supervisors did not
regularly attend lessons, neither did they hold a pre-observation meeting ahead
of the lesson, or guide on teaching methods to be applied and how to integrate
197
them in a lesson. In other words, they were hands-off in as far as preparation for
teaching is concerned. The HoS and university supervisor’s practices rendered the
pedagogical supervision practices unsupportive to subsequent teaching.
5. Discussion
The current study employed constructivism as the underpinning theory to
examine the adoption and implementation of the demonstration method by Bed
(Science) students.
Is there any significant difference in the BEd (Science) students’ adoption and
implementation of the demonstration method at the onset and towards the end of teaching
practice?
The study found that the participants were able to design guidelines and
formulate objectives for engaging learners, which means they had a concrete
frame of reference to design tasks to determine the extent of learner engagement
and the support needed (Warner & Myers, 2008). This finding is consistent with
the explanation of the lecturer who, when asked how the methods course
supports the participants’ adoption and implementation of the demonstration
method on TP, stated:
“The methods course links the academic component to the professional
component during TP. The course helps the BEd (Science) student to
learn and visualise teaching activities which they then enact in real
classrooms.”
(Lecturer for TCT 332: Subject Methods-Chemistry, September, 2019).
This finding implies that, by the time the participants teach in real classrooms
during TP, they have already refined their conceptual and pedagogical
understanding of how to implement the demonstration method. The increase in
students who implemented the instructional practices that constitute the
demonstration method suggests that initial theoretical and abstract knowledge
requires consistent practice in a professional context for meaningful learning to
occur (Korthagen & Kessels, 1999; Warner & Myers, 2008).
The study further found that the majority of the participants had difficulties in
explaining a process and how it connects to the experiment and the natural
phenomena under the demonstration. This reveals lack of a clear frame of
reference, and it was likely students had not experienced the practice. To make
sense of a practice requires sustained enactment, reflection, rehearsal and
implementation, with pedagogical support (Korthagen & Kessels, 1999; Sherin et
al., 2011).
Additionally, the study found that the majority of the participants asked learners
to predict the outcome of the demonstration, indicating they had adequate
pedagogical knowledge for the practice. Requiring learners to make predictions
calls for evidence and serves to stimulate learners’ thinking and creativity (Crouch
et al., 2004; Trna & Trnova, 2015). The increase in students who implemented the
instructional practices suggests that meaningful learning to implement theoretical
and abstract knowledge can occur within the classroom context if opportunity for
consistent practice is provided (Korthagen & Kessels, 1999; Warner & Myers,
2008).
198
Further, the study found that the majority of the participants found implementing
evidence-based argumentation difficult. Likely, they had not, as learners,
participated in evidence-based argumentations and explanations. This implies
that the practice was superficially developed and, therefore, difficult to
implement (Grossman, 2018; Korthagen & Kessels, 1999). This resonates with
findings (Zembal-Saul, 2009) that scientific discourse and argumentation is not
common in science education because teachers themselves have had few
opportunities to apply evidence-based argumentation as learners.
On lesson closure and follow-up, the study found that participants had adequate
pedagogical knowledge and skills at the onset of TP. A review of learning points
and a follow-up on the content taught informs the teachers’ instruction in the
future lessons (Duncan & Clemons, 2012; Webster et al., 2009, yet, remarkably, the
study revealed that a few participants refrained from providing follow-up
practice of a lesson. Grossman (2018) posits that practices cannot be sustained if
the understanding is only partial.
The slight increase indicates that, prior to TP, the majority of the participants had
pedagogical knowledge of the instructional practices that constitute the
demonstration method. As such, the majority of the participants were, to some
extent, able to apply such method. This contributed to the high total average score.
During interview, a lecturer stated:
“We prepare student teachers on use of teaching resources. So that when
they get to a school with limited laboratory equipment they ably adopt
demonstration.”
(Lecturer for TCT 333: Subject Methods - Physics, September 2019).
Further clarification regarding the participants’ adoption and implementation of

the demonstration method was made by the lecturer during interview who
revealed that:
“The student teachers individually carry out practical related to
secondary school experiments in their various course units at university.
Therefore, the BEd(Science) students should be in a position to ably
handle all practical effectively.”
(Lecturer for TCT 331: Subject Methods-Biology, September 2019)
The slight improvement likely occurred as a result of regular demonstrations in

the course of TP.
The effect of teaching practice on the adoption and implementation of the demonstration
method
The results of the total average score (M= 4.0349, SD=0.446, up from M= of 3.8526,
SD=0.3933) (Table 1) on the participants’ adoption and implementation of
demonstration method revealed a small but statistically significant improvement.
This suggests that adoption occurred during TP, despite the persistence of
unaddressed developmental issues among the participants. This suggests that
simply exposing the pre-service teachers to the context of their professional work
without a clear frame of reference as a pre-requisite cannot effectively leverage a
significant paradigm shift (Grossman, 2013; Idris, 2016; Kazemi et al., 2009;
Windschitl et al., 2012).
199
Further, the t-test results on Table 2 [Mean Difference=0.19020 (3.6%), SE = 0.

05641, (t (105) = 3.372, p < .001) showed a small statistically significant difference.
Notably, this improvement occurred over the course of TP while the participants
were under supervision. The implication is that TP supervision has potential to
promote participants’ application of the demonstration method. The significance
of the pedagogical supervision on TP was confirmed during interview with a
lecturer who intimated that TP supervision exposes gaps in the BEd(Science)
students’ pedagogical knowledge which can then be addressed. Nevertheless, the
small difference suggests that, despite pedagogical supervision, the pedagogical
knowledge and skill held were not sufficient to effect a major increase in the
instructional practices implemented. This finding affirms Korthagen and Kessels’,
(1999) argument that key challenges for pre-service teachers relate to lack of
competency and experience prior to implementation of instructional practices,
and their limited status in professional growth. To promote further adoption and
implementation of instructional practices that were initially theoretical and
abstract within the classroom context requires intensive, sustained and coherent
learning activities that reflect teachers’ professional work coupled with
appropriate pedagogical support (Korthagen & Kessels, 1999; Opfer & Pedder,
2011; Warner & Myers, 2008).
Thus evidently, school-based experiential learning as implemented was not

sufficient in quality and quantity to further build on the pedagogical knowledge
for the adoption and the subsequent application of the demonstration method and
the embedded instructional practices. This exposes a disconnect between the
university-based learning and classroom practice.
In what ways do the pedagogical supervision practices support the BEd(Science) students’
adoption and implantation of the demonstration method?
The study found that the total average score on pedagogical practices for the HoS
was low, suggesting they provided insufficient pedagogical support even though
they are experienced teachers and subject specialists. Important to note is that
pedagogical expertise is required for an effective approximation of practices to
attain a high standard of implementation of instructional practices. This finding
supports the findings of a study by Gunckel (2013) who established that
collaborating teachers are not well-versed with the current university-based
learning of pre-service teachers and the pedagogic requirements for instructional
practices. However, the fact that the feedback provided by the HoS was useful to
the participants for subsequent teaching indicates that, if capacity is built for
pedagogical supervision, the HoS can provide sufficient and appropriate
pedagogical support to leverage the adoption, honing and implementation of the
“difficult” instructional practices.
The university supervisors, on the other hand, had a limited schedule to

adequately offer pedagogical support. Additionally, the study found there was
limited modelling of the instructional practices and, therefore, the inherent
reflection in-and-on practice. Grossman et al. (2013) posit that modelling by the
teacher educator is a crucial representation of practice as it enables the pre-service
teachers to visualise application of a teaching method and, hence, is critical in
closing the gap between their present and their possible accomplishment. Clearly,
200
the principles of effective pedagogical supervision and support as advanced (Ayot

& Wanga, 1987; Idris, 2016; Leijen et al., 2012, 2015; Usman, 2015) were not
embraced.
Overall, the limited schedule for university supervisors coupled with the fact that
the HoS offered inadequate pedagogical support denied the participants a firm
base on which to build instructional practices, particularly those that may have
been deemed “difficult” to adopt, enact and implement. This finding supports
findings by Ochanji et al. (2015) and Odundo et al. (2017) that teaching practice as
provided in public universities in Kenya is insufficient in quality and quantity.
Limitation of the study

The respondents were drawn from the School of Education and this violated the
ecological validity and limited the findings’ generalisations to graduate science
teachers with characteristics represented in the sample.
6. Conclusions and Implications

The study findings highlighted the following issues;
• The BEd(Science) students successfully implemented some instructional
practices but not others, and, even though some instructional practices
seemed to have been adopted in the course of TP, this was to a small
extent. This means that the school-based experiential learning as designed
and implemented is not sufficient to modify the BEd(Science) students’
prior frame of reference for the integration of interactive instructional
practices in the demonstration method. There is, therefore, a need to
reorient TP by increasing and prolonging the sessions and adopting the
principles of effective pedagogical supervision.
• The BEd(Science) students did not possess adequate pre-requisite for
application of the demonstration method. This can be enhanced by re-
conceptualising the content and design of the teaching methods
component to comprise specified short explicit instructional practices that
are learner-oriented and grounded in constructivism.
• The limited and inadequate pedagogical support denied the BEd(Science)
students a firm base on which to build pedagogical knowledge and skills
to adopt and implement instructional practices. There is, therefore, a need
to capacity-build the HoS in principles of pedagogical supervision.
• The BEd (Science) students have potential to improve their adoption and
implementation of the demonstration method and the embedded
instructional practices, the unaddressed developmental needs
notwithstanding. This can be promoted by designing a portfolio of TP
experiences that relate to varied contexts to inform experiential learning
tasks and pedagogical support.
Recommendation for future research

There is need for longitudinal studies to examine the effect of experiential learning
on novice teachers’ performance.
201
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APPENDICES
Appendix 1
Test of Sampling Adequacy and Sphericity
KMO Bartlett's Test of Sphericity

Factors Test Approx. Chi- df Sig.
Square
Discussion teaching method .702 84.431 45 .000
Demonstration method .818 120.946 45 .000
Lab practical teaching method .714 86.804 45 .000
Lecture teaching method .700 79.333 45 .000
Moderator (TP supervision/guidance) .722 89.771 45 .000
TP performance of BEd(Science). .843 162.082 36 .000
teachers on TP
Appendix 2
Descriptive Statistics for Application of the Demonstration Method at

the Beginning and End of Teaching Practice
SD = Strongly Disagree, D= Disagree, U = Uncertain, A = Agree, SA= Strongly
Agree
At the beginning of TP SD D U A SA
Count 1 2 1 36 66
1. The teacher used an outline to guide the
demonstration % 0.9% 1.9% 0.9% 34.0% 62.3%
Count 2 23 3 62 16
2. The teacher specified the objective of the
demonstration to focus attention % 1.9% 21.7%2.8% 58.5% 15.1%
3. The teacher arranged the equipment so that Count 1 5 3 65 32

each student could observe the
% 0.9% 4.7% 2.8% 61.3% 30.2%
demonstration
Count 20 62 2 18 3
4. The teacher manipulated the apparatus and
explained the process at the same time % 19.0% 59.0%1.9% 17.1% 2.9%
Count 0 3 0 35 68
5. The teacher asked questions to gauge
students' ideas of the topic/subtopic % 0.0% 2.8% 0.0% 33.0% 64.2%
Count 1 23 3 62 17
6. The teacher asked students to predict the
outcome of the demonstration % 0.9% 21.7%2.8% 58.5% 16.0%
Count 0 5 2 65 33
7. The teacher asked questions to direct
student observation to the demonstration % 0.0% 4.8% 1.9% 61.9% 31.4%
207
Count 17 64 1 20 3
8. The teacher pressed students to provide
evidence-based explanation % 16.2% 61.0%1.0% 19.0% 2.9%
Count 0 1 2 35 68
9. The teacher summarised the essential points
at the end of the demonstration % 0.0% 0.9% 1.9% 33.0% 64.2%
Count 1 1 3 37 64
10. The teacher gave follow-up assignments to
the demonstration % 0.9% 0.9% 2.8% 34.9% 60.4%
Total average score N Mean %Mean SE SD Skewness SE

at onset of TP
107 3.8526 77.1% 0.0382 0.3933 -0.167 0.235
End of TP SD D U A SA
Count 0 2 1 38 66
1. The teacher used an outline to guide the
demonstration % 0.0% 1.9% 0.9% 35.5% 61.7%
Count 1 12 6 51 37
2. The teacher specified the objective of the
demonstration to focus attention % 0.9% 11.2%5.6% 47.7% 34.6%
3. The teacher arranged the equipment so that Count 0 5 2 57 43

each student could observe the
% 0.0% 4.7% 1.9% 53.3% 40.2%
demonstration
Count 10 53 10 20 14
4. The teacher manipulated the apparatus and
explained the process at the same time % 9.3% 49.5%9.3% 18.7% 13.1%
Count 0 0 1 39 67
5. The teacher asked questions to gauge
students' ideas of the topic/subtopic % 0.0% 0.0% 0.9% 36.4% 62.6%
Count 0 13 5 53 35
6. The teacher asked students to predict the
outcome of the demonstration % 0.0% 12.3%4.7% 50.0% 33.0%
Count 0 6 1 59 41
7. The teacher asked questions to direct
student observation to the demonstration % 0.0% 5.6% 0.9% 55.1% 38.3%
Count 11 55 7 21 13
8. The teacher pressed students to provide
evidence-based explanation % 10.3% 51.4%6.5% 19.6% 12.1%
Count 0 0 3 42 62
9. The teacher summarised the essential points
at the end of the demonstration % 0.0% 0.0% 2.8% 39.3% 57.9%
Count 0 1 6 38 62
208
10. The teacher gave follow-up assignments to % 0.0% 0.9% 5.6% 35.5% 57.9%
the demonstration
Total average score N Mean %Mean SE SD Skewness SE
towards end of TP
107 4.0349 80.7% 0.0431 0.446 0.021 0.234
Appendix 3
Pedagogical Supervision
Head of Subject (HoS) Supervision
Never Rarely Sometime Often Always
1. The HoS checks that my Count 0 16 68 19 3
lesson plan is aligned to my
% 0.0% 15.1% 64.2% 17.9% 2.8%
schemes of work
2. The HoS guides me on how Count 15 46 37 5 3
to integrate instructional
% 14.2% 43.4% 34.9% 4.7% 2.8%
practices in my teaching.
3. My HoS advises me on the Count 61 29 11 2 3
appropriate instructional
practice during lesson % 57.5% 27.4% 10.4% 1.9% 2.8%
development
4. My HoS provides prompt Count 1 45 46 8 4
feedback % 1.0% 43.3% 44.2% 7.7% 3.8%
5. My HoS attends my lessons Count 11 72 18 3 1
to observe my teaching
% 10.5% 68.6% 17.1% 2.9% 1.0%
practices regularly.
6. The feedback my HoS gives Count 7 49 39 8 4
me is about my teaching
% 6.5% 45.8% 36.4% 7.5% 3.7%
practices
7. The feedback my HoS gives is Count 18 56 27 4 1
timely % 17.0% 52.8% 25.5% 3.8% 0.9%
8. I am able to apply the Count 13 1 18 42 32
feedback in successive
% 12.3% 0.9% 17.0% 39.6% 30.2%
lessons.
9. The HoS feedback supports Count 50 46 8 3 0
me to progressively improve
my application of the % 46.7% 43.0% 7.5% 2.8% 0.0%
demonstration method.
10. The feedback shows gaps in Count 88 14 5 0 0
my implementation of the
% 82.2% 13.1% 4.7% 0.0% 0.0%
Average score N Mean %Mean SE SD Skewness SE
107 2.1761 43.2% 0.0451 0.4669 0.511 0.234
Supervision by university lecturer
Never Rarely Sometime Often Always
1. The supervisor checks that my Count 10 15 57 13 11
lesson plan is aligned to my
% 9.4% 14.2% 53.8% 12.3% 10.4%
schemes of work
2. The supervisor guides me on how Count 13 29 29 23 12
to integrate instructional practices
% 12.3% 27.4% 27.4% 21.7% 11.3%
in my teaching.
209
3. The supervisor advises me on the Count 63 9 13 8 12

appropriate instructional practice
% 60.0% 8.6% 12.4% 7.6% 11.4%
during lesson development
4. The supervisor provides prompt Count 8 9 32 34 22
feedback % 7.6% 8.6% 30.5% 32.4% 21.0%
5. The supervisor attends my lessons Count 12 43 29 9 12
to observe my teaching practices
% 11.4% 41.0% 27.6% 8.6% 11.4%
regularly
6. The feedback my supervisor gives Count 13 1 18 42 32
me is about my teaching practices% 12.3% 0.9% 17.0% 39.6% 30.2%
Count 13 3 17 34 39
7. The feedback I am given is timely
% 12.3% 2.8% 16.0% 32.1% 36.8%
8. I am able to apply the feedback in Count 13 1 18 42 32
successive lessons % 12.3% 0.9% 17.0% 39.6% 30.2%
9. The supervisor feedback supports Count 13 3 17 34 39
me to progressively improve my
application of the demonstration % 12.3% 2.8% 16.0% 32.1% 36.8%
method.
10. The feedback shows gaps in my Count 14 2 13 29 48
implementation of the
% 13.2% 1.9% 12.3% 27.4% 45.3%
Total average score
N Mean %Mea SE SD Skewness SE
n
107 3.1939 63.9% 0.0921 0.9486 -0.409 0.235
Appendix 4
Guided Interview Schedule
Bio-data
S/N QUESTION
1 How many years have you taught Subject methods - Biology?
TCT 332: Subject methods - Chemistry? TCT 333: Subject
methods - Physics? TCT 333 (as applicable)
2 How many years have you supervised students on teaching
practice?
4 How many BEd(Science) students’ teaching did you supervise
in the last teaching practice session?
5 How many times did you supervise and assess the
BEd(Science) students teaching biology/chemistry/physics (as
applicable) in the last teaching practice session?
6 Has the university oriented/trained you on how to supervise
and assess BEd(Science) students during teaching practice?
Teaching of subject methods course

What is the significance of the subject methods course in BEd(Science) teacher
preparation?
How does the methods course support the participants’ classroom instructional
practices?
210
Please outline the teaching methods for science subjects that you focus on when
preparing pre-service teachers to apply during TP.
What instructional practices did you want the BEd(Science) students to master so
as to effectively apply the demonstration method?
Please suggest. with reasons, any change(s) you would like to be made so as to
improve on the delivery of the current subject method course?
Ability of BEd(Science) students to apply teaching methods in lessons

Basing on your observation and assessment of the BEd(Science) students on
teaching practice, which instructional practice(s) did the students find
a) Easy to apply at the beginning of teaching practice? Why was this the case?
b) Difficult to apply at the beginning of teaching practice? Why was this the
case?
Was your observation any different towards the end of teaching practice? How?
Teaching practice supervision and assessment of teaching methods

During your teaching practice supervision, what considerations did you base on
to decide that the demonstration method was effectively applied?
What support did you provide the pre-service teachers who experienced
problems in the application of the demonstration method in science lessons?
Please suggest with reasons, any change(s) you would like to be made regarding
the supervision process of BEd(Science) students during teaching practice.
Thank you for your time.
211

Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 211-231, May 2021
Gamification in Higher Education

(Case Study on a Management Subject)
Andrea Bencsik
J. Selye University, Komarno, Slovakia
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8204-3706
Adriana Mezeiova
J. Selye University, Komarno, Slovakia
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5878-7334
Bernadett Oszene Samu

Jedlik Anyos Mechanical and Informatics School, Hungary
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6176-8510
Abstract. In today’s education systems, new solutions are required for

educators to raise and maintain the interest of young people (from
primary school to higher education). The aim of the study is to present a
self-developed gamification solution and its application in higher
education in economics. The method, the process, and experiences
presented in the study were tested within the framework of a
management subject. The gamification model, based on an extensive
literature review, was elaborated with the help of a self-developed
method. Prior to the development of the process, students’ opinions on
their experiences and expectations for current educational methods were
surveyed. After the end of the semester, our students were asked on their
feedback, and a national survey was conducted in higher education
institutions about the experiences with gamification solutions. The
positive consequences of the application of our own model, can be traced
in the students’ continuous and year-end performance (a higher level of
task solutions and better grades) and also in their feedback.
Although the subject of the test semester was a management-type subject,
the logic of the model can be applied within the framework of any other
subject and in any higher education institution as well.
Keywords: flow; gamification; gamification model; higher education;

management; motivation
©Authors
212
1. Introduction
Raising and maintaining the attention of young people has been a problem for
years on all levels and in all fields of education. It is a global problem and can be
found all around the world. Beyond the digital world, young people are not
interested in anything, they cannot concentrate on one thing for more than a few
minutes, and they constantly hang out on screens – opinions generally say. A
group of researchers (Wang et al, 2014; Barak, 2020) believe that this
inattentiveness (disorganisation) is inherent in our digital world, as the human
brain is unable to develop as fast as the technology it creates. It is also an everyday
experience that they are able to listen to music, search in browsers, chat with
friends while watching TV. It indicates that they can still pay attention to what
interests them. Constant opportunities for expression and interactive activities are
also expected in different education systems. Teachers and lecturers face this
challenge; in education, interactive techniques should be used that meet the needs
of young people (Steigerwald, 2016). Young people in educational institutions
should be prepared for the future, where they will have to deal with complex,
multidisciplinary problems and approach global challenges from a new
perspective (Schwab, 2016).
21st century higher education is not only about acquiring knowledge in a single
field of science. Higher-level skills such as critical thinking, creative problem
solving, teamwork and communication, and also soft skills are becoming
increasingly valuable. Due to the multiplication of data and information, the
selection and critical evaluation of, and the appropriate decision-making based on
relevant information is essential for the success of the society of the future. Today,
lecturers in higher education not only have to pass on information, knowledge
content, and students – unlike former students – not only take and internalise that.
Thanks to modern technological tools, students are capable of quickly finding
anything on their smart devices but this knowledge is superficial. The task of the
teacher is to make underlying content and connections understood. Young people
should be taught to process information so as to understand its meaning and
interplay, and their conceptual and practical skills. The role of teachers is
becoming increasingly important in this process (Zivkovil, 2016; Kereluik, Mishra,
Fahnoe & Terry, 2014; Kivunja, 2014).
Higher education institutions are aware of the need to increase investments in

education, although they are not able to do so at the same level. This is also the
reason for the increase in the number of researchers seeking effective ways of
education, teaching-learning in recent years. The results of research by
Deslauriers and colleagues (Deslauriers, Schelew & Wieman, 2011) showed about
10 years ago that traditional presentation-oriented education does not provide 21st
century key skills. In interactive education, students become equal participants of
research-based learning, exploratory innovation, and the process of learning from
mistakes. A most important benefit of this new solution is that they learn to think,
decide and act in context, thus developing their professional identity. As a result,
they become more ambitious not only in educational institutions but also in real
life (Holmes et al, 2015).
213
Freeman and colleagues (2014) have shown that interactive methods increase the
efficiency of education by giving students a deeper understanding of concepts,
and as a result of activity, they spend a significant part of their time in the
classroom. During the course of education, they do activities that require
extensive information gathering using electronic devices or answering questions,
filling out worksheets on web interfaces, analysing problems and constantly
communicating. Such interactive techniques make education more attractive,
authentic and satisfying – full of challenges that young people have to address –,
thus increasing the efficiency of learning (Talbot, Doughty, Nasim, Hartley & Le,
2016).
One method that meets the above requirements is gamification. Several studies
support (Han-Huei Tsaya, Kofinasb & Luo, 2018; Goksuna & Gursoy, 2019) that,
with the help of games, both children and adults absorb knowledge much deeper
and more thoroughly. Huotari & Hamari (2017) approach gamification as a
service developing process, where the generation of a game-like experience
supports user value creation. The application of game elements in higher
education is often biased, many consider it frivolous, although research has
shown its positive effects (Nah, Zeng, Telaprolu, Ayyappa & Eschenbrenner,
2014). The experimental teaching method illustrated below attempts to test this
contradiction.
In this research, which is a kind of case study, answers to the following research
question were sought: What impacts does gamified education have on the
students’ in-class and out-of-class activity? How do they relate to the new
method? Is the positive impact of gamified education on learning results
traceable? What do higher education lecturers think of the possible applications
of gamification? Answering the questions seemed possible with the help of our
own ‘experimental’ education. The study summarises the experiences that present
the gamified solution of a management subject taught in economic higher
education. The method preferred creativity more than a solution involving
financial investments. Education required Internet access, laptops, tablets or any
kind of smart devices (available to all students without exception). No further
specific software is needed. The experiences of the experimental education show
that the majority of the participating young people enjoyed and found the
gamified solution useful, which was also confirmed by the end-of-semester
grades. Colleagues from other educational institutions surveyed had mixed
feelings and varied opinions about gamification as a method, but few have their
own experience.
2. Literature review
2.1. The impact of media on the human brain
The young generation studying at universities is also called Generation Z. The
first ones (born between 1995 and 2000) who were there at the beginning of the
digital era. Children born in the second wave (between 2005-2010) were already
born into the digital world. In this world, you already have to be present on social
media sites, on-demand entertainment (whenever you want it) is self-evident. For
them, info-communication technology (ICT) is a natural part of life, which fills all
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segments of society. They enjoy it and want to make the most of the opportunities,
they live in the moment, talk less and keep things brief (Tari, 2015; Seemiller &
Grace, 2016).
Several studies have discussed the impacts of media on the human brain. They
showed that media changes our habits and routines (Valkenburg, Joche, &
Walther, 2016; Uncapher & Wagner, 2018; Crone & Konijn, 2018). Carr (2010)
described his feelings that his brain was constantly “hungry”, and demanded the
Internet to feed it in its own way, but the more it received, the “hungrier” it
became. Today, we know that our brain is constantly changing, and adapts to the
slightest changes in circumstances and behaviour. This wonderful property is
called plasticity. Neuroplasticity is the most important result of evolution, which
allows individuals to adapt to changed circumstances and reorganise themselves
throughout their lives or even in the course of a few days (Hanson, 2017; Price &
Duman, 2019). During adolescence, significant changes take place in the brain.
Nerve cells that are not used regularly die, so in some cases high-performing
students in secondary school fail in higher education because weak functions of
their brains are overburdened by increased strain (Carr, 2010). More studies
indicate the fact that when having to switch between two tasks confuses our brain
and increases cognitive load, and also the possibility of not registering important
information (Kirschner & Karpinski, 2010; Junco & Cotten, 2012).
As a result of the use of multimedia devices for several hours a day, young
people’s brains have adapted and their brain maps have rearranged. You could
say: their brains ‘work’ differently from their parents. Today’s young generation
is heavily burdened by academic traditions: the curriculum (content that we
teach) and the teaching methods (how we teach). A kind of reaction to this is the
use of interactive teaching methods in higher educational institutions.
2.2. Interactive teaching methods

Active/interactive reading improves the learning process as it provides students
with more starting points. These are important because students come to school
with different knowledge or culture. Innovative education offers more
opportunities for correcting misconceptions, providing timely feedback, or
integrating different viewpoints through debate and discovery (Holmes et al.,
2015) as the responsibility for the education, which combines different
educational methods to meet various professional directions and student
aspirations (Deslauriers et al., 2011; Hoellwarth & Moelter, 2011; Freemann et al.,
2014; Von Korff et al., 2016). According to Tamim and colleagues (Tamim,
Bernard, Borokhovski, Abrami & Schmid, 2011), shifts towards students. These
methods are able to adapt to the abilities of individuals, trainings can become
more effective and provide participants with a higher level of satisfaction. One of
the solutions to active/interactive learning is gamification.
2.3. Gamification
The term gamification was born from the word ‘game’ and the suffix ‘-fication’
transform into something, in the digital media industry. It was first used by
Pelling (2011) in 2002, but gained public awareness only in 2010. The most
significant difference between game and gamification is that while games are
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always self-serving, and the focus is on fun and gaming experience, gamification
always has some out-of-the-game, useful purpose.
According to the most widely accepted definition, gamification is the application

of game elements and mechanisms in an out-of-the-game environment (Deterding
et al., 2011). According to Kapp (2012), gamification is a strategy that aims to
change user behaviours in a positive direction by applying elements of game
design and game aesthetics. The basic idea is that human activity is more efficient
if the task to be performed is enjoyable and there is joy both in the work process
and the result. The two definitions are consistent.
To understand the definition, we need to distinguish two types of games, for

which there are two separate words. ‘Play’ means the free, spontaneous, self-
directed game of childhood (Santayana, 1955). By contrast, “game” means a game
subject to rules, with a purpose and quantifiable outcome (Salen & Zimmerman,
2004). The French thinker, Caillois (2001), conveys the same difference by the
terms ludus and paidia. Paidia (from the Greek pais “kid” root) is an exuberant,
spontaneous manifestation of the playful instinct, while ludus (play) borrowed
from Latin is characterised by brainwork, instructions and limitations.
Gamification uses game design elements that ban be categorised as ludus. The
creators of the definition illustrate this concept on a twice two-element matrix (see
Figure 1). On one axis you find playfulness as opposed to gamefulness, while on
the other axis holism as opposed to construction from elements. According to the
definition, gamification does not use complete games (in other words, full-fledged
games), only game elements, and not playful design, but gameful design.
Source: Deterding et al., 2011

Figure 1. Gamification and related concepts
Gamification occurs in an out-of-the-game context, so it does not create or

complete games, but supports other systems with game elements, for instance, in
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the educational or business spheres. The aim of gamification is therefore not to

entertain but to increase engagement, motivation and user experience.
The creators of the definition distinguish three types of game elements: game
technology, playful design and game-based procedures, of which gamification
uses only game design elements. Subsequently, gamification is not linked to the
use of digital technologies (Deterding et al., 2011; Dulova Spisakova, 2017).
The logic of gamification is a blend of game design tools and psychology. It can
be divided into three levels, which include regulatory, behavioural and emotional
components that are also called MDA (Mechanics, Dynamics Aesthetics) model.
Breaking down to factors, you can formulate the three elements of the
gamification system (Kim, 2015).
For game mechanics, various rewarding tools are listed, such as collectable points,
badges, achievable levels, challenges and missions, virtual assets and gifts. Game
dynamics denote human desires such as reward, status, performance, self-
expression, competition and altruism (Dicheva, Dichev, Agre & Angelova, 2015;
Aliyu, 2020). Aesthetics is the third and final elements of the MDA model, which
describes what reactions the game process evokes in the player. These emotions
can come from: trying out something new, completing a challenge, exploration
and adventure, belonging to a community, the opportunity of self-expression,
immersion in a fantasy world (Kusuma. Wigati & Utomo, 2018). Players react
emotionally to each part of the game, so they will have game experience and
develop their cognitive and social competencies (Deterding et al., 2011; Kapp,
2012).
A few years ago, game researchers only studied the negative effects of games.
They paid great attention to addictive attributes (Gentile et al., 2011), and game-
induced aggressive behaviour (Bushman, Rothstein & Anderson, 2010; Rozsa,
2019). Today, they endeavour to exploit the positives.
Based on a decision by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) released in
June 2020, experts used Akili’s game called EndeavorRx to treat children with
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). The FDA’s decision is a
milestone in the growing field of digital therapies, as this is the first time an
authority authorised a video game therapy for any health condition. The studies
have tested the new method with more than 600 children over 7 years. Clinical
trials results showed that one-third of the participating children had a measurable
improvement in their attention deficit after playing 25 minutes a day, five times a
week for four weeks. The manufacturer claims that the game is able to activate
and strengthen certain neural networks through targeted algorithms. The
following period may bring new challenges for the company, as they must
convince doctors that the game is worth prescribing to children, and health
insurers to cover treatment costs (FDA, n.d; Collins et al., 2020; Mura,
Gontkovicova, Dulova Spisakova & Hajduova, 2019).
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Sheldon’s (2012) experiment is often mentioned as a successful gamification

example in higher education, who gamified the university course on the example
of MMORPG (Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game). In his solution,
students moved levels based on points, based on which they received their final
grades. He recognised that the simplest point and level systems, and the
immediate feedback motivate students. Ryan and his colleagues claim that
planning a good game is difficult, and planning a good educational game is even
more difficult (Ryan, Costello & Stapleton, 2012).
Various simulation programs belonging to the ‘serious game’ category mentioned

above are used at universities, especially in teaching economics subjects. These
games are usually used in teaching corporate decision-making subjects and
developing leadership competences. The next chapter presents our own gamified
teaching method.
3. Methodology
The research was carried out in three phases.
1. Survey of student opinions motivation and attitude (questionnaire survey)
2. Development and implementation of a gamified course (the combined use
of gamification tools and the evaluation of results in the teaching of a
management subject)
3. A national survey on the use of gamification in higher education
(questionnaire survey)
The study describes the second phase in detail, the first and final phases are
presented outlined only for clarity.
3.1. Participants
As a first step, in the 2019/2020 school year, a quantitative research was
conducted among students (260 participants) studying at the Faculty of
Economics of a higher education institution, aimed to map students’ learning
motivation factors and preferred classroom tasks. Hypothesis testing revealed
significant differences between the liking of gamified solutions and solving real
problems (Pearson 0,341, 2 sign. 0,000<0,01), between internal motivation and
gamified solutions (Pearson 0,129, 2 sign. 0,000<0,01), and between internal
motivation and the liking of real problems (Pearson 0,466 2 sign. 0,000<0,01).
Summarising the results, students driven by internal motivation liked real
problems and were glad to solve them in a gamified form [50].
The second step

Based on the results of this phase, we prepared the gamified curriculum for 4th
year students studying for a master’s degree, for a seminar course related to a
management subject, which was taught in the spring semester of 2020. The two
main topics of the course were knowledge management and change management.
The students had sufficient preliminary studies, and acquired the special
knowledge of the subject necessary for the seminar during theoretical lessons. The
course was taken by 68 students, divided into two seminar groups. Seminar
classes were conducted on a weekly basis in two lessons.
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3.2. Research design and procedures

The logical process of the course is shown in Figure 2 below.
Source: Authors’ own construction

Figure 2. The logical process of the gamified course
After planning the process, the ‘persona generation’ phase helps with thinking.
Its aim is to get to know participant motivation, which provides guidance for
planning ‘challenges’. In our research, persona generation was aided by the
evaluation of student questionnaires (Phase 1 of the research). Accordingly, the
characteristics of our ‘persona’ are: members of Generation Z, their learning is
mainly driven by internal motivation, do not mind having to work harder if the
task is interesting, like to solve real problems with the help of games, like to
perform and present less, play some inline game every day and like strategy and
logic games best.
The course began with an introductory session, where students got familiar with
the new method, tasks, logic of progress, achievable levels, expected outcomes,
potential pitfalls and opportunities for success.
3.3. Instruments
At the beginning of the semester, a virtual classroom was created on the Google
Classroom site for students to join. With the help of Google Docs Editor, an Excel
table called ‘Progress Indicator’ was created, in which everyone could keep track
of their own and others’ progress, completed tasks, the current status of points,
levels and badges.
In the preparation for the course, students formed small groups of 7-8 people, and
worked in a permanent composition throughout the semester. The background of
gamified tasks was a self-invented company, which was freely chosen and built
on students’ creativity. They formulated the vision, mission, scope of activities,
organisational framework and operation of the company, distributed the most
important positions and named the main problem, for the solution of which the
tasks received during the semester provided support. Nine companies were
established, the problems of which could be solved in a ‘customised way’ through
solving compulsory tasks. The activities and experienced problems of the
established companies are collected in Table 1.
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Table 1. Students’ companies and main problems

Company activity Problem
Marketing service Few orders
Sale and cultivation of fruit and vegetable goods Overchemicalised products
Manufacturing of bakery products, delivery to Outdated technology, high costs,
chain stores labour shortage
Unreliable suppliers, halting the
Catering unit – sale of craft beers
supply of raw materials
Plumbing, electrical installation Unskilled workforce
Diamond trading Legal regulation as an obstacle
Events management Few orders
Fitness Few visitors, high costs
The tasks solved during the semester, built on each other in their logic, served to
solve a company problem defined by the students, built on the theoretical
curriculum (change and knowledge management). The first part of the tasks was
aimed at identifying problems, delimiting them in the organisations of companies,
then trying to solve them.
In addition to problem solving, based on the logic of Probst’s model (Probst, 1998)
(keeping in mind the rules of the relationships between the system approach and
the processes), students had to work out conditions and steps for the
implementation of a knowledge management system that ensures successful
organisational operation. As each group elaborated the tasks for their own
company, creative and unique solutions were created.
All the companies operated in the same ‘virtual market’, so it was an additional
task to find a company among the others, with which they could enter into a
mutually beneficial cooperation agreement to support the solution of the main
problem. (Technique used was free to choose, which aroused great enthusiasm,
and serious ‘business negotiations’ were held in the lesson. There was a group
that reached a mutual agreement with all the other companies.)
In addition, problem solving and task completion was supported by film

screenings, analyses, situational games and personality tests. They could test their
own progress during the semester in the Kahoot program, using individual and
group quizzes we had created.
3.4. Analysis technique

Some tasks were solved during lessons, while others had to be uploaded to the
Google Classroom site. During the semester, they could collect 400 points (the so-
called XP points known from video games), which belonged to eight levels
(rookie, interested, inquisitive, knowledge-thirsty, eager-to-learn, hardworking
apprentice, master, grandmaster). A virtual badge was also associated with each
level, and progress could be tracked by following XP points on the ‘Progress
Indicator’ interface. After completing a task, immediate feedback was provided
with help of the evaluation of results and the collected points. At most fewer
points, but no negative evaluation was not given, which provided them with
motivation with an opportunity to reach a higher level. Students had the
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opportunity to earn extra points by proposing a solution to a problem of a real

company of their choice. Twice during the semester and in the final session, they
demonstrated their progress in problem solving to the other companies in a
presentation. By the end of the semester, all small businesses had met their main
goal (problem solving), albeit at different levels.
The success of the method was measured in two ways. At the end of the semester,
the participating students were asked to complete a brief questionnaire. Using
closed-ended questions, students assessed the semester on a 4-point Likert scale,
answering how much they agree with the provided statements (1-Not at all, 4-
Totally agree). In the last, open-ended question, they were asked to give their
honest opinions, suggestions, comments about the lessons. Another element of
back-testing was the comparison of their learning results with those of the
students in the previous year’s non-gamified course. The detailed evaluation
results are presented in the next chapters.
3.5. Evaluation of the semester

During course evaluation, 49 students expressed their opinions by answering
questions summarised in 5 groups. In the first group of questions, respondents
were asked to provide a general evaluation of the gamified seminar. The
summarised results are shown in Table 2.
Table 2. General evaluation of the seminar (n=49)

Standard % of
Statements Mean Median Modus
deviation students
I was not bored in class 3.15 3.00 3.00 .994 71.5
The classes were interesting 3.04 3.00 3.00 .856 73.4
I liked attending the classes 3.02 3.00 3.00 .892 73.5

I would have attended the
classes even if it had not been 2.71 3.00 2.00 .995 57.1
compulsory
The second group of questions investigated how the students experienced solving
tasks through a self-created company, assuming a real market situation, which led
to a solution to the main problem. The statistical evaluation of the results is shown
in Table 3 below.
Table 3. Students’ reception of a self-created company (n=49)

% of
Statements Mean Median Modus Std. dev.
students
I would prefer if there was
a similar opportunity for 3.31 3.00 3.00 .748 89.8
subjects as well
I think gamification is a
3.30 3.00 4.00 .832 89.8
good idea
I liked that we could be
3.23 3.00 4.00 .857 85.7
creative
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I liked that I could think

3.15 3.00 3.00 .772 83.7
about the task
They were more
3.14 3.00 3.00 .714 87.5
interesting to me
I thus better understood
3.02 3.02 3.00 .978 75.5
the curriculum
Student feedback supported the results of the exploratory research. The results
show that students evaluated the tasks developed for their own companies very
positively. They could be creative as there was no predefined ‘correct’ solution.
They found it interesting and exciting to solve a real problem and use their own
ideas.
In the third group of ideas, students evaluated the system of points and badges.
The statistical results of answers are summarised in Table 4.
Table 4. Evaluation of the system of points and badges (n=49)

Statements Standard % of
Mean Median Modus
deviation students
I think it is a good idea 2.90 3.00 4.00 1.021 71.4
I would prefer a similar
solution built in other 2.90 3.00 4.00 1.115 67.4
subjects as well
Made the subject more
2.80 3.00 3.00 .935 67.4
interesting
Increased the spirit of
2.55 3.00 3.00 .98 55.2
competition
The results show that the system of points and badges had the least effect on
motivation and competitiveness, but it still increased these in more than half of
the students. Nearly three quarters found it a good idea and the majority believed
they could better track their or progress and would have preferred to meet such
an opportunity in other subjects as well.
The fourth group of questions explored student experiences with the Google
Classroom site. The statistical results of the answers are summarised in Table 5.
Table 5. Evaluation of the use of Google Classroom (n=49)

Standard % of
Statement Mean Median Modus
deviation students
Handling it did not cause
3.56 4.00 4.00 .733 93.9
any problems
It was good to have all
the information in one 3.56 4.00 4.00 .611 95.9
place
I think it is a good idea 3.56 4.00 4.00 .705 87.8
I would prefer if there
was a similar solution in 3.28 4.00 4.00 .935 77.5
other subjects as well
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The students were very positive about the online solution, and they quickly
became familiarised with its handling. They took advantage of the opportunities
provided by the site, and constantly followed their own and the others’ progress.
In the last, fifth group of questions, the students were asked to compare the
gamified solutions of the course with the seminar lessons of other subjects. The
statistical results of the answers are shown in Table 6.
Table 6. Comparison of the gamified seminar lesson with other seminar lessons (n=49)
Standard % of
Statements Mean Median Modus
deviation students
The tasks were more
3.19 3.00 3.00 .77 83.7
creative
The sessions were more
3.08 3.00 3.00 .731 81.2
interesting
The sessions were not
1.66 2.00 1.00 .788 89.7
more boring
The lessons were the
1.92 2.00 2.00 .731 81.5
same as before
As the next step of evaluation, the study results of the students attending the
gamified lessons were compared with those who attended the traditional course.
Table 7 shows that the results of those studying with the new solution have
significantly improved compared to the students attending the traditional course.
Table 7. Study results of gamified and traditional courses

Traditional course Gamified course
Number of Number of
Evaluations % %
students students
A 5 8.2 13 19.1
B 10 16.4 13 19.1
C 10 16.4 21 30.9
D 18 29.5 9 13.2
E 15 24.6 7 10.3
FX 2 3.3 1 1.5
Did not attend 1 1.6 4 5.9
Total 61 100. 0 68 100.0
As the third step of the research, we asked 24 colleagues in higher education

institutions to share their experience with and evaluations of gamification. 273
responses were evaluated during the questionnaire survey. Experiences with the
application are summarised in Table 8.
Table 8. Lecturer opinions about gamified education

Application of the gamified method N %
Have not applied yet 142 52.0
Have applied, but mainly prefer traditional education 77 28.0
I apply traditional and gamified methods alternately 48 18.0
The application of the gamified method predominates 6 2.0
Total 273 100.0
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The third step

It is interesting how two further responses illustrate the domestic picture of the
method.
As an answer to the question ‘What subject/subjects have you gamified or would

like to gamify?’ in most cases, foreign language education was marked, followed
by the field of economics (management, marketing, corporate economics, micro
and macroeconomics), and then mathematics. The diversity of the mentioned
subjects confirms the wide applicability of the method: oral surgery, history,
pedagogy, conflict management, communication, research methodology,
bioinformatics, chemistry, constitutional law, mechanics, optics, heritage
protection and food safety, etc.
Based on the respondents’ opinion (273 participants), the advantages and

disadvantages are summarised in Table 9 below.
Table 9. Advantages and disadvantages of gamification
Advantages Mean Disadvantages Mean

Makes the learning process It requires more preparation time on
4.32 4.23
more enjoyable the part of the educator
Few publications discuss practical
Attracts student attention 4.27 3.59
implementation
Positively influences student There is not enough theoretical
4.07 3.55
motivation information about the topic
Its administration is more
Increases student activity 4.07 3.53
complicated
Increases competitiveness 3.66 Too student-centred 3.33
The educator’s preparation time is
Knowledge is easier to transfer 3.60 disproportionate to the usefulness of 3.23
the method
Lecturer experience shows that the application of gamification in higher

education makes knowledge transfer easier, attracts student attention, positively
affects competitiveness, motivation and in-class activity. Preparation time was
mentioned as the biggest disadvantage, but less think that the more preparation
time is disproportionate to the usefulness of the method. Of course, not everyone
agreed on the application of the method, as other answers show (not exhaustive
list): gamification hides the importance of lexical knowledge, older students may
find it too childish, teacher training is missing, it is not the task of the educator to
motivate, students get too comfortable. However, few colleagues have direct
personal experience. In the next chapter, we summarise our experiences in the
light of former research results.
4. Discussion
Recent research works have proven the positive effect of gamification on user
behaviour and motivation, but also that it does not have similar impact on
everyone (Barak, 2020; Bencsik, Mezeiova, Seres Huszarik, & Tobias Kosar, 2019;
Gokuüna & Gursoy, 2019). Our work has also confirmed them. The majority of
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studies report a positive effect, but emphasise that gamification largely depends
on users and context (Hamari, 2013).
The elements of game dynamics and game technics are closely related. The
elements of mechanics brought dynamics with them, namely, points served as
tools of rewarding, levels indicated current status, challenges satisfied their desire
for performance, virtual assets helped in self-expression, ranking lists increased
competitive instinct, gifts supported their being altruistic. These elements appear
as fundamental expectations in the summary of research by Fromann, (2017) and
Bunchball (2011). The solution we have developed meets these needs and practical
experience has confirmed their raison d’être.
Aesthetics, as the third element of the model, describes the players’ (students)
emotional reactions during the game. These feelings can be achieved in more
ways, depending on what they can be derived from. The method we have
developed could provide the following from the ‘roots’ defined by Kusuma et al.,
2018): trying something new, completing the challenge, belonging to the
community, an opportunity for self-expression, immersion in the world of
fantasy.
Fromann (2017) stated that there is no miracle recipe for a successful game or for
participants to enjoy the game. He says gamification’s immersive effects can be
achieved through enforcing three conditions (or participant expectations). These
(optimal workload, ideal levelling ideal reward system) were kept in mind when
planning the semester.
Our results are supported by several studies that have shown that the application
of the problem-based learning (PBL) model increases activity, and improves
students’ problem solving skills, (Simamora, Simamora & Sinaga, 2017) critical
thinking skills (Najah, Rohmah & Susilo, 2019) and verbal communication skills
(Kumar & Bervell, 2019). Several studies have shown that the ease of use and
usefulness of Google Classroom has a positive effect on its spread in education
(Zichermann and Cunningham, 2011; Wang et al, 2014; Wijava, 2016). This way
of transferring information and knowledge (using Google Classroom) can be
effectively used in educational activity inside and outside the classroom
(Supriyanto, Setiawan & Budiarti, 2018).
In their study, Laskowski and Badurowicz (2014) report the results of a

gamification course with students of an IT course where no significant
relationship was found between class attendance and end-semester results.
Students in the gamified course achieved worse results than the participants of
the traditional course. A higher course attendance and an increase in the
willingness to solve homework were recorded as positive results. Campillo-Ferrer
and his colleagues (2020) used the well-known Kahoot program as a gamification
tool in a Spanish university course. Their experiences were particularly positive
in terms of students’ active participation, their social relationships, the
development of their interactivity, and their motivation to learn and solve tasks.
Also building on the Kahoot program, experimental education was conducted by
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Varannai and his colleagues (2017) who experienced a positive attitude, an

increased student performance, and the acceptance of the use of the program. The
positive effects of the Kahoot program were also reported by Prieto, Palma, Tobias
& Leon (2019) in relation to teaching an operations management subject. These
results support our research results, despite only one method was used from the
tools that were part of the gamification training. Although experiences are rather
positive, the studies note that the relationship between the invested amount of
time, energy and costs and the results achieved needs to be weighed.
According to several researchers, education lacks a consistent understanding of

processes used for gamifying learning activities (Borges, Durelli, Reis & Isotani,
2014; Ibanez, Di-Serio & Delgado-Kloos, 2014). There is no trained teaching team,
which is true in our case as well. We and our colleagues, who apply them, prepare
in the form of self-education. In many previous cases, inconsistency led to the
failure of game experiments in education, which resulted in undesirable and
unexpected effects on the learning processes and study results (Hakulinen &
Auvinen, 2014; Hanus & Fox, 2015); Dominguez et al., 2012). Therefore, special
attention should be paid to teacher preparedness. In addition, users may not be
able to take advantage of opportunities and focus too much on end results (e.g.
achieved position or ranking), and less on the tasks (Knaving & Bjork, 2013;
Silpasuwanchai, Shigemasu & Ren, 2016). Gamified processes can also inspire
users to behave appropriately only when it is rewarded (Bui, 2015). For many
users, due to its simplicity or childishness, it may be demotivating (Augustin,
Thiebes, Lins, Linden & Basten, 2016).
5. Conclusion
We considered the logic of the MDA (Mechanics, Dynamics, Aesthetics) model,
well-known from the gamification theory, as the basis for the course design,
keeping in mind the mechanics, dynamics and aesthetics of the gamified system,
which elements are recommended by several earlier research works (Hamari,
Koivisto & Sarsa, 2014; Zichermann & Cunningham, 2011). Based on these
theoretical models, we built the gamified semester from elements that meet the
expectations formulated by Fromann (2017) and Bunchmall (2011). They included
challenges for participating groups, all ‘companies’ started with an equal chance,
there was an opportunity to gain a reputation for their performance, the tasks had
to be completed on time, to which obtainable points were pre-assigned. The
opportunity to advance between levels was ensured, which could be tracked on a
list prepared for this purpose. The system rewarded extra performance. During
gamification, the combination of these elements – provided that it is foreseeable
and known to the participants – ensure the successful achievements of goals
(Bunchmall, 2011). The students were familiar with all the tasks, expectations, and
they chose the main scope of company activities and the problem to be solved.
This ensured that they were able to realise “the main goal” to be achieved (solving
their own company’s problem) by the end of the semester.
The gamified teaching solution contributed to raising participants’ result to a

higher level, but, of course, the student receptivity was not the same and the
achieved results did not represent the same shift for everyone.
226
The mere implementation of the mechanisms of game techniques does not

automatically lead to a significant increase in activity, but the users who actively
kept track of their badges and those of their peers showed increased user activity.
The methods used during the semester – solving the problem of a fictitious
company invented by the students by associating special tasks – can be classified
as problem-based learning (PBL). The students participating in the experiment
liked that they could be creative (85,7%), and believed they could better
understand the curriculum (75,5%). The lessons were interesting and they were
glad to attend, they would be happy if further subjects were taught in a similar
way. The built-in player feedback (badges) made the progress more interesting
and traceable.
67.3% of the students felt that the Progress Indicator helped to assess their level of
progress along with that of their peers. This tracking had a positive impact on
their motivation and the building of healthy competitiveness). Managing the
Google Classroom interface used in the course, on which they could track their
own progress, points and badges, cause no difficulty, students easily learnt to use
it (93,7 The course was considered more interesting and creative compared to
traditional education. Learning outcomes at the end of the course showed a higher
level than those in traditional education.
Overall, it was seen during the course that young people are most motivated by
internal motivation, and they like to solve real problems in a gamified way
(Bencsik et al., 2019), which facts were confirmed by our former research.
According to the responses of 273 employees of 24 educational institutions, the
advantage of the application of gamification is that it makes knowledge transfer
easier, attracts the students’ attention, has a positive impact on competitiveness
and motivation, but, at the same time, requires much more effort from educators.
After concluding our research (experimental teaching), we do not claim that the
developed solution is perfect, but, compared to previous semesters, the students
were able to achieve better results. Conclusions have been drawn from the
experiences, which will be incorporated into the gamified solution of the next
course.
6. Limitations of the research

The most significant limitation was the opportunity to apply the method. We
managed to try the new method on a relatively small course, so our results are
true only for the observed course and the students participating in the experiment.
Thus, the results cannot be generalized. Another limitation to mention was the
lecturers’ inexperience, which may distort student opinions. It is also possible that
what they felt as a problem of the method was actually a consequence of the
lecturers’ inexperience. It is also a problem and influences the success of the
course that during the course the students cannot yet get involved in the use of
similar methods in the case of other subjects.
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Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 232-248, May 2021
Untangling Constructs of Characteristics of

Effective Teaching at the Higher Institute of
Sport and Physical Education (Tunis)
Aymen Hawani
Higher Institute of Sport and Physical Education (Ksar Saïd), University of
Manouba, Tunisia
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0692-3976
Anis ben Chikha

Research unit ECOTIDI (UR16ES10), Virtual University, Tunisia
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8313-7691
Ghazwa ben Maaouia

Research Unit of the National Sports Observatory (ONS): Physical activity: Sport
& Health, Tunis, Tunisia
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4417-5924
Abstract. This study explored the characteristics of effective teaching, as

observed by students at the Higher Institute of Sport and Physical
Education (Ksar Saïd) at the University of Manouba, Tunisia. The study
employed a descriptive survey method, and analyzed the data
quantitatively. The respondents (n=199) were registered for general
education courses, and a preconstructed interview schedule was used.
The 69 characteristics of effective teaching were ascertained by the
qualitative method through axial coding of general themes, in order to
make recommendations for the Effective Teaching Program. The major
findings are that the three important elements of effective teaching as
perceived by students are academic qualifications, attitudes, and skills. It
is important to mention that there are characteristics of effective teaching
reveals attitudes and skills. Specific recommendations for the Effective
Teaching Program are given in the paper, to strengthen teaching
effectiveness.
Keywords: characteristics of effective teaching; effective teaching

program; student perceptions
1. Introduction
The students of today are described as belonging to the digital generation. They
are constantly exposed to digital technology and electronic devices, such as that
©Authors
233
used for computer games and other virtual media, and which serve as their
learning tools. They are accustomed to a ‘plug-and-play’ learning approach. The
divergent and dynamic learning orientation of this generation involves hands-on
experience and learning by trial and error or exploration, as opposed to the
traditional sequential or linear learning approach generally followed by Tunisian
universities. Students have evolved into active learners, because of an open
learning environment characterized by the accessibility of the internet, where
information is delivered to anyone, anywhere, and at any time.
Rapid changes in technology, the influence of globalization, or

internationalization of education, the diversity of the student body, global
competition, and the need for a skilled workforce to meet the challenges of the 21st
century, brought teaching effectiveness to the forefront of higher education
policies. Education policymakers are faced with a challenging scenario, the need
to propose paradigms for quality teaching, and to prepare graduates to work and
adapt in a complex and fast-changing environment. An effective teacher is one
who can respond to change and meet the learning needs of students in the 21st
century.
How do we characterize effective teachers in the 21st century? In response to the

challenges posed by the 21st century, three main areas of competency that
teachers should develop were identified by a report of the National Institute of
Education, Singapore, entitled A Teacher Education Model for the 21st Century (2013,
p. 31); these areas are (1) Literacies relating to using knowledge and information
(adeptness at guiding students’ access to information through various electronic
and print media critically, creatively and accurately, and develop students’ ability
to use knowledge to generate better ideas); ability to demonstrate skill at utilizing
multiple media or interactive modes of instruction to facilitate learning; and being
aware of cultural diversity (or multicultural literacy); (2) Ability to enhance and
expand the learning environment by utilizing various instructional tools,
technologies and resources to broaden students’ awareness and knowledge of
real, current issues that affect their own communities and world contexts; and (3)
Ability to integrate technology in pedagogy and curriculum by devising
innovative and inquiry and problem-based approaches and developing the
higher-order thinking skills of students.
A vital element of effective teaching is possessing desirable personal

characteristics or personality dispositions. A study by Calderhead (2008) found
that, in both educational settings – traditional and online – personality traits
correlated significantly with effective teaching – the two variables were found to
have a significant linear relationship. Personal characteristics have been found to
be of paramount importance for effective teaching, more than content knowledge,
cultural knowledge, or pedagogical knowledge (Spitzer, 2009); they influence
student achievement and need further attention and investigation (Ciolli-Stewart,
2014; Chandler, 2015); they contribute to a conducive learning environment by
facilitating and enhancing learning (Ciolli-Stewart, 2014; Halder& Dutta, 2014;
Kimbrough-Walls, 2012); and students’ perceptions of ‘good or bad teachers’ are
234
based on the personal characteristics observed in class, which impact students’

assessment of teaching effectiveness (Ibad, 2018).
As we transform and meet the demands of 21st century education, we should focus
not only on what to teach, but also think about how to impart needs and develop
the needs of 21st century learners. The latter requires finding out how we can be
effective in our teaching, which starts with identifying dispositional
characteristics. As a starting point, we explored the perspectives of students at the
Higher Institute of Physical Education (Ksar Saïd), University of Manouba
(Tunisia), to determine constructs of characteristics related to effective teaching.
2. Literature review
The following body of information makes up the literature review, which has
direct bearing on the study.
2.1. Teacher effectiveness in higher education

Elliott (2010) identified two subtopics related to teaching effectiveness: “effective
teacher characteristics may be summarized as measuring who I am or the essence
of teaching, whereas teacher effectiveness may be summarized as what I do or the
process/product of teaching” (p. 1). In a review of related studies on teacher
effectiveness and student outcomes, Burroughs et al. (2019) point out that teacher
characteristics and behaviors (observed by students during classroom instruction
and delivery of content to support learning) have an influence on student
achievement or outcomes. Findings by Teven and McCroskey (1977) on caring as
a teacher attribute (Chandler, 2015) indicate that, if students perceive that their
teachers care, teachers’ caring correlates positively with student learning, as
evidenced by higher achievement scores.
Teaching effectiveness can be deduced from perceived, profound, lasting impact

on students. Gender and year of study have also been found to influence students’
perceptions of teacher effectiveness. A study conducted by Yilmaz (2011) asked
students pursuing teacher training to describe the characteristics of teachers
whom they characterized as effective throughout their schooling, from primary
school to secondary school or university level. A significant number of
respondents in this study reported their high school teachers to be ‘most effective’
to a much greater extent than they did their elementary school or university
teachers. The defining factor of effectiveness was the way teachers had
contributed to students’ personality development – especially in terms of dealing
with life challenges, or affecting their outlook in life, their thoughts and emotions,
their confidence in their worth (self-esteem), and developing self-sufficiency.
Regarding gender and years of study, Yilmaz (2011) found that female students
tended to report having effective teachers more than male students did, and that
more students during their first year of study (as freshmen) reported having had
a teacher that had been effective, at the least.
The idea of what makes a teacher effective also depends on the thinking styles of
students. Teaching styles that encourage creative thinking and complex
information processing are considered by students to be the most effective
235
teaching styles (Li-Fang, 2004). The same so-called characteristics of effective

teaching (CET) were found in both online environments and traditional face-to-
face settings, though the emphasis or order of importance was different in
different settings (Delaney et al., 2010; Gangi, 2011). The factors or variables that
contribute to successful teaching, ranked according to importance, are (1)
Personal knowledge and characteristics (ability to collaborate with colleagues,
forms strong relationships with students, etc.); (2) Content knowledge
(knowledge about what is to be learned or taught); (3) Cultural knowledge
(understanding of cultural context and characteristics of learners belonging to a
particular culture); and (4) Pedagogical knowledge (general knowledge of how to
teach) (Spitzer, 2009, p. 88). The ability to communicate well, being concerned
about student learning, the ability to motivate students, and course organization
were found to be significant criteria of teaching effectiveness (Young & Shaw,
1999). Effective teachers did not necessarily get high ratings on all these important
variables, which implies that teaching effectiveness does not follow an additive
model. Furthermore, informing students of the value or worth of a course was the
strongest predictor of teacher effectiveness (Young & Shaw, 1999).
Part of teaching effectiveness is innovation. The eminent psychologist L. S.

Vygotsky (1978) emphasized that experience—the idiosyncratic way each
individual internalizes the environment's information—is important for both
cognitive and personality development. If we give all students the same material,
each student will have a different experience according to his or her background,
strengths, and challenges. Thus, to promote learning across student intelligence
profiles, teachers need to offer students rich experiences—activities in which they
can engage with the material personally, rather than just absorb it in an abstract,
decontextualized way.
2.2. Students’ perceptions of characteristics of effective teachers

A study was conducted, from a Western perspective, to determine students’
perceptions of effective teaching in higher education by comparing on-campus
and distance modes of delivery (Delaney et al., 2010). Regardless of the mode of
delivery, nine CET were identified: respectful, knowledgeable, approachable,
engaging, communicative, organized, responsive, professional, and humorous.
Being respectful was ranked first for both on-campus and distance modes of
delivery. The students described respectfulness as being fair, realistic,
understanding, trustworthy, flexible, humble, caring, empathetic, patient, kind,
helpful, consistent, compassionate, open-minded, reasonable, sincere, concerned
and diplomatic. Being knowledgeable is demonstrated by being practical, flexible,
current, competent, credible, eclectic, qualified, and reflective. Being positive,
friendly, happy, personable, helpful, and accessible characterized being
approachable. The students described engaging as being assertive, enthusiastic,
energetic, interesting, interactive, passionate, stimulating, motivating,
charismatic, creative, and positive. Being communicative is demonstrated by
being attentive, clear, constructive, understandable, and thorough. To be
organized, a teacher should be prepared, efficient and focused. Being perceptive,
efficient, helpful, accommodating, and available described being responsive. To
236
be professional, one has to be confident, dedicated, hygienic, punctual, efficacious

and dependable; and being humorous was described as being kind, having a
positive outlook, and being engaging and approachable (Boluda & López, 2021).
A cross-cultural study that compared the qualities of good teachers in China

reports results that are consistent with studies in the United States, in spite of
finding different categories (Liu & Meng, 2009). Three categories that characterize
effective teachers as perceived by Chinese students were (1) A high degree of
ethical behavior, (2) Possessing professional skills, and (3) Their students obtain
good test scores. A teacher who demonstrates high teacher ethics is one who is
responsible, treats students equally, is caring, maintains friendly and close
relations with students, is humorous, considerate, and able to control his/her
temper. A teacher who is knowledgeable has excellent teaching skills and is able
to create an active classroom atmosphere – these traits were perceived as
representing good professional skills. If students obtain good test scores, the
teacher is considered to be effective (Rayou, 2018).
2.3. Dimensions of Characteristics of Effective Teaching

There are three important dimensions that relate to teaching effectiveness:
academic characteristics, social and psychological characteristics of personality,
and practical and pedagogical expertise. These dimensions were found to
characterize effective ESL (English as a Second Language) teachers by female
Qatari college students (Sabbah, 2018). Students expected that highly effective
ESL teachers who were rated highly on academic characteristics had achieved the
basic skills and required teacher qualifications, or had pursued graduate degrees,
had attended relevant training, exhibited teaching proficiency, and were able to
speak the students' native language. In terms of social and psychological
characteristics, the students regarded the following as highly important: being
friendly, just or fair, kind, showing stability under pressure, stimulating learning,
being a good listener, being polite and respectful, reducing students’ anxiety in
class, encouraging and motivating students, being patient, showing a willingness
to help students in and out of the class, being flexible in checking attendance, and
firm in dealing with students, and giving regular assignments. Teachers who
demonstrated a high degree of practical and pedagogical expertise applied
various strategies in their teaching, were well-prepared, managed the class and
class time properly, prepared activities that stimulated the interest of students,
and utilized technology (such being familiar with the software being used, multi-
media, and social media) in teaching.
Turkish college students based their perceptions of effective teachers on teachers’

personal and professional characteristics (Yilmaz, 2011). In order of preference,
they listed the top 10 characteristics or qualities of effective teachers as follows: (1)
Exhibits dynamism, (2) Shows empathy, (3) Has expertise on the subject area, (4)
Shows warmth and friendliness, (5) Is fair to students, (6) Communicates
effectively, (7) Motivates and inspires students, (8) Has a good sense of humor
and makes learning fun, (9) Is well informed and up to date on relevant issues,
and (10) Promotes the talents of students.
237
Another study (Çakmak, 2009), involving Turkish prospective teachers (college

students), identified important behaviors that describe effective teaching
characteristics as follows: states the objectives of the lesson; keeps students lively
in the lesson; is fond of his/her job; teaches with consideration of students’
interests and talents, and is able to maintain rapport with students. The least
important of the behaviors of an effective teacher are arranges various seating
arrangements (group, etc.) in the teaching process; jokes with students; requires
students to do presentations (projects, etc.) in lessons; suggests a source material
list to students that they should adhere to in the lessons, and the tendency to be
authoritative.
Teaching effectiveness is perceived as a combination of personality and ability,

the former being regarded as a key factor. Research conducted by Raymond (2008)
with students primarily from Middle East regions identified five important
personality traits of effective teachers, namely (1) Being respectful, (2) Making
classes interesting, (3) Fairness in grading and evaluating student work, (4) Cares
that students succeed in the course and (5) Being friendly to students. Three
important ability attributes were found to describe excellent teaching, namely
being (1) able to encourage students’ questions and discussion, (2) well prepared
and organized, and (5) able to make difficult subjects easy to learn.
Saafin (2008) characterizes an effective teacher as one who can establish and
maintain good rapport, and shows flexibility and willingness to compromise or
adjust in depicting United Arab Emirates (UAE) culture. Two themes, namely
interpersonal rapport with students, and instructional skills, were identified by
students in UAE as characteristic of perceived qualities of effective teaching. The
qualities and practices that were identified by content analysis, in order of
frequency, are (1) Treats students with respect, (2) Shows flexibility and
willingness to compromise, (3) Is helpful and caring, (4) Is friendly, (5) Has a good
sense of humor, (6) Helps students understand by exhausting all possible means
for students to learn, (7) Gives students a chance to speak and ask questions, (8)
Shows dedication in teaching, (9) Is fair or treats students equally in class, (10) Is
a role model, (11) Is knowledgeable or has mastery of courses taught, (12) Is
patient, and (13) Smiles often.
3. Objectives of the Study

This qualitative, descriptive study aimed to explore the concept of effective
teaching of students at a higher education institution in Tunisia. Specifically, it
aimed to achieve the following research objectives:
1. To identify the dominant CETs as perceived by students;
2. To determine the elements that the concept of CET comprises, as
identified by the students.
3. To recommend a set of programs for effective teaching.
4. Research Paradigm
Figure 1 shows the process paradigm of the study.
238
Figure 1: The process paradigm of the study
The paradigm (Figure 1) displays the process of the qualitative study. In

determining the dominant CETs, the mean rating per CET was computed and the
top 20 CETs identified. Comments for the 20 CETs were gathered for analysis.
Then, axial coding was done to provide an abstract of the definition per CET. The
first part of the coding established whether the comments were clear definitions
of the CET, or otherwise; thus, “Definition” and “Unclear” were coded
accordingly. A second coding round was done on the comments that had been
coded as Definition. Thematic clustering was used as the basis for coding.
Comments with the same theme were given the same code and were clustered
further, to derive the CETs and group them with the elements of effective
teaching.
5. Analysis of Data
The paper employed a qualitative research design, particularly, a descriptive
study, utilizing an interview method. A process of content analysis was
employed, through axial coding and clustering of responses, to come up with
specific constructs of CET. A total of 199 students voluntarily participated in this
study, of whom 121 were women, and 78 men. The study was conducted in a
private university of the Higher Institute of Sport and Physical Education (Ksar
Saïd), University of Manouba (Tunisia).
5.1. Research Instrument

An accessibility sampling technique was employed, through which all the
students registered in the General Education Program were invited to take a part
in the study. Each of the 199 respondents was individually invited in an interview
session that was facilitated by the authors of this research paper. Students were
given the assurance that their identity would be withheld as part of ethical
practice. The respondents were given a preconstructed list of CETs (Table 1), and
they were asked to choose five CETs from the given list and rank these five items
in order of importance (1 being the most important, and 5 being the least
important). Thereafter, the student respondents were asked to describe the
characteristics they had chosen. The descriptions provided by the students were
considered and were tabulated. The top five most important characteristics from
the list of 69 CETs were ascertained through content analysis (axial coding and
clustering of CETs).
239
6. Results and discussion

This section will present the results derived from the data collected from the 199
respondents after the necessary analysis had been done. The analysis of data was
guided by the problems investigated by this study.
Objective 1: Identify the dominant CETs as perceived by students

Based on the top five responses generated by the respondents, the CETs were
chosen. The 20 CETs were generated through coding and framing of student
responses provided during the interviews conducted personally by the authors.
Table 1 lists the CETs with their corresponding ranks, based on the frequency
distribution.
Table 1. Dominant CETs as perceived by the students.

CETs N Rank
Helpful 67 1
Knowledgeable 65 2
Friendly 63 3
Organized 39 4
Flexible 37 5
Understanding 29 6.5
Respectful 29 6.5
Open minded 27 8
Fair 25 9
Understandable 22 11
Motivating 22 11
Happy 22 11
Communicative 20 13
Interesting 19 15
Clear 19 15
Professional 19 15
Qualified 15 17
Focused 14 18
Available 12 19
Humorous 11 20.5
Patient 11 20.5
The result of the analysis for Objective 1 shows that being helpful is the most
dominant characteristic among the top 21 CETs considered, namely helpful,
knowledgeable, friendly, flexible, respectful, fair, understanding, motivating,
communicative, interesting, clear, professional, qualified and patient.
As Table 2 shows, the first five CETs fall under the category of personal
knowledge and characteristics (Spitzer, 2009). The factors or variables that
contribute to successful teaching, ranked according to importance, are (1)
240
Personal knowledge and characteristics (ability to collaborate with colleagues,

form strong relationships with students and others); (2) Content knowledge
(knowledge about what is to be learned or taught); (3) Cultural knowledge
(understanding the cultural context and characteristics of learners belonging to a
particular culture); and (4) Pedagogical knowledge (general knowledge of how to
teach).
Objective 2: Determine the elements that comprise the concept of effective teaching
Table 2. Clustered elements that comprise the concept of effective

teaching
Academic Qualifications Attitude Skill
Professional Flexible Flexible
Knowledgeable Understanding Understanding
Qualified Communicative Communicative
Focused Focused
Understandable Understandable
Clear Clear
Open Minded Open Minded
Helpful Helpful
Respectful Knowledgeable
Friendly Motivating
Happy Interesting
Patient Professional
Available Humorous
Fair Organized
Table 2 shows that the initial clustering resulted in three elements making up the
concept of effective teaching: academic qualifications, attitudes, and skills. It is
significant that there are the same number of characteristics for attitudes and
skills, 14, the first eight of which are in the same order.
An academically qualified instructor who is perceived as effective in teaching is

one who has PhD, has undergone relevant training and certification related to the
field of study, imparts lessons clearly, is able to relate to student experiences, and
is adept at using technology to enhance learning. In terms of attitude, an effective
teacher is one who demonstrates flexibility, is fair, shows respect and patience,
maintains a happy demeanor, is accessible when needed and, at the same time, is
able to deliver lessons clearly, is sensitive to students‘diverse needs and can
address the learning difficulties of students. Teaching skills that students
perceived to be important are the ability to communicate effectively and establish
good rapport to keep students engaged in and motivated for learning,
encouraging students to openly share their opinions and values, showing
expertise in the subject area and acting professionally, by being updated about the
use of technology; being able to recognize and address the diverse needs of
students (of different abilities and cultural backgrounds).
241
Objective 3: Recommend a set of programs for effective teaching

Based on the results of the study, the following are strongly recommended as basis
for an effective teaching program:
1. Faculty development. Faculty should be given the time, venue and
opportunity to reflect on their methods, their delivery, and the way they
connect with their students. Through diagnostic meetings and appropriate
workshops, they should be able to uncover those weaknesses, enhance their
strengths further and come up with courses of action to improve their
effectiveness in teaching.
2. Faculty recruitment. The elements that comprise the concept of CET that
include academic qualifications, attitudes and skills, should be considered in
the recruitment of faculty.
3. Student feedback. Consider students’ concept of effective teaching when
developing tools for evaluating effective teaching of instructors; evaluation
should take place on an annual basis, at the least.
4. Faculty evaluation. Evaluate effective teaching further in the university using
the behavioral manifestations of the CET as perceived by students.
5. Data analytics. Compare effective teaching concepts of faculty and
administrators, using the concept of CET identified by the student as basis
for leveling expectations.
7. Study Limitations
The study was conducted with the help of students, without taking into
consideration several factors, such as their experience, their personalities and their
grade levels. Likewise, the study did not consider a possible relationship between
the nature of the subjects taught by the teachers and the CET observed by the
students involved in the study.
8. Conclusion
This study aimed to identify the constructs of CET at a higher education
institution, and to propose using them as basis for an effective teaching program.
Specifically, it aimed to determine the dominant CETs as perceived by the student
respondents; to determine how the students defined the CETs; to ascertain the
CETs that can be derived from the combination of identified CETs; and to
determine the elements that comprise the concept of CET identified by the
students. The unit of analysis was taken from the 199 student respondents and
using a preconstructed interview schedule consisting of 69 CETs. The dominant
CETs perceived by the student respondents were 21 items, with being helpful
heading the list, followed by being knowledgeable, friendly, organized and
flexible in the top five.
9. Implications of the Study

Despite the limitations discussed in Section 7, the results reported in this study
are promising and encouraging. This study opens up a new research perspective
and could constitute an interesting contribution to the initial training of teachers
and for recruitment for Tunisian university teachers.
242
Acknowledgments
The authors express their sincerest gratitude to the editors and blind reviewers
who shared their expertise and provided guidance for the opportunity availed
through this paper.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declare no potential conflicts of interest.
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244
APPENDIX A
PRECONSTRUCTED CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE TEACHING

USED IN THE INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
1 Approachable 24 Challenging 47 Creative
2 Enthusiastic 25 Practical 48 Realistic
3 Available 26 Energetic 49 Compassionate
4 Knowledgeable 27 Thorough 50 Professional
5 Stimulating 26 Helpful 51 Qualified
6 Personable 29 Attentive 52 Pleasant
7 Humorous 30 Eclectic 53 Hygienic
8 Understanding 31 Efficient 54 Accommodating
9 Flexible 32 Accessible 55 Reasonable
10 Understandable 33 Prepared 56 Consistent
11 Open Minded 34 Confident 57 Perceptive
12 Communicative 35 Friendly 58 Kind
13 Punctual 36 Trustworthy 59 Interactive
14 Responsive 37 Positive 60 Focused
15 Sincere 38 Empathic 61 Charismatic
16 Concerned 39 Dedicated 62 Efficacious
17 Organized 40 Current 63 Credible
18 Interesting 41 Dependable 64 Assertive
19 Patient 42 Caring 65 Passionate
20 Fair 43 Engaging 66 Diplomatic
21 Motivating 44 Happy 67 Reflective
22 Clear 45 Constructive 68 Humble
23 Respectful 46 Competitive 69 Collaborative
Based on Delaney et al. (2010, p. 20).
245
APPENDIX B
CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE TEACHING

(Axial coding sequence)
Characteristics Behavioral manifestations of instructors as described by
students
Helpful Instructors take initiative to ask students of anything they missed
or failed to understand.
Instructors answer all queries from students in and out of their
classroom. Instructors make sure that students understand the
lessons in class.
Instructors encourage students to do their best.
Instructors assist students, even for non-academic purposes.
Instructors prepare students to face what is in store for them in the
field of work.
Instructors provide bonus questions to help students increase their
grades.
Knowledgeable Instructors have PhDs. Instructors are proficient in the use of
English as a medium of instruction in class.
Instructors are confident with facts of their lesson because of their
use of several references, like books and personal experiences.
Instructors are confident in explaining their lesson with the use of
technologies.
Friendly Instructors find time to greet, converse and make jokes with
students even outside the classroom.
Instructors create a family working environment inside the
classroom.
Instructors find time to help students understand the lesson even
outside the classroom.
Instructors smile in and outside the classroom.
Organized Instructors see to it that instructional materials are guided by the
arrangement of topics in the course syllabus.
Instructors make sure that materials are reader friendly.
Instructors present topics using a certain flow of information that
is easily understandable by students.
Flexible Instructors can manage and change schedules in class accordingly.
Instructors are not strict with absences and ‘late incurrence’ of
students in class.
Instructors explain requirements and quizzes ahead of time, then,
provide additional help to students when needed.
Instructors can use practical approaches in teaching when needed.
Instructors provide means on how students can reach them when
needed.
Understanding Instructors exert effort to understand and adjust to the limitations
of students.
Instructors find time to know personal concerns of students even
outside their classroom.
Respectful Instructors respect the religion and culture of every student.
Open minded Instructors can discuss any topic and accept any answers from
students.
Instructors recognize differences in abilities and cultures and
adjust accordingly
246
Fair Instructors give a grade that is due to students based on their

work, not on nationality.
Instructors properly supervise students to provide appropriate
grade. Instructors provide instructional materials to everybody.
Understandable Instructors use a language that is understandable to all students.
Instructors accent do not affect students understanding of the
lesson.
Instructors make themselves available for questions from students
even outside their classes.
Motivating Instructors bring out the best in every student.
Happy Instructors come to class in good mood and with all smiles.
Communicative Instructors are available whenever students would like to
communicate with them.
Instructors are capable of indulging students to participate in
exchanging information through discussion in and even outside
the class.
Instructors use several means to communicate with students like
SMS, webmail, and portal.
Clear Instructors exert effort in making sure that students understand
each lesson, requirements, policies and exams clearly.
Instructors see to it that students know how to communicate with
them whenever they have questions even outside their classes.
Professional Instructors are educated with higher degree and teaches subjects
from their own field.
Instructors present lessons in a simple manner with the use of
technologies.
Qualified Instructors teach subjects in their field of specialization and shows
evidence that they are studying or learning subjects outside their
specialization.
Instructors do have high qualifications like PhDs and degrees of
specialization.
Focused Instructors are grounded with their mission to develop each
student.
Instructors exert effort in simplifying lessons for maximum
understanding of students.
Available Instructors are anywhere in the university when needed by
students. Instructors are willing to render service in the absence of
the other.
Instructors delegates tasks in his absence.
Humorous Instructors exert effort to break the seriousness of the class by
giving jokes and funny comments.
Patient Instructors entertain many questions from students and is not
irritated when students come to class late or when students leave
the room.
247
APPENDIX C
CLASSIFICATION OF CHARACTERISTICS DERIVED FROM THE

COMBINATION OF THE CETs AS PERCEIVED BY THE STUDENTS
USING AXIAL CODING
A. Buddy Type
Characteristics Behavioral Manifestations
Available Instructors are accessible at the university when needed by students.
Flexible Instructors provide ways students can reach them when needed.
Communicative Instructors are available whenever students would like to communicate
with them.
Instructors use several means to communicate with students, like SMS,
webmail, and portal.
Clear Instructors see to it that students know how to communicate with them
whenever they have questions, even outside their classes.
Understanding Instructors make themselves available for questions from students, even
outside their classes.
Helpful Instructors answer all queries from students in and out of their classroom.
Instructors take the initiative to ask students about anything they missed or
failed to understand.
B. Accommodating Type
Friendly Instructors find the time to help students understand the lesson, even
outside the classroom.
Understanding Instructors exert effort to understand and adjust to the limitations of
students.
Focused Instructors exert effort to simplify lessons for maximum understanding
by students.
Clear Instructors exert effort to make sure that students understand each
lesson, requirements, policies and exams clearly.
Organized Instructors present topics using a certain flow of information that is
easily understandable for students.
Understandable Instructors use a language that is understandable by all students.
Instructors’ accent do not affect students’ understanding of the lesson.
Helpful Instructors make sure that students understand the lessons in class.
C. Cool Type

Flexible Instructors are not strict with absences and “late incurrence” of students
in class.
Patient Instructors are not irritated when students come to class late.
D. Academician Type

Professional Instructors are educated with higher degrees and teach subjects from
their own field.
Knowledgeable Instructors have PhDs.
248
Qualified Instructors do have high qualifications, like PhDs and degrees of

specialization
E. Techie Type

Professional Instructors present lessons in a simple manner and use technologies.
Knowledgeable Instructors are confident about explaining their lesson with the use of
technologies.
Communicative Instructors use several means to communicate with students, like
SMS, webmail, and portal.
F. Non-Biased Type

Respectful Instructors respect the religion and culture of every student.
Open minded Instructors recognize differences in abilities and cultures and adjust
accordingly.
249

Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 249-270, May 2021
Problem-Based Learning and Capstone Course

Teaching Strategies for University Social
Responsibility: The Case of a Packaging Design Course
Chinlon Lin and Hui Tu

Hungkuang University, Taichung, Taiwan
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9720-8910
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9211-271X
Abstract. Most design courses in Taiwanese universities still follow the

traditional teaching methods that cannot address the complex and
interdisciplinary problems of the real world. In response to this, this
study tries to integrate problem-based learning and capstone course
approaches with university social responsibility to packaging design
courses. It expects the hybrid teaching model will allow third-year college
students to gain problem-solving skills, practical experience, and
awareness of social responsibility in the design process. Therefore, this
paper aims at addressing the following purposes: (1) explore each
teaching approach’s features and the influence on design education; and
(2) identify the implementation process for the new hybrid teaching
method. This study uses qualitative research to obtain primary
information, including authors’ observation and reflection and semi-
structured interviews with 12 students and four clients. After three years
of data collection and analysis, this study validates that the hybrid
teaching method is suitable for design education and proposes a seven-
stage implementation model applied to professional design courses.
Adjustment according to the needs of different fields, providing a
reference for teachers’ future curriculum planning and practice is
included.
Keywords: capstone course; packaging design; problem-based learning;

teaching strategies; university social responsibility
1. Introduction
When planning the curriculum and teaching of packaging design courses in
design departments in Taiwanese universities, most courses still follow the
standard guideline and mindset of the 1990s. The teaching strategies are limited
to only exploring and teaching the forms, principles, and packaging processes.
Students are assigned hypothetical themes that cannot address the complex and
interdisciplinary problems of the real world. Design perspectives are becoming
more fluid and complex in an era of rapidly changing design forms and materials.
©Authors
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It is essential to re-examine the course structure to meet current industry needs

and provide students with appropriate and professional materials.
In response to this issue, the packaging design course (the course) at the
Department of Cultural and Creative Industries of Hungkuang University first
adopted problem-based learning (PBL) in 2017. It later integrated the capstone
course into its teaching. The concept of university social responsibility (USR) was
applied to the assignment to establish a connection with the community. Based
on the core concept of “learning by doing”, PBL uses practical problems as the
core of the teaching process and encourages students to engage in group
discussions to develop their active learning, critical thinking, and problem-
solving skills. This teaching method is believed to be more effective than
traditional lecture-based learning. Capstone course is a method that focuses on
industry orientation and stresses the assessment of students’ core competencies.
Through peer and external assessors’ feedbacks, students can apply their core
competencies to solving problems in the industry. In addition to the two teaching
methods, the course also integrates the concept of USR to assignment topics which
enable students to connect and grow with the community.
This study uses qualitative Action Research as its research method. Primary
information is collected through authors’ observation and reflection and
interview feedback from the students and clients. After three years of data
collection, this study discovers that students have acquired the ability to solve
problems and develop critical thinking using a hybrid teaching approach. During
the process, students learn to transform researched materials into design ideas,
conduct market and case studies analysis, engage in repeated rounds of critiques
with the teachers, industry experts, and the clients, reflect on feedback, and finally
present their design works as a team. Thus, this study will address the following
purposes: (1) explore each teaching approach’s features and the influence on
design education; and (2) identify the implementation process for the new hybrid
teaching method. With this, the study hopes to construct a new teaching
framework for packaging design courses that can cultivate a new generation of
design talents and reference teachers’ future curriculum planning and practice.
2.1 Problem-Based Learning
Problem-based learning (PBL) is a learner-oriented curriculum design that
motivates active, cooperative, and practical learning. The concept of PBL was first
proposed by the educator John Dewey (1859-1952), who advocated “learning by
doing” instead of learning by passively receiving. He believes “true learning is
based on discovery guided by mentoring rather than the transmission of
knowledge” (Boyer, 1998, p. 15). Through “learning by doing,” knowledge is
acquired through action (Bender, 2012). In 2017, the Department of Technological
and Vocational Education under Taiwan’s Ministry of Education proposed the
2017 Pilot Program for Teaching Innovation in Technical Colleges and
Universities, including the PBL course as a focus of the program. Subsequently,
the “2019 Technical and Vocational Education Development Report” also
identified PBL as the primary focus for enhancing the teaching practice in
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technical and vocational education. Therefore, tertiary institutions (not limited to

technical colleges) such as Hungkuang University now consider PBL a crucial part
of courses (Ministry of Education, 2019).
PBL is a method in which teachers use practical problems as the core of the
teaching process and encourage students to engage in group discussions to
develop their active learning, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills. This
teaching method regards active learning as the focus of instruction and believes
that active learning is more effective than traditional lecture-based learning
(Hawks, 2014). Duch et al. (2001) asserted that PBL uses complex and real-world
problems to encourage students to explore and study the concepts behind
problems, allowing students to develop case studies from real-world problems.
Through small learning groups and peer discussion, PBL also enables a more
active and interactive process of learning, allowing students to develop solutions
to problems rather than absorb knowledge passively (Yang & Chang, 2005; Leung,
2008).
Tu et al. (2016) also argued that when carrying out PBL teaching, students can be
motivated to participate in the course content and pursue self-achievement
actively to reinforce their interest in the course content, practical application and
relevance. This will not only increase students’ level of satisfaction with the
course, but it will also increase their satisfaction with the teaching resources, such
as teachers’ guidance and classroom equipment, as well as students themselves.
In recent years, research on the use of PBL in teaching has diversified. Fan (2019)
suggested that course curriculum should be practice-oriented to produce students
to meet the needs and expectations of the workplace and employers, satisfying
requirements for industry development. Al-Busaidi et al. (2021) believe that PBL
emphasises the meaningful use of language as a tool for communication and
problem-solving.
The implementation steps and key points of PBL have been in place for many
years, and there are various versions and approaches, but the core concepts and
aims are the same (Al-Busaidi et al., 2021). According to Barrett & Moore (2011)
and Flipped Education and Action Learning Association (2018), PBL can be
divided into the following seven stages: 1. problem-solving; 2. case-based; 3. self-
directed; 4. small group discussion; 5. tutor-assisted; 6. self-assessment; 7.
development of interpersonal skills. Along with the teacher’s guidance, students
can learn to think about problem-solving during the one-year university course
and serve the community and its needs.
2.2 PBL Integrated Capstone Course

When discussing the value of university education in recent years, demonstrating
learning outcomes has become a core indicator for judging the quality of
education. This is a significant difference from the past when only academics were
examined. Following this trend, the capstone course has been widely applied in
various disciplines. In terms of teaching, the capstone course represents the final
year of the university experience; some departments also implement capstone
courses in the third year. The course length is one or two semesters. Capstone
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courses should include four functions: integrating university learning experience,

closure of the learning experience, reflection on the learning experience, and
transition from university learning experience to the workplace (Gardner & Van
der Veer, 1998). The implementation of capstone courses can provide teachers
with feedback on teaching and course improvement. It also helps students
integrate their previous learning to produce specific results (i.e., creative works),
enhance their ability, build confidence, and prepare for the future (Lee et al., 2019).
Maleki (2009) defined capstone courses that incorporate project-based, problem-

based, and inquiry-based learning as courses that emphasise the need for learners
to work in teams to apply knowledge and think critically to accomplish learning
tasks. Capstone courses integrate students’ previous learning and outputs.
Therefore, considerable emphasis is placed on students’ ability to solve real-world
problems. These problems are often complex and open-ended, so capstone
courses are frequently combined with PBL teaching methods. The features of
capstone courses should include the ability to highlight the department’s
specialities, the planning of learning processes that encourage active learning,
knowledge sharing and teamwork, the production of designs that solve real
problems, and teacher involvement and guidance. These features will increase
students’ interaction with the industry and develop learning applications (Dutson
et al., 1997; Lee et al., 2019). Aside from emphasising industry orientation,
capstone courses stress the assessment of students’ core competencies. Peer
assessment among students allows them to evaluate each other’s works and learn
from one another (Wu & Cheng, 2014). In addition, inviting external teachers or
trained assessors to serve as assessment committee members (Heitmann, 1996;
Oscarson, 1989) can enable students to understand their performance and skills
and apply their core.
2.3 Praxis of University Social Responsibility

University Social Responsibility (USR) is a humanism-based concept driven by
local demand and implemented through students’ participation in solving
problems. USR was first discussed in the book entitled Beyond the Ivory Tower:
Social Responsibilities of the Modern University by Derek Bok in 1984. They
argued that universities must uphold their fundamental values and functions and
think deeply about their social responsibilities and escape from the ivory tower in
their teaching and research. The Higher Education Institution (HEI) discusses the
contributions of USR, arguing that USR is a social philosophy or principle that
plays a crucial role in social change to sustain social, ecological, environmental,
technological, and economic development. USR is an interactive dialogue
between the university on the one hand and society and the community, on the
other hand, providing services through the transformation of knowledge to
promote sustainable human development and research (Matten & Moon, 2004).
Participating in the communities can shape a university’s research agenda and
enhance students’ learning. In other words, USR integrates or establishes
connections with the local community through teaching so that students and the
community can learn from each other and grow together. In addition to
traditional teaching and research, universities’ role and mission of participating
in and serving society are also essential responsibilities that enable students to
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have a sense of social mission and lead to the progressive development of society
(Chiang & Chuang, 2018; Wu, 2018).
In addition to the theoretical and thematic convergence in the implementation of

USR, Yamazaki (2015) proposed using the concept of community design to
connect people through activities participation. He believes that design is a
“powerful tool” for addressing social issues and uniting communities. Therefore,
it is necessary to identify community resources, clarify the structure of the design
theme, think about how to combine various elements and sustain enthusiasm. In
his book entitled The Age of Community Design, Yamazaki (2018) divided
community design into four stages: (1) Interview: collecting related local
information; (2) Workshop: designers creating designs through interacting with
people in the community; (3) Teambuilding: building the respect, communication,
and coordination among team members, and assigning the roles and jobs of each
individual; and (4) Action: providing the team with various types of support
during the implementation process. Yamazaki (2018) mentioned the importance
of focusing on what the community has and what the community wants to create.
In this sense, during the development of community design, designers should pay
attention to the locality and originality and respect the diversity of local culture to
create an ideal lifestyle, from the bottom up, based entirely on the wishes of
community residents.
2.4 Research Hypothesis

Based on the literature review and the author’s personal teaching experience, this
study hypothesises that by integrating PBL, capstone course, and the concept of
USR to the teaching method, students will acquire the capability to solve real-
world problems. In addition, the result of students’ design work will demonstrate
the concept of social responsibility.
3. Methodology
3.1 Teaching Methods
The authors have taught the packaging design course of Hungkuang University
since 2017. The course is carried out with a hybrid teaching method that combines
PBL with the capstone course approach and the praxis of USR. The course starts
with an introduction to let students familiarise themselves with the overall
packaging design process while building their professional judgment, selecting
materials, and processing methods. The course is divided into two-semester and
is taught to the third-year design students in the Department of Cultural and
Creative Industries. The course curriculum is broadly divided into three themes
each semester, with the concept of USR gradually blended in. This allows students
to understand the impact of design on the social environment and consumers
through hands-on design practices and case studies analysis. Students are
assigned actual design topics which require them to communicate with both the
clients and users repeatedly.
The seven stages of PBL are implemented through a collaborative design process
in small groups of 2-4 people: 1. problem-solving; 2. case-based; 3. self-directed;
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4. small group discussion; 5. tutor-assisted; 6. self-assessment; 7. development of

interpersonal skills (Table 1).
Table 1. The seven stages of PBL

Step 1. Problem-solving
Students explore various aspects of the theme, such as users of the objects, market
position, design goals, and shape and structure.
Step 2. Case-based
Besides using the real case as the theme, students need to conduct case studies from
Taiwan and overseas. Later, students are guided to visit and interact with the target
object and site to clearly define the theme and integrate the design into the real
environment.
Step 3. Self-directed
Students convert the information collected from the previous steps into design ideas
and use case studies to search for the most suitable design techniques and styles to
execute the ideas.
Step 4. Small group discussion
With each member’s role and job functions assigned according to the individual’s
expertise, students are asked to work as a team to find solutions through interactive
discussions and gradually construct the design proposals.
Step 5. Tutor-assisted
After rounds of group discussions, students’ design proposals are presented in the
classroom. The teachers then provide professional guidance, rather than giving the
“best” or “right” answers, for students to reflect on.
Step 6. Self-assessment
After receiving suggestions and comments, each student digests the feedback
individually, then voice his/or opinions in group discussions. The training in this stage
focuses on students’ self-assessment to identify the direction and extent of design
modifications.
Step 7. Development of interpersonal skills
This is the final stage of the design process. The format usually includes the design
literature, posters, and final product. During this stage, the course teachers, industry
experts, community representatives, clients, and other students are gathered to critique
the works. Students are to learn to express their ideas clearly and confidently. The
interactive process is also an essential basis for developing interpersonal relations and
prepares them for entering the real workplace.
The course also incorporates the capstone course approach to teaching. Students
can reflect on their previous learning experiences and engage in the process of
integration, closure, reflection, and transition, and thus fully integrated with
professional skills and overall competence. Some of the themes that had been
assigned to the course in recent years include the following types:
1. Community-based topics: Students use design processes, such as
observation, interviews, and participation, to collate design issues, discover
local characteristics and culture of the community, and then propose
innovative and creative packaging design solutions. Producers of products
from the community are invited to participate in the design assessment, and
so the students can learn more about the local features. Examples include
packaging design for dried pineapple from Nantou (2017), packaging design
for peaches from Xinshe, Taichung (2017), black bean mooncake
packaging/gift box design from Wuqi, Taichung (2017), sweet potato nougat
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design from Longjing, Taichung (2018), tangerine for Gonglaoping

Community Development Organization in Fengyuan, Taichung (2019), and
wine bottle packaging design for Hung Estate Winery in Waipu, Taichung
(2020).
2. Schools and social welfare organisations related topics: Examples include
packaging design for the shampoo set for the Department of Applied
Cosmetology, Hungkuang University (2018), the Anoectochilus Tea for the
Department of Food Science and Technology, Hungkuang University (2019),
and the Cancer-nono Foundation gift set (2019).
3. Environmental sustainability and universal design-related social topics: this
theme allows students to think about packaging design from environmental
issues and sustainable development. Examples include value-added
packaging design (2018), universal packaging design proposal (2018), and
green packaging product design and implementation plan (2019). The aim is
for students to understand how to balance business with environmental and
social responsibilities as designers.
3.2 Research Methodology

The research method for this study is primarily action research. Action research
is a part of educational research that studies a specific problem in a specific
context, emphasising the immediate application of findings. Action research
combines the action and research of the practitioners in an attempt to bridge the
gap between theory and practice. It focuses on the resolution of practical problems
and the development of the capacity for action. At the same time, it also
emphasises the development of critical and reflective skills (Huang & Tsai, 2003).
Educators carry out “educational action research” based on the problems they
encounter or occur in education (Tsai, 2007). Lewin (1946) developed the action
research model, describing action research as a spiral of steps:
Figure 1. Action Research Model
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This study applies an action research model and is carried out through such
processes as seeking the root of the problem, drawing up an action plan and
process, implementing the action plan, observing and evaluating the effectiveness
of the action strategy, evaluating the course, and incorporating reflection and
feedback. The research materials include the teaching observations of the two
teachers, student learning experiences and feedbacks, students’ works (output),
and interviews with clients. In reflection, the researchers provide feedbacks based
on research materials and external assessors’ opinions as the capstone course
method suggests. Until all the stakeholders’ information is collected and analysed,
the research generates basic assumptions and plans another action plan for the
new cycle.
3.2.1 Data Collection

Data collection is divided into preparatory, implementation, and reporting phases.
In preparation, the two teachers consolidate previous teaching experiences and
knowledge and record the observation on students’ performance during the
course. Four teams with grades ‘B’ or above are chosen based on the purposive
sampling method in the implementation phase. For three consecutive years, a
total of 12 respondents, one student from each of the four chosen teams each year,
was selected among 120 students who took the course between the academic years
of 2017 and 2019 (Table 1). Gender selection is based on the female to male ratio
of 3 to 1 in the class each year.
Table 1. Students who took the course between academic years 2017-2019
No. Code Sex Year Sources Used
01 SC Female 2017 Learning experience
reports, assignments
02 ST Female 2017 Learning experience
03 SY1 Female 2017 Learning experience
reports
04 SJ Male 2017 Learning experience
reports
05 SL1 Female 2018 Learning experience
06 SS Female 2018 Learning experience
07 SW Male 2018 Learning experience
reports
11 SY2 Male 2019 Learning experience
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Students were required to write a report on their learning experiences in the

middle and end of each semester in the reporting phase. Students were also
required to create and submit a portfolio of their work at the end of that semester.
These materials are used to assess their learning outcomes and facilitate two-way
dialogue between the teachers and students. Additionally, in-depth interviews
were conducted on the students and clients after completing each assignment
between the academic years of 2017-2019. The interviews were done in a semi-
structured style in which the interviewees were asked open-ended questions
rather than a straightforward question-answer format. The interviewees were 12
students and four clients. The clients consisted of 2 males and two females who
were the managers or owners of the organisations that commissioned the design
projects (Table 2). The question outline was designed based on the concept of PBL,
capstone teaching, and USR. Information elicited were first converted to a
transcript and later analysed to look for any significant finding (Table 3).
Table 2. Clients between academic years 2017-2019

No. Code Sex Design Year Sources Used
01 DL1 Male 2018 Personal interview
02 DL2 Female 2018 Personal interview
03 DY Female 2019 Personal interview
04 DL3 Male 2019 Personal interview
Table 3. Semi-structured interview questions

Q1. What are the differences between students’ work and that of design firms’? Are the
work conforms to industry standard and practices?
Q2. Have the students shown synergy between design and marketing strategies in their
proposal?
Q3. Based on your experience during the final critique, do you think the works are
presented and the theme of the assignments need to be revised or improved?
Q4. Have the students integrated the concept of USR into their works?
Q5. By integrating the concept of USR into the assignment theme, have students created
something that brought changes to the community?
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3.3 Research Process
Figure 2. Research Process
4. Discussion
4.1 Plan
The Department of Cultural and Creative Industries of Hungkuang University
underwent a department-wide curriculum restructuring in 2018 and positioned
the course as an integrated professional design course that focuses on localisation
in design. Therefore, in addition to the original PBL learning method, the course
also embodies a capstone course approach to enable students to complete the
learning experience of integration, closure, reflection, and transition and use their
expertise to help to solve real-world problems in the community. Students receive
concrete achievements from their learning outcomes through this process, which
will later help them make a smoother transition between school and future
working life.
To deepen students’ learning, USR was incorporated into the course’s design
topics in 2019. In order to successfully carrying it out, the concepts of sustainable
packaging design and universal design were also adopted for the first time,
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allowing students to design from the perspectives of environmental awareness

and social issues. The goal of the course was to guide students to think and act
from a professional designer’s perspective and consequently maximise social
responsibility through teamwork, innovation, and creativity. In addition, the
course incorporated community design techniques that enable students to interact
with residents and users and develop designs that integrate nature and local
elements.
4.2 Action
Unlike conventional design teaching, two teachers are taught, both with
professional backgrounds in design. The two teachers provide different
viewpoints and case studies on the same topic, allowing students to think from
multiple perspectives. In this section of the study, the implementation process of
the course will be explicated in five stages: tasks and propositions, case-based,
self-directed learning, group discussions, and tutor-assisted.
4.2.1 Tasks and Propositions (Integration)

In contrast to conventional packaging design training, the course hopes to utilise
more local vocabulary and elements, allowing students to learn more about local
features and the environment and processes for producing agricultural products
based on their observations and interviews. The teachers provide case studies for
every topic assigned and emphasise that design is not just about the final output
but also analytical transformation and contextual construction. For example, for
the assignment “packaging/gift box design for black bean mooncake from Wuqi,
Taichung”, SC-2017 described the process of developing propositions as follows:
“I was asked to ‘reawaken’ the experiences and then ‘reconstruct’ them. At first,
I was unable to adapt to this way of thinking. There was never a standard answer
to the questions I raised; the teachers only gave two or three sentences as guidance
and left the rest to me to think. Shouldn’t the teacher give us clear instructions?
After seeing case studies, we were asked to provide our views again. I really felt
like there were too many things to think about and that it was too complicated.
After few rounds of practice and note-taking, new ideas started to arise. Perhaps
there are more possibilities for black beans from Wuqi. I slowly began to
familiarise myself with the local features, and often times I would discuss them
with my family. It’s like they have become a new game in my life.”
This student’s progression from being unable to adapt to the eliciting teaching
method to the method becoming a part of her life shows that the student could
accumulate and internalise previous learning experiences. However, for students
to connect, they require proper guidance and practice. Another example is the
assignment “packaging design for sweet potato nougat from Longjing, Taichung”
indicates that students can enhance their design ideas and creativity by acquiring
others’ life experience and professional knowledge. SL1- 2018 noted:
“If a good packaging design can convey this knowledge to more people, I believe
Longjing’s sweet potato nougat can differentiate itself from others and generate
better sales.”
Feedbacks from the client was positive as DL2-2018 commented that:

“We can see that students used many local elements in their proposals. This is
something we rarely see from other companies in the industry. Maybe this was
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due to the advice given by the teachers or the way the course was carried out. We
love this creative idea, so we decided to use this design for our product
packaging.”
In addition to visual effects, a good design must also be culturally rooted.

Regarding the assignment “packaging design for tangerine for Gonglaoping
Community Development Organization in Fengyuan, Taichung”, SL4-2019
explained how they approach the theme:
“Our group came up with ideas from local eco-tourism. Based on the interviews
and data collected, we decided to use local birds as the theme.”
The client was delighted with the result and amazed by the student’s creativity,
as DL3-2019 pointed out:
“The students are full of creative ideas. They included a lot of community
elements that we hadn’t thought of ourselves in the proposal. The people in the
organisation felt that they were very unique and everyone likes them.
Unfortunately, it was not possible to mass-produce all of them.”
The main reason the Organization preferred this group’s work was its originality
in marketing strategy. In contrast to the conventional representation of tangerine
images, this group used birds that live in the same environment as the tangerines
to illustrate its high-quality and pollution-free (Fig. 3). This approach enhances
the reliability of the product and helps promote local features at the same time.
Figure 3-1. Conceptual design proposal Figure 3-2. Characters setting
Figure 3-3. Integration of culture and Figure 3-4. Final packaging design
local elements in packaging design for mass production
Combining culture with local elements and successfully converting them into a
conceptual design is key to assessing students’ core competencies. Students have
many creative ideas and observations that society and commercial designs have
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not yet ossified. Therefore, they can propose ideas from a unique perspective that
distinguishes them from others.
4.2.2 Case-Based (Integration)

One of the main focuses of the course is case-based teaching. The course
emphasises the significant relationship between design and users. A good
packaging design should be based on the designers’ understanding of the users
and identify the leading target group. Students are asked to use market analysis,
product analysis, in-depth interviews or questionnaires, and observation of
consumer behaviour as data collection, aggregation, and judgment methods.
These are to be converted into marketing strategies later. For example, in the
assignment “shampoo set packaging design for the Department of Applied
Cosmetology, Hungkuang University,” students must first understand the basic
information of the product, such as ingredients, features, primary customer, and
sales channels, before they can conduct interviews with the clients or provide
questionnaires to potential consumers. According to SL2-2018’s experience report:
“At first, we wanted to just mimic the design currently trending in the market.
However, we discovered that apart from retail sale purposes, the product was
going to be used as a school gift. Also, based on interviews, we know the client
wanted the package to look luxurious and petite, emphasising its high-quality
texture, and the bottle should be small and light enough for travel. On the
contrary, the consumers wanted the price to be cheap and the capacity of the bottle
to be big, hoping for the best value. Each party had a different view, and it was
difficult to balance them.”
Students’ task with this case was not knowing which should be given priority or
accommodating different views. As a result, they resolved these issues through
communication, coordination, and design techniques. Team members discussed
with both sides relentlessly and finally provided a solution that met both parties’
cost/price, aestheticism, and practical needs (Fig. 4). This back-and-forth process
is a common practice in the design industry, but not for students. As the client
DL1-2018 noted:
“Because students lack experience in sales and marketing, they are less realistic in
determining who the consumers are. From deciding the concept to the final design
for mass production, we spent a lot of time going back and forth, revising and
evaluating mock-ups. Although the final product looks very different from the
students’ original design, the main concept was still there. As a result, the product
was very well-received, and everyone thought it was great. This gave us the
confidence to continue collaborating with the course. We also hope by doing so
allows students’ works to be seen and gives them a real sense of achievement and
recognition.”
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Figure 4-1. Creating design mock-ups Figure 4-2. Final design for mass-
production
4.2.3 Self-Directed Learning (Closure)

Although the course is carried out in small groups, each step along the way
involves a process of self-directed learning. During the course, the teacher’s guide
students to identify problems from their past life experiences and encourage
members from the group to provide suggestions and input for the problems,
producing a continuous spiral learning experience between the student and
his/her group. As two students expressed that:
SL2-2018: “At first, I simply used keywords to search for a case study for my
design in the internet, but the results were not always suitable. With the teachers’
guidance, I learn to contemplate on what I really want to achieve before making
decisions.”
SL5-2019: “After seeing the case studies provided by the teachers and the ones I
researched, I usually comb my thoughts once again before presenting my ideas to
the group for interactive discussion. By hearing other members’ opinions, I gained
a lot more.”
In the beginning, students could not grasp the key points in self-directed learning
and were not serious about the assignments. With the teachers’ guidance, students
have learned to integrate their strengths with learning experiences and optimise
their self-directed learning.
4.2.4 Group Discussion (Closure)

Each stage of the course relies on the communication and collaboration between
group members. These skills cannot be taught directly through teaching materials
or theoretical explanations but rather from peers. Students need to keep an open
mind and learn to listen to others’ opinions and respect the decisions the group
has made. They must also use effective methods and tools for team discussion and
communication and propose the final design solutions. As students pointed out
that:
SJ-2017: “The more members there are in a group, the harder it is to regulate.
Many people are unwilling to accept the views of others or reluctant to express
their views during the discussion but later demand to reverse the group’s decision.
This communication is ineffective.”
SW-2018: “Teamwork is not an easy task for me. Particularly if the group
members have conflicting views and we yet still have to select the best proposal.”
SS-2018: “I’ve learned how to accommodate each other over time; I can now
patiently listen to other people’s thoughts.”
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SL3-2018: “I often hoped to use my idea as the group proposal. Because this was
a group project, it was necessary to incorporate the views of other group
members.”
SY1-2017: “In the group discussion, I prefer everyone first putting forth his/her
own design proposal, and after reviewing and identifying the pros and cons, the
group decide on a proposal and move forward with it.”
SL5-2019: “Nowadays, people like to use LINE group chats for discussion. I think
group discussions should still be face-to-face in order to stay focused.”
SC1-2017: “By working in a team, I was able to learn different ways of thinking
and approaches to design from other students.”
ST-2017: “Assigning roles and jobs allow everyone to take part in the project based
on his or her strength; for example, those who are good at writing draft the plan
and write the literature, and those who are better at craft build the models…etc.”
Based on the above comments, it is clear that students have mixed feelings about
working as a group. It is a standard practice in the industry, and students need to
adapt and be prepared for their future employment. Students should accumulate
experiences that include learning to listen, respecting decisions made, dividing
work, collaborating, sharing, and reflecting on one another during their studies.
4.2.5 Tutor-Assisted (Closure)

Integrating USR into the course’s curriculum requires more in-depth guidance for
students and the provision of different design media. In addition to thinking
about USR from multiple perspectives and the localisation of design, cultural,
social, and environmental issues should also be incorporated so that students can
learn practical skills and at the same time practice USR as they study. Two
students described in the assignments “Value-added packaging design” and
“Green packaging product design” as follows:
SS-2018: “This theme requires not only functionality but also added values, so
there are more dimensions to consider. Packaging design combining
environmental sustainability. I feel that there are many problems that need to be
addressed, which make my design training more oriented.”
SL3-2019: “The concept of green packaging allows us to rethink the role of
designers. We should do our part for the environment and natural resources
starting from design.”
The clients gave positive feedback towards students’ efforts to raise awareness of
social responsibilities in their work.
DY-2019: “This time, the students designed products for us that fitted the theme
very well. As a social welfare organisation, working with this course is a win-win
situation.”
DL3-2019: “The community needs young people in marketing and design like
those from the Department of Cultural and Creative Industries. They can bring in
a lot of fresh ideas. It would be good if the students could come more often to
collaborate with us.”
The scope of USR is vast. The teachers have explored elements of social
responsibility, including environmental and sustainability development, local
communities, and non-profit organisations, from different perspectives in the
course, allowing students to integrate relevant knowledge acquired from the
classroom with their design experience. For students in the technical and
264
vocational education system such as Hungkuang University, the knowledge

accumulated through direct hands-on experience is more valuable than gained
through lectures.
4.3 Observation
Observation includes collecting data and observing each action procedure’s
process, outcomes, context, and actor characteristics. This part of the study is
divided into two stages, self-assessment and development of interpersonal skills.
The main focus of the two stages is to record the interaction between students and
the teachers, external experts, the clients, and peers, and how the students apply
the comments and suggestions back into their design proposition. Students’
ability to communicate with others professionally and present works in industry-
standard is critical for the assignment’s success.
4.3.1 Self-Assessment (Reflection)

After group discussion and teachers’ guidance, the most suitable solution is
selected for the final proposal. From a practical design perspective, being
aesthetically attractive is not the only thing that matters; a good design also needs
to consider other factors such as having an appropriate theme, connections with
the place, the users and the clients’ needs, structure, and cost. The process
involves individuals and the group’s collective decisions to find the most suitable
solution. As students describe below:
SC1-2017: “Model making is an important part of design process. I’ve learned to
use sketch models to study and make necessary adjustment to my own proposition.”
SL3-2018: “If there’s any adjustment needs to be made, we’ve learned to revisit
the original design concept and try to propose another more suitable idea.”
SS-2018: “The first time I created a design, I thought it was important to make it
aesthetically beautiful. Until a critic told me during presentation that the
packaging shouldn’t be more expensive than the product, then I suddenly realised
that our agenda was to design the packaging for the product, not to sell the
packaging. Now, I’ve learned to always remember my goal and carefully calculate
the cost and effect of the packaging and the products.”
Using self-assessment to find the best solution for a design proposal is relatively
challenging for students. On the one hand, they are required to be innovative and
creative; on the other, they are asked to consider practicality. Over the years of
teaching, it is evidenced that cost and practicality are the two factors that
determine the success of a student’s design. Hence, in this stage of the
implementation process, demanding students to perform self-assessment is
critical to their solution-finding and a crucial part of the design in the real-world
environment.
4.3.2 Development of Interpersonal Skills (Transition)

When learning to communicate design ideas through a presentation, how
students respond to differences in opinions is vital for accumulating and
transitioning experiences. In addition to the two-course teachers, student’s
performance in the course is assessed by industry experts, representatives from
the community, the clients (project commissioners), and occasionally their peers.
Listening to opinions from their peers allows students to re-examine their ideas
from different perspectives, which can later be applied back into the design.
265
ST-2018: “I’m always nervous about presenting my proposal because I’m afraid
that my design is not good enough, so I always rehearse over and over again to
make sure I can clearly express my ideas.”
SW-2018: “I am always nervous when the teachers say we are going to do peer
assessment. It may not be easy for me to criticise the works of my friends without
any personal feelings involved, but I try to do my best and be impartial.”
Students must present their design proposals in this final stage; hence practical
aspects of the design needs consideration. This interaction between the two
counterparties, the presenter and the critics, allows students to learn to speak in
public and be more familiar with actual industry practice. The inclusion of peer
assessment also enables them to think about the feasibility and strengths and
weaknesses of other proposals from a designer’s perspective and not as a student.
This is also the challenge they will be facing when working in the design industry
in the future.
4.4 Reflection
This study uses a hybrid method to integrate three teaching strategies. Similar to
Duch et al. (2001) argument, the course uses real-world problems as assignments
for students to come up with solutions collectively in teams. In terms of capstone
course teaching, not only do the teacher’s guide every design development like
Dutson et al. (1997) and Lee et al. (2019) suggested, clients and industry experts
are invited to assess students’ work, allowing the outcome to meet industry needs
and conform to market standard. This approach validates Heitmann’s (1996)
theory that inviting external assessors to students’ performance proved essential.
At the end of every semester, the teachers summarise the students’ overall
performance, feedback from both the students and the clients, and result from
teaching evaluation, and make modifications to next semester’s course, assuring
the curriculum meets everyone’s needs. If any student experienced learning
difficulties, the teachers would look into the problems and adjust the course’s
scope in the Plan stage. This reflection of the course requires extensive
communication and modifications, but its spiral process enables the course to
show improvement and differences each semester.
5. Result
By combining PBL, capstone course, and USR to the packaging design course at
the Department of Cultural and Creative Industries of Hungkuang University, the
study has accumulated three years of the teachers’ teaching experience and course
feedback and feedback from the project commissioners. This study discovers that
such an integrated teaching method is helpful to students’ learning and
performance and can increase their knowledge of social responsibility. Based on
the authors’ teaching experience and the outcomes from the courses, this study
proposes a new teaching strategy (Fig. 5) for the packaging design course. The
course implementation can be carried out in a seven-stage process as follows:
1. Identifying the task: exploring current issues and determining the design
proposition and scope after surveying and classifying the data. This train’s
student’s ability to discover problems from the context and organising
information collected.
266
2. Defining the design field: conducting in-depth interviews, case studies, or

workshops to define the scope of the design field after the case is introduced.
Using any method or approach learned to identify its cultural features for
further development.
3. Internalising information: internalising the information obtained from
Steps 1 and 2 and summarising the contexts, textures, and design ideas.
Different from other commercial designs, this process focuses on the cultural
connection and localisation of the design.
4. Assigning roles and jobs: dividing work according to expertise and
gradually exchanging information to build the design structure. Packaging
design is interdisciplinary, so each member in the team providing his or her
expertise is rather crucial to the success of the design proposition.
5. Conducting a self-review: repeatedly exchanging ideas among members of
the group and participating in brainstorming sessions with the teachers. The
different guidance provided enable students to think from different
perspectives and judge the feasibility of their works more critically.
6. Reflecting on and deepening output: repeatedly thinking about design
closure until finding the most suitable solution for output.
7. Displaying the design results: displaying the design results, collecting
expert feedback, and making modifications to the final project. This allows
students to know if their work is industry standard and what needs to be
learned and modified.
Figure 5. New Teaching Strategy for Packaging Design Course
267
After three consecutive years of dynamic adjustments to the teaching strategies,

this study has witnessed the transformation of students’ learning, from their
initial attempts to imitate the flashy design of existing products to have the ability
to analyse product position, market demand, and user assessment professionally.
Through case/field studies and assimilation of professional knowledge, students
develop design ideas and produce suitable proposals as a team. To achieve the
best result, students go through repeated discussions and modifications during
the design process. The teacher only offers counselling and guidance and
identifies problems to be resolved or corrected without giving subjective answers,
thus allowing them to search for solutions and verify themselves. The final output
is presented in a professional manner equivalent to that of industry practice. An
opportunity is presented for students to interact with guest critics such as industry
experts, representatives from the community, and clients. The proposal is
finalised after feedback is collected and modifications are made.
This teaching strategy guides students to progress in stages. Students complained

about the workload being too heavy initially, but gradually they were willing to
devote more time and effort to group discussions and design. This is what the
course was designed to achieve. Feedback from the school’s teaching evaluations
(Table 5) also shows positive growth in student learning and satisfaction.
Table 5. 2017–2020 Packaging Design I &II Teaching Evaluation Scores

Packaging Design I Packaging Design II
Academic Year
Maximum score of 5 Maximum score of 5
2017–2018 4.22 4.24
2018–2019 4.53 4.39
2019–2020 4.54 4.62
Source: Teaching evaluations, Office of Academic Affairs, Hungkuang University
6. Conclusion
The packaging design course at the Department of Cultural and Creative
Industries of Hungkuang University has been based on PBL since 2017.
Subsequently, the course has combined the capstone course approach and the
praxis of USR to build an integrated teaching framework for educating a new
generation of design talents. The innovative strategy of the course is constructed
through a seven-stage implementation process that addresses the shortcomings
of traditional design education. It can also be applied to other professional design
courses with adjustment according to the needs of different fields.
The study has made several contributions to the teaching of design courses. In
terms of teaching strategy, the study provides design education with another
innovative and effective method. This framework enables students to think in
progressive stages to produce integrated and quality ideas. With regard to design
topics, using real cases as assignments can motivate and inspire students. Many
of the design works proposed by the students, such as the shampoo set packaging
design and the Cancer-nono Foundation gift set packaging design, have been
commercialised and are currently circulating in the market. Some even help the
clients generate higher sales. These achievements set the foundation for future
268
students who are thinking of pursuing their careers in design. From the
perspective of improving students’ competencies in design, the course also
provides students with theoretical materials to enhance their professional
knowledge. With the combination of their technical skills training, students can
complete a design project, from the inception of assignment, market and cases
analysis, development of ideas, to the final presentation, in a professional manner
and standard as a team. This is evidenced by a group of students who won the
Best Popularity Award for the Taichung Ah Yue Iced Black Tea Cup Design
Competition in 2018 and three other students who won the top three Blue Sky
Hotel Guest Room Design Competition prizes 2019.
Packaging design is a rapidly changing field, with new materials and structural
designs constantly emerging. The teaching strategies need to be modified
constantly in response to these changes to enhance learning efficacy. The course
will allow students to connect with industry practices and bridge the gap between
learning and application to better prepare them for future life.
7. Suggestion and Limitation

The hybrid teaching method hypothesised by the study is validated through
third-year college students at Hungkuang University. They acquire active
learning and critical thinking abilities, problem-solving skills when facing
complex and interdisciplinary real-world problems, and understand the
importance of social responsibility to the community. Hence, the study has the
following suggestions for future research:
1. Besides the packaging design course, this hybrid teaching method can be
applied to other design courses to fill any possible implementation process
gap.
2. The integration of PBL, capstone course, and praxis of USR is a validated
teaching method, but the teacher needs to spend twice as much time on
preparation and teaching. The cost to carry out such a strategy can be a
financial burden to the department and school.
3. Problem-based learning emphasises using group discussion to develop
solutions. However, in practice, team members often determine the success
of a discussion. In other words, groups with academically well-performed
members are more likely to generate better outcomes than those without.
Hence, if a group discussion did not go well, the teacher needs to be involved
and assist in ensuring the
4. Due to time limitations, the study only spent three years collecting data from
16 respondents. Future research can increase the sampling number and
research time for a more accurate result.
5. Future research can conduct control group experiments to compare the result
based on hybrid teaching methods and traditional teaching methods.
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Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 271-281, May 2021
Teaching Young Children Early Mathematics

through Music and Movement
Kamariah Abu Bakar

Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
[National University of Malaysia], Selangor, Malaysia
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8134-6182
Mohamad Azam Samsudin

Department of Early Childhood Studies, Faculty of Creative Industries,
Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman [Tunku Abdul Rahman University], Selangor, Malaysia
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1304-6222
Abstract. The purpose of this study was to explore the integration of

music and movement elements into young children’s mathematics
classrooms. Using a qualitative approach, this research was a case study.
Three teachers were purposely selected as participants for this study. The
teachers were interviewed to gain information about the songs and
movements they chose to employ into their instruction. Additionally,
their lessons were observed to attain the ways they incorporated music
and movement. These sessions were video recorded to gain a rich picture
of the songs and movements incorporated as well as the benefits of such
practice in the teaching and learning of mathematics. The findings from
the interviews (with teachers), classroom observations, and photographs
exhibited that the teachers used familiar, easy and simple songs to be
incorporated in their instruction. It was also evident that embedding
music and movement activities into young children's mathematics
lessons had a positive impact on the students' learning of early
mathematics. The students focused on what the teachers were doing and
repeating after them. This enhanced their mathematics learning. The
implication of this study is that mathematics instruction should be
employed in a fun yet meaningful way by incorporating music and
movement activities as teaching and learning activities. More
importantly, is that children learn mathematics with understanding.
Keywords: teaching and learning; young children; numbers;

mathematics; music; movement
1. Introduction
The Malaysian Education Development Plan (2013-2025) outlines several
educational programs that serve an important function in supporting children's
development starting from preschool level to primary education (Malaysia
Education Blueprint, 2013). With regard to young children's education, the
National Standard Preschool Curriculum (NSPC) listed various approaches,
strategies, and techniques to be implemented into instruction including inquiry-
based learning, project-based learning, mastery approaches and learning through
©Authors
272
play (KSPK, 2017) to help children develop physically, emotionally and

cognitively. Music and movement are considered as one of the learning
techniques frequently used by teachers of young children. To develop children
holistically, instruction based on the diversity of intelligence (Gardner, 1993) is
often employed in preschool settings due to its potential in facilitating the
children’s development in various domains.
Previous research emphasized mathematics concepts as amongst the most

challenging subject. Students often find it troublesome to understand abstract
mathematics concepts (Azlina, 2003). Additionally, researchers found that the
traditional method of instruction practiced by teachers was ineffective, because it
is not capable of reaching students with different needs and learning styles (Scott,
2005). In order to tackle such problems, teachers introduced various techniques to
assist children in learning mathematics using meaningful ways that involve the
play approach and using multiple representations (Bakar et al. (2020); Rosli et al.,
2015; Abdullah et al., 2014).
The National Council of Teachers Mathematics (NCTM) in the USA and NSPC in
Malaysia suggested that educators employ effective teaching approaches
including incorporating other content areas such as music and movement to help
children acquire skills and knowledge in a meaningful way (Kementerian
Pendidikan Malaysia [Ministry of Education], 2017; NCTM, 2000). However,
studies embracing music and movement activities in mathematics are limited.
Moreover, earlier studies have focused more on the incorporation of music and
movement into the learning of language and literacy (Wiggins, 2007; Riddle,
2016). In contrast, there is a need for more studies to be done on the integration of
music and movement into mathematics learning, creating a gap deserving of
further investigation into music as a context for classroom educational activities
that help explore and experience mathematics concepts. The Board of Studies,
New South Wales (BOSNSW) defined integration as “purposeful planning by
teachers, of strategies and learning experiences to enhance learning across key
learning areas” (Board of Studies NSW, 1996). Hence, this study intended to
investigate musical activities in a broader educational context by incorporating
music and movement into mathematics lessons to ascertain whether this approach
impacted mathematics learning in a positive way similar to the way music and
movement benefited children's reading, writing and speaking skills.
2. Research Background
In many young children's educational settings worldwide, music and movement
are part of the daily routine that brings enjoyment to young children. Besides
functioning as an enjoyable routine for children, music and movement are
increasingly integrated into teaching and learning sessions. In the Malaysian
context, the National Standard Preschool Curriculum (NSPC) is aimed to equip
preschool children with critical skills including reading, speaking, writing,
counting, and thinking as preparation to enter Year One in primary school
(Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia [Ministry of Education], 2017). While teachers
have been practicing interdisciplinary instruction for many years that
incorporates subjects including Science and Technology, Communication Skills,
Physical and Aesthetic Development, Spirituality, Attitude and Values, and
Humanity and Personal Skills (as recommended by the NSPC), the integration of
music and movement into mathematics teaching and learning should be
emphasized. This is to ensure that students learn these critical skills in an
integrated means. Most importantly is that they possess all the important
knowledge and skills in a fun yet meaningful way.
273
The integration of music and movement into mathematics learning enables

students to achieve both mathematics as well as arts and creativity objectives as
stated in the learning standards worldwide and the Malaysian curriculum for
young children. For example, the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics –
USA (NCTM, 2000) and the NSPC – Malaysia (Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia
[Ministry of Education], 2017) demand students to connect mathematics with
other areas or subjects. Additionally, the National Association for the Education
of Young Children (NAEYC) (NAEYC, 2009) highlights the importance of
integrating mathematics with songs, explore the relationships between them,
have rich opportunities to express aesthetic aspects through music, and have
children experience self-problem solving. Integrating music and movement helps
enhance learning by providing a pressure-free environment as well as stimulates
exploration and fun learning that permit children to have an active engagement
in learning (Johnson & Edelson, 2003). Music and movement are recognized as the
most common method used by teachers during teaching and learning sessions.
Music is considered as amongst the greatest source of education (Elizabeth, 2016)
as it creates a positive environment that supports self-control and self-efficacy.
Music, art and creativity should not be separated from young children's life and
learning as these activities provide them with a fun yet meaningful experience
(Lagerlöf et al., 2013).
Researchers worldwide have investigated and hence recognized the potential of

music and movements themed activities in enhancing student's creativity, social
skills, well-being, and health (Garaigordobil & Berrueco, 2011; Lobo & Winsler,
2006; Quin et al., 2007). The integration of music and movement activities into
teaching and learning helped facilitate various aspects of learning that
contributed to the holistic development of children. The integration of music into
mathematics teaching and learning should be encouraged, as such practice
requires musical training and equipment that are inexpensive (Capraro &
Tillman, 2013). Mathematics teachers have found the potential of music activities
to teach different mathematics topics and concepts such as number concepts, basic
operations and geometry (An & Tillman, 2015). Also, students were reported to
engage in higher levels of thinking and participated more actively in mathematics
explorations and sense-making activities (An et al., 2013); (An & Tillman, 2015);
(Robertson & Lesser, 2013).
3. The Framework
This study is based on a theoretical framework that includes the Multiple
Intelligences theory to determine the effect of incorporating music and movement
into young children’s mathematics learning. Howard Gardner’s theory of
Multiple Intelligences (MI) highlights students' different abilities to learn and
incorporates a combination of two or more intelligences to enhance learning
(Gardner, 1993). As students understand and learn skills and knowledge from
various means, Gardner proposed that teachers employ instructions in various
ways to provide students with opportunities for understanding and building
concepts in each of the intelligences. For example, by incorporating music
activities into mathematics lessons, students' mathematical understanding could
be enhanced. Especially for students who grapple to understand mathematics
concepts, Gardner (1993) suggested that they should be provided with an
alternative means to help build conceptual understanding (Kassell, 1998).
Additionally, embedding music and mathematics provide children with a fun
means for building logical intelligence alongside with their musical intelligence
(Shilling, 2002). More importantly, learning mathematics through engagement in
music activities could help them comprehend mathematics more easily (Johnson
& Edelson, 2003).
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The theory of multiple intelligences, with its unique interpretation of intelligence

and great integration, provides a theoretical basis for the professional
development of mathematics teachers. For the present study, Gardner‘s theory
provided a framework that helps to study the use of arts-mathematics integration
as a means to provide a rich and stimulating mathematics learning environment.
It opens up a new horizon especially in renewing teachers' traditional educational
ideas and enriching their teaching practice. The theory of multiple intelligences
can prompt teachers to rethink the current problems of mathematics education
and teaching from a new perspective and provide new ideas to improve teaching
and evaluation views.
This study is aimed at exploring the integration of music and movement in the
educational setting of preschool children. Specifically, this study intended to
answer the following research questions:
1. What are the music and movement elements used in early mathematics
instruction?
2. How do music and movement benefit the teaching and learning of early
mathematics in preschool classrooms?
4. Research Design
This study used a qualitative approach because of its appropriateness in exploring
the integration of music in mathematics learning. Qualitative research is “an
inquiry process of understanding based on distinct methodological traditions on
inquiry that explore a social or human problem. The researcher builds a complex,
holistic picture, analyses words, reports details of informants, and conducts the
study in a natural setting” (Creswell, 1998, p.15).
In the present study, a case study research design was used to obtain in-depth
information about the integration of music and movement in mathematics
learning, which is critical to understanding the ongoing phenomenon in a real-life
context by using various data collection techniques to collect evidence (Yin, 2009)
such as interview and observation. A case study can be identified as an intensive
report of a unique case that explains the special phenomena, events or incidents,
and personal identities and activities (Yin, 2009).
5. Research Method
5.1 Participants
The participants included three preschool teachers and thirty students. The
criteria for selecting the teachers included i) certified preschool teachers with at
least four years teaching experience, ii) employing music and movement activities
in mathematics instruction, and iii) voluntary participation in the study. As for
the students, only those who provided approval for their participation were
included in the study. The participants were labelled as Teacher 1 (T1) , Teacher 2
(T2), and Teacher 3 (T3) to protect their privacy and confidentiality.
5.2 Data Collection

This article focused only on the number concepts (numbers below 20) although
other mathematics concepts were also taught by the teachers. Data collection
included observations, interviews, field notes, and video recordings. Various data
sources were collected to serve various purposes. Observations of the
mathematics lessons in a classroom setting were done to obtain information
pertaining to the teaching and learning situations and events, interactions
between teacher-children and children-children as well as the children's
behaviours during their engagement in the mathematics-music activities.
275
Observing how the teachers employed music and movement activities in

mathematics lessons and the children’s behaviours as a result of integrating music
in mathematics were important data that explained the benefits of such
integration into mathematics learning.
Interviews with the teachers were employed i) prior to the study, and ii) after the
teaching sessions. These interviews aimed at achieving details about the teachers’
experiences and thoughts related to mathematics instruction that embedded
music and movements. A range of data sources obtained for the study allowed
the researcher to obtain a rich picture (Ghazali & Sufean, 2016) about children's
understanding of mathematics concepts as a result of embedding mathematics
lessons with music and movement.
5.3 Ethics
Each teacher was observed at least three times and all teaching sessions were
video recorded. Prior to recording the lessons, the researcher obtained permission
from the teachers and the children. All participants confirmed that their
participation was voluntary and provided permission to being video-recorded.
5.4 Data Analysis

Firstly, all interviews were transcribed. Then, the researcher proceeded with the
video analysis of teaching and learning sessions that integrated music and
movement in mathematics classrooms. The researcher went through six phases in
conducting thematic analysis as listed by Medina (2002): i) becoming familiar with
the data; ii) generating initial codes; iii) searching for themes; iv) reviewing
themes; v) Defining and naming themes; and vi) producing the report. The
combination of all data provided evidence for the children's mathematics
learning. These data afforded rich information about the ways teachers employed
music and movements in mathematics as well as the benefits such activities had
on children’s mathematics learning.
6. Findings
The ways that the teachers integrated music and movement activities in
classrooms when teaching mathematics were explored. Additionally, the
advantages of integrating music and movements into mathematics instruction
were investigated.
6.1. What are the music and movement elements used in early mathematics
instruction?
The first teacher (T1) stated that when selecting music or songs to be integrated
into mathematics lessons, he often used songs that contain mathematics (such as
numbers) that are familiar to the children. "….easy to use familiar songs….in
which children are familiar with them…". He further explained that this is
important to enable the children to easily sing them compared to having them
learn a new song that requires a lot of time. In cases where there are no suitable
songs that can be linked directly to the mathematics topic or concept he was to
teach, he altered the lyrics to ensure it contained the concepts that the children
were going to learn. He further added that by doing so aided children to learn
mathematics more quickly and easily than using traditional means (i.e., chalk and
talk by the teacher). The songs used in this study included "Pukul berapa datuk
harimau" [What is the time now Mr. Tiger], and "Satu jari tap tap tap" [One finger
tap, tap, tap]. The song 'What is the time now Mr. Tiger' is a popular game song
played by Malaysian children that required the children to chase their friends
when it comes to a particular time. In this study, this song was incorporated
during the topic of time and clock. On the other hand, the song 'One finger tap,
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tap, tap' was used to teach the concept of numbers and quantities. The children
were observed to enjoy the short, easy, and repetitive songs that in turn facilitated
and strengthened mathematics learning by singing the lyrics and tapping their
fingers to count.
T3 agreed that songs familiar to the children were his priority when selecting
suitable songs to be integrated into his instruction. He further stressed that he
selected familiar melodies for his lessons. Additionally, both teachers agreed that
familiar rhythms were among the important elements when selecting music or
songs to be embedded in mathematics lessons for young children.
When asked further about the music or song used by the teachers, T1 stated that
"… firstly, teachers must ensure that the songs contain simple lyrics and words,
that children understand…". Other teacher participants including T1, T2, and T3
supported the statement made by T1 by adding other important criteria in
selecting music or songs for their preschool children including repetitive words,
lyrics that are not too long, easy to memorize, and understandable to the children.
In terms of movements, T1 stated that he chose simple and easy movements to

enable children to follow what the teacher had demonstrated. He mentioned that
"…the songs contain simple and easy movement ….. so that children can follow
the movements….". Like the first teacher, both T3 and T4 too integrated songs that
contain easy movement. T3 added that this is to enable children to memorize the
steps or movements that they were to exhibit while singing the song. Apparently,
the teachers integrated songs and rhymes that are familiar to the children. As for
movement, they ensured simple movements were integrated into classroom
learning. Using familiar songs with simple, short, and easy lyrics as well as
movements is beneficial in supporting mathematical learning. For instance, the
songs and movements used in this study supported children's numeral
recognition and number formation.
6.2 How do music and movement benefit the teaching and learning of early
mathematics in preschool classrooms?
T2 stated how music and movement impacted children's behaviour. "… music
and movement can attract children's attention…. they can pay attention to us
when they sing songs and make movement…....". When music and movement are
integrated into her lessons, she found that children focused their attention on the
teacher.
A scene photographed during the teaching session proved the statement made by
T2. As can be seen in Figure 1, the whole class fully paid attention to the teacher
standing in front of the classroom.
Figure 1: The children focused their attention on the teacher
277
The teacher taught the children about numbers. She demonstrated how the
numbers look like using her body. For example, she gestured with her hand and
arm how numeral seven looks like. As shown in Figure 1, all children in the
classroom focused their attention and showed interest in what the teacher was
demonstrating (gesturing with her hand the numeral seven) and saying (i.e.,
singing). None of the children were observed chatting or talking with others. The
children did not show signs of being distracted by other things happening
surrounding the classroom and were focused on the lesson. When music and
movement were integrated into the teaching and learning session, children's
attention was focused fully on the teacher. This enabled the teacher to deliver the
lesson easily. Integration of songs in mathematics assisted children to focus their
attention and participate in the music and movement activities for a longer time.
The act of singing and making movements seemed particularly helpful to capture
the children's attention and draw out mathematical responses including tapping
their fingers, and pointing to objects in the classroom while counting and singing
the number song. GP3 further described that the integration of music and
movement activities empowered children to participate actively in the
mathematics tasks. As evident in Figure 2, all children engaged enthusiastically
in the session. Not a single child refused to get involved in the activities and all
the children participated in the activity.
Figure 2. Making movement (forming a circle) whilst singing
The teacher requested the children to form a circle and simultaneously sing. As
can be seen in Figure 2, all children participated and formed a chain by holding
their friend's body and made a circle (when learning about shapes; in this case, to
form a circle with their body). Clearly, the integration of songs and movements in
mathematics helped children focus and engaged their attention in the music and
movement activities for a longer time. The act of singing and making movements
appeared particularly useful in capturing the children's attention and draw out
mathematical responses including tapping their fingers, pointing to objects in the
classroom, forming shapes with the body while counting, forming shapes and
singing. Learning mathematics through music and movement provided the
children with enjoyable moments in a pressure-free environment that helped
create a positive mathematics learning environment. This in turn helped the
children feel comfortable and hence ease the process of knowledge transfer.
The use of music and movements helped enhance the children's learning of
mathematics concepts as well as understanding. While singing the song “One
finger, tap, tap, tap”, the children were also counting their fingers at the same
time. The act of saying aloud the number names (i.e., through singing) and
counting or pointing to objects or fingers helped the children to match the number
278
names to the quantity. The children's engagement in the mathematics songs and
movements helped the reinforcement of mathematics learning in various ways.
Obviously, mathematics-infused songs (e.g., Number songs) helped reinforce
readily mastered concepts (i.e., number names) that the children had practiced in
previous lessons. Singing the number songs aloud helped the children familiarize
themselves with the correct order of the number names. While singing aloud the
song and making movements, the children were simultaneously counting and
holding up their fingers to represent the quantity. The teacher (T2) stated that the
children successfully answered the questions related to the mathematics lesson.
T2 affirmed that "... the kids are able to learn quickly, when we ask questions,
these kids will be able to answer and understand the concepts taught in the
classroom ...". When learning number names, it is particularly important that
young children are able to say the number names in the correct sequence. Using
number songs such as “One finger tap, tap, tap” and making relevant movements
(tapping their fingers) helped the children memorize the sequence of the number
names easily and correctly as they rehearse the song.
7. Discussion of Findings
The discussion of the findings presented in this article is organized into three main
themes: (i) familiar, easy and simple songs; (ii) increase children's attention; and
(iii) enhance children's learning and understanding.
7.1 Familiar, easy, and simple songs

Music and movement are useful memory aids. As evident in the number of songs,
music plays a critical role in engaging children in mathematical activities and
learning while developing mathematical recall. Previous studies have highlighted
the link between music and memory recall. Songs help to store and release
information when needed, hence they functioned as a valuable means for
mathematics teaching and learning (Medina, 2002; Mora, 2000). As highlighted by
Lake (2002) and Samson and Zatorre (2004), songs that comprise of catchy and
repetitive words or lyrics ease children in memorizing them. In mathematics
learning, it is vital that children have a strong memory to enable them to perform
in mathematics (Conners, Rosenquist & Taylor, 2001). Constant practice over time
is the key to retention, and rehearsal or practice can help to consolidate new
learning into long-term memory (Hunter, 2004). Hence, it is beneficial that
children regularly recite, practice and rehearse music-mathematics songs to aid in
automaticity (Laws, MacDonald & Buckley, 1996). Through singing, children can
make meaningful associations and rehearse or practice mathematical concepts,
increasing the chance for new learning to be fastened and strengthened.
7.2 Increase Children's Attention

Interest is a powerful strength that stimulates children to focus on individuals,
objects, events, and activities. Apparently, songs integrated into learning sessions
can indeed attract the children to focus on the teacher's words and actions; hence,
capturing their interest. When children's attention are focused on the teacher, it is
easier for the teacher to deliver the lesson. Therefore, making it easy for the teacher
to transfer the skills and knowledge to the children. As asserted by An and
Tillman (2015), children who have better concentration are more cognitively
engaged in mathematics learning.
7.3 Enhance Children's Learning and Understanding

Among all the mathematics topics, basic knowledge and skills related to the topic
of numbers play a critical function when processing mathematics. It is necessary
that teachers help children master this basic knowledge because basic number
knowledge and skills are key to more complex mathematics topics (Scott, 2005).
279
For example, children should master counting skills to enable them to solve
problems involving addition and subtraction problems. When children lack
counting skills, it is difficult for them to proceed with the addition process.
Clearly, this study provided evidence for the benefits of integrating music into
mathematics learning; by proving music as a potential means to assist children in
mastering basic number skills. Rhyme and rhythm (in the song) and repetition in
counting helped reinforce learning (Geist, Geist, & Kuznik, 2012). Repetitively
reciting the number names helped ease the students to memorize the number
order or sequence. Furthermore, when children learn mathematics in a fun way,
it helped the retention of information and knowledge.
8. Conclusion
This study presented the benefits of using music and movement to teach early
mathematics in preschool classrooms. Evidently, music activities embedded in
mathematics instruction enhanced learning in many ways such as attracting
children's attention towards the teachers, providing a stress-free environment
which empowers the learning of mathematics.
The findings of the present study clearly exhibited the potential of music and
movement activities in enhancing mathematics learning. Embedding music and
movement activities clearly invites the active participation and engagement of
children in mathematical ways (e.g., through counting aloud while singing).
Hence, it is imperative that teachers switch from traditional learning that often
resulted in passive participation and is focused on one domain to active integrated
learning by engaging children in various music and movement activities whilst
learning mathematics concepts.
This study has an implication for teacher preparation and training. Teachers
should be provided with knowledge, skills, and experiences pertaining to blended
learning. Educators should no longer be dependent only on traditional
approaches, but to diversify their teaching approaches towards preparing
children for the 21st century life and future learning. Additionally, it is imperative
that effective instruction especially pertaining to the use of music and movement
be embedded in all learning areas and subjects particularly among teachers of
young children. Also, it is expected that mathematics learning will be enjoyable
yet meaningful by means of incorporating a wide range of music activities into
mathematics classrooms. Further research examining the link between music and
mathematics learning should be done as such research could contribute to
effective mathematics instruction.
Acknowledgment
This research was supported by grants provided by the Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia [The National University of Malaysia] (GGPM-2019-011) and (GG-2019-
061).
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Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 282-299, May 2021
The Impact of Contextual Factors on Learning of

Agricultural Programmes in Technical and Vocational
Education Training Colleges, South Africa
Ramongwane Daniel Sephokgole*

Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3600-0411
Sylvia Manto Ramaligela

University of Limpopo, Polokwane, South Africa
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3200-2700
Moses Makgato
Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9416-2777
Abstract. Contextual factors may influence the learning of agricultural

programmes in Technical and Vocational Education Training (TVET)
colleges. This study employed a quantitative approach to explore the
impact of contextual factors on learning agricultural programmes in
TVET colleges in the Limpopo Province of South Africa. The study
surveyed 240 students from three TVET colleges. Purposive sampling
was used to select the TVET colleges that offer agricultural programmes.
Data was collected through a questionnaire to understand the impact of
contextual factors on the students learning agricultural programmes.
Data was analysed using Microsoft Excel 2016 and was presented in the
form of a table. Based on Mitzel’s (1969) model, the impact of the
contextual factors will help to guide TVET colleges when recruiting
agriculture students. The results of the study indicated that contextual
factors such as the student's prior experience, knowledge, skills, and
personality traits have an impact on the learning of agricultural
programmes in TVET colleges. The study recommends that upon
recruiting TVET students, contextual factors such as prior knowledge and
skills, prior experience as well as personality traits should be tested.
Keywords: agricultural programme; contextual factors; prior knowledge

and skills; prior experience; personality traits
*Corresponding author: Ramongwane Daniel Sephokgole; Email: SephokgoleRD@tut.ac.za
©Authors
283
1. Introduction
Learning has been a fundamental aspect of everybody's life since the creation of
human nature and the need for learning agricultural programmes has been well
documented (Kong, 2018). This motion of learning agricultural programmes has
become a necessity for the students who are willing to work in farming and it has
been supported globally (International Center for Tropical Agriculture [ICTA],
2015; International Fund for Agricultural Development [IFAD], 2016). A growing
number of governments, donor agencies, and development organisations are
committed to supporting the learning of agricultural programmes to achieve their
development goals (Morss, 2019). Such goals were drawn from a deep concern
about the status of Agricultural Education and Training (AET) worldwide. As a
result of the importance of learning agricultural programmes, effective
recruitment efforts are required to improve the number of students who are
willing to register for agricultural programmes. However, the students’
contextual factors such as prior knowledge and skills, prior experience and
personality traits need to be considered.
Although recruitment is vital for the growing agricultural sector, identifying

students who have interest in learning agricultural programmes is vital. Much
research has been done on recruitment strategies, for instance, Ramson, Govender
and Naidoo (2016) investigated the recruitment and retention strategies for public
sector optometrists in the KwaZulu-Natal Province in South Africa. The study
found that the incentives strategy was used to get a large proportion of
optometrists. Malema and Muthelo (2018) also explored the strategies that may
be utilised for the recruitment and retention of skilled healthcare workers in
remote rural areas. The study found that compulsory measures on recruiting
students were used and they were accompanied by relevant support and
incentives to recruit health workers. Tanga and Maphosa (2018) in a separate
study explored the recruitment and training of peer facilitators in a South African
university. The study found that the critical factors in the recruiting strategy
include the quality of peer facilitators and their level of academic attainment.
Based on the studies above, most of the recruiting strategies focus less on the
students' contextual factors which may have an impact on the learning of
agricultural programmes.
A big variation continues to exist in different programmes and institutions, as

students in TVET colleges are affected and influenced by various contextual
factors and this impacts their learning (Mogensen & Schnack, 2010). Therefore, the
impact of contextual factors on learning agricultural programmes affects the
status of Agricultural Education and Training. In the case of this study, the
following question guides this research work: What is the impact of contextual
factors on the learning of agricultural programmes in TVET colleges?
The researcher hypothesised that contextual factors include prior knowledge and
skills, prior experience, as well as personality traits (Mitzel, 1969). Hence, this
study emphasises that these contextual factors impact the students’ learning of
agricultural programmes in TVET colleges. This quantitative research method
design was concerned with exploring the impact of contextual factors on the
284
learning of agricultural programmes in three TVET colleges and providing

recommendations to the relevant stakeholders.
Several researchers have noted the existence of contextual factors that influence
learning and performance at large in various countries. Choi and Lim (2017)
conducted a study on the contextual factors affecting the innovation performance
of manufacturing medium-sized enterprises, while Imran and Pamungkas (2016)
conducted a study in Indonesia on conceptualising the impact of contextual
communication factors on organisational learning in higher learning institutions.
Dang (2017) from Australia, explored the contextual factors shaping teacher
collaborative learning in a paired placement. Although this subject has been
researched in other countries, in South Africa, there are a few studies on
agricultural programmes. For instance, Thwala (2017) conducted a study on an
agricultural vocational education programme and the promotion of job creation
skills in the Free State, while Zwane and Setlalentoa (2020) investigated the factors
hindering the implementation of e-learning at Motheo Technical and Vocational
Education and Training College. Sephokgole and Ramaligela (2021) wrote about
the challenges experienced by lecturers when teaching about the instructional
practices on agricultural programmes in TVET colleges. Hence, all these studies
were aimed at exploring the impact of contextual factors on the learning of
2. Theoretical framework
To explore the impact of the contextual factors on learning agricultural
programmes in TVET colleges, this study adopted Mitzel's (1969) model to
investigate the related prospects of learning agriculture. This model is relevant as
it can be utilised to explore the contextual factors impacting the agricultural
programmes in TVET colleges. Mitzel's (1969) model provided the investigative
framework to design this study and therefore, the contextual factors that are
briefly considered are prior knowledge and skills, prior experience, as well as
personality traits. To understand why students, choose to study agriculture, the
study needs to understand the impact contextual factors have on learning
agricultural programmes so that critical strategies can be created to evaluate these
contextual factors. Extant literature mainly addresses the contextual factors that
impact the learning of agricultural programmes.
2.1 Prior knowledge and skills

The term “prior knowledge and skills” has been used to understand the students’
state of knowledge and skills in a particular programme. This study refers to prior
knowledge and skills as content learned in the previous level of study (Mitzel,
1969). The two words, knowledge and skill are interrelated; hence, “prior
knowledge” involves knowledge in particular agricultural topics, content, skills,
beliefs, and cognitive understanding (McCarthy & McNamara, 2021). This means
“prior knowledge” does not just refer to subject-matter knowledge, but also to the
“prior skills” of a particular subject matter. Xhomara (2020) also claims that prior
knowledge and skills are closely connected. Therefore, many studies claim that
prior knowledge is a component of performance, while performance portrays a
successful virtue of one's skill (Sosa, 2015; Salzwedel, Heidler, Meng, Schikora,
285
Wegscheider, Reibis & Völler, 2019; Beatson, Berg & Smith, 2020). This means
prior knowledge and skills can influence the effectiveness of the students’
learning (Taçgın, 2020). Other scholars also believe that prior knowledge and
skills have a positive impact on learning in general (Chiu, 2016; Lin & Liou, 2019).
Therefore, students with knowledge and skills stand a better chance to recognise
the subject matter and they can relate to new information using prior knowledge
to apply the skills attached to the different learned content (Wati, Pasani &
Dewantara, 2018). Hence, the researcher believes in prior knowledge which can
impact the learning of agricultural programmes.
As students enrolled in programmes in different TVET colleges, prior knowledge

and skills were found to be an important factor when learning any programme
(Yarden & Yarden, 2010). According to Mothokoa and Maritz (2018), prior
knowledge and skills help students to recognise some content that was learned in
their previous schooling. Therefore, a study by Chiu (2016) noted that prior
knowledge and skills have a direct impact and influence on understanding new
learning content. Despite other reasons for students to choose to be involved in
agricultural programmes, prior knowledge and skills are still among the
contextual factors that impact the learning of agricultural programmes (Hoover,
2020). Several contextual factors have been identified in the extant literature which
explains that personal interest, self-esteem, and societal influence are some of the
major factors that significantly impact career selection (Pasha & Siddiqui, 2019).
Similarly, a study by Meddour, Abdo, Majid, Auf, and Aman (2016) found that
self-efficacy, family, personal interests, and economic factors are considered
amongst the contextual factors that may impact career choice. With regard to the
aforesaid contextual factors, prior knowledge and skills are believed to be
significant factors that impact the career choice of learning programmes (Deng,
Guan, Huang, Liang, Zhang & Zhang, 2017), it remains to be seen whether this
holds across different learning programmes.
2.2 Prior experience

Prior experience is considered as an important learning factor for every student
and as the most influential factor for choosing agricultural courses (Liaw, Wu,
Chow, Lim & Tan, 2017). A similar study conducted by Palmer and Aubusson
(2017) notes that prior experience in agriculture was identified as the most
relevant influential factor because most students choose subject careers based on
their prior experience. On the same view, Kenderdine, Spooner, Jousan, Herrin
and Hoffman (2019) opine that having prior experience increases the student's
desire to obtain agriculture-related courses or participate in agriculture activities.
For instance, Romberger (2018) conducted a study to compare secondary
agricultural education students and secondary non-agricultural education
students' perceptions of career decisions. The study found that prior experience
on agricultural students reported higher self-efficacy scores when making career
decisions on agriculture than non-agricultural education students. Therefore,
there is a need to understand that the students' prior experience plays an
influential factor and contributes to their decisions to choose agricultural
programmes as their major career (Stair, Danjean, Blackburn & Bunch, 2016).
286
Furthermore, prior experience is among the factors that influence students to

think about enrolling in agricultural programmes in TVET colleges (Hoover,
2020). The entire student's decision to choose a career in agricultural programmes
is believed to be associated with prior experience factors (Perry, 2018).
Furthermore, Marx, Smith, Smalley, and Miller (2017) believe that a passion for
agricultural education does not only derive from prior experiences, but that other
contextual factors can contribute to the students enrolled in other programmes.
Several studies by Foreman, Smalley and Retallick (2018); s well as that of Mtemeri
(2017) note that the other factors involved in the student's decisions to choose
careers in agricultural programmes include but are not limited to career guidance,
peers, current college students, agricultural educators, and family members.
Prior experiences can also build courage in a student’s choice to study agriculture
(Hoyle, 2017). A similar study conducted by Ingram, Sorensen, Warnick and
Lawver (2018) found that the students’ decisions were encouraged by prior
experience in which the students were involved either in agriculture or other
school-based subjects. Furthermore, Thieman, Rosch and Suarez (2016) conducted
a study exploring the factors influencing the high school students' consideration
of agricultural education as a future career. The study found that the students’
involvement gave them prior experience that is related to the agriculture co-
curricular and that encouraged the students’ choice of furthering their career in
agriculture. In the same view, Marx, Simonsen and Kitchel (2014) affirmed that
prior experience serves as the most powerful factor to encourage the students’
choice to study agriculture further.
According to Botha (2020), personal factors and prior exposure to job

opportunities also play a major role in choosing to study agricultural programmes
but prior experiences influenced the students’ decisions to take agriculture as their
first-choice career. For instance, Adebo and Sekumade (2013) conducted a study
exploring the factors determining the choice of agriculture as a professional
career. The study found that prior experience was among the preferred influential
factors for choosing agriculture as a first career choice. Subsequent research has
shown that throughout these years, the students still possess the intention that
prior experience is an important factor that influences their choice (Fizer, 2013;
Woeber & Sibley, 2018; Bilal & Hussien, 2019).
2.3 Personality traits

In a learning context, there is often a Five-Factor Model (FFM) that resembles
personalities, including extraversion, openness, neuroticism, conscientiousness,
and agreeableness (Ariani, 2013). There is considerable research about personality
traits, but this research has yielded a single finding on the personality trait. In
support of research, the student's interest in agriculture is linked to the
extraversion personality traits (Ahmed, Sharif & Ahmad, 2017). According to Ettis
and Kefi (2016), extroverted students have stronger intentions to pursue their
interests in studying agricultural programmes because they are more active in
what they are doing. Similarly, Ariani (2013) opined that the extraversion
personality traits are characterised by students who are ambitious and interested
to achieve better and those traits can boost the students' attitudes to enrol in
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agricultural programmes. For instance, Picazo-Vela, Chou, Melcher, and Pearson,

(2010) found a kind of attitude as the degree to which an individual student has a
favourable or unfavourable trait towards learning agriculture.
One important element in learning is to have a positive attitude towards any

learning content. Looking at the students' responses to the questionnaire, there is
a relationship between personality traits and attitude (Kamal & Radhakrishnan,
2019). However, Faulkner, Baggett, Bowen, and Bowen (2009) highlighted that the
personality traits are necessary but not sufficient to influence the students’
attitudes to enrol in a program of their choice. Furthermore, Kamal and
Radhakrishnan (2019) assert that the students’ personality traits help them to
engage more in learning. Other scholars, however, found that the personality
traits should be an important consideration when recruiting students because
they contribute to academic performance (Zhang & Ziegler, 2018; Stajkovic,
Bandura, Locke, Lee & Sergent, 2018; Kamal & Radhakrishnan, 2019).
Nevertheless, further research is needed to validate the results and to further
understand the personality traits factor.
3. Methodology
Data collection, population, and sample, research instrumentation as well as
procedures are considered in this section.
3.1 Type of research

This study used a quantitative research method to investigate the impact of
contextual factors on the learning of agricultural programmes. Instruments such
as questionnaires were used to collect information regarding the researched topic
from one or more groups of agriculture students. The survey technique that was
used here was directly administering questionnaires, which were given to a group
of participants that were assembled for a particular purpose at a certain place.
This quantitative research helped to generate knowledge and to create an
understanding about the contextual factors on the learning of agricultural
programmes.
3.2 Population and sample

According to Ary, Jacobs, Razavieh and Sorensen (2006), a study population
includes all the members of any well-defined class of people, events, or objects.
Gay, Mills and Airasian (2009) opine that a research sample includes a group of
individuals, items, or events that represent the features of the larger group from
which the sample is drawn. In South Africa, there are 50 TVET colleges, of which
13 are currently offering agricultural programmes. The Limpopo province has
seven public TVET colleges, of which only three are offering agricultural
programmes. It was impossible to include all the seven TVET colleges in the
province in one study. Purposive sampling is a process of selecting the subjects
who have experience, knowledge, and skills. Therefore, purposive sampling was
used on the basis that the participants were information-rich regarding the
agricultural programmes. Furthermore, convenience sampling is the process of
including the participants that are available at the right place and at the right time.
Hence the students were conveniently sampled based on their availability.
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Therefore, the general population of interest for this research was agriculture
students.
This study is from my master’s program which investigated the challenges of

agricultural programmes in selected technical and vocational education training
colleges in the Limpopo province. The reason for this research site was because it
was convenient to reach, connected to the site and the researcher believes that the
participants are rich in information that is related to agricultural programmes. The
researcher was not sure of the other provinces that could give rich information on
the research. The participating TVET colleges were given pseudonyms to protect
their identities, therefore, they are referred to as Colleges A, B and C. The
agriculture students were involved in the Technical Education Diploma (NATED-
N1-N6) and in the National Certificate Vocational (NCV) agricultural
programmes. A NATED program required at least three years of study with
modules such as data management; financial management; maintenance
management farming and management in farming. While the NCV program
requires at least 3 years from level 2 to 4, the modules include farm planning and
mechanisation, plant production, animal production, soil science, and
agribusiness. The other compulsory modules include English, Mathematics
Literacy, and Life Orientation. The age of the participants ranged from 16 to 50
years (Males =118 and Females =122) and there were 49% males and 51% of the
participants were females (N= 240).
3.3 Research instrumentation and procedure

College A recorded 112 participants, College B recorded 84 participants and
College C recorded approximately 44 participants. A participant’s demographic
questionnaire was developed and used to collect sampled information. The
questionnaire had three sections of which the first part was about biographical
information that probed the gender, age group, and the program of involvement.
The second part of the questionnaire had Likert-type questions. The research
questions were generated from the literature to close the existing gap that was
realised by the researcher. The five scores from the Likert scales were: 5=Strongly
Agreed (SA), 4=Agreed (A), 3=Neutral (N), 2=Disagree (D), and 1=Strongly
Disagreed (SD). This type of Likert scale helped the researcher to scaffold the data
that was generated through the questionnaire. The participants were asked to
indicate the extent to which they agree or disagree next to each statement by
ticking the appropriate answer ().
The survey was administered as a paper–pen questionnaire and it was completed

in about 40 minutes. The survey took place on different dates and occurred in a
college where students assembled for a particular purpose at a certain place. The
researcher gave each participant a copy of the questionnaire. For ethical purposes,
the students were warned not to write their names on the questionnaire.
However, the aim was to obtain reliable and valid information from the
participants who had information that was related to the issue that was being
studied. The instrument used in this study was reliable and valid. Reliability and
validity in this research study represented the fundamental features that increase
transparency and decrease bias (Singh, Fazel, Gueorguieva & Buchanan, 2014).
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The researcher piloted the data collection instrument by making use of the
students and the lecturers at the institution after which the researcher took the
instrument to the supervisor who validated it. The researcher also employed peer
and expert reviews to answer the questions in the questionnaire, after which the
results that were arrived at were taken to the supervisor who measured the
validity of the instrument. Microsoft Excel 2016 was used to analyse data. The
analysis was based on the percentage result of the students’ indication of each
item of the questionnaire. The respondents’ difference in opinion, perception, and
experience and the results were presented in the form of tables.
4. Results and discussion

In this study, data was presented in the form of tables. The study deployed
Mitzel's (1969) model as a framework and the categories were used to present the
students’ questionnaire results. The next section presents the students’
biographical data, then it is followed by categories on prior knowledge and skills,
prior experience, and personality traits.
4.1 Biographical data

The biographical data shows the gender of participants, their age group, and the
program in which students are faced with contextual factors that affect the
learning of agricultural programmes. The reason to present biographical data is
to understand which gender of students, age group, and the program is mostly
affected by competency on the learning of agricultural programmes. Table 1
below shows the students’ biographical data.
Table 1. Students’ biographical data.

Gender Frequency(f) Percent (%)
Male 118 49%
Female 122 51%
Total 240 100%
Age Group
16-19 10 4.1 %
20-30 219 91.3%
31-40 8 3.3%
41-50 3 1.3%
Total 240 100%
Above 50 - -
Program
NC(V) 156 65%
NATED 84 35%
Total 240 100%
The results show the frequency and the percentages of the three aspects, which
are, gender, age group, and program. Firstly, under gender, the results indicated
that 49% of the participants were male students and 51% were female participants
in this research study. Secondly, under the age group, the results indicated that
4.1% of the participants were between 16-19 years old, 91.3% were between 20-30
years old, 3.3%were between 31-40 years old, 1.3% were between 41-50 years old
and no participants were above the age of 50. Lastly, the results indicated that 65%
of the participants were involved in National Certificate Vocational (NCV)
290
training in the agricultural program, while 35% of the participants were doing a
National Accredited Technical Education Diploma (NATED) in an agricultural
program.
As indicated earlier that the study explores the students' contextual factors that
impact the learning of agricultural programmes, the study deployed Mitzel’s
(1969) model as a framework and their categories were used to present data. The
following section presents the findings and a discussion of the students’
questionnaire. The survey results for the (n=240) students were analysed and
discussed in three categories of which Table 2 from item 1 to 4 shows the
percentages responding to prior knowledge and skills. Table 3 shows item 1 to 3
and has the percentages responding to prior experience. Table 4 from item 1
shows the percentages responding to the students’ personality traits from the
questionnaire.
4.2 Prior knowledge and skills

To explore the students’ prior knowledge and skills, the students were presented
with four items that probe their prior knowledge and skills. Table 2 below shows
the students' responses.
Table 2: Prior knowledge and skills

Categories SD D N A SA
Items
Prior knowledge and skills f % f % f % f % f %
1. Students choose to study
agriculture based on prior 10 5% 23 10% 34 15% 92 38% 79 32%
knowledge and skills.
2 Agricultural Programmes
Offer Relevant Agricultural 9 4% 13 5% 31 13% 90 38% 97 40%
Knowledge
3 Agricultural programmes offer
15 6% 17 7% 33 14% 92 38% 87 35%
relevant agricultural skills.
4 Agricultural programmes help
to alleviate poverty, create 12 5% 8 3% 6 3% 68 28% 146 61%
jobs, and minimize inequality.
Table 2 indicates that 32% of the students have strongly agreed and 38% agreed
that they were influenced by prior knowledge and skills to study agriculture.
Other results indicated that 15% of the students remained neutral, while 10%
disagreed and 5% strongly disagreed that they were influenced by prior
knowledge and skills to study agriculture. The results show that a high percentage
of the students chose to study agriculture based on prior knowledge and skills.
Item 1 means that prior knowledge and skills play a major role in the choice of a
career as shown by the majority of students who agree (38%) and strongly agree
(32%). A child who possesses prior knowledge and skills of a particular subject
will most likely choose agriculture as a career because they have a background in
that subject. The 5% and 10% represent those who lack prior knowledge and skills
related to their subject choice and they are most unlikely to choose agriculture as
a career. The neutral students (13%) seem to lack prior knowledge and skills and
most likely, they will not take agriculture as a career.
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Most students (40%) and the other 38% showed strong agreement and agreement
respectively on the fact that the agriculture programmes offered at TVET colleges
impart relevant agricultural knowledge. The other results show that 13% of the
students remained neutral, while 5% disagreed and strongly disagreed that the
agricultural programmes offered at TVET colleges impart relevant agricultural
knowledge. The results indicated that a high percentage of the student’s prior
knowledge and skills make them understand that the agricultural programmes
they were currently studying offer relevant agricultural knowledge. Item 2 means
that the prior knowledge and skills that students possess, put them in a position
to receive relevant agricultural knowledge as shown by the majority of the
students who agree (38%) and strongly agree (40%). A student who possesses
prior knowledge will want to learn more because they want to prosper in
agriculture. The neutral students (14%) seem to possess prior knowledge and
most like they will not realise whether the agricultural programmes offer relevant
knowledge or not.
A total of (35%) TVET students strongly agreed and 38% agreed that there were
agricultural programmes that offered to impart relevant agricultural skills. The
other results indicated that a total of 14% of the students remained neutral, while
7% disagreed and strongly disagreed that the agricultural programmes offered at
TVET colleges impart relevant agricultural skills. The results show that a high
percentage of the students’ prior knowledge and skills make them understand
that the agricultural programmes they were currently studying, offer relevant
agricultural skills.
Item 4 on Table 2 indicated that most students (61%) have strongly agreed and
28% agreed that agricultural programmes help to alleviate poverty, create jobs,
and minimise inequality. The other results indicated that only 3% of the students
remained neutral, while the other 3% disagreed and 5% strongly disagreed that
agricultural programmes help to alleviate poverty, create jobs, and minimises
inequality. The results show that a high percentage of the students’ prior
knowledge and skills help them to understand that agricultural programmes help
to alleviate poverty, create jobs, and minimize inequality. Item 4 also means that
the prior knowledge and skills help students to realize that agricultural
programmes help to alleviate poverty, create jobs, and minimize inequality as
shown by the majority of students who agree (28%) and strongly agree (61%). A
student who engaged in agricultural activities before will most likely realise the
contribution and importance of agriculture in life. The 5% and 3% represent those
who were not exposed to agriculture before, and they are therefore unlikely to
realise the contribution and importance of agriculture. The neutral ones (3%) seem
to know nothing about agriculture and they most likely will not notice the
contribution and importance of taking agriculture. These findings agree with
what is said by Chiu, (2016) as well as Lin and Liou (2019) who state that prior
knowledge and skills are the other contextual factors that impact the students’
learning of agricultural programmes.
292
4.3 Prior experience

To explore the students’ prior experience, the learners were presented with three
items that probe their prior experience. Table 3 below shows the students'
responses.
Table 3: Prior experience
Items
Prior experience f % f % f % f % f %
1. Agriculture was one of my 6 3% 5 3% 13 5% 60 25% 153 64%

major subjects at school.
2. Agriculture practices at home
have encouraged me to 14 6% 12 5% 31 13% 105 44% 78 32%
pursue agricultural studies.
3 Agriculture was my first 11 5% 11 5% 23 10% 92 38% 101 42%
career choice.
The analysis of Table 3 above indicates the students' responses to item 1 that most
students (64%) have strongly agreed and 25% agreed that they studied agriculture
as their major subject at school. The other results indicated that 5% of the students
remained neutral, while (3%) of the students have strongly disagreed and
disagreed that they studied agriculture as their major subject in their previous
schools. The results show that a high percentage of the students have prior
experience in agriculture as they have studied the subject before furthering their
studies in the colleges. Item 1 means that the students who have majored in
agriculture in their previous schooling have possessed prior experience in
agriculture as shown by the majority of students who agree (25%) and strongly
agree (64%). Students who experienced agriculture before will most likely
perform better during their studies and many of them became more active in
agricultural activities than those who did not. Those with 3% (SD) and 3% (D)
represent those who did not experience agriculture before, and they are most
unlikely to possess prior experience in agriculture during their studies. The
neutral ones (5%) seem to know nothing about agriculture and most like they have
never studied agriculture before.
Item 2 indicated that 32% of the students have strongly agreed, while 44% agreed
that home-based practices encourage students to study agriculture. The other
results indicated that a total of 13% of the students remained neutral, while 5%
disagreed and 6% strongly disagreed that home-based practices encourage
students to study agriculture. The results show that a high percentage of the
students have prior experience which was influenced by home-based agricultural
practices, and these encouraged them to pursue agricultural studies at the college
level. Item 2 means that the students who have practiced agriculture at home dare
to further their studies in agriculture as shown by the majority of the students
who agree (44%) and strongly agree (32%). A child who has been exposed to
agriculture at home will most likely have prior experience that is related to
agricultural activities and is most likely to pursue agricultural studies further to
the tertiary level. Those with 5% (SD) and 6% (D) represent those who did not
practice agriculture at home and are most likely discouraged to pursue
293
agricultural studies. The neutral ones (13%) seem to know nothing on whether
practicing agriculture at home can encourage or discourage one to further pursue
agricultural studies or not.
Item 3 indicated that most students (42%) have strongly agreed and 38% agreed
that agriculture was their first career choice. The other results indicated that 10%
of the students remained neutral, while 5% strongly disagreed and the other 5%
disagreed that agriculture was their first career choice. The results show that a
high percentage of the students’ prior experience was influenced by their first-
career choice such as agriculture. Item 3 means that most of the students with
prior experience chose agriculture as their first career choice as shown by the
majority of students who agreed (38%) and strongly agreed (42%). A child who
has grown in an agricultural environment and is exposed to agricultural activities
will most likely choose agriculture as a first career choice because this is what they
want to achieve as a first choice. The 5% and 5% represent those who did not
choose agriculture and they are most unlikely to choose agriculture as their first
career choice. The neutral ones (10%) seem to know nothing about whether they
choose agriculture as their first career choice or not. These findings are in harmony
with Romberger (2018); Stair, Danjean, Blackburn and Bunch (2016); as well as
with Ingram, Sorensen, Warnick and Lawver (2018) that contextual factors such
as prior experience have a positive influence on the career choice of learning
4.4 Personality traits

To explore the students’ personality traits, the students were presented with 2
items that probed the impact of the personality traits on the learning of
Table 4: Personality traits

Items
Personality traits f % f % f % f % f %
1. Personality traits played a major

role in choosing agricultural 15 6% 22 10% 38 16% 82 34% 81 34%
studies.
2. Students’ personality traits

towards agriculture have led to
low enrolment into vocational 11 5% 26 11% 21 9% 76 32% 106 43%
agriculture programmes.
After analysing the students' responses to item 1, 34% of the students have
strongly agreed and 34% agreed that personality traits have played a major role
in choosing agricultural studies. The other results indicated that 16% of the
students remained neutral, while 10% disagreed and 6% strongly disagreed that
personality traits have played a major role in choosing agricultural studies. The
results show that a high percentage of the student’s personality traits contributed
294
to the students choosing agricultural studies. Item 1 means that the personality
traits and the environment play a major role in the choice of a career as shown by
the majority of students who agree (34%) and strongly agree (34%). A child who
has grown in an agricultural environment will most likely choose agriculture as a
career because this is what they see every day. The 6% and 10% represent those
who were not exposed to agriculture, and they are most unlikely to choose
agriculture as a career. The neutral ones (16%) seem to know nothing and most
likely they will not take agriculture as a career.
Table 4 indicated that most students (43%) have strongly agreed and 32% agreed
that the students’ personality traits towards agriculture could lead to low
enrolment into vocational agriculture programmes. The other results indicated
that 9% of the students remained neutral, while 11% disagreed and 5% strongly
disagreed that the students’ personality traits towards agriculture could lead to
low enrolment into vocational agriculture programmes. The results show that a
high percentage of the student’s positive personality traits influenced them to
enrol in vocational agriculture programmes. Item 2 means that the personality
traits towards agriculture play a vital when one had to choose to enrol in
agricultural programmes as shown by the majority of students who agree (32%)
and strongly agree (43%). A child who has never been exposed to agriculture can
develop personality traits towards agriculture programmes and that can lead to
low enrolment in learning institutions. The 5% and 11% represent those who
strongly disagree and agree that personality traits have nothing to do with the
students' enrolment. The neutral ones (19%) seem to be unaware of the students'
personality traits towards enrolling in agricultural programmes. These findings
are in harmony with Foreman, Smalley and Retallick (2018); Mtemeri (2017) that
personality traits influence the students towards learning agricultural
programmes.
5. Conclusion
The study investigated the impact of contextual factors on learning agricultural
programmes in TVET colleges. The findings of this study revealed that there are
contextual factors that influence the learning of agricultural programmes. Firstly,
the study found that the contextual factors such as prior knowledge and skills
impact the students’ learning of agricultural programmes. The majority of the
students indicated that they chose to study agriculture because of their prior
agricultural knowledge and skills. For example, the majority of the students
indicated that their prior knowledge and skills help them to understand that
agricultural programmes help to alleviate poverty, create jobs, and minimise
inequality. Secondly, the study found that the other contextual factors such as
prior experience have a positive influence on career choice and on the learning of
agricultural programmes. For instance, the majority of the students indicated that
their previous agriculture studies at high school level influenced them to take
agriculture as their first-choice career. Lastly, the study found that personality
traits influence students towards learning agricultural programmes. For instance,
the majority of the students were influenced by personality traits to choose
agricultural studies. These findings can guide recruitment efforts at TVET colleges
to look for the students’ knowledge and skills, prior experience, and personality
295
traits during the recruitment process. As such, the policy leaders can promote and
encourage all the schools to incorporate agriculture programmes into early school
curriculums as these findings can influence the students to further their
agricultural studies to a higher level. The study also recommends that upon
recruiting students, contextual factors such as prior knowledge and skills, prior
experience as well as personality traits should be tested. However, a new
exploration must be carried to investigate other potential contextual factors that
are related to the learning of agricultural programmes.
6. Study limitations
In this research, three sections of limits are discussed. Firstly, also it is important
to cross-check the current findings. Most of the results that the researchers arrived
at were discussed in the previous study. For instance, Chiu (2016); Lin and Liou
(2019) said that the other contextual factors that impact the student's learning of
agricultural programmes include prior knowledge and skills, which is something
the researcher has found out in this study. But the researcher’s understanding is
that continuous improvement is very important because it goes along with time.
Secondly, referring to other factors that may reveal other results, the researcher
could not get other factors that could have influenced the results. Lastly, calling
for the teachers’ outlooks could be convenient too. The researcher tried to discuss
the results with the lecturers, but they did not have the interest, neither did they
have the willingness to do so. Had they allowed the researcher to discuss with
them, maybe the results might have been different.
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Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 300-315, May 2021
The Effect of ‘box-and-bead’ Analogy versus

Retrieval-based Learning on Retention in Chemical
Kinetics among First-Year Chemistry Students
Taurayi Willard Chinaka

University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa, South Africa
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4567-2452
Abstract. The study examined the effects of the box-and-bead analogy

versus retrieval-based learning on students’ retention and performance in
chemical kinetics among first-year chemistry students. A purposive
sampling technique was used to sample participants from the accessible
population. The sample was made of two hundred and forty-five (n = 245)
first-year chemistry students, at a public university, in South Africa. The
study adopted a sequential explanatory research design. A chemical
kinetics retention test (CKRT) was used for data collection as pre-, post-
test and delayed post-test. A reliability coefficient of 0.73 was established
using the Kuderson and Richardson correlation moment coefficient.
Participants in the two groups were taught using an advanced retrieval
instruction approach and the box-and-bead analogy. The results of the
study showed no statistical difference in the retention of procedural
knowledge and a statistical difference in conceptual knowledge. Overall,
students taught using advanced retrieval performed better than the other
group. The study underlines the fact that analogy-based instruction can be
effective in improving conceptual knowledge using concrete analogues
that aid in the retention of chemical kinetics. The findings of this study are
diagnostic and they assist module designers in determining the procedural
and conceptual knowledge in chemical kinetics retained by students, even
after years have passed.
Keywords: analogy; base/target domains; chemical kinetics; cognitive

load theory; retention; retrieval
1. Introduction
First-year, introductory physical chemistry is based on the three important topics
of chemical kinetics, thermodynamics and basic quantum mechanics. Chemical
kinetics is concerned about how fast a reaction progresses, through the
monitoring of a suitable parameter which changes with time. Chemical kinetics
relies heavily on complex mathematical concepts, such as differential equations
in advanced courses, and students are expected to retain core knowledge concepts
learned in their first year. The two instruction methods of retrieval-based learning
©Authors
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and analogies might have the potential to enhance retention among university
students. The retention of introductory physical chemistry concepts is vital for
success in advanced chemistry courses in the third and fourth years. There has
been growing concern about students’ lack of retention of the important concepts
that are required as pre-requisites for advanced modules in science, technology,
engineering and mathematics (STEM). Lecturers of advanced courses in
chemistry bemoan students’ lack of recall of the core knowledge concepts learned
in first year.
Third and four-year attrition is a long-established problem in South Africa, going
back many decades. Specifically, there has been very little change since 2000
(Scott, 2014). The Council on Higher Education (CHE, 2013) reported that the
greatest attrition occurs at the end of the third year of study. In 2014, the CHE
report revealed that poor performance in STEM is still persistent across South
African universities. Most of the degree completion rates are below 42% at contact
universities. The high dropout and failure rates of students in second and third-
year chemistry might be due to the poor retention of core knowledge concepts
from preceding modules. This lack of retention of core knowledge concepts is not
unique to South Africa. In the USA, Arum and Roska (2011) alerted institutions of
higher learning about the lack of critical skills thinking and retention among
STEM college graduates.
Chemistry as a discipline risks being a mnemonic exercise if students fail to retain
core knowledge concepts that drive chemical phenomena. The retention of core
knowledge concepts by students may be a research niche in science-education that
has the potential to inform instructional practices at a tertiary level.
The new curricula for the Natural Sciences and Technology module focus on the
relationships between the concepts and meanings behind procedures (CHE,
2016). Kieran (2013) suggested that a procedural and conceptual dichotomy is the
distinction between knowing how (instrumental) and knowing how and why
(relational). In chemistry, Zoller (2002) posited that procedural knowledge
requires questions that use a memorised set of approaches for their solution, while
conceptual knowledge invokes the fundamental concepts of the primary theories
of science in order to answer the question. The distinction between being able to
apply a relatively well determined set of instructions to a chemical problem and
being able to explain and use links between different structural aspects of
chemistry remains unexplored in chemistry education literature in South Africa.
Potgieter et al. (2006) investigated the procedural and conceptual knowledge in
mathematics and chemistry in first year students at the University of Pretoria. The
study was a correlation which sought to establish whether students who
displayed good conceptual and procedural understanding in mathematics also
performed well in chemistry. The findings revealed low relationships between
performance in chemistry and mathematics. The authors suggested that it was an
indication that students had more alternative conceptions in chemistry than
mathematics. This study did not use different instructional methods and never
went further to check the retention of concepts.
Lysne et al. (2017) defined retention as the ability of a student to remember what
has been learned over time and it is influenced by instructional approaches.
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Furthermore, retention is the extent to which students can successfully retrieve

core knowledge concepts from long-term memory. Instructional methods play an
important role in the retention ability of students. Inappropriate lecturing
methods in chemistry invariably translate to students’ inability to retain core
knowledge concepts (Ajayi & Angura, 2017).
In South Africa, chemistry lectures are usually with very large classes. The
traditional lecture method is the modus operandi and there are few lecturer-student
and student-students’ interactions. The long-term retention of first-year
engineering students in the study of calculus was investigated over two years at
the University of Pretoria in South Africa by Engelbrecht et al. (2007). A mixed-
method research design, involving pre-test, post-test and interviews, was used to
collect data among the first years. The same test was administered as a pre-test in
the first year and, after two years, as a post-test. Participants were exposed to the
traditional lecturer-centred instructional approach. The authors reported a
decline in the retention of core knowledge concepts of calculus and performance.
The findings may have been different if other instructional methods had been
used.
In a related study, D’Ottone and Ochonogor (2017) investigated the effectiveness
of problem-based learning (PBL) with simulations in retention of chemical
kinetics concepts among 104 second-year chemistry students in the USA. A quasi-
experiment, non-equivalent, Solomon four design was used to determine the
performance and retention of the students. The findings of the study showed that
students who were taught using simulations and PBL retained concepts better in
the post-test than those taught using the traditional lecturer-centred instructional
approach. The retention reported in this study was based on delayed post-test
scores.
Didis (2015) investigated the effectiveness of analogies in introductory quantum
theory among first-year chemistry students. The author observed 48 analogies
and the data were collected through interviews and analysis of video recordings.
A wide variety of analogies used during lessons included verbatim, pictorial and
body motion. The analysis of the interviews showed that students enjoyed the
analogies and it improved the conceptual understanding and retention of
quantum theory concepts. The study recommended the use of multiple analogies
in teaching abstract topics in chemistry. The findings focused on conceptual
knowledge and left out the procedural knowledge.
Shahani and Jenkinson (2016) also explored the efficacy of interactive analogical
models among third-year chemistry students. The study employed two analogies:
the spring system and electrostatic spheres on potential energy curves. The results
of the study showed that students had difficulties in visualising the potential
energy wells and the post-test mean score increased by 11%. Retention in this
study was also based on the delayed post-test scores.
Taylor et al. (2016) investigated first-year university students’ retention of pre-
requisite knowledge using activities and in-class reinforcement. The findings
showed that pre-class activities, together with integrative questions, were
effective in improving performance and long-term retention.
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Karpicke and Blunt (2011) compared RELT and concepts maps in improving
retention among high school students. The participants in the RELT group were
given educational texts and practiced retrieval without looking at the text for three
weeks. The final assessment was based on conceptual questions and the students
performed better than those in the concept map group. RELT has a paucity in
science education and its potential still remains unexplored. In a similar study,
Chan and McDermott (2007) investigated the effectiveness of RELT on 48
undergraduate students. The students were tested on basic arithmetic and
English. The findings revealed that students’ retention improved.
This study seeks to explore how RELT can also improve retention in chemical
kinetics. The retrieval-enhanced learning theory (RELT) underpins the act of
bringing information from long-term memory. RELT approach is based on the
assumption that all types of knowledge require retrieval and depend on the
retrieval signal available in a given context. Furthermore, when an individual
retrieves knowledge, that knowledge is altered, because retrieving knowledge
enhances one’s ability to bring it out again in future. Karpicke (2012) claimed that
RELT does not simlpy produce rote and short-term learning but it enhances long-
term learning. Retrieving information from the long-term memory improves
retention and learning far better than reading and reviewing time and again
(Karpicke, 2012; Butler & Roediger, 2008; Butler, 2010). Retrieval-based learning
(RBL) is a powerful learning strategy that is under-appreciated and is not
considered as an important part of the learning process by both educators and
students (Karpicke & Bauernschmidt, 2011). The reason for that might be that
educators confuse repeated retrieval learning and rote learning. Recent research
on repeated retrieval on the spectrum of pre-school to high school has established
that retrieval-based learning enhances retention (Balota et al., 2006; Fritz et al.,
2007).
One modern theory of RELT is the episodic context account (Karpicke, 2012),
which is based on four central assumptions. Firstly, individuals encode
information in the temporal or episodic context in which they occurred. Secondly,
during retrieval, the memory search process involves an attempt to reinstate the
episodic context. Thirdly, if information is successful retrieved, the episodic
context is updated and incorporate features of the new context. Finally, the
updated context aids in recovery and successful retrieval enhances memory
performance.
The episodic theory accounts for two important findings in the retrieval practice
literature. Spaced retrieval improves retention as compared to massed retrieval
(Roediger & Karpicke, 2011). Spaced retrieval yields updated context
representations that are distinctive and easily accessed. Furthermore, the episodic
context explains the role of a retrieval mode. Karpicke and Zaromb (2010) defined
a retrieval mode as the cognitive state in which individuals intentionally think
back to a particular place and time where an event occurred.
An analogy transfers a system of relationships from a familiar/base domain (box-
and-bead analogy) to one that is less familiar/target domain (chemical kinetics).
The chemistry conceptual understanding learning model, suggested by Johnstone
(2009), claims that matter is represented at the three levels of macroscopic,
microscopic (particles/molecules) and symbolic (chemistry language and
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mathematical models). Though students live in the macroscopic world, the

chemical kinetics concepts require them to be versatile in both microscopic and
symbolic levels. Thus, analogies bridge the gap among abstract concepts and
familiar domains through a process called mapping. Matching or mapping
involves finding correspondence between two domains.
The dynamic skill theory (DST) is an extension of social constructivism that claims
that skills do not develop in a vacuum but are influenced by social factors (Fischer,
2008). Skills develop on three levels of increasing complexity, differentiation and
integration, and are influenced by self, others and the environment (Mascolo &
Fischer, 2016).
The DST also claims that cognition develops through levels and tiers. At the age
of 14 - 18 years old, students operate in the abstract tier. In the abstract tier, there
are three abstractions, namely single, mappings and systems. Mappings play an
important role in analogy-based instruction since analogies uses similarities
between the familiar and unfamiliar domain. One finding linked to the DST is that
student performance does not increase steadily but is dynamic, depending on
context.
The retention of concepts is influenced by the instructional methods and analogies
bridge the gap between familiar and unfamiliar domains. Thus, instructional
methods play an important role in the retention and performance of students.
While analogies and RBL have been studied in a variety of settings, very few
studies directly show their effect on retention of chemical kinetics. Bain and
Towns (2016) reviewed 34 peer reviewed science education journal articles on
chemical kinetics. Most of the studies were based on conceptual understanding
and alternative conceptions in chemical kinetics but very few where based on
students’ retention of chemical kinetics concepts. There is a paucity of research
about the retention of core knowledge concepts in chemical kinetics at both the
secondary and higher educational levels. This study investigated how two
instructional methods affect the retention of conceptual and procedural
knowledge and performance in chemical kinetics.
The study was guided by the following research questions:
1 Is there a statistically significant difference between pre-test and post-test
scores of the students taught with the box-and-bead analogy and RBL
instructional approaches?
2 What is the effect of lecturing with the box-and-bead analogy and RBL
instructional approaches on first-year chemistry student’s procedural and
conceptual knowledge retention in chemical kinetics?
3 How does the box-and-bead analogy and RBL instructional approaches
enhance retention of procedural and conceptual knowledge of chemical
kinetics concepts among first year chemistry students?
1.1 Research Design

This study employed a mixed-methods, sequential, explanatory research design,
which consisted of a dominant quantitative approach (quan) followed by a
qualitative approach (qual) (Creswell, 2015). In this study, a quasi-experimental,
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non-randomised, pre-test-post-test post-post-test control group and semi-

structured interviews were used in a sequential design. The reasoning for this
approach is that the analysis of quantitative data provides a general apprehension
of the research problem. Furthermore, analysis of qualitative data refines and
explain statistical results by investigating the participants’ perspectives in-depth.
The overarching goal of quasi-experimental research lies in attempting to find the
effectiveness of a treatment or intervention (Creswell, 2015).
1.2 Participants
The participants involved in this study were 245 first-year chemistry students (age
range of 18-24 years) at a South African public university. Convenience sampling
was used to select two groups which were readily accessible to the researcher.
Two groups (A = 121 box-and-bead analogy) and (B= 124 RBL) were randomly
assigned to experimental and control groups. All the students were enrolled in
the Faculty of Education, Department of Mathematics, Science and Technology
(MSTE).
The Natural Science and Technology module is divided into the two areas of
Chemistry (50%) and Physics (50%) and had two instructors. The module is taken
in three months in the first semester. First-year students enter directly from high
school and the entry requirements include a pass in both Physical Sciences and
Mathematics. The South African high school Physical Sciences Curriculum and
Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) has three topics under chemical change (rate
and extent of reaction, measuring rates of reactions and mechanisms of reaction
and catalysis) which are related to chemical kinetics.
Students were assessed through pre-, post- and delayed post-tests and interviews.
An university ethical clearance was obtained to collect demographic information
through tests and interviews. The study was guided by three ethical
considerations: deception of the participants, protection of the participants from
harm and confidentiality of data. The potential benefits of the study were
explained to the students and consent forms were completed. Participants were
assured that their individual scores would not be recorded as part of their official
duly performed (DP) marks.
2. Data Collection Instruments

The first stage of the instrument development involved defining the content
boundaries of chemical kinetics. The module outline of the first year module
‘Introductory to Basic Chemistry’ subtopic, ‘Reaction Kinetics of Chemical
Reactions’, and South Africa’s high school National Curriculum Statement (NCS)
for the physical sciences (rate and extent of the reaction) were used to define the
content scope of the study, encompassing reaction rates, factors affecting rates and
experimental rate determination. The chemical kinetics concepts covered in the
CKRT were the rates of chemical reactions, temperature and concentration,
dependence on rate and order of reactions. The identification of alternative
conceptions by reviewing literature was the second stage that was used to select
distractors in the instrument. Accordingly, distractors in the multiple-choice
questions were based on alternative conceptions related to chemical kinetics (Bain
& Towns, 2016)
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The CKRT was administered as a pre-test, post-test and delayed post-test. The test
covered the core knowledge (conceptual and procedural knowledge) in chemical
kinetics. Conceptual knowledge is based on concepts that drive factual pieces of
information from the environment. Furthermore, it links key concepts and the
relationships among them. It is a connected web of knowledge. Procedural
knowledge includes knowledge of formal language or symbolic representations,
and knowledge of procedures, rules, formulae, algorithms and symbols used in
chemistry. Test items assessing conceptual and procedural knowledge are
referred to as conceptual and procedural questions respectively. The CKRT had
five two-tier multiple choice questions and reasoning and five open-ended
questions (Figure 1). Three multiple-choice questions and two open-ended
questions were based on procedural knowledge. In contrast, two multiple-choice
questions and three open-ended questions were based on conceptual knowledge.
The three chemistry lecturers and three high school educators checked the content
validity of the instrument. The reliability of the CKRT was calculated using
Kuderson-Richardson 0.74. The difficult indices of the CKRT ranged from 0.31 to
0.64. A five-question, semi-structured, interview data collection instrument was
used to gain insight into how the use of analogy and retrieval based instructional
methods improves the students’ retention of chemical kinetics concepts.
Question 1.8 Consider three reactions having the energy profiles below:
Arrange the reactions from slowest to fastest, assuming they have the same
frequency factor A.
Two groups were instructed using the box-and-bead analogy (A) and RBL (B).
Post-test mean scores were compared to the pre-test mean scores after a three-
week intervention. The delayed post-test was administered after six-months. A
total of 12 students were purposively selected for interviews after the delayed
post-test.
The box-and-bead analogy suggested for this study was designed by the author.
The activities involving plastic beads and shoeboxes were used to map abstract
chemical kinetics concepts. A chemical kinetics analogy organiser was used to
avoid the mechanical breakdown of the analogy by mapping the similarities and
differences between the abstract and familiar domains. An analogy to represent a
zero-order involved dividing the shoebox with cardboard, with a small opening
at the bottom. The other side was filled with 20 beads and the students were to
shake the shoebox. After two minutes, the students counted the beads that had
crossed to the other side of the shoebox. The process was repeated with 100 beads.
307
Students used the analogy organiser to map the similarities between the familiar
and unfamiliar domains. To illustrate the statistical approximation of the
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution curve, students placed 100 beads (50 red and 50
blue) into the shoebox and shook the contents. The students observed the
movement of beads and mapped similarities with the target domain.
In a reaction, very few particles possess the right kinetic energy and orientation
for a collision to form products. To witness the effect of temperature on the rate
of reaction, students shook the beads inside the box gently, moderately and
quickly. Students observed the movements of the beads and mapped the
similarities.
For the progression of the rate of reaction, students used two boxes, one for
reactants and one for products. A concentration versus time graph was used to
follow the progression of the reaction. The beads were transferred from the
reactants to the products and students mapped the similarities and differences
between the familiar and target domains on the progression of rate.
The two groups met three days a week for the semester. The textbook used was
Chemistry Seventh Edition by Zumdahl and Zumdahl (2007). Table 1 shows some
of the mappings done during the lessons.
Table 1: Mappings between familiar and unfamiliar concepts
Familiar Unfamiliar concepts
Beads Molecules
Gentle shaking Low temperature
Cardboard with a small Zero-order (reaction independent of the concentration of

opening reactants)
Movement of beads Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution curve
Retrieval-based learning has five steps (Karpicke, 2012) namely, enhance

metacognition, practice with real-world scenarios, provide multiple self-checks
and exercises, space retrieval practice and provide opportunities for group
discussions. The first step involves introducing RBL and its advantages to the
students. One of the advantages is that it enhances learning and long-term
retention by repeatedly practicing to recall the information studied (Karpicke,
2012). The university’s learning management system (LMS) (moodle) was used to
actively engage students with a quiz before they arrived for lectures. The pre-
lecture quiz covered important pre-requisite concepts students had to remember.
Step two involved repeating step one, using isomorphic questions. To reinforce
retention, students worked in pairs answering questions. Step three of providing
feedback involved giving students flashcards to practice and the answers were
posted on the LMS. To vary the retrieval steps one to three, students worked in
groups and took online quizzes. The last step involved changing the questions
308
from low to higher cognitive levels and the quiz questions were changed from
simple recall to conceptual tests.
2.1 Method of Data Analysis

The data collected from students’ pre-, post- and delayed post-tests were analysed
using the Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS) version 25. The data
collected through semi-structured interviews were analysed qualitatively using
idiographic and nomothetic methods analysis. The interviews were recorded and
transcribed. Measures of central tendency were used to analyse the students’
performance between pre-test and post-test. One way Anova was used to analyse
retention between the two groups.
3. Findings
The mean scores of the two groups were compared to investigate the effectiveness
of the box-and-bead analogy and retrieval-based learning on students’
performance in chemical kinetics. The descriptive statistics of the two groups are
presented in Table 2.
Rutherford (2011) described how to analyse a non-equivalent pre-test post-test
research design. The first step involves establishing equivalence among the
groups. As can be seen from Table 2, the pre-test mean scores of the two groups
are 56.90 % and 58.8% respectively, implying that the mean scores are equivalent.
The post-test mean score of students taught using the box-and-bead analogy is
63.73% versus 65.34% of the RBL. The mean score for the post-test of RBL is
slightly higher therefore the students performed better than those in group A box-
bead-analogy.
The standard deviation (SD) measures the spread of scores and it is a square root
of variance. The values of the SD of the delayed post-tests were 7.350 and 5.128
for group A and B respectively. A low SD suggest the scores are close to the mean
and a high SD the scores are scattered from the mean. From descriptive statistics
it can be concluded that a low SD suggest the post-test scores were close to the
mean in RBL as compared to box-bead and box analogy.
Table 2: Descriptive statistics
Group Pre-test P-test Delayed P-test N Sdpre Sdpost
Expt A 56.90 63.73 56.25 121 6.989 7.350
Expt B 58.83 65.34 51.08 124 9.843 5.128
The null hypotheses H01 and H02 were tested to establish whether the difference
between the two interventions was due to error or variance.
309
Table 3: One way ANCOVA analysis of the post-and delayed-post-tests mean scores
of experimental and control groups
Variable F t mean scores Sig (2-tailed)
Delayed P-test 0.686 -2.37 59.43, 56.21 0.018
Post-test 0.002 -2.908 63.73, 51.08 0.004
The analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) on the two groups was done on the
delayed post-test using post-test scores as a covariate. As seen in Table 3, the p-
value obtained is 0.018 at 0.05 level of significance. The null hypothesis of no
significant difference between performances of the two groups in the delayed-
post-test is rejected. This implies that lecturing using the box-and-bead analogy is
better at improving students’ retention ability in chemical kinetics than retrieval-
based learning. Similarly, the p-value obtained for the post-test score is 0.004 at
0.05 level of significance. The null hypothesis of no significant difference between
the post-test score after instructional interventions with the box-and-bead analogy
and retrieval-based learning is rejected. Thus, lecturing using retrieval-based
learning improved student’s performance better than using the analogy.
The analysis of the two groups on post-test and delayed post-post-test procedural
and conceptual knowledge questions was done using quantitative item analysis,
as shown in Table 4. Table 4 shows a decreasing trend in all of the groups after six
months. Overall, retention was the highest in experimental group A and the least
was in group B.
Table 4: Item analysis of post and delayed-post-test questions
Post-test Delayed Post-test
PKA CKA PKB CKB PKA CKA PKB CKB
1.1 64 69 70 70 57 58 60 55
1.2 59 59 63 64 57 54 48 58
1.3 61 66 54 55 52 55 53 40
1.4 53 48 62 50 45 54 51 28
1.5 68 47 73 42 65 44 61 30
Key: PKA - procedural knowledge group A

CKA - conceptual knowledge group A
Rate of Chemical Reactions

Question 1.1 and 1.6 covered how the rate progresses during a reaction and how
the rate of product and reactants relate given stoichiometry equations
respectively.
310
Calculate the rate at which ozone is consumed as compared to that at which

oxygen is produced in the reaction 2 O3 (g) 3O2(g)?
If the rate at which O2 appears, 6.0 x 10-5 M/s at a particular instant, at what rate
is O3 disappearing?
The mean scores for question 1.1 were 64% and 70% in the post-test and 57% and
58% in the delayed post-test. There was a drop in the overall performance. For
question 1.6, students claimed to have forgotten the formula and that the formula
book could have helped. During interviews, students relied on calculators and the
variation in the second part created some confusion. Thus, it can be concluded
that students were procedurally proficient but lacked the conceptual knowledge
on the rate of chemical reactions.
Temperature Dependency
For question 1.7, Table 5 shows the rate constants for the rearrangement of methyl
isonitrile at various temperatures.
Table 5: Rate constants
Students were required to calculate the activation energy for the reaction and also
the value of the rate constant at 430.0K. The mean scores for the groups were 55%
and 46% for the delayed post-test, and 66% and 55% for the post-test for groups
A and B respectively. For this question, the retention was high using an analogy
(group A) as an instructional method.
Question 1.5
Consider a reaction for which rate = k [A][B]2.
Each of the following boxes represents a reaction mixture in which A is shown as
red spheres and B as purple ones. Arrange the reactions in ascending order of rate
of reaction.
The mean scores for all the groups show a slight drop in the post-test and delayed
post-test implying that procedural knowledge on order of reactions was retained.
The RBL instructional method had 73% and 70% in the post-test and delayed post-
311
test, thus retaining more than the other groups. For question 1.10, the mean of 44%
and 42% post-test dropped to 44% and 30%, delayed post-test. There was a
disappointing and surprising decline in the knowledge on the order of reactions.
4. Qualitative results
Interviews were conducted to complement the results obtained using the quasi-
experiment pre-test-post-test-delayed-post-test design after six months.
Interviews with 12 students were conducted using purposive sampling of the
students in the lower, middle and upper groups of performance. The responses,
that included a correct answer and a scientifically accepted explanation of semi-
structured interviews, are presented in Figure 2.
For students in the experimental groups, their responses were mainly in the
scientifically acceptable category. Thus, it may be concluded, as obtained from
quantitative data, that the use of the box-and-bead analogy (group A) improved
retention in chemical kinetics.
ANALYSIS OF INTERVIEW QUESTION

RESPONSES
0
qn 1.1 qn1.2 qn1.3 qn1.4 qn1.5
Group A Group B
Figure 2: Analysis of interview responses
Excerpts from interviews

Interviews were done to complement the results obtained using the quasi
experiment, pre-test-post-test-delayed-post-test design. All the participants were
coded with a capital letter (A, B, C) and the subscript representing their number
(A1 student from group A).
B2: I had been thinking about reaction orders all along and have looked
at different authors. Thinking over and over again and trying to
understand conceptually lead me to solve many problems on reactions
orders until I was really satisfied.
B2 seems to have been motivated by the repeated exposure of retrieving from the
long term memory. Retrieving from the long term memory seemed to have helped
him to try as many questions from different textbooks. He managed to have a
conceptual understanding of reaction orders.
B5: Most of the time when I get free time, I will constantly ask myself
about chemical kinetics concepts especially temperature dependency. I
312
now know about rate constants with less struggle. This question even
you ask me after a year I will get it right.
The response of B5 seems to suggest that RELT enhances intrinsic motivation that
will aid in retention through constant retrieval.
A2: The analogy had opened the way I viewed the rate of reaction. Today
I know how the rate progresses during the reaction. Through analogies,
I managed to understand the Maxwell-Boltzman distribution curve
and activation energy. If confronted with a question I will try and go
back to the analogy and this has led me to have a fine grasp of the
concepts
A5: I never had a correct understanding of activation energy from high
school. Working with the analogy made me to have a clear picture
about. Each time I get a question the analogy appears in my mind.
The students from group A relied on concrete analogs to conceptually understand
the core concepts in chemical kinetics. Though A2 admitted that the rate of
reaction was vague at first and relied on her mathematical skills relating to the
analogy would be used to answer questions.
B4 was a textbook example of superficially and procedural knowledge which
cannot be retained. Although he managed to rank reactions based on their
activation energy in the first year, he failed to do so after six months, showing that
he lacked a conceptual understanding of potential energy graph versus
progression of a reaction.
AC: I have totally forgotten what I did in the first semester. I got this
question correct but the ideas just faded. I guess I was working hard in
the first semester than now.
The last interview shows a case of lack of understanding of how chemical kinetics
concepts should build up.
5. Discussion
Two instructional approaches were compared on the retention of chemical
kinetics concepts but the result showed a declining trend. The findings were
similar to those reported by Engelbretcht et al. (2007), wherein it was shown how
procedural knowledge was retained the most over three years. RBL had the
highest retention, followed by the analogy for questions based on procedural
knowledge. Repeated exercises in RBL proved to enhance retention and seemed
to improve emotive and intrinsic motivation. This is similar to the findings of
Karpicke and Blunt (2011), on RBL, that retrieving knowledge improves the ability
to retrieve it again in the future.
Analogy-based instruction had the highest retention on conceptual knowledge of
chemical kinetics concepts. The use of the analogy might have impacted students’
abilities to visualise the motion and interactions of particles at a molecular level,
resulting in the improved germane load. The interviews revealed that students
had concrete analogs which they would refer to when answering questions and
which served as retrieval cues. The use of familiar and unfamiliar domains in the
analogy might have improved the students retention ability.
313
According to the CLT, concrete analogs could affect germane cognitive loads that
lead to the automation of the right schemas. The findings on the use of analogies
were similar to those by Didis (2015), that students enjoyed the analogies and it
improved the conceptual understanding and retention of quantum theory
concepts. The RELT had the least retention and it is concluded that active
engagement using the box-bead-analogy leads to better retention of chemical
kinetics concepts. The findings of this study are in agreement with several related
research studies (Taylor et al., 2016; Shahani & Jenkinson, 2016; D’Ottone &
Ochonogor, 2017) that concluded that when students engage with analogies they
form concrete analogues that enhances retention.
6. Conclusion
This study aimed at exploring the effects of bead-box-analogy versus RBL on
students performance and retention of chemical kinetics concepts. Specific focus
was on exploring how the students’ conceptual and procedural knowledge
understanding improved after the two interventions. The RBL improved
performance in the post-test (A= 63.73%, B = 65.34%) and analogy based
instruction increased students’ retention in the delayed post-test (A= 56.01% and
51.08%). Students retain procedural knowledge better using RBL and conceptual
knowledge using the box-bead-analogy.
The present study supports the idea that the RBL and box-and-bead analogy can
be used in a college classroom to enhance students’ conceptual and procedural
knowledge retention of chemical kinetics. Through concrete analogs formed by
mappings between the familiar and unfamiliar domains in the box-and-bead
analogy, students can master their understanding of basic chemical kinetics
concepts. RBL can influence learning in a variety of ways. The study found that it
improves emotive and intrinsic motivation. The retrieval of knowledge
repeatedly exposes what the students know or do not know and can guide future
studying. Overall, the long-term effect of RBL and the box-and-bead analogy
requires more investigation, and several questions remain open, such as if the
retention is permanent or not.
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IJLTER.

Society for Research and Knowledge Management

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational

Aims and Objectives

The main objective of this journal is to provide a platform for educators,

Indexing and Abstracting

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational

We are very happy to publish this issue of the International Journal of

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational

We are grateful to the editor-in-chief, members of the Editorial Board

The Editorial Board is composed of renowned people from across the

We will endeavour to ensure the reputation and quality of this journal

Editors of the May 2021 Issue

Exploring Match Plate's Potential in Aiding Pupils' Writing Skills ............................................................................... 96

Gamification in Higher Education (Case Study on a Management Subject) .............................................................. 211

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

A Review of Standardised Assessment

Jumoke I. Oladele and Mdutshekelwa Ndlovu

Abstract. Teaching and learning have gone online in response to the

Keywords: item bank development; test-forms; administration

2. Item Bank Development for CAT

Planning leads to decision-making: planning is necessary before drawing an item

Content analysis and test blueprint: provides a summary of curricular objectives

2. The proportion of items developed per content areas, depending on the

Table 1: Test Blueprint for a Test in Statistical Methods

A: Frequency Distribution; B: Measure of Central Tendency; C: Measure of Variability; D:

Table 1 provides a framework for organising information about the students'

Zhang et al. (2019) developed CAT to assess internet addiction while

quality; items void of ambiguity; identifying unintended clues to the correct

The gold standard is to have independent subject experts’ evaluatively correlate

Trial/Pilot Testing: this is a means of subjecting proposed test items to testing

Item Analysis: students' responses are analysed using a variety of methods. It is a

Theoretical Models for CAT Item Analysis

e in the equation is an exponential constant with the value 2.718 (approximately)

value is paramount when studying or generating item parameters to ensure that

The ci is the pseudo-guessing parameter which signifies the likelihood of low

3. Test Forms and Administration

According to Wise and Kingsbury (2000), a CAT administration is a two-stage

(predetermined number of items and a desired level of measurement precision,

Administered as a CAT, advanced computer software for automatic test

4. Algorithm for CAT

for a dichotomously scored test as it is not capable of producing accurate

Termination criterion: algorithms for CAT should be specified as fixed-length

It is pertinent for test development to be based on a sound scientific basis and

a Foreign Language (TOEFL), Computerised Oral Proficiency Instrument (COPI)

6. Fourth Industrial Revolution and CAT

7. Conclusion and Recommendation

8. Limitations and directions for future research

Thompson, N. A. (2011). Advantages of computerised adaptive testing (CAT).

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

The Development and Use of Improvised

Abstract. The study aimed to describe how a team of final-year pre-

Keywords: model-based science-teaching; improvisation; Natural

1. Introduction and background to study

According to Harlow (2010) and Seel (2017), a model-based teaching approach is

Unfortunately, given the benefits towards the use of a model-based teaching

Their frustrations with a lack of science-teaching models at their disposal were

3. Conceptualising the process of improvisation in the context of initial

Traditionally, the process of improvisation was recognised as a complex problem-

Improvised teaching and learning models serve as low-cost goods developed

At its core, the process of improvisation is informed by three overlapping

The process of improvisation further draws on the principle of “ideation”. As the

4. Research approach and methodology