Vol 21 No 5 May 2022

IJLTER.
ORG
International Journal
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Learning, Teaching
And
Educational Research
p-ISSN: 1694-2493
e-ISSN: 1694-2116
Vol.21 No.5
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
(IJLTER)
Vol. 21, No. 5 (May 2022)
Print version: 1694-2493
Online version: 1694-2116
IJLTER
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER)
Vol. 21, No. 5
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VOLUME 21 NUMBER 5 May 2022
Table of Contents
Exploring the Need for Using Digital Repositories to Enhance Teaching and Learning in Omani Schools:
Teachers’ Perceptions ............................................................................................................................................................. 1
Walid Aboraya
A Gender-Based Analysis of Classroom Interaction Practices: The Effect Thereof on University Students’
Academic Performance ........................................................................................................................................................ 22
Norman Rudhumbu
Exploring Preclinical Medical Students’ Reflections on their Learning Experience during the COVID-19 Pandemic
................................................................................................................................................................................................. 46
Siti Yusrina Nadihah Jamaludin, Mohd Salami Ibrahim
Promoting Self-Regulated Learning among First-Year Accounting-Student Teachers: A Student-Empowerment

Pedagogical Framework ...................................................................................................................................................... 64
Mapuya Medson
The Potentiality of MOOCs as a Tool for Widening Access to Higher Education in the African Context: A
Systematic Review ................................................................................................................................................................ 84
Mpho-Entle Puleng Modise
Digital Infographics Design (Static vs Dynamic): Its Effects on Developing Thinking and Cognitive Load
Reduction ............................................................................................................................................................................. 104
Nader Said Shemy
Exploration of Malay Language Acquisition and Learning Experience among Orang Asli Students .................... 126
Nor Azwahanum Nor Shaid, Shahidi A. Hamid, Marlyna Maros
The Development of Albanian School Principals: A Challenge to Avoid Old Concepts and Value the Importance
of Development ................................................................................................................................................................... 143
Magdalini Vampa
Applying Peer-Review Checklist to Improve Vietnamese EFL University Students’ Writing Skills ...................... 166
Le Thi Tuyet Hanh, Bui Thanh Tinh
Social Media for Teaching and Learning: A Technology Acceptance Model Analysis of Preservice Teachers’
Perceptions During the COVID-19 Pandemic ................................................................................................................. 182
John Mangundu
Development of CDIO-Based Programs from the Teacher Training Perspective ...................................................... 204
Tien Ba Tran, Thu Hung Phan
21st Century Teaching Skills and Teaching Standards Competence Level of Teacher ............................................. 220
Jesse T. Zamora, Jerome Jef M. Zamora
Learning Sciences with Technology: The Use of Padlet Pedagogical Tool to Improve High School Learners’
Attainment in Integrated Sciences .................................................................................................................................... 239
Sakyiwaa Boateng, Mercy Nyamekye
Measurement of Non-academic Attributes in the Situational Judgment Test as Part of School Teacher Selection:
Systematic Literature Review ............................................................................................................................................ 263
Azad Iqram Nadmilail, Mohd Effendi @ Ewan Mohd Matore, Siti Mistima Maat
Teachers’ Perceptions and Challenges to the Use of Technology in Teaching and Learning during Covid-19 in
Malaysia ............................................................................................................................................................................... 281
Nurshuzishafiqah Ishak, Rosseni Din, Nabilah Othman
Gamification in the University Context: Bibliometric Review in Scopus (2012-2022) ............................................... 309
Jesús Manuel Guerrero-Alcedo, Lorena C. Espina-Romero, Ángel Alberto Nava-Chirinos
Augmented Reality: The Effect in Students’ Achievement, Satisfaction and Interest in Science Education .......... 326
Norazilawati Abdullah, Vijaya Letchumy Baskaran, Zainun Mustafa, Siti Rahaimah Ali, Syaza Hazwani Zaini
Revitalizing the Oddi Continuing Learning Inventory ................................................................................................. 351

Nicolaj Riise Clausen, Claus D. Hansen
Application of Gamification Tools for Identification of Neurocognitive and Social Function in Distance Learning
Education ............................................................................................................................................................................. 367
Hera Antonopoulou, Constantinos Halkiopoulos, Evgenia Gkintoni, Athanasios Katsibelis
University Academic Dishonesty and Graduate Quality for National Development and Global Competitiveness:
Nigerian Universities in Perspective ................................................................................................................................ 401
Chris-Valentine Ogar Eneji, Janet Sunday Petters, Stella Bassey Esuabana, Nkanu Usang Onnoghen, Bassey Obeten
Udumo, Benjamin Ayua Ambe, Ekpenyong Essien Essien, Fidelis Abunimye Unimna, David Adie Alawa, Ajigo Ikutal
Life Satisfaction among Adolescents: Comparison of Adolescents Attending Music and Sports Programs and
Those Who Do Not ............................................................................................................................................................. 428
Zrinka Šimunovic, Diana Olcar
Physical Science Teachers’ Understanding of Strategies for Teaching Critical Thinking in Mpumalanga Province
............................................................................................................................................................................................... 446
Poncian Obert Tagutanazvo, Ritu Bhagwandeen
Teacher Pedagogical Beliefs and Resistance to the Effective Implementation of Video-Based Multimedia in the
Physics Classroom .............................................................................................................................................................. 463
Gabriel Janvier Tugirinshuti, Leon Rugema Mugabo, Alexis Banuza
Using Digital Comics for Enhancing EFL Vocabulary Learning during the COVID-19 Pandemic ......................... 478
Luz Castillo-Cuesta, Ana Quinonez-Beltran
1

Vol. 21, No. 5, pp. 1-21, May 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.5.1
Received Feb 10, 2022; Revised May 4, 2022; Accepted May 8, 2022
Exploring the Need for Using Digital

Repositories to Enhance Teaching and Learning
in Omani Schools: Teachers’ Perceptions
Walid Aboraya
Faculty of Graduate Studies of Education, Cairo University (Egypt)
Faculty of Education, Arab Open University (Sultanate of Oman)
Abstract. The current study aims to investigate teachers’ perceptions

regarding the need to employ digital repositories (DRs) in Omani schools
to enhance teaching and learning using interactive e-learning content. The
study employed a mixed method approach and was carried out in two
phases. Firstly, a survey was adopted to 120 teachers from 15 different
schools in Muscat to explore the extent of the need for DRs. Secondly,
semi-structured interviews were conducted with 9 teachers to validate
the results and develop a deeper understanding. The research methods
addressed three aspects: (1) the need for using DRs to support teachers,
(2) to support students’ learning, and (3) to enhance curriculum. The
results of both methods were consistent and revealed that most teachers
expressed the need for employing DRs in the educational process.
Teachers believe that DRs are needed to support themselves and students’
learning and to enhance the curriculum. Moreover, the interview analysis
yielded an emergent theme related to some conditions raised by teachers
to effectively use digital repositories. These conditions include (1) training,
(2) educational content, (3) ease of use, (4) and developing a community
for teachers and students. Based on the findings, the study introduced a
framework for a dynamic DR to be used in Omani schools then proposed
a plan to ensure the quality, effectiveness of usability, sustainability, and
systematic implementation of DRs in Omani schools. Future studies are
recommended to evaluate the use of systematically implemented DRs
from the perspectives of all stakeholders, including students.
Keywords: digital repositories; learning objects; teachers’ perceptions
1. Introduction
Online learning has grown in popularity because of its capacity to enable more
flexible access to e-content and instruction at any time, from any location
(Istambul, 2021; Castro & Tumibay, 2021). Many teachers and mentors become
interested in online learning and use e-content to increase and improve students’
learning despite a lack of resources, facilities, and equipment in their institutions.
©Author
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
2
Within the Mishra and Koehler (2006) TPACK framework, the problem with the
current e-learning model in educational institutions can be identified in the lack
of technological knowledge (TK) in general, technological content knowledge
(TCK), and technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK) in particular. This relates
to the ability to design learning situations depending on the use of technology
(Heitink et al., 2017). This involves the creation of appropriate educational
materials and learning objects (LOs), as well as the challenge of making them
available to the intended students in the absence of a defined method for
accessibility and utilization (Luís & Marcelino, 2022). There is also a gap in
institutional and leadership conviction with attempts and efforts to introduce a
clear-cut strategy to capitalize on this new situation, such as designing and
producing LOs and learning materials under the supervision of government
institutions, and then making them available in digital repositories (DRs) under a
system of availability and support.
Digital repositories (DRs) are data storage systems designed to preserve and
secure data for future use. When used in educational institutions, they are
extremely useful. Teachers and students can use them to save and retrieve
educational resources, whether face-to-face or online, to improve teaching and
learning processes and make it simpler to attain desired learning results
(Maldonado et al., 2016). Teachers may enhance their teaching techniques by
depending on a variety of learning resources kept in repositories, and students
can rely on them to suit their various learning needs.
The Omani experience in the field of DRs can be described as novel. By tracing the
DRs in Oman, one can find that the most recent project launched is the Omani
research repository “Shuaa” which was adopted by the Scientific Research
Council in cooperation with Sultan Qaboos University (Main Library) to serve
higher education level and above (Shuaa, 2022). Another project was done based
on cooperation between the public and private sectors called “Masader”. It aims
to connect Oman's academic community to some of the world's best digital
resources and support critical research activities across the country. This
repository includes the latest books and research materials, with a number of links
established with publishers, and the repository seeks to expand those links with
other repositories as well (Masader, 2022).
In the field of pre-university education, the “Wathiq” portal is a private repository

that support self-learning. It includes learning resources such as video lessons,
summaries of lessons, and self-assessment tools. Students can access this portal
using any device (Wathiq portal, 2022). However, this portal is limited to the
eleventh and twelfth grades and requires an annual subscription. There is also the
“Zawiti” portal which is affiliated to the Ministry of Education in Oman. It serves
school education at all levels and includes a question bank in which all inquiries
about the courses are collected and sorted according to each subject. Students use
this platform to practice exams and to ascertain the nature of questions (Ministry
of Education, 2022). However, this portal lakes different types of e-content and
activities that can facilitate learning different school subjects.
http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter
3
Despite the efforts carried out in the field, learning objects repositories are still not
a vital part of the educational system. Teachers do not often use these repositories
and students do not rely on them much to enhance their learning.
Given the benefits of DRs, as well as the global consensus on their benefits for
educational institutions and the growing demand for educational e-content in
Omani schools, it is necessary to investigate the feasibility of designing and
developing DRs to store LOs serving Omani curricula.
However, the decision to deploy technology in the classroom is frequently

influenced by the views of each teacher (Boonmoh et al., 2021). Teachers’
perceptions about the usefulness of DRs for them or their students can be key to
better implementation (Yalcinalp & Emiroglu, 2012; Tang, 2020). Teachers tend to
develop low perceptions surrounding the value of using technological tools in
teaching if they feel that their needs are not met throughout the implementation
process (Harrell & Bynum, 2018). As a result, the tools will not be used to their
maximum potential, creating an internal barrier (Francom, 2020).
Although the Ministry of Education in the Sultanate of Oman is doing its best to
develop teaching and learning, teachers’ voices seem absent in regard to their
perception of DRs and the benefit of using them in enhancing teaching and
learning. The researcher could not find any study addressing this issue in the
Omani context. That is why this study came to cover this gab in approaching
teachers and understanding their perceptions of utilizing DRs.
Thus, the current study investigates teachers’ perceptions about the need for DRs
for use in teaching and learning in Omani schools.
To achieve this aim, the study tried to investigate teachers’ perceptions from three
aspects constituting the need for DRs. These aspects are as follows: supporting
teachers, supporting students’ learning, and enhancing the curriculum.
Accordingly, three research questions were formulated, as follows:
1. What are teachers’ perceptions about the need for using DRs to support
teachers?
2. What are teachers’ perceptions about the need for using DRs to support
students’ learning?
3. What are teachers’ perceptions about the need for using DRs to enhance
curriculum?
2. Literature review
DRs are greatly beneficial when they are used in educational institutions. They
can enhance teaching and learning processes and facilitate achievement of the
intended learning outcomes. Teachers can depend on different LOs stored in the
repositories to improve their teaching methods and students can change their
learning styles to achieve their objectives. This part introduces DRs and general
learning objects and addresses teachers’ perceptions of DRs.
4
2.1 DR concept and advantages

In recent years, digital content has developed significantly. The availability of
information and the exchange of ideas via the internet has become one of the most
important issues that professionals are concerned with. As a result, several
recommendations emerged regarding the necessity for constructing DRs that ease
the process of searching, retrieving, and managing e-content.
In the context of education, a DR is defined as a database that collects and stores

LOs with specified descriptions and metadata to make them available to
beneficiaries (Bogucki, 2021). It can also be defined as a database that retains
research work done by researchers in all scientific fields and can be accessed and
searched using the web (Nayana & Pai, 2018). In the context of this study, DRs can
be viewed as a large-scale database available on the internet that can be accessed
and searched through an easy mechanism to enable both teachers and learners to
reach and utilize the needed LOs in an easy and accurate way.
Nowadays DRs play an important role in providing users with easy and
unconditional access to knowledge through the internet free of charge (Kati, 2021).
They use indexing systems based on international coding standards which allow
users to easily browse and find required content with the possibility of integration
through content management and learning systems (Kati & Stukes, 2021).
One of the advantages of DRs is the possibility of providing access to all scientific
output stored in it with the ability of preserving this scientific output for a long
time. Also, they encourage communication between researchers from different
specializations by providing access to the latest scientific output (Knight, 2018). In
addition to this, they contain multiple patterns of knowledge and data that can be
displayed in different ways. This knowledge is cumulative and is preserved and
controlled through the policy of retention and accessibility set by the institution
that owns the DR (Esquivel et al., 2021). DRs address the challenge of limited
storage capacity in libraries, as they are distinguished by accommodating large
data in a small storage space. The diversity of this data ranges from articles,
conference works, reports, educational materials, multimedia and much more
(Kati et al., 2019).
In general, researchers deal with DRs as a central archive for their intellectual
production, increasing the chances of publication and accessibility. In turn, this
increases the impact factor for this production, as well as informal arbitration
through the possibility of publishing that which is difficult to publish through
traditional means, such as videos, podcasts, or e-content (Esquivel et al., 2021).
There are numerous advantages to using DRs in the educational field. They help
to enrich and enhance the exchange of knowledge across curricula, ease access to
courses, facilitate the development process, and contribute to the possibilities of
using inquiries and critical thinking-based learning strategies (Bakker & Rowan,
2018). Kovyazina (2019) added that repositories are of great importance to the
educational field, as they contribute to saving time, cost and effort in the
development and production of e-courses. They encourage teachers to employ
guided discovery and different e-learning patterns, participate in creating content,
5
and reuse LOs in educational situations.
Several studies have focused on building DRs so that they simulate the
capabilities of the semantic web (Arabshian et al. 2009; Drozdowicz et al., 2012).
Among the recent studies in this area is the study of Poulakakis et al. (2016) who
established a system to enhance digital learning resources with metadata and
semantic data to facilitate the semantic search for the required resources in line
with the education system in primary and secondary schools. Also, Zervas et al.
(2016) developed a model for a metadata schema that reflected the learning
resources present within the digital repositories. This model was built to support
science, technology, engineering, and mathematics teachers in (STEM) schools so
that they can share their lesson plans. The model was used to easily and effectively
reach the resources that the teacher requires.
2.2 Learning objects repositories

LOs are considered the main component of educational digital repositories. They
aim to formulate the educational content into miniature elements that can be used
individually to simulate an educational goal or be combined with other objects to
simulate other goals. They work to meet learners' needs for knowledge and skills
in a more effective and less costly manner. (Sek et al., 2012; Zimudzi, 2012; Turel
& Gürol, 2011). They are also used to support exploration and problem-solving
ability according to the educational goals the teacher wishes to achieve (Çakiroglu
et al., 2012). Therefore, digital LOs are considered an effective and economical tool
in supporting learners in various educational situations.
Such LOs need to be stored in DRs so that they can be organized, accessible, and
retrieved, otherwise they might be lost (Boté & Minguillón, 2012). There are many
DRs that contain LOs, as reported by Vrana (2021), such as the Merlot repository
in the United States, which includes links to metadata repositories and is
considered an interface to other repositories; the Edna repository in Australia,
which stores various forms of LOs such as images, text, presentations, and videos,
and also contains links to other repositories; the Jorum repository in Britain and
the CAREO repository in Canada, which contain a wealth of educational, training,
and research resources, as well as LOs. Further, Mering (2019) mentioned other
repositories such as the Encore repository, which encompasses a large number of
educational materials provided with free access for teachers and learners, and the
Maricopa repository that can be browsed by topic, author, publication date, or
title and contains articles, periodicals, university theses, various presentations,
images, and videos. Guan et. al. (2019) also referred to the LOs in the Wisconsin
repository of educational materials, which includes hundreds of thousands of LOs
such as presentations, images, and texts.
2.3 Teachers’ perceptions of DRs

Although much progress has been made in the design and implementation of
DRs, the effectiveness of these repositories remains debatable. Many researchers
argued that DRs and included learning objects would most likely become
outdated if the functional use of such systems was not realized, or if the
engagement of their dynamic users was not considered (Granić & Marangunić,
2019; Tang et al., 2020; Tang, 2020).
6
Teachers' perceptions can be defined as their ideas or mental images regarding

their professional activities and students, which are influenced by their previous
knowledge and life experiences and determine their professional behavior
(Papadakis & Kalogiannakis, 2022). When teachers have limited knowledge about
using a new technology in teaching and learning, they automatically generate
opinions about it, some of which may be based on stereotypes. This inclination
might lead to misunderstandings or misperceptions surrounding that technology.
The knowledge of teachers' views on the important aspects in repositories are

supposed to aid designers, developers, and users of DRs in focusing on the
primary concerns linked to improving the usefulness and efficiency of these
repositories (Yalcinalp & Emiroglu, 2012). In order to successfully implement DRs
in the educational system, Yalcinalp and Emiroglu (2012) surveyed 75 teachers to
investigate their views about DRs after using learning objects repositories. Results
yielded that DRs will only be used efficiently if some structural and usability
factors are considered in designing DRs so that they reflect teachers’
requirements, such as the usage of ontologies and the Semantic Web.
Further, Tang et al., (2020) attempted to gain a thorough knowledge of teachers’

intentions for using OER in K-12 classrooms. Based on the teachers’ view they
recommended the following: to reinforce instructors' perceived ease of utilizing
OER, repository designers must improve the design and function of the
repository. Also, educators must help teachers engage in the production of open-
licensed resources for K-12 students to ensure sustainability.
The above exhibits why the knowledge of teachers’ perceptions about using DRs
in education is an important factor that will help to implement DRs in the
educational system in an effective way.
3. Methodology
The current study employed a mixed method approach to explore the need for
using DRs to enhance teaching and learning in Omani schools. This was achieved
by mixing quantitative and qualitative data collection and triangulating the data
to go beyond the limitation of a single method study by raising the level of
credibility.
3.1 Research Design

To achieve the study objects, data was collected about teachers’ perceptions
regarding the need to use DRs from the following three aspects: to support
teachers, to support students’ learning, and to enhance the curriculum. The study
was conducted in two stages, the first of which involved delivering the
questionnaire to a group of 120 teachers. The second part involved the conduction
of semi-structured interviews with a group of nine teachers selected from the
questionnaire sample. The nine teachers were interviewed about the same
constructs to gain a deeper understanding to the research constituents measured
by the questionnaire.
7
3.2 Participants
First: the questionnaire sample consists of teachers from different disciplines
distributed between 15 schools in Muscat. The questionnaire was available online
and thus easily accessible for any teacher to fill it out. 120 teachers who returned
the questionnaire in a complete form were considered the sample of the study.
The research sample is characterized by certain features, including the following:
all are teachers with various teaching experiences; mixed genders; teaching
different subjects; and working in different districts in Muscat.
Second: the criterion for selecting the interview sample was derived through an
evaluation of the questionnaire replies and a selection of the diverse rich
responses to aid in the comprehension of the anomalies revealed by the
questionnaire analysis. To begin the sample selection process, a postscript was
added to the questionnaire asking participants to provide their contact
information if they agreed to be interviewed. Nearly one quarter of the
questionnaire sample (n=29) distributed over five schools expressed interest in
conducting an interview and provided their contact details. Following this, a
purposive “information-rich” sample was chosen from the available participants
who varied according to their responses and characteristics. The final sample
came to nine participants.
3.3 Research Methods

Using mixed methods to answer the research questions aids in triangulating the
data, adding rigor, validating and reinforcing the findings, adding an additional
dimension, and assisting with approaching the research questions from different
angles and in greater depth. That is why the current study employed two
methods: a questionnaire and semi-structured interviews.
3.3.1 Questionnaire
Based on the literature review and the researcher’s experience, a questionnaire
was constructed to elicit information regarding the three research questions. The
questionnaire was designed based on a five-point Likert scale and was divided
into three sections. Each section constitutes six items, as follows: section one
relates to “Supporting teachers” in items 1 to 6; section two is about “Supporting
students’ learning” through items 7 to 12; and section three relates to “Enhancing
curriculum” over items 13 to 18.
3.3.2 Semi-structured interviews

Based on the argument that using qualitative methods can help with the analysis
of quantitative findings (Taguchi, 2018), so that the statistical analysis can examine
different effects on a certain phenomenon and then explore the grounds and the
reasons behind these effects by using other qualitative methods (Dixon-Woods et
al., 2021), interviews were used as a second method of data collection.
The interview guide began with more generic questions regarding the three
research questions, after which the rest of the questions were developed during
the interview sessions, based on several issues raised throughout the discussion
and connected to the key topics. The interview questions were piloted with two
teachers before administering the main study.
8
3.4 Procedures
Before administering the survey to the targeted sample, the validity and reliability
of the questionnaire were measured. The validity was checked by asking the
opinion of experts in the field, who recommended to provide teachers with the
definitions of the terms “Digital repositories” and “Learning Objects” before
asking them to fill in the questionnaire. Thus, the meaning of both constructs was
clearly written for participants to read in the introduction section of the survey.
To check for reliability, the questionnaire was piloted on 20 teachers from
different subject areas with different years of experience. Cronbach alpha
coefficient was found to be (0.85), which means that the scale is reliable. Finally,
the questionnaire was administered to 120 randomly selected teachers from 15
different schools in Muscat.
4. Results
The purpose of the results section is to present the research key findings from both
quantitative and qualitative research methods. This presentation will assist in
determining whether the quantitative and qualitative findings are consistent or
inconsistent.
4.1 Quantitative analysis

The survey sample consisted of 120 teachers from different schools in Muscat.
They represented all subjects taught in schools as well as gender (54% female and
46% male). Also, years of experience range was almost equally distributed among
the sample as follows: 25.1% have work experience from 1 to 5 years, 23.6% have
work experience from 6 to 10 years, 22.5% have work experience from 11 to 15
years, 28.8% have work experience more than 11 years. Finally, (79.4%) of them
have not received any training on employing DRs in teaching.
Participants were asked to respond to 18 statements represented in a 5-point

Likert-type scale, where ‘5’ represents the maximum score of the scale, ‘Strongly
Agree’ and ‘1’ represents the minimum score, ‘Strongly Disagree’. To produce a
meaning from the percentages in the following tables, the total percentage of “SA”
and “A” were added together and considered to represent agreement; further, the
total percentage of “SD” and “D” were added and considered to represent
disagreement.
4.1.1 Perceptions about using DRs to support teachers

The first section of the questionnaire aims to answer the first research question:
“What are teachers’ perceptions about the need for using DRs to support
teachers?”. Table (1) illustrates the frequencies and percentages of participants’
responses to each statement.
9
Table 1. Perceptions about using DRs to support teachers

SD=Strongly Disagree. D=Disagree.
N=neutral. Frequencies, (percentages)
A=Agree. SA=Strongly Agree
Statement SA A N D SD
DRs will help teachers to change
their teaching approaches and 38, 59, 10, 7, 6,
1
styles to be more technologically (31.7%) (49.2%) (8.3%) (5.8%) (5%)
based.
Do you think that a repository is
needed for promoting
technological development and 48, 62, 4, 4, 2,
2
actively contributing to the (40%) (51.7%) (3.3%) (3.3%) (1.7%)
spread of digital culture among
teachers?
Do you think that a repository
will open the opportunity to 47, 64, 6, 3,
3 -
share experiences and good (39.2%) (53.3%) (5%) (2.5%)
practice among teachers?
DRs will encourage teachers to
24, 72, 18, 3, 3,
4 employ atypical teaching
(20%) (60%) (15%) (2.5%) (2.5%)
strategies.
DRs can save teachers’ time and
efforts in preparing digital LOs 18, 64, 23, 13, 2,
5
to be used in various (15%) (53.3%) (19.2%) (10.8%) (1.7%)
educational situations.
DRs will enhance lesson
24, 69, 20, 4, 3,
6 planning to meet students’
(20%) (57.5%) (16.7%) (3.3%) (2.5%)
different characteristics.
It is clear from Table (1) that most of the participants agreed or strongly agreed in
the first rank about the ability of DRs to open the opportunity for teachers to share
experiences and good practice among each other (92.5%; n=111). This indicates
that teachers perceive DR to be a collaborative tool that can help them share their
best practices together. This can happen by sharing opinions and discussions
about LOs found in the repository for use in teaching to enhance students’
learning.
Also, most participants agreed or strongly agreed to view the need for DR to
promote teachers’ technological development (91.7%; n=110), improve their
teaching approaches and strategies (80.9%; n=97), and encourage teachers to
employ atypical teaching strategies in the second, third, and fourth ranks
respectively. This implies that teachers are aware of the importance of DRs to
promote more technologically oriented teaching styles and practices.
The lowest ranked items were two that were related to enhancing lesson planning
to meet students’ different characteristics (77.5%; n=93) and saving teachers’ time
and efforts in preparing digital LOs to be used in various educational situations
(68.3%; n=82). This indicates how teachers value the benefit of using DRs in
improving their own work with less time and effort.
10
In general, it is obvious from table (2) that the total opinion of the teachers for the
whole section tends to agree about the need for using a repository to support
teachers in different aspects with (81.81%), total mean score (4), and standard
deviation of (0.66).
Table 2. Total perceptions about using DRs to support teachers

Percentage
Theme Strongly Strongly Mean St.D
Agree Undecided Disagree
Agree Disagree
Total
Teachers’ 27.64% 54.17% 11.25% 4.72% 2.22% 4.00 0.66
support
4.1.2 Perceptions about using DRs to support students’ learning

The second section of the questionnaire aims to answer the second research
question “What are teachers’ perceptions about the need for using DRs to support
students’ learning?”. Table (3) illustrates the frequencies and percentages of
participants’ responses to each statement.
Table 3. Perceptions about using DRs to support students’ learning

SD=Strongly Disagree.
D=Disagree. N=neutral. Frequencies, (percentages)
DRs help students to be active 42, 70, 6, 2,
1 -
learners. (35%) (58.3%) (5%) (1.7%)
Using DRs will increase the
23, 59, 24, 9, 5,
2 opportunity for students’
(19.2%) (49.2%) (20%) (7.5%) (4.2%)
collaboration.
Using DRs can help students 26, 64, 18, 10, 2,
3
to be engaged to learning (21.7%) (53.3%) (15%) (8.3%) (1.7%)
DRs will help students to
19, 55, 28, 12, 6,
4 achieve higher order thinking
(15.8%) (45.8%) (23.3%) (10%) (5%)
skills.
Using DRs will increase 53, 65, 2,
5 - -
students’ motivation to learn. (44.2%) (54.2%) (1.7%)
DRs will enhance students’ 27, 67, 15, 9, 2,
6
learning. (22.5%) (55.8%) (12.5%) (7.5%) (1.7%)
It is evident from table 3 that the most agreed statement among the participants is
item number 5 which came in the first rank. Almost all teachers agreed and
strongly agreed that using DRs will increase students’ motivation to learn (98.4%;
n=118). They believe that such repositories will transform students into active
learners (93.3%; n=112) and enhance their learning experience (78.3%; n=94). Also,
most teachers reported that there is a need for the use of DRs to assist student
engagement with learning (75%; n=90).
Although most teachers perceive the need for using DRs in students’ learning,
they were less confident about the need to use DRs in increasing students’
collaboration (68.4%; n=82) and achieving higher order thinking skills (61.6%;
11
n=74). These two items were ranked the least among the six items in the whole
section.
In general, this section indicates the importance of having DRs in Omani schools,
as reported by teachers; it encourages the constructivism approach in teaching
students. It is obvious from table (4) that the collective teacher opinion for the
whole section tends to agree about the need for the use of a repository to support
students in learning (79.17%), total mean score (3.96), and standard deviation of
(0.64).
Table 4. Total perceptions about using DRs to support students’ learning

Percentage
Agree Disagree
Total
Students’ 26.39% 52.78% 12.92% 5.83% 2.08% 3.96 0.64
support
4.1.3 Perceptions about using DRs to enhance curriculum

The third section of the questionnaire aims to answer the third research question
“What are teachers’ perceptions about the need for using DRs to enhance
curriculum?”. Table (5) illustrates the frequencies and percentages of participants’
responses to each statement.
Table 5. Perceptions about using DRs to enhance curriculum

SD=Strongly Disagree. D=Disagree.
N=neutral. Frequencies, (percentages)
DRs will enhance the 43, 74, 2, 1,
1 -
educational content. (35.8%) (61.7%) (1.7%) (0.8%)
DRs will enable active learning
30, 50, 25, 11, 4,
2 environments by providing
(25.4%) (42.4%) (21.2%) (9.5%) (3.4%)
various ideas for activities.
Do you think that repository is
40, 65, 11, 3, 1,
3 needed for enhancing teaching
(33.3%) (54.2%) (9.2%) (2.5%) (0.8%)
and learning processes?
DRs will encourage the
generation of ideas about
23, 48, 27, 12, 10,
4 improving formative assessment
(19.2%) (40%) (22.5%) (10%) (8.3%)
and evaluation in the
educational situations
Do you think that a repository is
needed for achieving 32, 54, 18, 11, 5,
5
educational objectives in your (26.7%) (45%) (15%) (9.2%) (4.2%)
subject?
DRs can be used to simplify 43, 66, 6, 4, 1,
6
complex and abstract concepts. (35.8%) (55%) (5%) (3.3%) (0.8%)
12
As shown in table 5, most teachers agreed and strongly agreed about two items
which reflect the need for DRs to enhance the educational content (97.5%; n=117)
and simplify complex and abstract concepts (90.8%; n=109). They were ranked as
the first two items, respectively. This indicates that teachers need digital content
to support students’ learning which will positively reflect on the whole teaching
and learning processes. The second two ranked items reflected the need to use
repositories to enhance teaching and learning processes (87.5%; n=105) and
achieve educational objectives (71.7%; n=86). The two lowest ranked items related
to enabling active learning environments by providing various ideas for activities
(70.8%; n=85) and encouraging the generation of ideas about improving formative
assessments and evaluation in educational situations (59.2%; n=71). This indicates
how teachers value the benefit of using DRs in supporting the curriculum in terms
of providing innovative ideas for activities and better assessment.
In general, this section indicates the importance of having DRs in Omani schools
to enhance curriculum as reported by the teacher. It is obvious from table (6) that
the total opinion of the teachers for the whole section tends to agree regarding the
need for use of a repository to support and enrich the curriculum (78.89%), total
mean score (3.97), and standard deviation of (0.65).
Table 6. Total perceptions about using DRs to enhance curriculum

Percentage
Agree Disagree
Total
Curriculum 29.31% 49.58% 12.36% 5.83% 2.92% 3.97 0.65
enhancement
4.1.4 Total teachers’ perceptions about the need to have DRs in Omani schools
Overall, the total percentage of teachers who agreed and strongly agreed about
the need to have DRs in Omani schools from the three aspects (teachers’ support,
students’ support, and curriculum enhancement) is (79.96%), with a total mean
score of (3.98) and standard deviation of (0.65). The high total mean scores in the
three sections, as well as the overall total, reflects the extent to which teachers
believe that there is a real need to use DRs in their schools.
Table 7. Total teachers’ perceptions about the need to have DRs in Omani schools
Percentage
Agree Disagree
Total Support
27.64% 54.17% 11.25% 4.72% 2.22% 4.00 0.66
Teachers
Total support
students’ 26.39% 52.78% 12.92% 5.83% 2.08% 3.96 0.64
learning
Total enhance
29.31% 49.58% 12.36% 5.83% 2.92% 3.97 0.65
Curriculum
Total
27.78% 52.18% 12.18% 5.46% 2.41% 3.98 0.65
Perceptions
13
4.2 Qualitative analysis

Interviews with nine teachers were conducted, recorded, and transcribed.
Following full transcription, data was reviewed word by word and line by line,
keywords were assigned as first-level codes beside each paragraph, and labels
were assigned to each group of words. Labels were grouped to form categories in
the second level of coding. With my research questions in mind, I was able to sort
these categories into two themes: those that are directly related to the research
questions (main themes) and those that are emergent and can be linked in some
way (indirectly) to the research questions (emergent themes).
Results showed three main themes (teacher’s support, students’ support, and
enhancement of curriculum) and one emergent theme (conditions for use), as
shown in figure 1.
Main Theme Main Theme

Teachers’ Support Enhance curriculum
Interview
Themes
Main Theme Emergent Themes
Students’ learning related to
Support conditions for use
Figure 1. Interview Themes

4.2.1 Main themes
The interview analysis yielded three main themes reflecting the research
questions: (1) teachers’ support, (2) students’ learning support, and (3)
enhancement of curriculum. Teachers seem to be aware about the importance and
benefits of using DRs in general. They believe that using LOs and digital
repositories as technological tools will help them overcome many challenges they
face with the sudden shift that occurred from face-to-face to online teaching due
to the Covid-19 pandemic. They view such kind of practices as an opportunity for
them to promote their own technological competencies.
“I am sure that if that repository was there, I would have taught online in a better way. I
heavily depended solely on YouTube videos, and it was not directly related every time.”
Interviewee H
Teachers agreed that using DRs and LOs will engage students to learning, increase
their motivation, and help them achieve learning outcomes.
“I am sure that Learning objects designed specially to address the schoolbook will highly
engage students in the lessons and facilitate understanding many ideas.” Interviewee H
They also believe that using LOs will simplify the complex and abstract concepts
in the curriculum and facilitate self-learning for them as they are dependent on
multimedia and include many activities.
“I think such repository was needed to support us in the period of online teaching during
the pandemic. We suffered a lot to find e-content matching the schoolbook.” Interviewee
H
14
“…if there were specially designed learning objects addressing our curriculum, I think
teachers will compete to use them.” Interviewee H
4.2.2 Emergent themes

“Conditions for use” is one emergent theme that came out of the interview
analysis. This theme was coded and analyzed in the following categories: (1)
training, (2) educational content, (3) ease of use, (4) and developing a community.
See figure 2.
Educational
Training
Content
Conditions
for use
Developing a
Ease of use
community
Figure 2. Interview emergent issues
In general, teachers confirmed the need for employing DRs and LOs in teaching
and learning. However, they raised many conditions for that use to be successful.
Five teachers (55.6%) emphasized the importance of changing their teaching styles
and approaches in such new educational settings, which is why they assured that
they must be trained on appropriately utilizing LOs and DRs to enhance the
teaching and learning process.
“We have to be trained first how to utilize DRs while teaching.”
Interviewee H
Most of them (7 teachers, 77.8%) believe that the content of LOs should directly
reflect the taught lessons, be presented in the taught language, and always be up
to date.
“We need local content in our language and reflecting the taught topics
in the book.” Interviewee B
“We suffer of the lake of Arabic e-content addressing the schoolbook”

Interviewee D
They assured the importance of providing a user-friendly interface and accessible

platforms. Four teachers (44.4%) confirmed the need of having small size LOs that
can be viewed and downloaded easily because of the poor internet connection
they have.
“Learning objects should be small in size or even used offline as the
network here is not fast.” Interviewee A
Also, three teachers (33.3%) highlighted the need for the LOs to be editable and
for there to be an option to upload their own objects.
“I think it will be great If I can edit the learning objects to match my
objectives in the lesson and focus on a certain part only.” Interviewee C
15
Finally, most of the teachers (8 teachers, 88.9%) raised the issue of developing a
community within the DR so that teachers as well as students can communicate
their experiences with the use of LOs in teaching and learning, and to also share
good practices.
“Allowing teachers from the same discipline to share best practices will
be a great addition, I need to see some examples from my colleagues to
build on.” Interviewee A
“We have some experienced teachers here in using technology, they can
help us to make model lessons.” Interviewee H
“Allowing students to communicate with each other, rate the learning

objects, comment, and reflect on their experience, will engage them in
learning without they even realize that.” Interviewee E
5. Discussion
The findings of the questionnaire and the interviews were both compatible. They
have shown a clear need to use DRs to enhance teaching and learning in Omani
schools. Needs were reported on three levels; needs to support teachers, needs to
support students’ learning, and needs to enhance curriculum. Teachers believe
that such a repository will raise both their technological and pedagogical skills.
The response of the teachers in general implies that if we put a DR in use,
including LOs related to the curriculum taught in Omani schools, it will be
accepted from the teachers’ side. Further, it can promote teaching and learning if
conditions raised in interviews related to training, educational content, ease of use,
and development of a community are implemented.
The responses on both research methods shed the light on the design and
implementation of digital repositories. In the questionnaire, the highest ranked
statement in the teachers’ needs was that the repository will open the opportunity
to share experiences and good practice among teachers. Also, in the interviews,
most teachers asked for the need for teachers and students to communicate their
experiences and share best practices together. This possibility needs to be
considered while developing a DR, where such a repository should have the
ability to make teachers communicate and collaborate to share their experiences
of using specific LOs in different learning situations. Also, the possibility for them
to modify or add their own LOs to the database will be an advantage for them to
peer review each other and develop their pedagogical skills in using technology-
based education. This is consistent with Arcos et al. (2017) who argue that
repositories are designed not only to store and disseminate objects, but also to
allow users to collaborate by reviewing, commenting on, and rating the content
they access.
Apparently, this can assist teachers to change their teaching approaches and styles
to be more technologically based and will encourage teachers to employ atypical
teaching strategies. This idea is supported by Wenger (1998), by the Community
of Practice where teachers from different schools in Oman will be allowed through
the DR to form a group which shares the same concerns, interacts regularly, and
learns from each other how to overcome their problems effectively.
16
The same argument can be extended to students themselves, where creating a

community for them in the DR will increase the opportunity for students’
collaboration. This is confirmed by Atenas and Havemann (2013) who assured
that quality repositories serve as a place for users to interact and form
communities of practice. Such practice will help them become active learners,
allow them to be engaged more to learning, and raise their motivation to learn as
reported by teachers.
As for the third type of needs related to the curriculum, the highest mean scores
were given to enhancing the educational content and simplifying complex and
abstract concepts. This is also consistent with the interview findings. Similarly,
when dealing with the curriculum within this collaborative environment, teachers
can improve the way a curriculum is introduced to students through sharing
experiences, modifying LOs and updating the way they are used in teaching.
Such results might shed light on the need to create a dynamic warehouse model
to contain local LOs that emulate the taught subjects in Omani schools and allow
teachers and students to communicate and interact for better utilization. (See
figure 3).
Omani Educational Context (School subjects)
Teachers’ Community Friendly-User Students’ Community

Interface
Upload
Download
Download View Online
Interaction DR Interaction
Figure 3. Dynamic Digital Repository for Omani schools
Based on the research methods findings, figure 3 shows how the DR can benefit
Omani schools if it is designed according to their perceptions of DRs and how
they can use it in teaching and learning. This is consistent with Yalcinalp and
Emiroglu (2012) and Tang et al., (2020). The figure addresses how DRs can support
teacher and student learning within the context of the local curriculum. Also, it
shows DRs can allow teachers and students to interact and share best practices
while using the DR in relation to school subjects in the Omani context. This is
anticipated to aid in the promotion of teaching and learning experiences.
The DRs should be under the control of the Ministry of Education in order to
ensure the sustainability and quality of the LOs, as well as their ability to achieve
the required goals for educational institutions in light of modern technology.
Based on the questionnaire results and interview analysis, the study proposes a
comprehensive plan for implementing DRs in school education in Oman as
follows:
17
The proposed plan consists of six stages as follows (see figure 4):
Design &
Development Awareness
Needs
analysis
Dissemination Evaluation
Figure 4. The proposed plan for developing and employing DRs in Omani schools
The first stage (needs analysis): seeks to identify the actual needs of schools in
developing the DRs. This will primarily be determined by stakeholder needs.
Information about the project must be gathered in terms of design, production,
and implementation at this stage in line with teachers’ needs. This also includes
information about curriculum and learning materials. Analyzing human
resources in schools and identifying needs and levels of expertise for both teachers
and students are also required at this stage. Furthermore, it is critical to determine
the availability of technical support as well as the quality of the internet
connection. Finally, the financial aspect will be examined in terms of the cost of
materials and software, with the goal of obtaining financial assistance from the
local community.
Stage two (design & development): Based on the analysis of the interview results,
the design stage reflects emergent themes related to “educational content”,
“developing a community” and “ease of use”. The latter can be addressed by
following the Human Computer Interaction (HCI) Principles in the design (Al
Mahdi et al., 2019). Also, this phase can be addressed by applying the Dynamic
DR (see figure 3).
Accordingly, the repository can be designed and developed with the following
features:
- Unrestricted access to digital content for all teachers and students.
- The digital content in Omani schools should be localized and cover all
school subjects and scientific disciplines at all grade levels.
- DR should allow and encourage teachers to upload their own lesson plans
for use by other teachers and students.
- DR should encourage interaction between teachers and students so that
they can share best practices and ideas for reusing digital learning objects
in a variety of educational settings. This will assist teachers in improving
their pedagogical skills and developing novel teaching methods and
strategies for use in teaching and learning.
- DR should protect the intellectual property of knowledge resource owners
and encourage them to participate more.
- Refreshing digital content on a regular basis.
- A user-friendly interface, as well as adhering to the appropriate technical
and educational standards when developing the repository
18
Stage three (raising awareness): Based on the analysis of the interview results, the
awareness stage reflects the emergent theme related to “training”. This stage aims
to establish mechanisms for increasing beneficiary awareness of the importance
of incorporating the DR into the educational process and improving teaching and
learning. Also, this is to provide appropriate pedagogical training for teachers and
students in order for them to efficiently utilize the repository.
Stage four (evaluation): aims to pilot the repository and assess its usability from
the perspective of the beneficiaries, where we can gather feedback and users'
opinions about the content, ease of use of the repository, and the extent to which
it is beneficial in the teaching and learning process.
Stage five (dissemination): This is the final stage, in which the repository is made
available on the internet so that it can be used in more than one school and is easily
accessible to both teachers and students.
6. Conclusion and future work

DRs are one of many advanced systems for e-learning and distance learning that
can hold a wealth of information and useful elements for achieving educational
objectives. They may contain many digital LOs, which can provide an enhanced
educational environment in which these elements can be easily reused in various
educational situations based on the needs of each educational situation. The
power of this study is that it reflects teachers’ perceptions about using such
technology in teaching and learning. Suggestions of the study are based on their
teachers’ perceptions as they can be a key to better implementation. According to
the findings, DRs are required in Omani schools on three levels of needs: teachers’
support, students' learning support, and curriculum enhancement. The suggested
Dynamic DR model assimilates all these needs to ensure better operation. Also,
based on the findings and the suggested Dynamic DR model, a proposed plan for
developing and employing digital repositories in Omani schools is introduced.
This will ensure the systematic implementation of DRs in Omani schools under
the control of the Ministry of Education to ensure quality, effectiveness of
usability, and sustainability. Additionally, the current study will help to establish
the concepts of "free and open access" to educational content within the context of
Omani schools, where teachers and students will be able to browse, download,
edit, and upload content at any time using a dynamic DR that provides open
interactive e-learning content to improve teaching and learning processes in
Omani schools. Future studies are to work on the evaluation of the feasibility of
using DRs after implementing them in a systematic way. The evaluation should
go beyond knowing teachers’ perceptions to trying to understand how this
practice was beneficial to students themselves and their views about
improvement.
Acknowledgements
The research leading to these results has received funding from the Research
Council (TRC) of the Sultanate of Oman under the Block Funding Program. TRC
Block Funding Agreement No [BFP/RGP/EHR/18/156].
19
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22

Vol. 21, No. 5, pp. 22-45, May 2022
Received Feb 22, 2022; Revised Apr 29, 2022; Accepted May 2, 2022
A Gender-Based Analysis of Classroom

Interaction Practices: The Effect Thereof on
University Students’ Academic Performance
Norman Rudhumbu
University of South Africa, South Africa
Abstract. The need to optimize student interactions in universities for

enhanced academic performance has been a subject of debate and
discussion in different academic fora. A number of studies have shown
that students, both male and female, can assert themselves academically
if they are provided with opportunities for active participation and
interaction with their lecturers and peers for both the horizontal and the
vertical sharing of knowledge. The purpose of this study, therefore, was
to investigate the gender-based interaction practices of science,
mathematics and technology university students, and how these
interactive patterns influence their academic performance. Using a
quantitative approach located in the post-positivist paradigm, the study
employed a structured questionnaire to collect the data from a sample of
1285 students from three universities. The results of the study showed
that institutional practices, lecturers, parents, peers, learning content and
artifacts, as well as the classroom environment, have a significant
influence on the gender-based interaction practices of university
students. Furthermore,, the results showed that the levels of interaction
have a significant influence on the academic performance of university
students, according to gender. As a main recommendation, it was
proposed that universities should come up with gender-equity policies
that would guide how the universities and their stakeholders could cater
for the issues of gender equity.
Keywords: classroom environment; gender; gender equity; higher

education; institutional practices; STEM
1. Introduction
The issues of gender and gender equity in all the facets of life including education,
have become a topical issue the world over. Governments worldwide have come
up with policies that promote the equal and equitable participation of men and
women, girls and boys, in the economic spheres that include education. In the
context of Zimbabwe, “Since 1980, a number of policies and strategies have been
put in place, in order to promote gender equity in education; and these have
included the introduction of education for all, free primary education, and the
attraction of international agencies that support education in the country”
©Author
23
(Chabaya & Gudhlanga, 2013, p.1). While these and other policies have
contributed to a significant increase in the education of girls, thereby achieving
gender equity in the participation of girls in education, there is still work in
progress, particularly in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics
(STEM), subjects in which only 19% of female students are enrolled, compared to
39% of male students (World Economic Forum, 2018).
Gender-based interactions in the science, mathematics and technology classrooms

have been the subject of extensive research and debate over a number of decades,
owing to their importance in the teaching and learning processes (Howe &
Abedin, 2013). These interactions, as social skills, have also been viewed in a
number of studies, as being critical for enhancing the academic performance of
university students (Consuegra, 2015). Among the reasons for gender-based
differences in the levels and patterns of interactions between male and female
students in universities, there are certain practices in the educational institutions
themselves. Hurtado (2021), in his study, found that educational institutions
continue to develop and reinforce, through their practices, gender segregation,
stereotypes and discrimination via the teaching methods they use and the content
developed in science, mathematics and technology textbooks.
This was also confirmed by Elliot (2010), whose findings showed that educational
institutions have become active agents in the perpetuation of the gender-based
behavioural differences between male and female students, as a result of the
nature of the task assignments they give to students and the methodologies they
use during instruction. In the context of Zimbabwe, the issue of gender disparity
in the 22 universities is not a new phenomenon; yet the problem still continues
unabated (Guzura & Chigora, 2021). Despite the existence of gender inequity in
universities in Zimbabwe (Guzura & Chigora, 2021), there is no study known to
the researchers that has been conducted to establish how gender inequity in
higher education affects gender-based interaction levels and the academic
performance of students. This study, therefore, is an attempt to bridge the
research gap; and it is guided by the following research questions: (i) What factors
promote the gender-based interactive practices of students in universities in
Zimbabwe? (ii) How significantly do these factors influence the gender-based
interaction levels of students in the local universities? (iii) Is there any significant
relationship between the gender-based interactive levels of university students
and their academic performance?
2. The concept of gender and gender differences

The concept of gender can be understood in two ways, either as a biological
composition of the body, or as a socialisation-related attribute (Elliot, 2010). As a
biological attribute, Consuegra et al. (2016) found that gender plays a very
minimal role in the behavioural differences between men and women, and, in the
context of the current study, between male and female students. In the same
study, Consuegra et al. (2016) found that rather, it is gender as a socialisation
attribute that inflates the minor biological differences out of proportion, by
causing serious gender-based differences in the behaviour of men and women.
Elliot (2010) also found that the socialisation-related gender-based view is the
24
reason why women are regarded as homemakers, who are mostly responsible for
parenting, while men are regarded as wage earners.
Socialisation in this case is defined as the unconscious and sometimes conscious

process by which people learn to behave in a certain way, as a result of their
interactions with other actors (parents, peers, lecturers and others) and via
socialisation agents, such as the media, textbooks and others (Halimi et al., 2016).
Gee (2000) defined gender as the kind of person one is recognised as being, at a
given time and place. The issues of time and place are the descriptors of gender,
which imply that each person has multiple identities connected not to their
biological attributes, but rather, to their socially assigned roles and positions
(Consuegra et al., 2016). A person’s gender, therefore, from a sociological
perspective, relates to interactions and symbolic behaviours in the social sphere;
while from a physiological point of view, it relates to the issues of masculinity and
femininity (Vantieghem et al., 2014). Bigler et al. (2013) are of the view that while
nature (biology that determines the sex of the student) and nurture
(environmental factors, such as socialisation, that define the gender of a person
through role assignment) act together in reciprocal causal, and interactive ways,
to produce gender-based differences in the behaviour of male and female
students, it is nurture that contributes more significantly to gender-based
differences. This, therefore, means that it is how boys and girls are socialised at
home, and how female and male students are socialised at school, that pose the
greatest challenge to dealing with the problem of educational inequity in
universities.
3. Theoretical and conceptual frameworks informing hypotheses and

their formulation
This study used the socio-cultural theory developed by Vygotsky (1978), as a
theoretical lens. The theory deals with the social construction of knowledge; and
it is premised on the belief that social experience plays a dominant role in human
development in general, and in knowledge acquisition in particular (Kurt, 2020).
Based on the fact that interaction is a social skill (Voyer & Voyer, 2014), this theory
has been found to be particularly relevant to this study. According to Vygotsky
(1978), true human development is not from the individual to the social, but rather
it is from the social to the individual. As a result, the theory maintains that social
settings and learning are interrelated (Kurt, 2020).
Institutional practices (IP)
H1
Lecturer factors (LF)
H2
Parental factors (PF)
H3
Interaction levels Academic
H7
Peer factors (PF) H4 (IL) performance (AP)
H5
Learning content and
artifacts (LCA)
H6
Classroom climate (CC)
Figure 1: The research model
25
The theory demonstrates that for effective teaching and learning, lecturers must
act as facilitators, who engage students in guided interactions, comprehensive
thoughtful discussions and the creation of collaborative communities of learners
(Polly et al., 2020; Kurt, 2020; Ibañez & Pentang, 2021). Polly et al. (2020, p.2) found
that learning “awakens a variety of internal development processes that are only
able to operate when a student interacts with others.” This is perhaps the reason
why Matusov (2015) argued that we cannot understand cognitive development
without first understanding the social and historical context within which it is
situated. Based on the theoretical and conceptual frameworks, a research model
(Figure 1), was developed. Figure 1 demonstrates that the factors that include
institutional practices, lecturer factors, parental factors, peer factors, learning
content and artifacts, as well as the classroom climate, may have a significant
effect on the interaction levels of boys and girls in the classroom; while
furthermore, the interaction levels may have a significant effect on the academic
performance of the students.
3.1. Institutional practices as determinants of gender-based interaction

differences
Educational institutions, such as universities, are expected to provide all students,
male and female alike, with equal opportunities to interact with their lecturers,
peers and content, for enhanced academic performance. Institutional practices are
defined as opportunities that institutions create and provide for all students to be
able to effectively learn (Ziskin et al., 2010), Such opportunities include teaching
and learning practices, recruitment practices, promotion practices, support and
development practices, orientation and residential-life practices, among others
(Ziskin et al., 2010). Interaction, being a social skill, is critical for the academic
performance of students (Voyer & Voyer, 2014); and it needs to be nurtured by
educational institutions.
Without a clearly articulated institutional vision and policy that guides

institutional practices on gender-equity issues in university classrooms, charting
the right direction, in order to facilitate equity in the participation of both male
and female students in the learning process in universities, this becomes a
challenge (OECD, 2015). Chapman (2015) established that gender-based
socialisation practices in higher educational institutions continue to ensure that
female students are made aware that they are unequal to male students. This has
serious ramifications on their self-esteem, confidence, motivation and ultimately
on their academic performance (Hurtado, 2021).
As a result of these institutional practices that continue to promote inequity,

classroom practices also by extension, continue to ensure, through the teaching
methodologies used, examples selected to clarify concepts, and the technology
artifacts used, whereby female students understand their lower academic rank,
when compared to male students.
Bigler et al. (2013, p.1) in their study found that the institutional “experiences
afforded to both male and female students affect gender differentiation, both
directly by providing differential skills practice and reinforcement, and indirectly
26
by providing inputs that lead to students being socialised and behaving in gender-
differentiated ways.”
H1: Institutional practices have a significant influence on the gender-interaction levels of
university students during lessons.
3.2. Lecturers as determinants of gender-based interaction differences

Consuegra et al. (2016) also established that, just like parents’ expectations of their
children, the expectations of lecturers of students have a significant influence on
their interaction levels and on their academic performance. Lecturers relate to the
academics tasked with the teaching of students in colleges and universities. Howe
and Abedin (2013) found that the gender-based character of the expectations of
lecturers of students has a very high influence on how male and female students
participate in learning, as well as on the students’ future behaviour after school.
In their separate studies, Consuegra et al. (2016), Hurtado (2021) and Gustavsen
(2019) found that lecturers tend to have differential expectations of male and
female students’ academic performance, as well as to behave and communicate
differentially towards male and female students. All these expectations have
significant effects on the self-esteem, achievement motivation, level of aspiration,
classroom conduct and levels of interaction of both male and female students
during lessons (Consuegra et al., 2016).
Howe and Abedin (2013) also found that lecturers tend to give more opportunities
to male students for participating in learning activities; and they would more
likely select a male student instead of a female student, when both raise their
hands at the same time to answer a question. This behaviour by lecturers has a
significant effect on the self-esteem, confidence and motivation of female students
to participate in classroom activities (Mullen et al., 2015). Hassaskah and Zamir
(2013), in their published work on gender-based interactive differences between
male and female students in universities, also found that lecturers’ attitudes and
expectations of the genders have a significant influence on their behaviour
towards the levels to which female students can, or should, participate in class,
when compared to the levels at which male students participate.
These atypical assumptions about the levels of interaction between male and
female students are, therefore, the reason why many of the research findings have
demonstrated that female students’ participation levels in class are generally and
deliberately made lower than those for male students – by their lecturers.
In another study, Sadker et al. (2009) found that instead of interacting with all the
students, lecturers tend to spend two thirds of their teaching time interacting with
male students, and also that lecturers are more likely to interrupt a female student
and allow male students to take over a discussion, or an explanation of a concept.
Such a behaviour demeans female students; and it significantly affects their self-
esteem and interaction levels in class. Weiler (2009) also established that in science
and mathematics courses, lecturers tend to mostly direct their gaze towards male
students, and to call male students to go to the front to perform demonstrations,
when compared to female students, thereby indicating that the sciences and
mathematics courses are not for female students, but for male students.
27
Carlana (2019), in her study, further found that lecturers grade male students
better than female students, especially in these science, mathematics and
technology courses, with male students consequently getting higher grades than
female students on answers similar to the ones that female students would have
provided. These practices have serious negative implications for the confidence,
self-esteem and participation levels of female students in such courses.
Nevertheless, Pentang et al. (2021) have shown that male and female university
students are given equal opportunities to select any field of specialization.
H2: Lecturers have a significant influence on gender-interaction levels of university
students during lessons.
3.3. Parents as determinants of gender-based interaction differences

Parents represent the primary socialising agents from the birth of a child to
adulthood (Hurtado, 2021; Consuegra et al., 2016; Gustavsen, 2019). In their study,
Halimi et al. (2016) found that because parents are responsible for transmitting
sex roles to their children from early years on, they influence both the general, as
well as the educational expectations of their children in terms of how actively the
child would participate in life in general and in school, and in how much of
academic performance, they set the bar for themselves to achieve.
Mullen et al. (2015) found that parents who socialise their daughters to become
timid, and to look inferior to their brothers, contribute to the development of timid
and inferior tendencies, and hence to low levels of participation and interaction in
class from girls. In a similar study, Consuegra et al. (2016) found that parents tend
to transmit feelings and behaviours of subservience to their daughters that have
negative future implications on how the girls will interact with others in life in
general, and also in school classrooms in particular.
H3: Parents have a significant influence on gender-based interaction levels of university
3.4. Peers as determinants of gender-based interaction differences

Peers represent a referent group, that is, a group with which a student interacts
for most of the time during and after school hours (Gustavsen, 2019). Consuegra
et al. (2016) argue that peers represent a critical social group in the gender-
socialisation process, which exerts a big influence on a student’s attitudes, general
behaviour and interaction levels in classrooms. Separate studies by Consuegra et
al. (2016) and Gustavsen (2019) found that if a student’s peer group represents a
vibrant and active group that would always actively participate in school and
class activities, the student would be socialised to be active and to participate
actively in school and class activities, and vice versa. In a similar study, Nusche
(2015) found that the levels of interaction of students in the classroom also depend
on their perceptions of how they are perceived by their peers.
In the same study, it was found that male students are easily influenced by their
peers to either participate or not to participate, when compared to female
students, whose participation is because of their love of learning.
H4: Peers have a significant influence on gender-based interaction levels of university
28
Learning content and artifacts as determinants of gender-based interaction

differences
Content represents the information that students learn; while artifacts relate to the
objects made by human beings, typically one of cultural, technological or
historical interest (Förtsch et al., 2020). Content in textbooks and artifacts in
science and technology that are used for learning in universities has been found
to have a significant effect on the gender-interaction levels of male and female
students in universities (Witt & Hofmeister, 2015). Goode et al. (2020) aver that
content that stereotypes men and boys as technically oriented, and women and
girls as not, has for a long time been one of the reasons for the perpetuation of
gender differences in the levels of interaction of students in university classrooms.
Fortsch and Gartig (2020) also found that gender stereotypes, stereotype threats
and gender roles, as shown in textbooks, technology artifacts and other learning
materials contribute significantly to the differences in the levels of participation
in class by male and female students.
In their study also, Witt and Hofmeister (2015) found that gender differences in
the use of technology by male and students during lessons, are as a result of
technology designers, who play a key role in gendering technology artifacts, when
they integrate designs into technology products with assumptions about skills,
motives and traits of potential users, who in most cases are expected to be males.
These content- and artefact-based stereotypes have deep social and cultural roots;
and they have a significant impact on how male and female students rate their
skills and knowledge, and consequently on how much they are comfortable, when
participating actively during lessons (Fortsch et al., 2020).
H5: Learning content and artifacts have a significant influence on gender-based
interaction levels of university students during lessons.
3.5. Classroom climate as a determinant of gender-interaction differences

The classroom environment is one of the influential factors in the development of
gender differences in the interaction levels between male and female university
students (Gustavsen, 2019). Classrooms are defined as “dynamic, complex social
systems with unique processes (reciprocal interactions), persons (unique
attributes and skills), and contexts (environmental influences) that affect the
development of students and their participation in learning’ (Gustavsen, 2019,
p.2). As a result of the complex nature of classrooms and their environments,
different students behave differently; and it is these differences that need to be
effectively managed by the lecturers, in order to ensure adequate and equal
interaction during the learning process by both male and female students.
Caribay (2015) argued that the classroom climate can potentially affect students’
engagement (interaction) and their academic performance, particularly if students
feel segregated, discriminated against and disrespected. In his study, Caribay
(2015) further established two types of classroom climates that influence student
interaction, namely, the explicitly marginalising climate and the implicitly
marginalising climate. The explicitly marginalising climate is hostile,
unwelcoming and discriminating, in which the lecturers and/or other students,
are clearly discriminatory and disdainful of female students. On the other hand,
the implicitly marginalising climate is characterised by subtle and indirect
29
postures and remarks of a demeaning and discriminatory nature against female

students in the classroom.
Hurtado (2021) found that classroom climates that are negative or discriminatory
against female students affect their self-esteem and preparation for class, self-
confidence, and their motivation to participate, regardless of their ability. Pervin
et al. (2021) also opine that, on the other hand, a warm and welcoming learning
environment that provides students with a feeling of control and security, helps
students to be more engaged, active and satisfied, thereby leading to better
academic performance. These findings show that both male and female students,
who have feelings of control and security, do better in school.
H6: Classroom climate has a significant influence on gender-based interaction levels of
university students during lessons.
3.6. Interaction levels as determinants of academic performance

Interaction relates to opportunities for students, and/or students and lecturers, to
ask each other questions, discuss, or reflect on topics in the classroom (Wei, 2021).
On the other hand, academic performance is the outcome of the knowledge
gained, which is assessed by the marks allocated by a teacher, and/or the
educational goals set by students and teachers to be achieved over a specific
period of time (Narad & Abdullah, 2016). Student interaction levels have been
linked in a number of studies for academic success (Aguillon et al., 2020; Casper
et al., 2019; Ballen et al., 2019). Academic performance, as it relates to the
achievement of learning goals by students (Hurtado, 2021; Carlana, 2019; Harbin
et al., 2020). Dana (2020) established that gender-classroom interaction can either
obstruct or promote the academic performance of students.
In their studies on gender differences in academic performances between male

and female university students, Pervin et al. (2021) and Aristovinik et al. (2020)
found that students with higher levels of interaction, whether male or female,
demonstrated higher levels of academic achievement in their areas of study than
those with lower levels of interaction. Gopal and Singh (2021), Martin (2021),
Mensink and King (2020) and Almaiah and Alyoussef (2019) found that lecturers
who actively interact more with either male or female students by providing them
with timely responses to questions, timely feedback, and also by ensuring that the
students get more access to participation opportunities than other students,
contribute significantly to gender-academic performance by their students. Other
studies by Hashemi (2021), Terblanche et al. (2021), Oviawe (2020) and Ansari and
Khan (2020) also found that high levels of interaction between lecturers and
students, and between students themselves, contribute to the development of
positive self-esteem, motivation and satisfaction among students, which in turn
lead to enhanced academic performance.
Studies by Ndirika and Ubani (2017) and Oludipe (2012) however, found no
significant relationship between the levels of student interaction and academic
performance, according to gender. This was also confirmed in separate studies by
Knight et al. (2016) and Cooper et al. (2018), who also found that the levels of
interaction in class did not have any significant influence on the academic
performance of students in universities.
30
H7: Gender-based interaction levels have a significant influence on the academic

performance of university students.
4. Materials and Methods

4.1. Research design and approach
A cross-sectional survey design that employed a quantitative approach located in
the post-positivist paradigm was used in the study. The study was guided by the
deductive theory. The study was conducted in 2021 at three selected universities
in Bindura, a town that is about 100 kilometres from Harare, the capital city of
Zimbabwe.
Research participants and sampling procedures

The study was conducted at three universities located in the town of Bindura as
research sites. A sample for the study was drawn from students in academic
faculties training students in sciences, mathematics and technology at each of the
three universities. The total number of students in these academic faculties was
11000 – from first year to final year students. Using the Research Advisors’ (2006)
sample size table at a 99% level of confidence and a 3.5% margin of error, the
sample size for the study was determined as 1285 students. Using proportional
representation, each of the three universities had institutional samples
distributed, as follows: X1=217; X2=739 and X3=329. Stratified random-sampling
strategy was used to select the students for each institutional sample from the
academic faculties.
The researcher first requested permission from the offices of the Deputy
Registrars Academy, to carry out the study at the three universities; and
permission was granted. Thereafter, the Deputy Registrars Academy then liaised
with the Deans of the academic faculties at their universities, in order to facilitate
the selection of the institutional samples to participate in the study, according to
the guidelines of the researcher, and in line with COVID-19 protocols. After
institutional samples were established and the emails of the participants were
given to the researcher, a total of 1285 questionnaires were distributed online
through the emails of the selected students. Being an online survey, two weeks
were allowed for the completion and return of the completed questionnaires, in
line with the minimum recommended time for the administration of online
surveys of 12.21 days (Ilieva et al., 2002).
A further one week was allowed as the follow-up period. After three weeks, a
total of 460 completed questionnaires were returned, giving a return rate of 35.8%,
which was considered acceptable, as it met the minimum recommended return
rate of 33% for online surveys. Based on the returned completed online
questionnaires, the demographic profiles of the respondents were analysed, as
shown in Table 1.
31
Table 1: Demographic profiles of participants

Demographic factor Items %
Gender Female 56
Male 44
Age ≤20 years 9
21-30years 61
> 30years 30
Educational level 1st year 32
2nd year 31
3rd year 20
Final year 17
The results in Table 1 show that most of the students (56%) enrolled at the three
universities were females, which shows that the three universities have turned a
leaf with regard to the issues of gender equity. 70% of the students at the
universities were 30 years and below in age, which is consistent with the fact that
most of the students (63%) at the universities are either in their first year or in their
second year of studies.
4.2. Instrument design

The study used the Student-Interaction and Academic-Performance
Questionnaire (SIAPQ) developed by the researcher and adopted from the
Lecturer-Student-Relationship Questionnaire (TSRQ) Rating Scale and the
literature review. The questionnaire has 8 sections with 68 items, as follows:
Institutional practices (IP) – 7 items; Lecturer factors (LF) – 34 items; Parent factors
(PF) – 6 items; Peer factors (PE) – 4 items; Learning content and artifacts (LCA) –
4 items; Classroom climate (CC) – 6 items; Interaction levels (IL) – 4 items; and
Academic performance (AP) – 3 items. A 5-point Likert scale with scales from
Almost never (AN-1), Seldom (SE-2), Sometimes (SO-3), Often (OF-4), and Always
(AL-5) was used in the design of the questionnaire. The proof of the instrument
used in the study is shown in Appendix A, which shows the constructs, their
items, the item codes and the item sources; while Appendix B shows a structured
questionnaire. It is also shown in the sections of the questionnaire that most of the
questions are under the lecturer factors; since most of the learning occurs in the
classroom under the lecturer.
4.3. Measurement of the model assessment

The researchers used the following data-validation tools for the measurement-
assessment model: the normality test, the non-response bias test, the common-
method bias test, the convergent validity and the discriminant-validity
assessment.
4.3.1. The normality test

SPSS version 24 was used for normality testing. Based on the results, the
observations of the Q-Q plots, the box plots and the histograms demonstrated that
the data were normally distributed. This was further confirmed by using the Z-
scores, calculated by using the SPSS version 24. The results showed that all the Z-
32
scores (n = 460), ranged between -2.58 and +2.58 at a 1% level of significance, thus
confirming the data normality (Pallant, 2016; Hair et al., 2017).
4.3.2. The common-method bias

The common-method bias (CMB), also called the common-method variance
(CMV) was used to assess the potential threat to the validity of the data. This is
done to assess whether variations in responses are caused by the design of the
instrument, or by the actual predispositions of the respondents that the
instrument attempts to expose (Jordan & Troth, 2020; Jakobsen & Jensen, 2015;
Podsakoff et al., 2012). Using Herman’s single-factor test, also called the Herman’s
one-factor test, to assess any CMB in the data, the principal-component analysis
in SPSS version 24 was conducted to examine the unrotated factor solution, in
order to obtain the number of items with eigenvalues of less than 1 that explain
the aggregate variance (Fuller et al., 2016; Jordan & Troth, 2020; Williams &
McGonagle, 2016).
The results showed that there was no threat of CMB in the data; as the total
variance extracted by one factor was 33.7%, which was below the recommended
threshold of 50%; and none of the factors explained a variance of more than this
threshold (Ankitha & Basri, 2019; Jordan & Troth, 2020; Podsakoff et al., 2012).
4.3.3. The non-response bias

The non-response bias test (NBT), also called the participation-bias test (PBT), was
used to assess whether there was any threat of the results being non-
representative; because a significant number of people in the survey sample had
failed to respond and disproportionately possessed some traits that affected the
results (Cheung et al., 2017). The researcher used the method recommended by
Whitehead, Groothuis and Blomquist (1993) and Armstrong and Overton (1977)
to assess the NBT. Using this method, the researcher compared the means of each
of the first 100 entries of responses against those of the last 100 entries; and the
results were not significantly different, confirming that the data were free of the
threat of non-response bias.
4.3.4. The convergent validity

To measure convergent validity for the data, the researcher used model-fit indices,
the standardised factor loadings (λ), and the individual item reliability (squared-
multiple correlations) (Iα), Cronbach’s alpha (α), composite reliability (CRα),
critical rations (CR), and the average variance extracted (AVE).
Table 2: Convergent validity assessment using model fit indices

Construct Absolute fit measures Incremental fit Parsimonious fit
measures measures
χ2/df GFI AGFI NFI TLI CFI RMSEA
Institutional 2.044 0.964 0.941 0.975 0.969 0.931 0.043
practices (IP)
Lecturer factors 1.961 0.985 0.933 0.981 0.971 0.927 0.044
(LF)
Parents factors 1.992 0.974 0.936 0.979 0.982 0.944 0.041
(PF
33
Peer factors (PE) 2.331 0.984 0.941 0.975 0.980 0.947 0.046
Learning content 2.055 0.986 0.951 0.983 0.969 0.933 0.043
and artifacts
(LCA)
Classroom 2.319 0.979 0.946 0.974 0.982 0.937 0.045
climate (CC)
Interaction levels 1.993 0.981 0.936 0.985 0.981 0.943 0.042
(IL)
Academic 2.351 0.985 0.921 0.974 0.979 0.935 0.044
performance (AP)
Recommended ≤3.000 >0.950 >0.900 >0.950 >0.950 >0.900 <0.080
values
Sources Bagozzi Hooper Chau Chin Kline Bagozzi Browne
and Yi et al. and and (2005) and Yi and
(1988) (2008) Hu Todd (1988) Cudeck
(2001) (1995) (1993)
Notes: χ2/df – Chi-square divided by degrees of freedom; GFI-Goodness of fit index; AGFI-
Adjusted goodness of fit index; NFI-Normed fit index; TLI-Tucker-Lewis’s index; CFI-Comparative
fit index; RMSEA-Root mean square error of approximation
The results in Table 2 show that, after removing outlier items, which had a
standardised loading of less than 0.6, all the indices satisfied the minimum
recommended requirements. The outlier items that had factor loadings that were
less than 0.6, and were removed from the data were IP3, IP5, LF5, LF6, LF12, LF13,
LF14, LF26, LF32, PF1, PF5, and LCA1. The final results on the assessment of the
model fit indices, therefore, confirmed the presence of convergent validity.
Table 3: λ, Iα, CR, α, CRα, AVE, TL, VIF

Construct Items λ Iα CR α CRα AVE TL VIF
Institutional IP1 0.815 0.631 - 0.819 0.833 0.621 0.347 4.113
practices IP2 0.741 0.703 21.338***
IP4 0.753 0.822 19.085***
IP6 0.819 0.659 18.277***
IP7 0.844 0.733 15.119***
Lecturer LF1 0.910 0.855 - 0.855 0.920 0.633 0.391 2.059
factors LF2 0.929 0.641 27.447***
LF3 0.833 0.663 26.148***
LF4 0.821 0.644 24.307***
LF7 0.837 0.758 23.088***
LF8 0.762 0.705 22.316***
LF9 0.808 0.810 21.113***
LF10 0.813 0.728 20.433***
LF11 0.752 0.803 20.128***
LF15 0.755 0.655 20.016***
LF16 0.733 0.772 19.449***
LF17 0.769 0.812 19.217***
LF18 7651 0.671 19.022***
LF19 0.825 0.663 17.649***
LF20 0.716 0.701 17.341***
LF21 0.826 0.825 17.220***
LF22 0.735 0.726 17.019***
34
LF23 0.811 0.669 16.920***

LF24 0.736 0.817 15.227***
LF25 0.746 0.801 15.104***
LF27 0.802 0.714 14.287***
LF28 0.734 0.654 12.992***
LF29 0.728 0.647 12.317***
LF30 0.818 0.704 11.427***
LF31 0.726 0.811 9.285***
LF33 0.772 0.651 8.662***
LF34 0.810 0.763 8.115***
Parent PF2 0.781 0.706 - 0.759 0.815 0.701 0.417 5.044
factors PF3 0.858 0.735 18.503***
PF4 0.803 0.771 16.219***
PF6 0.851 0.649 15.288***
Peer factors PE1 0.775 0.715 - 0.913 0.920 0.647 0.425 4.958
PE2 0.824 0.723 20.316***
PE3 0.819 0.802 19.709***
PE4 0.827 0.648 17.335***
Learning LCA2 0.771 0.784 - 0.817 0.823 0.625 0.452 3.620
content and LCA3 0.722 0.722 15.729***
artifacts LCA4 0.709 0.639 14.228***
Classroom CC1 0.755 0.664 - 0.791 0.803 0.644 0.401 1.429
climate CC2 0.705 0.718 12.881***
CC3 0.833 0.703 9.283***
CC4 0.729 0.665 8.517***
CC5 0.815 0.741 6.551***
CC6 0.747 0.641 5.910***
Interaction IL1 0.805 0.829 - 0.927 0.931 0.609 0.319 3.337
levels IL2 0.910 0.733 19.427***
IL3 0.739 0.727 17.319***
IL4 0.802 0.641 16.662***
Academic AA1 0.772 0.746 - 0.844 0.857 0.640 0.328 4.272
performance AA2 0.779 0.808 28.336***
AA3 0.805 0.713 25.137***
Notes: TL – Tolerance level, VIF – Variance inflation factor, CR is fixed, significant at ***p < .001
The results in Table 3 were used to evaluate whether the assumptions of

multicollinearity were not violated, as well as to assess convergent validity.
Tolerance levels (TL) and the variance-inflation factor (VIF) were used to assess
whether the assumptions of multicollinearity were not violated in the study. For
all the constructs, the results in Table 3 show that TL < 1 and VIF < 10, confirming
that the assumptions of multicollinearity were not violated in the study
(Chatterjee & Hadi 2013; Saunders et al., 2012).
When testing for convergent validity, λ, Iα, CR, α, CRα and AVE were used. The
data were first cleaned of outliers, as indicated above. The internal consistency
reliability of the data was confirmed by the fact that for all the constructs, the
coefficients for Iα > 0.06 (Nunnally, 1978; Segars, 1997) and the coefficients of α
and CRα were also all greater than 0.7 (Nunnally, 1978; Segars, 1997) thus
satisfying the minimum recommended values for internal consistency reliability.
For factor loadings, all loadings satisfied the minimum recommended value of λ
35
> 0.6 (Bagozzi & Yi, 1988). The results also show that all the critical ratio values
satisfied the recommended values of CR > 2; and they were significant at p < 0.001
(Segars, 1997). Also, all AVE values satisfied the minimum recommended value
of AVE > 0.5 (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Based on the fact that all the metrics λ, Iα,
CR, α, CRα and AVE satisfied the recommended values, as demonstrated above,
convergent validity was confirmed in the data.
Table 4: Measurement of discriminant validity

CR AVE MSV Max IP LF PF PE LCA CC IL AP
R
(H)
IP 0.833 0.621 0.357 0.841 0.788
LF 0.920 0.633 0.235 0.925 0.241 0.796
PF 0.815 0.701 0.208 0.822 0.109 0.227 0.837
PE 0.920 0.647 0.318 0.936 0.096 0.135 0.217 0.804
LCA 0.823 0.625 0.261 0.830 0.117 0.220 0.335 0.228 0.791
CC 0.803 0.644 0.317 0.915 0.105 0.169 0.212 0.155 0.485 0.802
IL 0.931 0.609 0.304 0.939 0.119 0.091 0.173 0.207 0.144 0.144 0.780
AP 0.857 0.640 0.295 0.861 0.217 0.115 0.215 0.193 0.316 0.205 0.614 0.800
Notes: CR-Composite reliability, AVE- Average variance extracted, MSV-Maximum shared
variance, Max R (H)-Maximum reliability, Bold diagonal values represent the square roots of AVE.
Two methods were used in Table 4 to assess the discriminant validity of the data.
The comparison between MSV and AVE shows that the AVE values are greater
than the MSV values, demonstrating the presence of discriminant validity in the
data (Wheaton et al., 1977). Also, a comparison between square roots of AVE (bold
diagonal values) and corresponding inter-construct correlations shows that the
square roots of AVE values are greater than the corresponding inter-construct
correlations, thereby again confirming the presence of discriminant validity in the
data (Segars, 1997).
4.4. The data analysis

Descriptive statistics were used for summarizing the data. The data were
validated by using the normality test, the non-response bias test, the common-
method bias test, convergent validity and discriminant-validity assessment.
Inferential statistics (AMOS Version 24) were used to test the relationships
between the dependent variable and the independent variables.
5. The results
5.1. Hypotheses testing
The researchers first evaluated whether the model fit indices were acceptable
before testing the hypotheses by using the AMOS version 24. The results showed
that the model-fit indices were acceptable, as they were within the recommended
values: χ2/df = 1.972, GFI= 0.973, AGFI= 0.933, NFI = 0.966,TLI = 0.941, CFI = 983,
and MSEA = 0.0478 (Hair et al., 2017; Hooper et al., 2008). The path coefficients
were thereafter assessed.
36
Table 5: The path coefficients

Hypotheses IV DV Unstandardised SE CR Standardised R2
estimates estimates
HI PP IL 0.338 0.071 6.119 0.309*** 0.52
H2 LF IL 0.445 0.082 7.045 0.374*** 0.48
H3 PF IL 0.191 0.065 2.331 0.073* 0.55
H4 PE IL 0.245 0.221 3.713 0.118** 0.57
H5 LCA IL 0.319 0.093 4.338 0.237*** 0.39
H6 CC IL 0.331 0.075 9.149 0.527** 0.51
H7 IL AP 0.291 0.084 6.914 0.371*** 0.62
Notes: significant: *p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p < 0.001, DV – dependent variable, IV –
Independent variable, CR – Critical ratio, R2 – Coefficient of determination
The results in Table 5 show that all the latent variables have a significant influence
on the gender- interaction levels of university students IP (β = 0.309; p < 0.001),
LF(β = 0.374; p <0.001), PF(β = 0.073; p < 0.05), PE(β = 0.118; p < 0.01), LCA(β =
0.237; p < 0.001), and CC(β = 0.527; p <0 .01). As a result, H1, H2, H3, H4, H5 and
H6 were therefore supported. These results also show that CC has the highest
influence on the interaction levels of students, followed by LF, IP and LCA,
respectively. PF has the lowest influence on the interaction levels of university
students during learning. The results further show that IL has a significant
influence on AP (β = 0.371; p < 0.001), hence H7 was supported.
Table 5 further shows the explanatory power of the latent variables with regard
to the interaction levels by university students, as shown. The results show that
IP explains 52% of variation in the interaction levels of university students during
lessons. Other factors that include LF contribute 48%, PF contributes 55%, PE
contributes 57%, LCA contributes 39% and CC contributes 51% of the variation to
the interaction levels of university students. Also, interaction levels contribute
52% to the variation in the academic performance of university students. The
model as a whole contributes 67% of the variation in the academic performance
of university students due to the interaction levels.
6. Discussion
The institutional practices in universities have a significant influence on gender-
based interaction differences among university students. This suggests that where
universities have gender-equity policies and guidelines, all students, whether
male or female, would actively and equally participate in their lessons. With clear
policies and guidelines, the levels of interactions in universities would therefore
not favour one specific gender group of students over another. However, where
a university does not have policies and guidelines on gender equity, it has been
shown in a number of studies (Hurtado, 2021) that male students are mostly
favoured, with more opportunities to participate and interact with the teachers or
among themselves during lessons, especially in STEM subjects. OECD (2015)
established that many universities do not have gender-equity policies to guide
both lecturers and students on the correct conduct in classes.
Another study by Chapman (2015) also found that gender-socialisation practices

in higher educational institutions continue to ensure that female students are
37
made aware that they are unequal to male students. This was confirmed by Bigler
et al. (2013), who in his study found that higher institutions continue to socialise
students in gender-differentiated ways, which according to Hurtado (2021) leads
to the segregated and stereotyped students developing low self-esteem, low levels
of confidence and motivation, and little desire to interact during the lessons.
Lecturers have a significant influence on the interaction levels of university

students. Teaching practices by lecturers that include the nature of the feedback
they give to both male and female students, the teaching methods they use, and
the nature of content they use when teaching, all play a significant role in the
gender-interaction patterns of university students. If lecturers use teaching
methods with examples that demean female students, these methods always give
more opportunities for male students to participate in class, and to use content
that stereotypes female students. The end result is that female students would not
have the confidence and motivation to actively participate and interact with both
the lecturers and other students in the class.
This is in line with the findings in earlier studies. In their separate studies,
Consuegra et al. (2016), Hurtado (2021) and Gustavsen (2019) found that lecturers
who have differential expectations of male and female students’ academic
performance tend to behave and communicate differently towards male and
female students, thereby leading to differences in student-interaction levels.
Consuegra et al. (2016) also are of the view that a differential approach to
communication with male and female students by lecturers has significant effects
on the self-esteem, achievement, motivation, level of aspiration, classroom
conduct and the levels of interaction of both male and female students. In the
context of the current study, the results showed that female students are mostly
affected by the differential communication of the lecturers during lessons.
Parents have a significant influence on the gender-interaction levels of university

students. Parents are referred to as the primary socialising agents (Hurtado, 2021;
Gustavsen, 2019); and what they do and say to their children carries a lot of weight
with regard to the children’s present and future behaviours. If parents raise their
children to be subservient, they will grow up to be subservient and rank
themselves lower every time. The consequences of this will be that the children
will, in future, lack confidence and develop a belief that certain behaviours are
beyond them, and are for other people.
In the context of the current study, if girls are socialised by their parents to believe
that boys are superior to them, they will grow to feel inferior to boys, then their
participation levels in mixed-gender classes would also be affected. Mullen et al.
(2015) found that parents who socialise their daughters to be timid and to look
inferior to boys, contribute to the development of timid and inferior tendencies,
and hence future low levels of participation and interaction in class by the child.
Peers have a significant influence on the gender-interaction levels of university
students. These results suggest that the referent groups or friends that students
associate with have a significant influence on how the students behave in general
and participate during lessons in particular. If a student associates himself or
38
herself with peers that show little concern to active participation in class, the end
result is that the student would also not actively participate; and his or her
interaction levels would consequently be lower. The reverse is also true.
This is consistent with the findings of previous studies. Separate studies by

Consuegra et al. (2016), Gustavsen (2019) and Ibañez and Pentang (2021) found
that if a student’s peer group represents a vibrant and active group that always
actively participates in school and class activities, the student would be socialised
to be active and to participate actively in school and class activities, and vice versa.
In his study, Nusche (2015) also found that the levels of interaction of students in
the classroom depend on their perceptions of how they are perceived by their
peers.
Learning content and artifacts have a significant influence on the gender-
interaction levels of university students. This suggests that if students develop
perceptions from the learning materials that their lecturers use to teach them that
they are either capable or incapable of performing well in their lessons, then their
feelings would accordingly develop into attitudes that suggest they would
participate more in class or not, respectively. If, for example, the content and
artifacts that lecturers use when teaching present male students are superior to
female students, as has been shown in a number of studies, female students would
begin to accept it as true; and they would lose confidence, leading to their low
levels of interaction during lessons.
Goode et al. (2020) established that content that stereotypes men and boys as
technically oriented, and women and girls as not, is one of the reasons for the
perpetuation of gender differences in levels of participation and interaction in
university classrooms. According to Fortsch et al. (2020), content- and artifact-
based stereotypes in university learning materials have deep social and cultural
roots that have a significant influence on how male and female students rate their
skills and knowledge, and thus on the extent to which they would be comfortable
when participating actively during lessons.
The classroom climate has a significant influence on the gender-interaction levels

of university students. This suggests that if the classroom climate is conducive to
learning, that is, if it makes students feel safe and appreciated, they feel that they
get equal opportunities to contribute to class discussion just like all other students,
and they are valued by not only other students, but by the teacher as well, gender-
interaction levels would be lower. However, if on the other hand, students feel
segregated, their interaction levels would also be lower, since such students
would feel demotivated. This is consistent with Caribay (2015), who found that
the classroom climate can potentially affect student engagement (interaction) and
academic performance, particularly if students feel segregated, discriminated
against and disrespected.
This is also confirmed in a study by Hurtado (2021) who found that classroom
climates that are negative or discriminatory against female students affect their
preparation for class, self-confidence and interaction levels, regardless of their
ability. On the other hand, Pervin et al. (2021) argue that a warm and welcoming
39
classroom climate provides students with a feeling of control; and security helps
students to be more engaged, active and satisfied, thereby leading to better
academic performance.
Interaction levels have a significant influence on the academic performance of

students. This suggests that when students get opportunities to interact between
and among themselves, as well as with the teacher, they share knowledge,
support each other and hence understand concepts better, leading to enhanced
academic performance. During interactions, concepts are clarified and made
simple to understand; and this improves the academic performance of the
students. This is consistent with the findings of past studies. Separate studies by
Peervin et al. (2021), Witt and Hofmeister (2015), Carlana (2019), Gopal and Singh
(2021), Goodle et al. (2020) and Forsch and Gartig-Daugs (2020) found that male
students tend to perform better than female students in sciences, mathematics and
technology; because the lecturers favour the male students with regard to
opportunities to participate actively in class.
Female students were also found to have higher levels of interaction in arts
subjects; and they tended to perform better than male students academically in
those subjects (Oviawe, 2020; Asaf & Zahoo, 2017). Studies by Knight et al. (2016),
Ndirika and Ubani (2017), Cooper et al. (2018) and Pentang et al. (2021) however,
found no significant relationship between academic performance and the levels
of interaction in universities, according to gender. Studies by Ansari and Khan
(2020), as well as those by Al-Rahmi et al. (2018) found that students with high
levels of interaction had a greater likelihood of performing better academically.
7. Conclusions
The study sought to establish gender-interaction practices of university science,
mathematics and technology students, as well as the influence of interaction levels
on academic performance; and a number of conclusions were reached. Firstly,
institutional practices are among the major factors in the perpetuation of gender
differences in the interaction levels of students, due to the lack of gender-equity
policies. Secondly, lecturer behaviours in the classroom affect the gender-
interaction levels of students. A lecturer who gives equal opportunities for all
students to participate during class raises the interaction levels of all students;
while those lecturers who favour one gender group above another demoralise the
shunned group, leading to low levels of interaction of the group discriminated
during learning. Thirdly, the way parents raise and socialise their children has an
effect on their future learning behaviour at school; as parents who raise their
children to compete and stand tall all the time will develop their children into
future students, who actively participate in school activities, such as active
participation in class.
Fourthly, referent groups, such as peers, significantly influence how students

participate in class. Highly active and motivated peers would motivate a student
to also be highly active and motivated in class. Fifthly, some learning materials
and artifacts in textbooks and other learning materials have a stereotyping effect
and tend to affect the confidence and motivation of female students to actively
40
participate in learning. Sixthly, warm and welcoming classroom environments

provide students with a sense of security and control that positively influences
their levels of interaction during learning. Finally, interaction levels have a
significant influence on the academic performance of all university students.
8. Recommendations
Universities need to develop gender-equity policies that act as guides to ensure
equal opportunities by students in all institutional activities. It was also
recommended that curriculum designers in universities need to develop learning
materials that are gender neutral, in order to promote gender equity in the
universities in general, and in classrooms in particular. Thirdly, parents, as the
primary sources of socialisation, should use home practices that encourage their
girl children not to look down upon themselves, but to believe that they can
perform any activities as well as boy children.
Implications of the study

The study has implications for both policy and practice. With regard to policy,
without clearly articulated policies on gender equity, universities will continue to
face challenges in ensuring equity in education. With regard to practice,
university lecturers need to ensure that they give both male and female students
equal opportunities to participate in class. Such opportunities would ensure that
all students can benefit from their learning and improve their academic
performance.
Limitations
The study established the gender-interaction practices of university science,
mathematics and technology students at three universities. It did not, however,
go further to determine whether there are gender differences in the interaction
levels and academic performance of students, according to each of the three areas
of specialisation. Future studies could investigate this matter further.
Acknowledgements: The researcher wishes to thank all the participants and their
institutions whose involvement contributed to the success of this study.
Funding: There is no funding to declare in this study.
Conflict of interest: There is no conflict of interest to declare in this study.
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46

Vol. 21, No. 5, pp. 46-63, May 2022
Exploring Preclinical Medical Students’

Reflections on their Learning Experience during
the COVID-19 Pandemic
Siti Yusrina Nadihah Jamaludin
Pharmacology Unit, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Malaysia
Mohd Salami Ibrahim*

Medical Education Unit, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Malaysia
Abstract. The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has posed

considerable challenges to higher education. To understand how the new
landscape of curriculum delivery affects learning experience, a
qualitative descriptive study was conducted among preclinical medical
students in Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Malaysia between March
2021 and April 2021. Data were collected using an online Padlet platform
which included an open-ended question with additional guided
questions whereby students wrote their reflective writings, describing
their perceptions on how online learning due to the COVID-19 pandemic
affected their education. All reflective writings were transcribed
verbatim. Data were analysed based on an established framework of
systematic, robust, and credible thematic synthesis. A total of six students
provided their reflective writings. The analyses revealed four themes.
‘Adaptability and flexibility’ appeared as the prominent theme, followed
by ‘reduced learning acuity’, ‘compromised tacit learning’, and ‘supports
from policy and practice’. Students’ adaptability to the new educational
practices is indispensable to harvest the advantage of being flexible with
online-based learning. It was concluded that key strategies for quality
online-based learning during the COVID-19 pandemic include educators’
training on engaging techniques, planning that avoids excessive and
successive online classes, support for dedicated learning space at home,
family engagement to reduce distractions, and students’ access to quality
technological hardware and software. Engineering solutions for
affordable and reliable Internet connectivity are the main policy issues.
Finally, the study recommends long-term educational goals which should
address the irreplaceable aspects of tacit learning that are lost when
transitioning to online-based learning.
Keywords: coronavirus disease 2019; medical education; reflections;

undergraduate
*
Corresponding author: Mohd Salami Ibrahim; salamiibrahim@gmail.com
©Authors
47
1. Introduction
More than five million deaths have been attributed to coronavirus disease 2019
(COVID-19)(WHO, 2020). In addition to incurring a significant burden to the
healthcare systems worldwide, the pandemic has caused tremendous changes in
virtually every aspect of human life, including higher education (Nicola et al.,
2020; Pauzi & Juhari, 2020). The varying degrees of restriction and the closure of
higher educational institutions (HEIs) have presented an unprecedented
challenge to curriculum delivery. The lockdown of educational institutions is
prudent to effect social and physical distancing in order to curb the spread of the
COVID-19 (Chu et al., 2020) by minimising the risk of the emergence of education
sector clusters. Unfortunately, such restrictions hamper and disrupt conventional
educational practices, leaving online learning as the main medium of instruction.
As a consequence, universities globally have to shift rapidly from traditional face-
to-face interactions to online platforms to avoid significant interruptions in the
students’ learning process (Burgess & Sievertsen, 2020; Pauzi & Juhari, 2020).
Although online learning has been suggested as a panacea for dealing with
potential future global pandemics (Dhawan, 2020; Mukhtar et al., 2020), it is
questionable whether the online platform is equivalent to the traditional face-to-
face delivery in terms of effectiveness, engagement, and acceptability among both
students and lecturers (Ismail et al., 2020). Before the COVID-19 crisis, Pei and Wu
(2019) conducted meta-analyses of 16 studies with objective assessments of
learning outcomes to compare the traditional face-to-face learning and online-
based learning for undergraduate medical education. The random-effects
statistical model established no significant difference between the two mediums
of teaching delivery in pre- and post-test scores (Pei & Wu, 2019). Nonetheless,
the pooled-effect statistics produced by the systematic review of the literature
need to be interpreted with caution since the fidelity of implementation of online-
based learning in real practice may vary considerably during the COVID-19
pandemic with critical repercussions for the actual outcomes of learning.
Therefore, the rapid transition of curriculum delivery towards a virtual-based
platform due to the COVID-19 pandemic may have created distinct circumstances
that challenge our initial understanding of ubiquitous online-based curriculum
delivery.
The concern is evident in the increasing reports on challenges associated with

online learning during the pandemic. In Saudi Arabia, Rajab et al. (2020)
conducted a quantitative survey among students and staff of the College of
Medicine, Alfaisal University, on educational challenges during the COVID-19
restrictions. The survey revealed almost half of the respondents reported no prior
experience with online-based learning with a wide-range of limitations including
poor quality of communication, anxiety, and technophobia (Rajab et al., 2020).
Furthermore, the implementation of student assessments via online platform was
crucially limited by reduced assessment fidelity and unestablished application of
technology to command wide acceptability on data integrity, security, and ethical
issue on confidentiality and privacy (Rajab et al., 2020). Meanwhile, change of
routines gave rise to time management challenges due to the competing priorities
to address new learning materials, adaptations of curriculum delivery and
innovative teaching approaches (Rajab et al., 2020). On the other hand, Gong
48
(2020) and Rahman (2020) insightfully described the challenges faced by two HEIs
to embrace technology-enhanced education fully due to the lack of experience and
steep learning curve caused by sudden changes of culture and routines of practice.
Likewise, quantitative studies to determine how the pandemic has affected
medical education have also been conducted in the United Kingdom (UK)(Dost et
al., 2020), Jordan (Muflih et al., 2021), Poland (Baczek et al., 2021), Sudan (Gismalla
et al., 2021), and Malaysia (Roslan & Halim, 2021). These studies reported multiple
new types of challenges as well as known challenges with new magnitude. Thus,
these original studies established a degree of evidence on changes due to the
COVID-19 pandemic that mandate a new consideration of educational practices.
Further supporting the empirical evidence are findings from review studies on
the educational impact of the COVID-19 on higher education. A meta-synthesis
of seven studies by Camargo et al. (2020) concluded varying challenges and gaps
of evidence that warrant the need for future educational studies to focus on the
analyses of the curriculum structure during the pandemic. Echoing a similar
concern, the narrative review by Iwanaga et al. (2021) highlighted the deficiencies
of online-based learning in compensating for the immersive experience of face-to-
face dissection of cadavers which is one of the core competencies of anatomy
education. Consequently, they recommended anatomy educators to be familiar
with all existing teaching methods to innovate a new approach that can maximise
compensation owing to the lack of real experiential learning (Iwanaga et al., 2021).
On the other hand, a critical review of dental education during the COVID-19 era
by Machado et al. (2020) urged educators to exercise caution when relying on
Internet-based teaching owing to the non-uniform learning experience as a result
of unequal Internet access. Their concern was underpinned by the reports of all
dental schools around Europe to embrace Internet-based as the main mode of
teaching owing to access restrictions to academic buildings (Machado et al., 2020).
Taken together, uncertainties remain due to gaps of evidence from both empirical
and review studies which signify the urgent need to explore the role of online
learning to meet the new challenges of educational needs.
As a result, a qualitative study was conducted via reflective writings among the
second-year medical students at the Faculty of Medicine of the Universiti Sultan
Zainal Abidin (UniSZA). The undergraduate medical programme (MBBS)
consists of two learning phases; Phase 1 (preclinical) for years 1 and 2, and Phase
2 (clinical) for years 3, 4, and 5 (Rahman et al., 2015). The MBBS programme in
UniSZA was started almost ten years ago; previous research has indicated a
favourable learning environment and positive learning experience among
medical students (Rahman et al., 2015). However, there are some concerns about
the quality of medical education received by the current undergraduate medical
students as a result of the sudden change in curriculum delivery due to the
COVID-19 pandemic. Questions remain as to whether the current strategies
adopted by the faculty members are effective enough to help the preclinical
medical students continue their education without major interruptions and
delays. Even though the undergraduate medical students in UniSZA have
experienced online learning during pandemic era for more than a year now,
appropriate strategies on how to make online teaching and learning effective to
cater for the specific needs of the medical education process still need to be
49
established. A comprehensive review of students’ experience would be useful to

illuminate gaps in the current educational practices during the COVID-19
pandemic as well as providing further insights into more targeted and effective
educational interventions for future pandemics’ preparedness. Therefore,
qualitative research was adopted that seeks to explore and generate a deeper
understanding of this important issue.
Consequently, students’ reflections may serve as a significant source of

information to gain an in-depth understanding of the challenges regarding quality
of education via the online platform during the COVID-19 pandemic. As a central
element for experiential learning, reflection is a metacognitive process whereby
one rethinks their thought process and tries to immerse, sometimes with deep
emotion, in order to achieve a new height of abstract conceptualisation (Kaufman
& Mann, 2013). Reflection therefore explains why two people who have had the
same experience may reach different conclusions despite being exposed to the
same event. Similarly, reflection may enlighten a deeper, richer learning
experience which brings in-depth insights into the strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities, and threats (SWOTs) of current educational practices. Hence,
students’ reflection is one of the richest sources of information to meet the
objective of this study.
The main objective of this study was to explore the perceptions of the preclinical
medical students on their learning concerning the impact of online learning due
to the COVID-19 pandemic. In this study, the following research question was
addressed: How does online learning due to the COVID-19 pandemic affect the
learning experience of preclinical medical students?
2. Methodology
2.1 Study Design
This is a qualitative descriptive (QD) study (Kim et al., 2017) with thematic
analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006) conducted from March 2021 to April 2021 in the
Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin (UniSZA), Medical Campus,
Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia (Figure 1). QD design is a particularly
common qualitative research design in fields related to healthcare (Polit & Beck,
2009). This is partly because the QD design confers a flexibility on data
interpretation to explore new understanding that is supported by but not bound
to, existing theories (Kim et al., 2017).
2.2 Study Participants

The study participants were recruited from Year 2 of undergraduate preclinical
medical students from the Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin
(UniSZA), Medical Campus, Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia. The class
representative of the second-year preclinical medical students was contacted as
he had direct contact with both the principal investigator and his classmates. The
class representative acted as a mediator to disseminate the information regarding
this study and to invite potentially interested participants. The recruitment of the
study participants was carried out via purposive sampling (Palinkas et al., 2015).
The inclusion criteria for participation in this study were 1) second-year medical
students at the time of recruitment; and 2) being able to communicate and write
in English or Malay. Upon contact and fulfilment of the inclusion criteria, each
50
study participant was introduced to the background of the study and invited to
participate.
2.3 Ethical Considerations

Ethical approval for conducting the study was obtained from the UniSZA Human
Research Ethics Committee (UHREC) (Study Protocol Code:
UniSZA/UHREC/2021/229). All participants for this study were informed about
the details of the study. Participation in this study was entirely voluntary and the
study participants could withdraw from the study without any consequences. All
participants provided signed informed consent (i.e. using digital signatures since
data collection was performed using an online platform) before participating in
the study. The anonymity and confidentiality of study participants were
guaranteed. Only research team members had access to the data.
2.4 Data Collection

To comply with social distancing protocols and other restrictions imposed during
the COVID-19 pandemic, data were collected using an online Padlet web platform
(Padlet, 2021) (similar to a virtual bulletin board) which included an open-ended
question that was specifically designed for this study: tell us about how the
COVID-19 pandemic has affected your learning experience. The following guided
questions were also used to further encourage the participants to express their
thoughts:
• What do you find useful and/or interesting from this experience?
• What do you think is/are particularly discouraging?
• How do you think this experience can be improved?
• In what ways do facilities such as devices and Internet connections
influence this experience?
• In what ways does the teacher's conduct (e.g. teaching style, his/her
expertise, etc.) affect your experience?
The students who opted to participate in our study were given a unique Padlet
link to share their reflections voluntarily on how the COVID-19 pandemic affected
their learning experience. They were given freedom to write their reflections at
their own convenient time but within the period of data collection. To preserve
the naturalistic perspective of the QD design, researchers refrained from giving
comments or making suggestions about the study participants’ reflections
throughout the conduct of this study.
2.5 Data Analysis

The reflective scripts collected from the Padlet were transcribed verbatim by the
researchers. The reflective scripts were analysed using thematic analysis. The
open coding procedures were carried out by the researchers; prominent patterns
were identified independently and then corroborated to ensure analytical
triangulation. Subsequently, all reflective scripts were analysed manually, and
case by case analysis was done by all researchers, followed by cross-case analysis
to identify themes. The process of analysis followed the six-step framework as
designed by Braun and Clarke (2006), including familiarisation with data,
generating initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining and
naming themes, and producing the scholarly report of the analysis.
51
Figure 1: Study flowchart
2.6 Credibility
Credibility refers to the confidence of data interpretation (Polit & Beck, 2013). The
six-step framework of data analysis by Braun and Clarke (2006) provides a
systematic and methodologically robust approach to support the transparency of
data analysis. Additionally, to generate the initial codes, name themes, and review
themes, the two-stage data interpretation as proposed by McNiff was adopted
(2017, p. 183). The first stage was the surface-level factual perspective which
departs from searching the context-driven by immediate answering the questions
on what, why, when, where, and how (McNiff, 2017). At this stage, researchers
avoid investing deep interpretation of the original text. This method was critical
to ensure researchers ‘listened’ to what the respondents were expressing, rather
than falling into the common trap of select-interpretation by focusing only on
certain text of interest. Thus, this step guided the exploratory-oriented goal of this
qualitative study.
Furthermore, the second stage involves deep interpretation which was

underpinned by educational perspectives as value-as-criteria that transformed the
data from information to evidence (McNiff, 2017). Educational perspectives were
adopted as the value-as-criteria because of the educational-oriented goal of this
study. This process was supported by professional expertise from a qualified
52
medical educationist (MSI), established educational philosophies (learning

theories), and empirical evidence from educational studies.
Therefore, the two-stage thematic synthesis of surface-level factual perspective

and deep-level interpretation provides an audit trail to support the transparency
and credibility of data analyses.
2.7 Triangulation
Triangulation is a distinct methodological approach to authenticate data sources
and data interpretation of a qualitative study (McNiff, 2017). The authentication
is achieved by the incorporation of multiple perspectives, thus enriching the scope
of analyses from being narrowly defined and understood in a simplistic or self-
serving way (Herr & Anderson, 2014). Consequently, triangulation supports the
democratic validity of a qualitative analysis because of multiple points of
departure that produce robust and wide perspectives that are relatively resistant
against fake or deceptive information (Herr & Anderson, 2014).
There were three aspects of triangulation employed in this study, namely data
source, evaluators, and theories (Patton, 2014). A minimum of three participants
who provided similar information provided the triangulation of data source. In
this study, deep-level interpretations were only conducted when three or more
participants were describing similar phenomena. This was achieved by
identifying three or more similar subthemes from the surface-level factual
perspectives.
Additionally, three researchers who arrived at the similar interpretations of the

same data provided triangulation of evaluators. To achieve the triangulation of
evaluators, a qualitative methodological expert (YMY) was invited to participate
during the data collection and data analysis of this study.
Initially, evaluators conducted independent interpretations then compared each

other’s findings. Any discrepancies were discussed, and final evaluations were
reached via discussion and consensus. Finally, three distinct educational theories
were used to describe the same theme to achieve the triangulation of perspectives
(McNiff, 2017; Patton, 2014; Yin, 2009).
The triangulation of these three aspects served as additional measures with a

robust audit trail to support the credibility, transferability, conformability, and
dependability for the overall trustworthiness of discussion and conclusion of this
study (Elo et al., 2014). Figure 2 illustrates the flow of analysis which is based on
interconnected methods of triangulation to support this goal.
53
Figure 2: The multifaceted triangulation methods employed in this study
3. Results
Six participants for this study produced reflective writing from a total of 60
second-year medical students who were invited to participate. This resulted in a
10% response rate. Two were males and four were females. All of the study
participants were 21 years old and all were used to English as their second
language.
The thematic analysis yielded four main themes, namely ‘adaptability and
flexibility’, ‘reduced learning acuity’, ‘compromised tacit learning’, and ‘supports
from policy and practice’.
3.1 Adaptability and Flexibility

With online-based learning, participants appreciated that they could save time,
make greater financial savings and have easier access to family support.
Collectively, these advantages signified a new gain of flexibility compared with
the traditional conventional face-to-face time. These flexibilities confer wider
autonomy to plan and commit to issues that relate to transport, food, professional
appearance, and emotional support. To the question of encouraging experience
from online-based learning, Participant 4 insightfully responded as follows:
“The most interesting thing is that no need to be dressed up and rushed
to go to the online classes every morning. Also, when I got too stress
out about studying and examination, I have my family in front of me
to get some support.”
The benefits of flexibility, on the other hand, were not completely understood
until students were able to adapt to their new learning habits. Participant 1 wrote
the following:
54
“At first it was a very awkward moment and we found it quite tough
because we never experienced such an experience like this. But after
being at home and having online classes, I slowly adapt how to be a
flexible student at home.”
Adapting to the new habit and being flexible have also aided in the development
of innovative learning abilities. Participant 5 shared the experience of adopting a
new learning style:
“…the most interesting part that I experience is I became more creative
(a little bit). If before, I just read the lecture notes and do some revision
but during online class, I know that I need to survive in this Med
school. I do a lot of simplified notes, diagram, and mind map that helps
me on revising.”
3.2 Reduced Learning Acuity

Unfortunately, the transition to a virtual platform had also been associated with
reduced learning acuity which denoted compromised aspects of the environment
that were crucial for effective learning. This theme encapsulated issues such as
unreliable and expensive Internet connection, poor audio-visual clarity, lack of
opportunity for private face-to-face access to lecturers, eye-strain due to
prolonged screen exposure, and distractions posed by the Internet content.
Participant 2 shared the following:
“Besides, the biggest challenge of online learning was the struggle with
focusing on the computer screen for a long period. I was distracted
easily by social media and other sites… Network coverage was bad and
affected my study in such that the audio and video breaks, became an
inconvenience and distraction to me. I often lost focus and interest
when this happened.”
Additionally, the blurring of demarcation between home and dedicated

educational environment was also associated with reduced learning acuity.
Participant 3 expressed the following:
“I do not own a room so it is an inconvenience for me to attend an
online class at family room even though I own a study
desk….Sometimes when relatives came, I also need to stop attending
for a while to greet them and this somehow makes me lose focus.”
3.3 Compromised Tacit Learning

Unlike reduced learning acuity which could be remediated with comprehensive
planning and resource investment, this theme emphasised irreplaceable
components of learning that were undermined by transitioning to a virtual
platform. Tacit learning could be understood as gaining knowledge that is not
readily expressed but resides within the mind, behaviour, and perceptions of
individuals (Dampney et al., 2002). Consequently, participants articulated loss of
tacit learning via various statements that contrast the quality of learning between
the traditional face-to-face and online-based learning.
For example, in response to the question on the most discouraging experience of

online-based learning, Participant 6 reflected as follows:
55
“Probably the ability to have the face-to-face lecture. Human expresses

emotions through their face and it affects others’ psychology. By
having the face-to-face lecture, students can see the honesty in teaching
that is expressed by their lecturers so it can affect the students’
psychology to feel more encouraged and interested in their study. In
online learning, you don’t get the same effects as face-to-face learning.”
Furthermore, participants implied loss of tacit motivational drive via statements

such as the absence of teaching gestures, inability to invest similar focus and being
sleepy during online classes. Participant 2 wrote the following:
“Being physically present in class put a pressure on me to focus more,
which online learning did not have. I tend to take studying lightly
when I was at home compared to in college.”
Participant 1 meanwhile summarised the loss of the tacit motivational aspect of

learning by contrasting the home environment against the prior dedicated
learning atmosphere:
“… for me as a student who used to stay at the hostel, home is for rest
and enjoy my holiday not for focusing on study too much.”
3.4 Supports from Policy and Practice

All participants shared one universal message for policy-making, namely the need
for reliable and affordable Internet connection. Participant 5 reflected as follows:
“About the Internet, I need to change my place always. Sometimes in
the bedroom, living room, or the kitchen. Tiring but what can I do?”
Consequently, participants appreciated several initiatives by the teachers to

deliver quality education. These initiatives include recording the online classes for
offline use by students with poor connectivity, the use of mobile applications such
as WhatsApp as alternative access to teacher and peer support, and adopting
engaging teaching techniques. Among the favourable techniques that were
reported to help with engagement were the use of diagrams and video-based
lectures, personal video calls for certain students, and positive emotional appeals
such as occasional jokes, a short break between topics, quick game sessions, and
commitment to more teacher-student interactions and interactions among peers.
Participant 2 recalled the effect of teaching techniques on the learning experience:

“Most of my lecturers know how to make their students gain interest
in every topic. They used a lot of diagrams and real-life examples that
we can relate and this gives a positive impact on my online learning
experience. But there were also times that the class was dull.”
4. Discussion
4.1 Study Highlights
To the best of our knowledge, this is the first qualitative study to use students’
reflective writings to explore preclinical medical students’ perceptions of the
influence of online-based learning due to the COVID-19 pandemic at a public
university in Malaysia. The derived themes of flexibility and adaptability,
reduced learning acuity, compromised tacit learning and support from policy and
practice encapsulate students’ reflection on the impact of COVID-19 on their
learning experience. The new understanding may prove useful because decision-
56
making for policy and practice is a complex process that requires multifaceted
perspectives, evidence, and a deeper understanding of the issue to bring relevant
and meaningful changes to the actual educational practices (Petticrew, 2015).
Moreover, each institution is unique in its experience, expertise, and resources to

adopt technology-enhanced educational practices. Therefore, unlike quantitative
studies that seek the generalisation of statistical conclusions to the wider
population, this qualitative study illuminates evidence of the roles of policy
makers, teachers, students, and elements of learning environments that are critical
for the learning process specific to our context. Institutions that share similar
challenges to our context may benefit from the experience of this study.
Consequently, the narrative approach has been adopted in the discussion on the
findings below to bridge the synthesised themes towards insights, perspectives,
and relevance to educational policies and practices.
4.2 Themes of the COVID-19 Impact on Learning

In this qualitative study, adaptability and flexibility appeared as the prominent
theme. This finding was also reflected in reports on quantitative studies on
education during the pandemic. For example, to determine the impact of online
learning owing to the COVID-19, the 2020 nationwide survey by Dost et al. (2020)
among 2721 medical students across 39 medical schools in the United Kingdom
(UK) revealed flexibility as the highest-rated perceived benefit of online learning.
Consistent findings have also been reported from surveys among 1210 medical
students in Jordan (Muflih et al., 2021), 814 medical students in Poland (Baczek et
al., 2021), 358 medical students in Sudan (Gismalla et al., 2021), and 178 medical
students in Malaysia (Roslan & Halim, 2021). Participants of this qualitative study
extend the understanding further by attributing flexibility to the convenience of
not having to dress professionally, alleviating the commitment to routine
travelling, a repeat of access to recorded materials, and the proximity of family
support, food, and drink. More importantly, students only appreciated being
flexible after they had adapted to new routines, indicating that the advantage of
flexible learning time is not immediate and the attention to students’ adaptation
is crucial.
Adaptation is a manifestation to achieve security. Maslow (1943) described safety

as denoting humans’ physiological needs such as clothing, nutrition, and shelter,
whereas security, which resides in the ability to know what to expect from a
certain set of events or circumstances, is a higher need of human motivation. With
time, students gain more understanding of various factors such as schedules,
teaching styles, events, and outcomes. This understanding leads to the ability to
know what to expect and how to respond, thus facilitating the motivation to
commit to new learning behaviours. Departing from a different angle of
perspective, Knowles (1978) described the security from being able to expect a safe
environment as essential for learning because adults can better operate to reflect,
interrogate, and appraise new knowledge without being undermined by
psychological handicaps due to mistakes. Acquiring new learning strategies over
time, as exemplified above by one of the participants of this study, was a
manifestation of these frameworks of learning. Therefore, harvesting the
advantage of flexibility should be understood together with learning adaptation
57
because attaining security following new norms of educational practices needs to

be accompanied by investment in time and resources for consistent strategies.
Consistent strategies on remediable factors and challenges are particularly

important for continuous quality improvement to address reduced learning
acuity. Under this theme, the participating students reported issues related to the
lack of conducive learning space at home; dual roles of being a student and being
a member of a family when at home; distractions from the Internet contents;
unsatisfactory quality of displays, audios, and microphones; and unreliable
Internet connection.
Some of the aforementioned challenges had also been reported before the COVID-
19. For example, for the period of 10 years from 2006 till 2016, a comprehensive
review by O’Doherty et al. (2018) identified seven high-quality studies and three
low-quality studies on barriers and solutions to the implementation of online-
based learning for undergraduate and postgraduate medical education. The
review identified challenges that include technicalities of technology use, skills of
technology users, lack of supportive attitudes, and incentives to drive motivations
for online content creations (O'Doherty et al., 2018). However, the findings of this
study suggest that the COVID-19 may have crucially magnified these challenges
because students must endure a much higher volume of learning through a virtual
platform (Dost et al., 2020).
Thus, as reported above, Participant 2 of this study insightfully assigned

prolonged screen-based learning as the biggest challenge of online-based learning
during the COVID-19. The new perspectives on the magnitude of challenges may
consequently serve to better inform policy and practice. For example, resources
allocation may need to include support for students to gain access to a dedicated
learning space at home. Likewise, a schedule of learning delivery may have to be
planned in liaison with other educators to avoid successive and excessive online
delivery of education. Planning which incorporates engagement with families
may also prove to be helpful. Therefore, consistent strategies for online-based
learning should depart from the new understanding of challenges on learning,
rather than teaching, that arise owing to the pandemic.
More importantly, understanding learning challenges from students’ reflections

illuminate the fundamental compromise of tacit knowledge when transitioning
towards virtual platforms. Participants of this study had described elements of
learning from face-to-face teaching that go beyond syllabus delivery. These
include complex values such as teachers’ role-modelling, peer-influence,
professionalism, ethics, cultures, social skills, team-working, responsibility,
accountability, volunteerism, and risk-taking. Most of the prominent educational
theories such as the seminal works of Vygotsky on a zone of proximal
development (Vygotsky & Cole, 1978), constructivism by Piaget (Wadsworth,
1996), action research by Lewin (Adelman, 1993), self-actualisation by Rogers
(Rogers, 2008), and learning by dialogue by Freire (Shor & Freire, 1987)
articulated complicated processes of experiential learning that were all
underpinned by interactions between learners and their environment. The more
contemporary theory of situated learning encapsulated these behaviourism
philosophies from the perspective of professional identity development for
58
medical students when the real contextual learning inherently promotes

peripheral participation of a community of practice (O'Brien & Battista, 2020).
When students of this study were comparing face-to-face and online learning in
response to the question on challenges as demonstrated above, their articulations
indicated the loss of the tacit process of learning that was not readily expressible
but understood and appreciated. Therefore, compromised tacit learning signifies
a major limitation of online-based learning to serve as an overarching educational
platform for personal and professional development.
As a result, understanding the impact of the COVID-19 on education also signals

heightened roles for both policymakers. All participants of this study consistently
emphasised the need for affordable and reliable Internet connection. They
described the loss of focus, reduced motivation, interrupted knowledge
acquisition, and excessively reliance on peers and recorded materials to
compensate for poor Internet connectivity. Within the Malaysian context, the
policy for higher education has advocated synchronous teaching which is
characterised by real-time interactions as a distinct category of online learning
(MQA, 2018). This is in contrast with asynchronous online learning which is
characterised by the convenience of access towards repetitive exposure to
educational resources (MQA, 2018). Findings of this study indicate that many
students, and on many occasions, must resort to the latter owing to connectivity
issues that are beyond their control. These issues create gaps between policy on
education and policy on investment that supports its implementations. As a
result, although students have been describing affordable and reliable Internet
connection as a problem they need to endure, this theme should be viewed as a
key message for policymakers to engineer solutions for this challenge.
Additionally, lecturers also share bigger roles for effective online-based learning
during the COVID-19 pandemic. Medical students appreciate better learning by
teaching which embraces a real problems-oriented instead of topic-oriented focus,
diverse teaching styles, and innovative engagement techniques as reported in the
above findings. The process of how these strategies deliver superior learning
compared with the traditional didactic lectures has been well articulated by
several learning theories. For example, self-directed learning theory emphasises
that the real problem-oriented focus stimulates an internally motivated process of
emancipatory endeavour that is facilitated by tasks and materials that are within
the learners’ reach and control (Kaufman, 2003). Social constructivism,
meanwhile, theorising engagement with external facilitation is a sine qua non to
attain higher levels of achievements (Vygotsky & Cole, 1978). Moreover, diverse
styles of teaching promote multifaceted perspectives on similar materials of
learning, which may induce reflection on actions (Schon, 1983), conceptualisation
of higher abstract knowledge (Kolb, 1984), and eventually reflection that
manifests in actions (Schon, 1983). Therefore, the experience of students of this
study on varying effective roles among teachers during the rapid and mass
adoption of online-based learning necessitated by the COVID-19 pandemic helps
to navigate the focus of strategies on educators’ training.
59
4.3 Recommendations for Future Educational Strategies

In particular, the transition of adoption and adaptation of flexible online-based
learning from select practices towards mainstream policies may have
fundamentally magnified the return of educational investment for technology-
enhanced formative assessment. This is the lesson learnt from digital health in the
healthcare sector. Despite the smartphone having been available to a niche market
of corporate customers in the early 1990s, it was the mass smartphone adoption
by the general population in late 2000s which revolutionised its use as the main
modality for technology-enhanced quality patient care (Ibrahim et al., 2022).
Similarly, formative assessment was first touted by Scriven (1966) and was
traditionally understood and implemented in the context of education during the
era after the World War II. Nevertheless, findings of this study and others on the
adaptation among mass population of teachers and learners for online-based
education may signify the volume of potential by investing resources for
strategies in technology-enhanced formative assessment.
This notion is supported by the grand theory of constructivism which postulates

teachers’ facilitation through formative assessment is crucial for learners to
develop new knowledge, understanding, and skills (Kaufman & Mann, 2013).
Formative assessments may deliver this outcome via two key advantages. Firstly,
repeat access and attempts for online assessment modules is a screen-based
simulation training which promotes mastery of learning through deliberative
practice. Secondly, the non-credit bearing of formative assessment supports a safe
academic environment for students to explore the extent of understanding and
learn via constructive feedback on mistakes (Ibrahim et al., 2021). These mistakes
subsequently illuminate learning gaps where teachers may formulate a
personalised teaching plan to match the unique learning trajectories of each
student (Ibrahim et al., 2021). Nonetheless, it is important to recognise that all
these advantages are encapsulated in an effective execution of formative
assessment modules with quality feedback. Therefore, training of educators on
these aspects of technology-enhanced formative assessment may prove
fundamental to facilitate the acquisition of new knowledge, understanding, and
skills among learners.
5. Limitations
As with any qualitative study, the findings of this study are context-specific and
are not immediately generalisable to the population of medical students or
students of higher education. The reflection and themes synthesised from Year 2
preclinical medical students should be understood and interpreted according to
their setting of the study. For example, clinical students are more dependent on
quality learning through direct patient contact. Likewise, workplace-based
learning for courses that depend on industrial training may also experience
different kinds and magnitude of impacts from the COVID-19 restrictions. Such
critical circumstances should be taken into consideration since the impacts may
not be adequately represented in this study.
Furthermore, comparison between multiple contexts of higher education may

require a larger sample of participants via quantitative study design with
inferential statistical analysis to determine differences that can be generalised to a
60
larger population. Nonetheless, because the restrictions of the COVID-19 on

teaching contacts and the rapid transition towards online-based learning are
universal, we believe the findings of our study may remain useful to derive
insights and perspectives that bring relevance towards a wider context of
educational practice.
6. Conclusion
Two years into the COVID-19 pandemic, the world continues to face unforeseen
challenges posed by this newly emerging global pandemic. The COVID-19 has
affected many aspects of human life, including higher education. The decision for
the emergency closure of higher educational institutions in Malaysia as a public
health measure to stem the transmission of COVID-19 has caused a rapid shift
from traditional face-to-face learning to online platforms. By gleaning from the
preclinical medical students’ reflections on their learning experience during the
COVID-19 pandemic, our study concludes that online-based learning necessitated
by this global crisis offers a major advantage of the flexibility to our study
participants. Such flexibility with online learning allows the students
participating in this study to have more control of and accountability for their
learning process. Despite being able to adapt gradually to the new learning habit,
at the same time a large majority of our study participants reflect on some
challenges to the acquisition of knowledge via online-based learning which have
resulted in a decline in their learning acuity and the missing elements of tacit
learning. All participants reflectively conveyed an important message to inform
policy and practice to provide the students with relevant support for improved
learning experience and continuous quality medical education amid the COVID-
19 pandemic and beyond.
In view of the qualitative nature of the present study that does not allow
generalisability of the study findings, future research should consider a
quantitative study approach using the findings from our study to determine the
impact of COVID-19 on the preclinical medical students’ learning experience.
Nevertheless, the findings from this qualitative study have important future
implications by providing insights into formulating long-term effective
educational strategies for medical education to suit the new norm of higher
education in the post-COVID era.
7. Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Dr. Yuzana Binti Mohd Yusop (Universiti Sultan
Zainal Abidin) for her expertise and assistance in the initial part of data analysis.
The authors also thank the students who participated in this study.
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64

Vol. 21, No. 5, pp. 64-83, May 2022
Received Feb 18, 2022; Revised Apr 12, 2022; Accepted Apr 23, 2022
Promoting Self-Regulated Learning among First-

Year Accounting-Student Teachers: A Student-
Empowerment Pedagogical Framework
Medson Mapuya*
School of Education, Department of Human Sciences,
Sol Plaatje University, Kimberley, South Africa
Abstract. The advent of the Covid-19 pandemic significantly diminished

opportunities for face-to-face learning. This came at the backdrop of the
consistent failure of first-year students to cope with the demands of
learning in a complex higher educational system, which prioritises
autonomous learning. Such a failure has been attributed to the structured
and supportive learning environments in basic education, which have not
only produced excessively dependent learners, but also a cohort of first-
year students with low levels of resilience, self-efficacy, and motivation.
Against this exposition, this quantitative study investigated those
teaching approaches that lecturers can use to promote self-regulated
learning among first-year accounting-student teachers. Guided by the
fundamental precepts of the social-cognitive model of self-regulated
learning and informed by interpretivism, quantitative data were collected
using a Likert Scale questionnaire. The statistical analysis of the data
revealed that meaningful and sustainable self-regulated learning can only
be promoted by a purely student-centred approach. With an overall mean
above 4.0, problem-based learning was found to frequently promote the
self-regulated learning of students. Conversely, given an overall mean of
just above 2.0, scaffolding and guided instruction were found to rarely
promote self-regulated learning. A low standard deviation of below 1.0
on all three teaching approaches suggests a very small variance in the
students’ scores. On the basis of these findings, the study calls for a
pragmatic adoption of radical student-centred constructivist teaching
approaches. In line with this recommendation, institutions of higher
learning need to capacitate lecturers to teach students problem-solving
and self-regulated learning skills.
Keywords: empowering; self-regulated learning; Constructivist

approaches
* Corresponding author: Medson Mapuya; medson.mapuya@spu.ac.za
©Author
65
1. Introduction
The new global context and learning environments, in which students engage in
teaching and learning, call for the development and adoption of a pedagogical
framework within which students can successfully learn with minimal direct
support, supervision and micromanagement. Most importantly, the excessive
reliance of students on lecturer support and micro-management to engage in
learning activities makes it an even more cardinal and urgent pedagogical call to
engender a sustainable culture of self-directed and autonomous learning in and
among students (Doulougeri, Vermunt, Bombaerts, Bots & De Lange, 2021;
Gallagher & Savage, 2020; Lima, Lima & Bruni, 2020 and Robbins et al., 2020).
These calls are also consistent with the provisions of the Department of Higher
Education and Training (DHET, 2015) and the educational imperatives of global
educational systems which call for independent and autonomous students
(Doulougeri, et al, 2021; Gallagher & Savage, 2020; Geduld, 2018; Jayawardena,
Van Kraayenoord & Carroll, 2017; Lima et al., 2020; and Robbins, et al., 2020).
Alluding to the above, Lima, et al. (2020) argue that the purpose of education
should not only be to impart knowledge to students, but also to create lifelong
learners with independent thinking abilities. In the same vein, research evidence
emerging from recent studies has reignited the need to have serious conversations
about student empowerment and its significance on resilience and course-
completion rates (Aguiar & Da Silva, 2017; Thobideaux, Deutsch, Kitsantas &
Winsler, 2016), especially when viewed from a pandemic-learning perspective.
At the centre of this discourse on student empowerment is the unavoidable digital

and online teaching and learning modalities in higher education whose
prominence rose exponentially, as a result of the Covid-19 pandemic (Dube, 2020
and Mapuya & Rambuda, 2021). Adverse findings from studies on online and
digitally mediated learning suggest that these teaching and learning modalities
place much emphasis on students to engage in deep learning with little lecturer
guidance and support (Mapuya & Rambuda, 2021 and Robbins, et al., 2020).
Furthermore, empirical evidence points out that over and above the emotional
and psychological burdens, online learning is cognitively demanding on its own,
regardless of the subject content (Doulougeri et al, 2021; Lima et al., 2020 and
Robbins, et al., 2020). Recent surveys conducted by Mitchley (2022) and Pijoos
(2022), in which students reflected on their phenomenological learning
experiences of having to adapt to the new way of learning amid the pandemic,
reveal that this adjustment has not been an easy process. The respondents in these
two separate surveys echoed similar sentiments that online learning exposed
them in terms of how much they depended on face-to-face encouragement and
the necessary motivation to successfully navigate through the academic year.
Earlier studies by Basilaia & Kvavadze (2020), Coughlan (2021) and
Krishnakumar & Rana (2020), provide a very devastating exposition on learning
in the 21st century without the much-needed face-to-face lecturer support,
guidance and encouragement.
A recent survey by Pijoos (2022), in which the interviewees reflected on their

phenomenological learning experiences in the 2021 academic year revealed that
2021 was one of the most challenging academic year for students as a result of the
66
increasingly diminished direct lecturer support and guidance. The interviewees

bemoaned the substantially reduced motivating and encouraging face-to-face
interactions with their lecturers. Given the above context, the need to empower
these first-year students with self-regulated learning skills, becomes an urgent
educational imperative. The idea of self-regulated learning is also consistent with
the ethos of student autonomy, self-directed learning and citizenship that are
collectively shared by most educational systems across the globe (Gallagher &
Savage, 2020; Geduld, 2018; Doulougeri et al, 2021; Jayawardena et al, 2017 and
Lima, et al, 2020). Premised on the identified research gap in the afore-mentioned
literature perspectives, this study sought to investigate the teaching approaches
that lecturers can use to promote self-regulated learning among first-year
accounting student teachers.
1.1 The background

Notwithstanding the widely publicised and documented benefits of online
learning (Coughlan, 2021; Mapuya & Rambuda, 2021; Prynne,2021 and Sintema;
2020), this modality of teaching and learning has nevertheless diminished the
much-needed face-to-face, personal and sometimes differentiated lecturer
support, which students have always enjoyed in a traditional academic set-up.
Mitchley (2022) contends that the 2022 cohort of first-year students will have to
endure a very challenging academic year in an ever-changing learning
environment. This position is consistent with the earlier warnings of Coughlan
(2021), Mapuya & Rambuda (2021), Prynne, (2021) and Wells (2020), who
submitted that forced online learning had by nature significantly demotivated,
discouraged and marginalised students in many different ways. As observed by
Basilaia & Kvavadze (2020) and Cramp & Lamond (2016), there are cases where
online learning has been found to amplify the learning deficiencies and challenges
of students, especially those who predominantly rely on direct interactions with
their lecturers to engage in successful learning. However, these findings do not
provide a basis to criticise online learning, but rather they provide opportunities
for pragmatic innovative solutions to complement online learning. To this effect,
student empowerment becomes an appealing and promising strategy to
compensate for the identified adverse findings on digital and online learning.
Accordingly, self-regulated learning has emerged as an ideal student-

empowerment strategy which has been glorified and advocated for in various
studies (Dinsmore, Alexander & Loughlin, 2008; Geduld, 2018; Klug et al., 2016;
Moos & Ringdal, 2012; Zimmerman & Schunk, 2008 and Zimmerman, 2000). The
idea of self-regulated learning has undoubtedly emerged as a global educational
goal as educational systems across the globe strive to empower and prepare
students with the necessary skills to thrive in the 21st-century learning
environment. In support of this call, Gallagher & Savage, (2020), Geduld, (2018)
and Robbins et al., (2020) argue that this empowers students to use autonomous
learning skills, independent decision-making, self-management and problem-
solving in deciding what to learn and how to learn it. For Aguiar & Da Silva, (2017)
and Thobideaux, et al., (2016), self-regulated learning also helps the students to
decide on their learning goals and the necessary time frame within which to
pursue and achieve them. Most importantly, the theoretical assumptions of self-
67
regulated learning are rooted in social constructivist pedagogies, as well as in the

underlying principles of multiple intelligences.
The pedagogical ideologies of these social-learning theories resonate very well

with the ultimate goals of most educational systems and professional bodies
across the globe (Gallagher & Savage, 2020; HEQC, 2010; Lima et al, 2020 and
Robbins, et al, 2020). Within the South African context, the call for self-regulated
learning among first-year accounting-student teachers finds expression in the
provisions of the Minimum Requirements for Teacher-Education Qualifications
(MRTEQ) (DBE, 2011 & 2015) and in the Higher Education Qualifications Sub-
Framework (2015). This is also sustained by Dixon et al. (2014), who observed the
particular type of educator envisaged by the Minimum Requirements for Teacher-
Education Qualifications. Self-regulated learning conforms to the idea of lifelong
learning, which is expected of an educator in South Africa (Dixon et al, 2014 and
MRTEQ, 2015). In its pronouncement on the purpose of the Bachelor of Education
Degree, the collective roles of teachers in a school and the expected basic
competences of beginner teachers, the Minimum Requirements for Teacher-
Education Qualifications (MRTEQ) (DBE, 2011 &2015) emphasise self-regulation
and professional diligence as the basic attributes for a typical educator in South
Africa. For Smith, (2001), one of the major recommendations for accounting
students has been on the importance of lifelong learning. Subsequently, lifelong
learning has been strongly associated with self-regulated learning in an
accounting-learning environment (Aguiar & Da Silva, 2017; Lima et al, 2020).
Beyond the teaching of accounting as a subject, various bodies and the accounting
profession have advocated for the creation of sustainable lifelong learning across
the curriculum (DHET, 2015; Lima et al., 2020).
In terms of the expected competencies and attributes (DHET, 2015), this envisaged
kind of educator finds expression in the epistemological and ontological views
advanced by social constructivists when they advocate for the use of student-
centred constructivist teaching approaches in the professional education and
training of student teachers (Aguiar & Da Silva, 2017 and Lima, et al, 2010). The
social constructivist school of thought does not therefore only subscribe to this
envisaged new educator, but it also contributes significantly to the training and
development of such educators (Geduld, 2018 and Lima et al, 2020). By placing
the student teachers at the core of all teaching and learning initiatives in the
professional training and development of educators, the social-constructivist
school of thought, therefore, seeks to produce self-regulated educators, who
among others, have been exposed to the various forms of learning. Subsequent to
these envisaged kinds of educators, as key role players at the centre of the
professional training and development of educators, lecturers therefore, have an
obligation to contribute towards the realisation of these provisions. Similar to
South Africa, many education systems across the globe have educational policies
and pieces of legislation that advance the idea of producing self-reliant graduates
(Geduld, 2018 and Jayawardena, et al., 2017). Bearing some self-regulation
sentiments in their educational-policy documents, these educational systems
uphold the role of education in preparing students for a successful career in which
68
they meet their professional duties, responsibilities and expectations, wherever

they may find themselves in life.
However, Geduld (2018) and Jayawardena, et al. (2017) share a similar concern
that this call to empower students with self-regulated learning skills is seriously
compromised by professional-teacher training and development programmes.
These critics cite that teacher education programmes prioritise subject-content
knowledge and the comprehension of pedagogical knowledge at the expense of
the fundamental principles underpinning learning, student motivation and
development (Geduld, 2018; Jayawardena, et al. 2017 and Robbins et al. 2020). The
above views endorse the sentiments of Zimmerman (2002), who warned that
while many students come to the learning environment with various learning
skills, they are rarely taught about self-regulated learning. In the views of
Zimmerman (2002), without proper instruction and guidance on self-regulated
learning, most of these students will never learn and acquire the skills necessary
for self-regulated learning. Consequently, these students will struggle to succeed
in their studies, and they may never reach their highest potential academically.
Having located self-regulated learning in the social-constructivist pedagogical

orientation, it is cardinal to indicate that there is overwhelming research evidence
on the educational benefits of constructivist- teaching approaches and their
advancement of meaningful learning (Bosman & Schulze, 2018; Davids &
Waghid, 2020; Maddock & Maroun, 2018; Mapuya, 2021 and Van Wyk, 2016).
However, be that as it may, not much research attention had been given on how
the social-constructivist embedded notion of self-regulation can be promoted. Yet,
in advocating for constructivist teaching approaches, constructivists advance the
notion of self-regulation as one of the fundamental end results of these approaches
(Davids & Waghid, 2020; Geduld, 2018; Mapuya, 2021 and Van Wyk, 2016). Thus,
this school of thought has thus far, not provided any evidence-based specific
constructivist teaching approach that could be used to promote the envisaged self-
regulation among students. By and large, the findings from research conducted
on self-regulated learning in many countries across the globe, such as South
Africa, the United States of America, Iran, Canada, Australia and Hong Kong,
point to the need for lecturers to modify their traditional teaching approaches, in
order to promote and develop the self-regulated learning abilities of students
(Aguiar & Da Silva, 2017; Doulougeri et al, 2021; Geduld, 2018; Klug et al, 2016
and Moos & Ringdal, 2012). It is against this background that this study was
deemed necessary, in order to determine the teaching approaches lecturers can
use to promote self-regulated learning among first-year accounting-student
teachers.
1.3 The Research Objective

Informed by the foregoing exposition, the objective of this quantitative study was
to determine the teaching approaches which lecturers can use to promote self-
regulated learning among first-year accounting-student teachers.
1.4 The Research Question

Consistent with the research objective above, the study investigated and
answered the following question:
69
• Which teaching approaches can accounting lecturers use to promote self-

regulated learning among first-year accounting-student teachers?
2. The Literature Review

In this section of the study, the researcher draws from the literature perspectives
to define self-regulation and contextualize it in accounting education. Guided by
the literature verdicts, the researcher further deliberates on the importance and
implications of self-regulation in education and the teaching profession. The
research findings in educational psychology and theory from many disciplines
suggest that the learning environment has the potential to support and promote
self-regulated learning, as well as to encourage active participation in the
students’ own learning. Against this assertion, this section looks at the major
findings emerging from such research and goes on to provide some
recommendations to accounting lecturers on how to promote self-regulated
learning among their students.
2.1 Self-Regulation defined

The concept of self-regulated learning has not evolved drastically since its
inception in educational psychology almost three decades ago. Omidire (2021)
also refers to it as self-directed learning, which is a situation in which students
assume full responsibility and control over their process of learning. As an ardent
advocate of self-regulated learning, Zimmerman (2000) views it as a student’s self-
generated thoughts, ideas, sentiments and well-planned actions that are
periodically and regularly adapted to attain personal goals. Pintrich (2002) later
expanded this view of self-regulated learning to include the students’ purposeful
control of their cognitive strategies, their motivation, metacognition and the
learning environment. Looking at this definition, this study submits that self-
regulated learning is consistent with the assumptions of multiple intelligences, as
advanced by Sternberg (2006) and that it also resembles some social constructivist
learning ideologies. For instance, like the proponents of self-regulated learning
(Lima et al., 2020 and Zimmerman, 2000), social constructivists advance that
learning is an active and participatory process, in which students are responsible
agents in the process of creating and acquiring knowledge (Mapuya, 2021). The
advocates of both social constructivist learning and self-regulated learning argue
with a united voice that those involved in curriculum implementation should
model and teach students planning, goal setting, reflection and self-evaluation
(Davids & Waghid, 2020; Doulougeri et al, 2021; Maddock & Maroun, 2018; Van
Wyk, 2016 and Zimmerman, 2000).
Self-regulated learning, which is an indispensable prerequisite for life-long

learning, is further viewed by Smith (2001) and Zimmerman (1986), as a process
whereby individual students assume control over their learning, thinking,
learning efforts and behaviour as they acquire knowledge and skills. In the views
of Schraw et al. (2006), self-regulated learning refers to the students’ abilities to
understand and control their learning environment. In their qualification of the
above position, Doulougeri et al., (2021) and Geduld (2018) concur with Schraw
et al. (2006) that self-regulation is characterised by goal setting, self-
understanding, self-monitoring and self-reinforcement. Informed by the above
70
perspectives, this paper, therefore, submits that self-regulation is all about self-
awareness, self-directiveness, goal setting and the determination to achieve these
goals strategically. In short, self-regulated learning is purposeful and intentional
learning.
While Zimmerman & Schunk (2008) caution that self-regulated learning must not
be mistaken for the mental ability or academic performance of students, this paper
argues that self-regulated learning is a major determinant of academic
performance. In making this submission, this study supports the findings of Lima
et al., (2020) and Thobideaux, et al., (2016), whose studies found a positive
relationship between self-regulated learning and academic performance in
accounting. To this end, Schraw et al. (2006) remark that self-regulation is rather
a self-directive individual process and initiative which comprises of a set of
behaviours, in which students metamorphose their mental abilities into habits and
skills, through a developmental process (Butler, 2002), which is rooted in the
notion of feedback and guided practice (Geduld, 2018 and Paris & Paris, 2001). In
the context of accounting education, self-regulation is demonstrated when
students take ownership of their studies, by taking the initiative to study
accounting and practice systematically and purposefully, on their own, without
any push from the lecturer. Most importantly, self-regulation manifests itself in
the students’ ability to set up academic targets for themselves and not only to
develop the necessary study schedule to achieve these targets, but they also
adhere to this schedule.
To provide an illuminating view of self-regulated learning, Zimmerman (2000)

developed a cyclical model of three phases. This model shows the main processes
and subsequent processes demonstrated and modelled by self-regulated students
to achieve their academic goals. Coming first among these three phases is the
foresight phase, which looks at the students’ motivational beliefs and processes
(Geduld, 2018). For Doulougeri et al., (2021), these motivational beliefs and
processes include thoughtful planning and goal-setting that directs efforts and the
commitment to learn towards the attainment of these goals. Consequently, the
foresight phase basically sets the tone and lays the foundation for learning. In the
analysis of Geduld (2018), as well as Zimmerman’s model (2000), it was suggested
that task analysis and motivational beliefs about oneself are two inextricably
intertwined forethought categories. In their study, Doulougeri et al, (2021) argue
that the process of task analysis is shaped, informed and guided by the
motivational beliefs of the students. For instance, how a student analyses an
academic task, allocates time, engages in planning, selects the most appropriate
learning strategy, sets goals and objectives to be attained is dependent on the
student’s motivational beliefs. Geduld (2018) interprets these motivational beliefs
to include perceptions of one’s self-efficacy, intrinsic interest in the task, expected
outcomes and goal orientation.
Zimmerman (2002) identifies performance as the second phase of the cyclical

model of self-regulated learning. In Zimmerman’s (2002) perspective, this phase
covers primary and secondary processes that unfold when students engage in
learning. As indicated by Doulougeri et al., (2021), these processes influence the
71
students’ focus, attentiveness and performance towards the attainment of the set
learning goals. Thus, the phase of performance ideally looks at everything that
happens as students are actually engaged in the learning process. To clarify this
phase, Zimmerman (2002) identifies two distinctive classifications in performance
processes, namely, self-control and self-observation. In Geduld’s (2018) analysis
of this second phase of the self-regulated learning model, students who are self-
regulated are thought to employ diverse task strategies, to make use of imagery,
to concentrate on the learning task and to ask for help.
Doulougeri et al, (2021) agree with the earlier views of Zimmerman (2002) that
most importantly, in this phase of the model, students make use of various self-
management strategies to accomplish the learning task and their academic goals.
In the work of Geduld (2018), the third phase of the self-regulated learning model
is about self-reflection and is concerned with processes that follow the students’
efforts to learn and influence how they react to their academic achievements. For
Zimmerman (2002), it is in this phase of the model that students who are self-
regulated evaluate and review their achievements and carry out performance-
casual attributions. Geduld (2018) qualifies this claim by arguing that these
attributes can either be negative or positive and from them, students can derive
self-satisfaction, or adopt behaviours that are defensive and adaptive to influence
their approach to similar and different tasks in future.
2.2 The Importance and Implications of Self-Regulation in Education and in the

Teaching Profession
The rationale and ultimate benefits of promoting and developing self-regulated
learning among students have been widely reported by various researchers across
the globe (Doulougeri et al., 2021; Gallagher & Savage, 2020; Geduld, 2018; Klug
et al., 2016 and Robbins et al., 2020). Undoubtedly, various research studies have
confirmed that by empowering students to engage in self-regulated learning,
lecturers develop the abilities of these students to self-monitor and control their
behaviour, thoughts, motivation and cognitive processes. This enables students to
engage in learning successfully in an ever-changing learning environment and to
respond to the complex challenges and demands of higher education and the
global idea of citizenship and lifelong learning. Most importantly, it also prepares
and empowers students to be able to face and deal with the challenges they will
encounter in their daily lives, which is the one of the central ideas of multiple
intelligences. Thus, self-regulated learning prepares students for life beyond their
academic studies. In addition, other empirical investigations have reported on
how self-regulated learning promotes and enhances the academic achievements
of students (Aguiar & Da Silva, 2017; Doulougeri et al., 2021 and Lima, et al., 2020).
In highlighting the importance of self-regulated learning, Zimmerman & Schunk

(2008) refer to the metacognitive element. Aguiar & Da Silva (2017) concur with
Zimmerman & Schunk (2008) that this metacognitive element of self-regulated
learning comprises of three types of knowledge, which are, declarative
knowledge, procedural knowledge and conditional knowledge. Subjecting and
submitting these three types on knowledge to a pedagogical lens, Geduld (2018)
shares similar views with Aguiar & Da Silva (2017) that declarative knowledge
72
refers to a student’s knowledge about oneself. For Zimmerman & Schunk (2008),
this includes the students’ awareness of those factors that influence their learning
and academic performance. Guided by the above perspectives, this paper,
therefore, argues that since declarative knowledge helps students to be aware of
the factors that can potentially impact their performance in accounting, they are
likely to develop and adopt strategies to either circumvent or mitigate these
factors, thereby exemplifying the practical implications of self-regulated learning
in accounting education. The analogy presented above helps to illuminate the
importance of self-regulated learning from a student-driven perspective.
Deliberating on procedural knowledge, Geduld (2018) supports the earlier

sentiments of Zimmerman & Schunk (2008) that it looks at the students’
knowledge of the various strategies and necessary procedures to use and follow
when engaging in a learning task. This is very cardinal in accounting education,
especially in light of the fact that different accounting topics and content areas
require students to use different learning strategies and to follow different
procedures when dealing with the subsequent learning activities. For instance,
strategies and procedures suitable for dealing with bank reconciliations, may not
be necessarily effective for calculating depreciation. This type of knowledge is
therefore important in ensuring that the students employ the most effective,
relevant and meaningful learning strategies and procedures that are consistent
with the topic, content and the task they are currently dealing with. This analysis
of procedural knowledge, as a component of metacognition resonates with the
idea of multiple intelligences as propounded by Sternberg (2006), who would
have referred to it as practical intelligence. Drawing from the fundamental
assumptions of the theory of multiple intelligences, as pioneered by Sternberg
(2006), this paper argues that self-regulated learning promotes and advances the
analytical, practical and creative intelligences of students, thereby promoting their
holistic development.
Like the idea of practical intelligence as sustained in the theory of multiple

intelligences (Sternberg, 2008), conditional knowledge is perceived by Aguiar &
Da Silva (2017) and Shuy et al., (2010) to be concerned with the students’
knowledge and understanding of the underlying reasons and time required to use
a given strategy. In clarifying the above, this paper assumes that while students
can use various learning strategies to engage in various learning activities, their
ability to decide when and how to use a certain learning strategy is a function of
conditional knowledge. This paper, therefore, postulates that since self-regulated
learning promotes the students’ ability to justify, select and decide when to use a
specific strategy, they are empowered to be in control of their learning processes
and the learning environment itself. This is because students can respond in ways
that are consistent with the prevailing realities in the learning environment. In the
South African context, declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge and
conditional knowledge are loosely consistent with the provisions and qualities of
the educator envisaged in the Minimum Requirements for Teacher-Education
Qualifications (MRTEQ) (DBE, 2011 & 2015) and the Higher Education
Qualifications Sub-Framework (2015).
73
In advocating for self-regulated learning, Zimmerman & Schunk (2008) cite

motivation as one of the benefits to students. Accordingly, Zimmerman & Schunk
(2008) argue that self-regulated learning naturally evokes the motivation of
students. Of central concern to the motivation component of self-regulated
learning are the ideologies and attitudes that influence how students use and
develop their cognitive and metacognitive skills. Geduld (2018) subscribes to this
view and adds that this aspect of motivation refers to both the self-efficacy and
epistemological beliefs of students. In the unanimous views of Aguiar & Da Silva
(2017) and Moos & Ringdal (2012), self-efficacy looks at the extent to which a
student is confident that they can successfully perform an academic task and
achieve a specific goal. Further to the above, the researcher proposes that dealing
with and teaching students who at one point have experienced failure in their
studies justifies the call for deliberate and thoughtful attempts to restore the self-
efficacy of these students.
Empowering such students with self-regulated learning skills, therefore, becomes

an appealing pedagogical approach. Aguiar & Da Silva (2017) support this idea
by adding that self-regulated learning can help students to overcome low self-
efficacy and negative self-talk with positive goal setting, positive self-instruction
and a sense of belief in oneself, as an able student. Advocates of self-regulated
learning argue that this will not only increase the students’ levels of persistence
and perseverance in their studies, but it should also challenge and inspire them to
adapt their learning strategies (Lima et al, 2020). On the other hand, Geduld (2018)
remarks that the epistemological beliefs of students are concerned with their
ideologies regarding the nature and origin of knowledge. This paper, therefore,
maintains that such ideologies are fundamental in shaping the students’ learning
behaviour and efforts because they inform the students’ ultimate views on
knowledge acquisition. Further to the above, to provide a more illuminating
framework of self-regulated learning, the study argues that these components
should not be viewed in isolation, but rather as complementary forces working
together to benefit the students.
To advocate for the importance of self-regulated learning, the researcher presents

a practical analogy and illustration in that empowering students to engage in self-
regulated learning is like teaching hungry students how to fish and giving them
the necessary fishing tools, as opposed to giving them a fish. Giving the hungry
students a fish amounts to feeding them for the day, but teaching them how to
fish is feeding them for life because whenever they are hungry, they can always
go to the river and fish on their own. Students who have mastered self-regulated
learning can always stand on their own in their studies and in life, finding
solutions to their challenges both individually and creatively. It is therefore
important to reiterate that the proper and successful implementation of self-
regulated learning is highly correlated with the academic performance of students
and their ultimate success in their studies (Aguiar & Da Silva, 2017; Lima, et al.,
2020; Thobideaux, et al., 2016).
While this study cannot quantify the reduced demand for support and
supervision on the part of lecturers, the researcher can argue with confidence that
74
self-regulated learning significantly reduces the time lecturers spend giving direct
support and supervision to students in their learning endeavors. This frees time
for other professional and academic demands that are always competing for the
lecturers’ limited time. Students who have successfully internalized and mastered
self-regulated learning skills can confidently engage in creative thinking and
problem-solving, which is one of the essential requirements for a 21st-century
student to succeed in higher education and the teaching profession and in life as
a whole (Jayawardena, et al, 2017). Considering the evidence-based educational
importance and implications of self-regulated learning presented above, this
paper advances the argument that if lecturers fully subscribe to the sustainable
development and promotion of a culture of self-regulated learning, students who
are struggling academically should improve.
3. The Research Methodology

The research design, the study participants and the research instruments are
discussed in this section of the study. The researcher also deliberates on the
development of the research instrument and the actual data collection.
3.1 The Research Design

The study was guided by the epistemological abstractions of interpretivism and
constructivism (Cohen et al., 2017 and Nieuwenhuis, 2016). In keeping with the
views of Maree (2016) and Nieuwenhuis (2016), who concur that interpretivism
accentuates the meanings that individuals ascribe to their daily experiences in real
life, the students had to make some thoughtful, conscious reflections on their
pedagogical experiences in the learning environment and to ascribe meaning to
these experiences and express these meanings quantitatively on a numerical scale.
Being typically interpretivist in nature, the study was concerned with how the
first-year accounting student teachers interpreted and rated the given pedagogical
approaches, based on their experiences and the meanings which they ascribed to
these experiences, in the light of the statements they were rating for each
approach.
3.2 The Participants in the Study and their Demographic Data

In direct alignment with the research aim and the questions, all the first-year B.Ed.
accounting student-teachers participated in this study. It therefore follows that
the population of this study was all the 121 first-year accounting B.Ed. student
teachers at a university of technology in South Africa. Thus, a purposely selected
sample of 121 participants was considered adequate to provide valid, credible and
reliable information on the teaching approaches which can be used to promote
self-regulated learning and improve the learning ability of the students.
The questionnaire was administered to a group of 121 first-year accounting-

student teachers, 53 of whom were males while the female student teachers
amounted to 68. Typical of a first-year cohort in the South African higher
education landscape, this group of participants was diverse in terms of the
individual profiles of the individual students, all coming from different high
schools, with different expectations about the learning environment. The
researcher believes that these variations in the demographic details of the study
75
participants undeniably informed their scores on the various teaching approaches

and their perceptions on self-regulated learning.
Table 1: Sample Profile of the Study Participants (N=121)

Gender Number of Participants Percentage of the Total
Population
Males (1) 53 43.80%
Females (2) 68 56.20%
Total Population size 121 100%
3.3 The Research Instruments and the Data Analysis

Informed by the literature verdicts on problem-based learning, scaffolding,
guided instruction and learning ability, (Killen, 2016; Mapuya, 2021, Mapuya &
Rambuda, 2021; Mokoena & Materechera, 2015; Van Wyk, 2016 and Vygotsky,
1978), the researcher developed a questionnaire with a Likert scale. Table 2 below
shows how the students scored each one of the six statements under the three
types of teaching approaches. Drawn from the relevant literature, these
statements were meant to establish the students’ perceived ability of the three
teaching approaches in promoting their self-regulated learning and learning
ability. This Likert scale is therefore cardinal in interpreting and understanding
the quantitative data generated by the study in the form of measures of central
tendency. The Likert scale was presented in the questionnaire as:
Never=1 Seldom=2 Sometimes=3 Often=4 Always=5
The quantitative data generated were analyzed by using the measures of central
tendency, which comprises of descriptive statistics (Leedy & Ormrod, 2015 and
Maree, 2016). To this effect, the mean and standard deviation were used to
quantify the students’ scores per individual statement and teaching approach. In
the views of Leedy & Ormrod (2015), the purpose of descriptive statistics is to
present an illuminating view of the data’s appearance, how broadly they are
spread, and the correlation between the variables in the data. In line with the
sentiments of Pietersen & Maree (2016), descriptive statistics were used to
summarise the data through location or centrality, which covers the mean and the
dispersion, which deal with the standard deviation. Cohen et al, (2017) concur
with Leedy and Ormrod (2015) that dispersion looks at how the data are spread
around the average. The SPSS Version 25 was used to validate and confirm
whether the statements posed by the researcher presented a homogeneous picture
of problem-based learning, scaffolding and guided instruction. The
questionnaire’s reliability was also assessed using SPSS.
4. The Discussion and The Findings

The quantitative findings will be presented in terms of how the students rated
each of the individual six statements under the three broad teaching approaches.
This presentation of the quantitative data serves to quantify and express in
numerical terms how the first-year accounting-student teachers perceive and rate
their self-regulated learning experiences and their abilities under the various
76
teaching approaches. In so doing, this will help the researcher to determine the
teaching approaches that accounting lecturers can use to promote self-regulated
learning among first-year accounting-student teachers. Accordingly, Table 3
below presents these quantitative findings.
4.1 Presentation of the Findings
Table 3: Presentation of the Participants’ scores on the 18 Statements

Teaching Approaches and Learning Abilities
Teaching Statement Mean Standard
Approach Deviation
Problem- PBL1 My self-regulation in learning anything in 4.95 1.03
based accounting is promoted when I am able to
learning produce and derive new concepts,
principles and understanding through my
first-hand interactions and experiences with
the learning environment.
I feel confident to take the initiative to study 4.89 0.75
PBL2 and engage in learning activities when the
lecturer teaches me in ways that allow me to
discover new knowledge in accounting in
my own way.
PBL3 Problem-based learning gives me courage 4.81 1.19
and confidence in my studies.
PBL4 I am more resilient in my studies, when I am 4.77 0.83
learning through problem-solving.
PBL5 Problem-solving helps me to endure 4.68 0.74
difficult learning tasks.
PBL6 Problem-solving improves my motivation 4.51 0.68
to study.
Overall Mean 4.77 0.87
Scaffolding S1 My self-regulation in learning anything in 2.21 0.66
accounting is promoted by adult guidance
or collaboration with more capable peers.
S2 I feel confident to take the initiative to study 2.48 0.64
and engage in learning activities when the
lecturer leads and supports my learning, in
order to discover new knowledge in
accounting and to draw my own
conclusions.
S3 Scaffolding gives me courage and 2.67 0.84
confidence in my studies.
S4 I am more resilient in my studies when 2.36 0.61
learning in a scaffolded-learning
environment.
S5 Scaffolding helps me to endure difficult 2.28 0.77
learning tasks.
S6 Scaffolding-solving improves my 2.51 0.58
motivation to study.
77
Guided GI1 My self-regulation in learning anything in 2.89 0.36

instruction accounting is promoted when the lecturer
helps me to learn and understand new
subject content, without necessarily giving
me the information directly.
GI2 I feel confident to take the initiative to study 2.01 0.42
and engage in learning activities when the
lecturer guides me to discover new
knowledge in accounting and to draw my
own conclusions.
GI3 Guided instruction gives me courage and 1.89 0.69
confidence in my studies.
GI4 I am more resilient in my studies when 1.77 0.98
learning through guided instruction.
GI5 Guided instruction helps me to endure 1.69 0.83
difficult learning tasks.
GI6 Guided instruction improves my 2.13 0.71
motivation to study.
4.2 Discussion of the Findings

With an overall mean of 4.77, problem-based learning has emerged as a teaching
approach whose ability to promote self-regulated learning among the first-year
accounting student-teachers ranges from often to always. The reliability of this
finding is corroborated by a standard deviation of 0.87 which indicates high levels
of consistency and less variability in the students’ scores. In interpreting the
quantitative findings regarding which this teaching approach can be used to
promote the self-regulated skills of students, reference can be made to the means
on statements PBL1, PBL2 and PBL3, which are all above 4.80, which is very close
to 5.0, a score which denotes always. The united voice emerging from the
quantitative data confirms that students are unanimous that problem-solving is a
superior-teaching approach in promoting their self-regulated learning skills. This
finding endorses the earlier verdicts of Jacobs, (2016), Killen, (2016) Lombard &
Themane, (2015), Ormrod, (2014b), Sternberg (2007) and Vygotsky, (1976), whose
work associates constructivist learning and self-regulated learning skills with
problem-based learning. Earlier studies by Jensen & Frederick, (2016) and Yadav
(2016) have also produced a similar verdict.
Contrary to the collective views of Daniel & Bimbola, (2010), Killen, (2016), Van
Wyk, (2016) and Vygotsky, (1986), who all support guided instruction and
scaffolding as empowering student-centred teaching approaches, this study
found these two approaches to diminish the self-regulated learning ability of
students. This finding finds expression in the overall means for both scaffolding
and guided instruction, which are 2.42 and 2.06 respectively. Based on the Likert
Scale used in this study, these scores suggest that scaffolding and guided
instruction seldomly promote the self-regulated learning skills of students. The
very close respective standard deviations of 0.68 and 0.67 attest to the high levels
of agreement and concurrence among the students’ scores, thereby vindicating
the reliability of this finding.
78
In making this interpretation, the researcher acknowledges that these scores can
also be a reflection of the lecturer’s use of scaffolding and guided instruction,
rather than their ability to promote the self-regulated learning skills of students.
Undoubtedly, this study corroborates the work of Lombard &Themane, (2015),

Ormrod, (2014b) and Vygotsky, (1976) regarding constructivist-teaching
approaches of scaffolding and guided instruction in promoting student
participation in the teaching and learning process. However, a new perspective
that has emerged from this study is that these two approaches fall short of
promoting sustainable self-regulation of students beyond the classroom because
they are predominantly lecturer centred. While both scaffolding and guided
instruction can be creatively used to promote the enthusiasm and resilience of
students in the short run, during class time, when the lecturer is in class presenting
a lesson, this enthusiasm and resilience is not sustainable outside the immediate
learning environment, in which the lecturer plays an active role in promoting
them. Beyond the classroom, the enthusiasm and resilience generated by the
lecturer through scaffolding and guided instruction is non-existent, yet these are
the central attributes of self-regulated learning.
In support of the above findings, the researcher submits that self-regulated

learning is all about the students themselves while scaffolding and guided
instruction are rather about the lecturer. The motivation to learn and the other
complementary self-regulated learning attributes ignited by the lecturer during
the lesson presented should therefore be articulated in the context of problem-
based learning. This submission is made in view of the notion that self-regulated
learning goes beyond the classroom and it is not bound to any time frame or
physical constraints.
5. Conclusion
Since the aim of this study was to determine the teaching approaches which
lecturers can use to promote self-regulated learning, the problem-based learning
approach was found to be the most effective and suitable one to this effect.
Scaffolding and guided instruction were found to seldom promote self-regulated
learning because of their reliance on the lecturer. Given the possibility and
practicability of teaching students how to engage in self-regulated learning, this
paper suggests that there is a need for distinctive policies on self-regulated
learning in education, the integration of self-regulated learning into the
curriculum, as well as in the professional training and development of lecturers.
The paper further recommends creating awareness among lecturers of their roles
in promoting and developing self-regulated learning among their students. With
accounting being a predominantly practical discipline, which requires regular
practice, the researcher submits that accounting students need to be empowered
to engage in self-regulated learning on a continuous basis. In this way, self-
regulated learning would not only compensate for the shortcomings of lecturer-
centred approaches towards the realisation of meaningful learning, but it would
also give accounting students more exposure to the content and the various
learning activities in accounting. This call resonates very well with the collective
pronouncement of the Department of Basic Education and the Department of
79
Higher Education and Training in their respective aims to produce self-directed

learners and students.
5.1 Limitations of the Study

Being a purely quantitative study in nature, the researcher acknowledges that this
study lacks qualitative data to corroborate and triangulate the quantitative
findings. To provide a more illuminating view of the students’ scores of the six
statements under the three teaching approaches, the questionnaire could have
included an open-ended section, in which students qualified their scores with the
relevant narrations (Pietersen & Maree, 2016). Undoubtedly, this would also have
vindicated the reliability of the questionnaire and the credibility of the ultimate
study findings (Leedy & Ormrod, 2015; Lewis et al., 2014 and Maree, 2016).
However, in keeping with the research objective and the research question, it was
found appealing to obtain numerical data on these teaching approaches and to
express the findings quantitatively (Maxwell, 2017).
5.2 Implications
Despite the limitations mentioned above, the study has produced adequate
statistical evidence to imply that on a comparative basis, purely student-centred
teaching approaches are more effective in promoting self-regulated learning than
lecturer-centred pedagogies. The statistical data and the subsequent findings
provide a sound basis to intensify calls for the radical and pragmatic adoption of
the recent concepts of student empowerment. Policy makers and programme
designers should be part of the conversations to include problem-based learning
as a core element of training programmes for undergraduate teachers. In order to
make the visions of most educational systems of lifelong learning citizens and the
pedagogical assumptions of social constructivism a lived reality, there is a need
to align the pedagogical practices of lecturers towards independent and
autonomous learning.
5.3 Possible Future Research

Given the identified gap emanating from the absence of qualitative data in this
study, a mixed-methods study, with multiple data-collection instruments is,
therefore, highly recommended for further research to interrogate these
quantitative verdicts. It is also suggested that future research should include the
narrative and reflective phenomenological experiences of students with the
different teaching approaches in the light of the phenomena investigated in this
study.
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84

Vol. 21, No. 5, pp. 84-103, May 2022
The Potentiality of MOOCs as a Tool for

Widening Access to Higher Education in the
African Context: A Systematic Review
Mpho-Entle Puleng Modise
University of South Africa
Abstract. Emerging educational technologies and technological

pedagogical innovations such as massive open online courses (MOOCs)
have flooded Africa's higher education (HE) sector with many promises.
This paper aims to investigate the perceptions among African HE
institutions regarding the potentiality of MOOCs as a tool to increase
access to quality HE. A systematic review of papers in peer-reviewed
journals published between 2013 and 2020 was conducted in academic
databases and 15 papers were selected. Key findings reveal that MOOCs
continue to make progress in the African HE sectors. Results also show
that MOOCs are mostly used as a self-learning element supporting formal
qualifications within African universities’ frameworks. This practice
allows only a limited number with resources to access higher education.
Remarkably, most of the studies report a lack of awareness of MOOCs in
African higher education institutions (HEIs). The results are contextual
and the challenges and opportunities within the contexts of African and
other developing countries' HE are varied; however, I would argue that
MOOCs have gained global interest and thus sharing the perceptions and
approaches that underpin MOOCs as a viable tool for increasing access to
HE is an important part of moving this agenda forward in the sector.
Keywords: access to education; developing countries; massive open

online courses (MOOCs); systematic review
1. Introduction
African higher education institutions (HEIs) face many challenges, such as the
radically changing policy landscapes and the mandates to democratise and
increase access to higher education. These changes have put pressure on most
HEIs in Africa to increase intake and access to quality higher education. Statistics
show that every year millions of young people who pass mandatory school-
leaving examinations in African schools cannot be placed at universities. In
Nigeria, for example, about 400 000 students out of 1.4 million who passed the
mandatory Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB) examination in 2016
could not be placed in any Nigerian universities (Agbu, 2016). According to the
Southern African Association for Institutional Research (SAAIR) (2019), out of a
©Authors
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total of 661 116 pupils who wrote matric examinations in 2017 in public schools in
South Africa, only 314 943 matriculants qualified for tertiary education, with
273 313 qualifying students aged between 18 and 29 years not being placed in
universities. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD) (2019) reported that in 2018, South Africa had the lowest ranking among
all OECD and partner countries regarding tertiary education attainment for the
25-34-year-old age group. So what happens to the students who are not placed in
post-school education institutions, especially those who at least qualify? How
many of these students eventually return to the education mainstream? What
measures exist to ensure that these students are eventually absorbed into the
formal education systems in their countries and become better prepared for
economic inclusion?
One of the challenges faced by developing countries is the high unemployment

rate, and research shows that the young population is the most affected (Sever &
İğdeli, 2021). Unemployment badly affects economic growth in any country.
Fapohunda (2013) states that the unemployment rate in countries like Nigeria is
alarming and a national embarrassment that needs meaningful and tangible
action. Sever and İğdeli (2021) further explain that “social and psychological
aspects and the economic dimension of youth unemployment” need urgent
attention. According to Fapohunda (2013, p. 230), when “young people are
provided with employment opportunities, they can become productive assets and
participate in mainstream society, offering the best of their skills and talents”.
Mehry et al. (2021) highlight that economic policy-making worldwide is largely
focused on financial inclusion; however, financial inclusion will not happen
without appropriate skills development interventions, some of which are best
addressed through education. El Said (2017) points out some of the challenges
that MOOCs can effectively alleviate, such as the “overcrowded classrooms, high
costs of materials and books, commuting diﬃculty due to high traﬃc, and a need
for continued education and specialised training for the workforce” (p. 7).
The emerging educational technologies and technological pedagogical

innovations such as e-learning approaches and MOOCs that flooded the HE
sectors in Africa and other developing countries promised to offer opportunities
for the massification of education (Yuan & Powel, 2013; Zhou, 2017). Although
MOOCs are still new and emerging (Zawacki-Richter et al., 2018), especially in
Africa, they are responsible for a wide range of pedagogical discussions (Bozkurt,
et al., 2017; Wang, Hall & Wang, 2019). African researchers acknowledge the
disruptiveness of MOOCs in HE. This is evidenced by increasing debates and
research on MOOCs. Historically, people enrol for MOOCs for various reasons,
including curiosity, pleasure, personal and career development (Klobas,
Mackintosh & Murphy, 2015). However, MOOCs have not yet been used as a tool
to widen access to formal higher education for qualifying students MOOCs have
also taken the lead in open educational practices and the subject of research
worldwide (De Rosa, 2018). However, although MOOCs have made their way
into discussions around opening access to higher education in Africa and other
developing countries (Oyo & Kalema, 2014), not much research is available on the
role of MOOCs to widen access to formal HE in the African HE context.
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Although MOOCs have received attention in higher education sectors, they have
also received much pushback in the formal learning environment of HEIs
(Czerniewicz, Deacon, Fife, Small & Walji, 2015), especially in Africa. This is due
to the widespread outcry over issues with MOOCs accreditation (Kursun, 2016),
lack of rigour in assessing learning (Hollands & Tirthali, 2014) and high drop-out
rates (Hew & Cheung, 2014), among others. Accreditation and positive
completion rates are important factors in higher education, and without them,
HEIs and their courses lose the trust of key stakeholders. However, some
universities already acknowledge MOOCs, not merely as an auxiliary resource
but for accreditation towards formal programmes (Harris & Wihak, 2018). For
example, transnational higher education in the United Arab Emirates uses
MOOCs for accreditation prior to learning and programme delivery (Annabi &
Wilkins, 2016). China has also integrated ‘accredited MOOCs’ into the formal
curriculum (Wang, Hall & Wang, 2019). Therefore, exploring African countries'
current perceptions and uses of MOOCs may help us to gain a better
understanding of how universities could use MOOCs to widen access to HE for
deserving students. This paper aims to systematically analyse and document
existing research on how MOOCs in African higher education sectors are used to
widen access to higher education.
2. Background literature
MOOCs are “free, easily accessible, completely online courses” with no entry
requirements (FutureLearn, 2016, para 2). Usually, they are “university-level or
training courses” (El Khadiri, Labouidya, El Kamoun & Hilal, 2019, p. 1168) that
offer “online learning services, including learning communities, automated self-
testing, peer reviews, and different certificates”, although the certificates are
mostly not for credit (Agbu, Mulder, DeVries, Tenebe & Caine, 2016, p. 112).
Zawacki-Richter et al. (2018) point out that MOOCs are not independent and
isolated from other open and distance learning (ODL) and educational technology
developments but are “strongly tied to other developments in the field” (p. 243).
Open and distance education can contribute enormously to the massification of

education and widening access to many deserving learners. There is a global
movement towards open education’s being established to fulfil specific
governmental purposes and to address educational needs not fulfilled by
traditional universities (Tait, 2008; Brenner et al., 2021). The initial thoughts
behind open education were to make HE accessible to everyone. MOOCs are
founded on the open universities' educational philosophy and attract a significant
number of HEIs and private enterprises (Bozkurt et al., 2016).
Although MOOCs are still emerging in Africa, Nyoni (2013) believes that they are
recognised as a game-changer for conventional and ODL universities. Most HE
providers are expected to contribute to widening participation and promoting
more learner-empowering educational practices (Orr, Weller & Farrow, 2018).
Many universities offer blended education to non-traditional students (Tait, 2018;
Weller, Jordan, DeVries and Rolfe, 2018). Schuetze and Slowey (2002, p. 312.)
define ‘non-traditional’ students as “new groups of students who, for a complex
range of social, economic and cultural reasons, were traditionally excluded from,
or under-represented in, higher education”.
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While the expectation is that open universities will take the lead in widening
access, campus-based universities are pressured to participate in open learning
approaches and open educational practices (Subotzky & Prinsloo, 2011). Research
indicates that most open universities are based in Asia and Europe, with Africa
ranking third (DeVries, 2019). African universities are gradually embracing
MOOCs, following in the footsteps of their prominent Western and European
peers. The first MOOC projects in Africa were products of collaboration between
African countries/organisations and an international body, for example the
World Bank’s SMART skills project in partnership with Coursera in Tanzania,
which was launched in 2008 (Trucano, 2013). Other examples include edX and
Coursera partnerships with Wits University (Bischof, 2017); Commonwealth of
Learning with Nigeria (Marshall, 2016); and the Kepler project in Rwanda,
launched in 2013 (Escher et al., 2014). However, Rambe and Moeti (2017) highlight
“the academic elitism which manifests in the exclusive selection of top American
universities to develop, host and deliver MOOCs” (p. 631).
Research shows that the highest MOOC completion rates are in developing
countries. Mourdoukoutas’s (n.d.) study revealed that low-income and middle-
income populations make up 80% of MOOC users. Zhenghao, Alcorn,
Christensen, Eriksson, Koller and Emanuel (2015) also reported that 40% of
MOOC users are from developing countries, while Rambe and Moeti (2017) point
to the scarcity of resources for many learners in African countries. Africa faces
many highly researched challenges regarding technological advances within
educational systems; however, many universities are finding ways to employ new
technologies and continue to offer quality education. The reality is that growth in
African countries’ ICT sectors does not align with the “primary policy objectives
of affordable access for all” (Nyoni, 2013, p. 666). While we acknowledge the
impact and implications of these challenges for successful and effective online
education through vehicles such as MOOCs, we should be cognisant of the many
benefits of MOOCs for those who aspire to widen open education in their
countries. These challenges are a serious barrier to Africa’s fully reaping the
benefits of MOOCs and other education technologies for their learners.
According to Materu (2007, as cited in Oyo & Kalema, 2014, p. 3), for various
reasons, “the majority of students with minimum entry grades in Africa still
cannot access higher education”. Although the African student population is
rapidly growing (USAID, 2014), sub-Saharan Africa is reported to have the lowest
participation in higher education globally (Darvas, Gao, Shen & Bawany, 2017).
African students need to be provided with quality and relevant education by
African higher educational institutions (HEIs). However, “concerted effort at
adopting MOOCs on the continent remain emergent and fragmentary" (Rambe &
Moeti, 2017, p. 642). There is a need for African HEIs to experiment with different
educational delivery models. Oyo and Kalema (2014) believe that MOOCs have
been shown to be an effective innovation that can help unearth new best practices
for online, face-to-face or blended pedagogies.
3. Methodology
This study aimed to document the empirical research on the perception and use
of MOOCs and their impact on access to higher education in African contexts with
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a view to understanding how MOOCs are currently being perceived and used by
HEIs in Africa. A qualitative approach with a systematic literature review
(Vaismoradi, Jones, Turunen & Snelgrove, 2016) was used for this study.
Systematic reviews are founded on the principle of a comprehensive literature
search to identify the available quality literature with a replicable search strategy
as completely as possible (Hirt, Nordhausen, Appenzeller-Herzog & Ewald,
2020). Systematic reviews are also purposive. They study various topics by
focusing on specific features of targeted literature and involve a rigorous and
systematic research process of information searching (Newman & Gough, 2020).
Systematic reviews were first formulated in the field of medicine in response to

the exponential growth in medical research, where the findings proved
impossible to synthesise on given topics (Ramey & Rao, 2011). Increasingly,
however, systematic reviews are being used to synthesise research to inform
practice (Tamim, Borokhovski, Bernard, Schmid, Abrami & Pickup, 2021) in other
disciplines, such as educational technology. Davies (2000) argues that educational
policy and practice have much to gain from systematic reviews. Systematic
literature reviews follow more formalised and rigorous processes than do other
types of literature reviews, such as systematised literature reviews (Peters, 2017).
They also create an unbiased synthesis from a great body of literature (Sayers,
2007) and assist in drawing conclusions from existing evidence (Koufogiannakis,
2012). A systematic review was necessary to establish the extent to which African
HEIs’ current research addresses the issue of widening access by using MOOCs.
3.1 Research questions

For this study, the researcher conducted a systematic review of the empirical
literature (peer-reviewed journal articles). The researcher aimed to understand
how MOOCs are currently being perceived and used by HEIs in Africa and how
such approaches can enhance the use of MOOCs for entry into formal higher
education. The study thus focused on the following two research questions:
1. What is the perception of MOOCs as a tool to widen access to higher
education in African higher education institutions?
2. What is the status of MOOC usage in higher education institutions in
Africa?
Although the first MOOC appeared in 2009, it was not until 2012 that the term
became a buzzword and attracted significant policy attention in the international
domain (Lane, 2013). Global MOOC research and trends only gathered
momentum in 2013 (Bozkurt et al., 2016; Corbeil et al., 2018), after 2012 was
declared “the year of the MOOC” by the New York Times (Shah, n.d.). Since it
was around 2013 that MOOCs spread to some developing countries, only studies
from 2013 to 2020 were included in this study, using the set inclusion/exclusion
criteria presented in table 1.
There may be thousands of MOOC-related research papers, but relatively few

address African issues and are produced by African authors. This review was
intentional in including only works by African scholars to understand how they
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perceive MOOCs and their viability in extending access to higher education to

deserving learners.
Table 1: Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Inclusion criteria Exclusion criteria
Empirical studies published between Empirical studies published before 2013
2013 and 2020 and after 2020
Empirical studies published only in the Empirical studies not published in the
English language English language
Primary empirical research Reviews or theoretical articles
Empirical studies focusing on higher Empirical studies focusing on basic
education education (primary and
secondary/middle-school education)
Academic journal articles Non-academic journal articles
MOOCs research focusing specifically MOOCs research that does not focus on
on the widening of access to HE widening access to HE
Articles authored by African scholars, Articles authored purely by non-
including those collaborating with other African scholars
scholars with a focus on African
countries
African HE context Non-African HE context
3.2 Databases and search terms

Based on the research questions, background literature and with the help and
support of a librarian from the University of South Africa’s library, the search
strategy was developed to identify the relevant studies (Gough et al., 2012; Bond,
2020) by using Boolean operators (AND, OR), expressed as (A1 OR A2 OR… A11)
AND (B1 OR B2) (Lee, Watson & Watson, 2019). The search terms that were used
to search for literature are presented in table 2.
Table 2: Search terms

A1. Access* to education B1. Massive open and online
A2. Open access course*
A3. Higher education B2. MOOC*
A4. Postsecondary education
A5. Undergrad*
A6. Postgrad*
A7. E-learning
A8. Online learning
A9. Blended learning
A10. Africa
A11. Sub-Saharan countr*
Sabinet, Scopus and Web of Sciences (WoS) databases were chosen for this
research because of their credibility and breadth of coverage on topics in their
collections. The search string and search terms are important in a systematic
review to extract the relevant items for the research project and ensure the search's
replicability (Polonioli, 2020).
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3.3 Search results

The PRISMA guidelines are authoritative in guiding systematic reviews and they
consist of a four-phase flow diagram and a checklist of 27 items developed to help
improve the reporting of systematic literature reviews and meta-analyses (Bond,
2020). The PRISMA flow diagram forms an integral part of the methodological
description of a systematic review (Haddaway, 2020) and outlines the
identification, screening, eligibility and inclusion processes of items and reasons
for study exclusion/inclusion. A total of 99 MOOC-related papers were retrieved,
as illustrated through the PRISMA flowchart (figure 1), adapted from Moher,
Liberati, Tetzlaff, Altman and the PRISMA Group (2009).
Figure 1: PRISMA flow diagram
Articles on the topic of MOOCs with discussions around widening access to

higher education were searched in databases through the University of South
Africa’s library. After downloading the papers from the three databases,
duplications were removed automatically using the EPPI-Reviewer software.
EPPI-Reviewer software was developed in 1993 and is maintained by the EPPI-
Centre at the Social Science Research Unit in the Department of Social Science,
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UCL Institute of Education, University College London. It is a “web-based

software program for managing and analysing data in literature reviews” (EPPI-
Centre, 2021, para 1), suitable for small or large-scale reviews, including
systematic reviews.
After applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, the next step was to screen the
papers based on their titles and abstracts. This step resulted in 23 articles being
excluded. Forty-six (46) papers were then selected for full-text screening, which
yielded 19 studies after excluding 27 (see figure 1). This iterative process yielded
15 relevant data extraction and synthesis studies in this systematic review.
3.4 Data extraction

Information about the use of MOOCs in higher education and how the researchers
within the African HEIs perceived MOOCs was coded. Data from the included
articles were extracted using a coding system designed with guidance from the
coding systems developed by Bond, Buntins, Bedenlier, Zawacki-Richter and
Kerres (2020). This coding system was chosen for its comprehensiveness and
coverage of many important aspects of a study, including methodologies used,
study design, samples, findings and study conclusions (Bond, 2020).
3.5 Data synthesis

Guided by the research questions and aim of this review, a narrative synthesis of
the quantitative and qualitative data was undertaken, which – according to
Petticrew and Roberts (2006, as cited in Bond, 2020, p. 6) – is a valid method of
analysing and assembling evidence in systematic reviews. The quantitative data
are presented in tables and figures, while the qualitative data are described
narratively. Qualitative content analysis was used consistently and extensively in
systematic review studies (Bozkurt, Keskin & De Waard, 2016; Zawacki-Richter
et al., 2018) and was considered suitable for this study. Coding reports were
generated and exported from EPPI-Reviewer to the researcher’s personal
computer for further synthesis. Findings and emerging themes are discussed in
the discussion section of this paper.
4. Findings
This section presents the findings of the systematic review and a discussion of the
emerging themes, aligned with the research questions based on the included
studies, namely a) the perception of the potentiality of MOOCs to widen access to
higher education in Africa and b) teaching approaches applied using MOOCs in
African higher education institutions. The first part of this section briefly
discusses the study characteristics, including trends and a list of the included
studies (table 3); the second part discusses the emerging themes.
4.1 Study characteristics

The studies included in the systematic review were conducted in eight different
developing countries, mostly African countries. Three of the fourteen studies
were a collaboration between an African country and at least one developed
country (table 3). The internationally collaborated and co-authored articles were
included in the study, based on the first author and his/her country of origin, the
study setting and research focus. The collaboration trend of MOOC development
projects and related research between developed and developing countries seems
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to be increasing (table 3). However, many universities in some developing

countries have started developing their own MOOCs. Two of the articles
produced in Egypt were a collaboration with London (2016) and Spain (2018),
respectively, while Nigeria collaborated with the Netherlands and India (2016) on
another MOOC project. Another trend is that undergraduate and postgraduate
students seem to be the most researched groups, as illustrated in table 3. MOOCs
are also being used in the corporate sector for skills development in South Africa.
Table 3: A sample of included studies and their major themes

Sample
Author(s)/Year Country Study level Major themes
focus
Nyoni, J (2013) South Africa Lecturers Postgraduate Open access,
ODL, SDL, skills
development,
MOOCs
Oyo, B & Kalema, South Africa N/A N/A Access to higher
BM (2014) education, open
education,
African
governments,
MOOCs
Aboshady, OA, Egypt Students Undergraduate Awareness and
Radwan, AE, use of MOOCs
Eltaweel, AR,
Azzam, A &
Aboelnaga, AA, et
al. (2015)
Agbu, JFO, Mulder, Nigeria, Lecturers Undergraduate Digital
F, DeVries, F, Netherlands, Postgraduate openness, OERs,
Tenebe, V & Caine, India MOOCs
A (2016)
Hone, KS & El Said, Egypt, London, Students Undergraduate DE telelearning,
GR (2016) Postgraduate MOOCs
El Mhouti, A, Morocco N/A N/A Drop-out rates,
Nasseh, A & Erradi, engagement,
M (2016) MOOCs
Czerniewicz, L, South Africa Lecturers Institutional Open practices,
Deacon, A, Glover, skills OERs, MOOCs
M & Walji, S (2017) development
El Said (2017) Egypt Students Undergraduate MOOC
Postgraduate retention and
design
Liyanagunawardena, Egypt Healthcare N/A Training and
TR & Aboshady, OA professionals professional
(2018) development,
MOOCs
Alonso, JLG & Samy, Egypt, Spain Students Undergraduate International
D (2018) Postgraduate cooperation,
capacity
building,
MOOCs
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Fianu, E, Blewett, C, South Africa, Students Undergraduate Technology

Ampong, GOA & Ghana Postgraduate adoption,
Ofori, KS (2018) computer self-
efficacy
Deacon, A, Walji, S, South Africa Established Corporate/ Flexibility,
Jawitz, J, Small, J & professionals Skills online learning,
Jaffer, T (2019) development institutional
capacity
El Khadiri, K, Morocco N/A N/A Access to higher
Labouidya, O, El education, SDL,
Kamoun, N & Hilal, MOOCs
R (2019)
Small, J, Deacon, A, South Africa Corporate Postgraduate Transitions in
Walji, S, Jaffer, T & professionals Corporate/ work, skills
Jawitz, J (2019) Skills development,
development MOOCs
Waghid, Y & South Africa Students & Undergraduate MOOCs,
Waghid, F. (2017 university Postgraduate disrupting HE
educators curriculum and
pedagogy,
rhizomatic
thinking
The results from the reviewed literature reveal a general increase in MOOC-
related research between 2016 and 2019 in Africa (figure 2), five years after the
hype of MOOCs emerged globally (Bozkurt, Keskin & De Waard, 2016).
The highest number of MOOC-related research studies were produced in 2017 in

an African HE context (figure 3), with the topics ranging from building
capabilities through MOOCs, MOOC-making and open educational practices,
and perceptions and use of MOOCs in developing countries’ universities.
5
Number of published articles
0
2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020
Year of publication
Figure 2: Number of articles by year of publication
South Africa appears to be the top generator of MOOC-related research, followed

by Egypt, as depicted in figure 3. Although this study was of a small scale, it
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correlates with the study of Escher, Noukakis and Aebischer (2014), who also
found that Egypt, South Africa, Morocco, Tunisia and Nigeria had the largest
geographical distribution of MOOC participants from African countries.
7
Number of published articles
0
South Africa Egypt Nigeria Morocco Ghana
Country
Figure 3: Number of articles per country
Based on the studies selected for this review, there seems to be very little research
from African HEIs that focuses on how MOOCs can be used to help the masses of
learners in Africa to access higher education. This finding is supported by the
included study of El Said (2017), who reported that the population of Egypt
appeared to be underrepresented and under-researched with respect to MOOC
participation. Most articles in the MOOC research, as indicated in table 3, reported
on topics such as the flexibility of MOOCs, student engagement, self-regulated
learning and drop-out rates, except for the study of Oyo and Kalema (2014) and
Agbu, Mulder, DeVries, Tenebe and Caine (2016), who discussed the possibility
of MOOCs as tools to increase access to higher education. The next section
presents the emerging themes based on the research questions from the studies
included in the systematic review.
4.2 Themes
4.2.1 The perception of the potentiality of MOOCs to widen access to higher education in
Africa
This theme looks at how African HEIs view the value and role of MOOCs in
increasing access to higher education for the masses that cannot access it, for
whatever reasons, as reported in research. Of the 15 reviewed papers in this
research study, only two studies by Agbu et al. (2016) and Oyo and Kalema (2014)
reported on the potentiality of MOOCs’ being used for access to higher education.
Oyo and Kalema (2014, p. 2) firmly believe that “a good design of MOOCs could
widen HE access to disadvantaged students in Africa, thereby promoting holistic
economic emancipation”. Agbu et al. (2016, p. 117) also reported that MOOCs are
seen as an alternative with “great potential benefits of widening access to quality
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higher education in Nigeria”, with the National Open University of Nigeria

(NOUN) driving OERs and OER-based MOOCs.
El Said (2017) reported that MOOC participation in the Egyptian population was
underrepresented and under-researched; however, he points out that "MOOCs
can provide innovative solutions to education problems in Egypt” (p. 7).
Although Waghid and Waghid (2017) contend that MOOCs may “not strictly
advance equal access and inclusion”, they also believe that MOOCs “have the
potential to cultivate student capacities in a critically transformative way” (p. 1).
Research suggests that MOOCs are already being used as part of mainstream
credit-bearing courses in some institutions (Small et al., 2019) in other developing
countries, such as the Philippines, Thailand and India which – at national levels –
are already crediting MOOCs for entry into formal university education (Harris
& Wihak, 2018). Transnational higher education in the United Arab Emirates
reportedly uses MOOCs to credit students’ prior learning (Annabi & Wilkins,
2016).
4.2.2 Lack of awareness of MOOCs in Africa

One of the important key challenges that African HEIs face is the prevalent lack
of awareness of MOOCs. Several studies in this review reported that many
learners and teachers were not aware of the existence and provision of MOOCs.
For example, the study by Aboshady et al. (2015) reported on the lack of
awareness and use of these courses in Egypt. Alonso and Samy (2018) found that
most students are unfamiliar with MOOCs, and those who knew about MOOCs
had heard about them from friends and social networks. Small et al. (2019, p. 429)
also reported that MOOC-takers “already possess some level of education”,
meaning that access is available to a limited few, most of whom already have a
post-school qualification. Oyo and Kalema (2014, p. 1) believe that African HEIs
face a “new era of universal access to HE that is achievable through MOOCs only
if the respective governments meet initial requirements”. This requires that
awareness be instilled at the national level and cascaded down to all stakeholders,
including the schools. El Khadiri et al. (2019) argue that MOOCs deserve the full
attention of the higher education community, including decision-makers,
teachers, students and researchers, “given their importance in the democratisation
of knowledge (free and open to all)" (p. 1167).
4.2.3 The status of MOOC usage in higher education institutions in Africa

This review found that MOOCs in African HEIs are mainly used as a
supplementary resource to traditional education. The studies of Annabi and
Wilkins (2016) and Reich and Ruipérez-Valiente (2019) found that MOOC
providers are partnering with the HEIs to use MOOCs to supplement university
programmes. Escher et al. (2014) argue that MOOCS can be used by faculty in
universities to ‘flip the classroom’ as an auxiliary resource. MOOCs in the African
HE context are still seen as secondary resources. MOOCs seem to be used mainly
to complement traditional education or as part of a university programme and as
a self-learning element (McAuley et al., 2010; Alonso, 2018; Czerniewicz, 2017).
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In some cases, MOOCs involve face-to-face tuition and support for university
students. For example, Fianu et al. (2018, p. 8) reported that in South Africa and
Ghana, “university-based students are given MOOCs as extra tuition support”. El
Said (2017) believes that “using MOOCs as a learning opportunity within the
context of a university-accredited programme would increase the likelihood of
completion” (p. 2). However, Zhenghao et al. (2015) report that completing a self-
learning MOOC remains optional for graduate and undergraduate students,
effectively measuring completion and drop-out rates in such learning contexts.
5. Discussion
Based on this review, the idea already exists in countries such as Egypt, Nigeria
and South Africa to use MOOCs to grant access to formal higher education.
Although MOOCs lack formal credit value and do not always lead to formal
qualifications, research suggests that they are already being used as part of
mainstream credit-bearing courses in some institutions (Small et al., 2019) in other
developing countries. However, there is little evidence in studies of African
universities’ considering using MOOCs to open access to formal qualification
programmes for students. MOOCs have thus far been used to complement
traditional education (Yuan & Powell, 2013; Zawacki-Richter et al., 2018) and are
also offered to university-based students as extra tuition support (Fianu et al.,
2018). When MOOCs are used in face-to-face scenarios as part of tuition and
student support, as reported in the findings, the ubiquity of MOOCs becomes
questionable and further increases the education access divide. Access to the large
numbers of MOOCs offered as supplements to university programmes is
questionable, as these MOOCs are often offered only to the university’s cohort of
registered students.
HEIs are seemingly the “main drivers of MOOCs, at least from the perspective of
the developed countries where MOOCs are thriving” (Oyo & Kalema, 2014, p. 9).
There is a need for HEIs to initiate dialogue with governments and accreditation
bodies in African countries on how MOOCs can be utilised innovatively, perhaps
as part of the recognition of prior learning (RPL), to help millions of learners gain
access to further training in the form of university education. University
leadership also needs to encourage staff to teach actively with open content
(Agbu, 2016; Czerniewicz et al., 2017), including MOOCs. Active and constructive
discussions around this topic and sharing relevant knowledge and innovations
could help to widen access to higher education using MOOCs.
Although there is an increase in MOOC-related research within the African

context, the prevalent lack of awareness of MOOCs reported in six of the fifteen
studies included in this review is of serious concern. More effort is needed to raise
awareness among the relevant stakeholders, starting with those in the ministry of
education at government level, HEIs, lecturers, students and other stakeholders.
The increase of MOOC-related research in African universities is inevitable,
considering the publicised promises of MOOCs and their potential to make it
possible for universities to reach students in the most inaccessible and deprived
parts of their continents. However, this increase in MOOC research in Africa deals
with issues previously dealt with in the Western and European studies on
97
MOOCs, except for challenges unique to African countries and other developing
countries, such as basic digital infrastructure, electricity supply, internet
connectivity (Rambe & Moeti, 2017) and, in some cases, a lack of digital skills on
the part of both lecturers and students.
Most of the MOOC research conducted in Africa between 2013 and 2020 mainly
reported on the lessons learnt from the MOOCs designed and offered within a
formal qualification programme at a university. Some MOOC-related research is
reported within the confines of government-led training programmes and in
private and corporate organisations. However, there is little reporting on how
MOOCs can be used to expand access to formal education to millions of students
in African countries. The production of MOOCs in Africa, although linked to a
formal programme offered at a university, is a phenomenal achievement at this
point. MOOC production and research collaborations with international
organisations embody the much-needed technical skills transfer, but there is also
a need for African HEIs to start producing MOOCs that speak to the heart of
Africa and that help to solve some of the longstanding issues relating to HE access
in Africa.
6. Conclusion
The increasing research is evidence of interest in MOOCs among HEIs. This study
aimed to investigate the perceptions among African and other developing
countries’ higher education sectors regarding the potentiality of using MOOCs as
a tool to increase access to quality higher education. The study undertook a
systematic review, which revealed the conflicting views on MOOCs in existing
research. Some institutions have already started using MOOCs as a pathway to
formal education, whereas other institutions prefer to use MOOCs only as a
supplementary element. The study also revealed the potentiality of MOOCs to
expand access to higher education; what is needed now is increased awareness
campaigns and dialogues between African governments and HEIs. The
implications and recommendations in this study may further increase research
and dialogues around the use of MOOCs as tools to introduce more learners to
quality higher education.
7. Implications and recommendations

While research produces volumes of data on MOOCs, there is comparatively little
research on how MOOCs can be used to widen access to formal education in
higher education for the masses, especially in the African HE context. The
systematically reviewed literature in this paper highlighted the trends and issues
that may directly influence African HEIs’ use of MOOCs to grant millions of
learners access to higher education. The review revealed a lack of awareness of
MOOCs among African HEIs. Thus, governments who aspire to widen access to
higher education through MOOCs need to raise the awareness of every
stakeholder, including high school communities, HEI educationists, policy-
makers and government.
The universities that offer MOOCs as part of a degree programme are

commendable in realising the role and value of MOOCs in widening access to
98
education for the masses. However, HEIs – in collaboration with governments,

authorities and regulators – need to assess their preparedness to use MOOCs as a
means to grant learners access to higher education, as well as the implications for
degree programmes.
Further research unpacking and sharing information and experiences of the

potential positive effect of utilising MOOCs for accreditation purposes may help
increase the value of MOOCs. This research may further make relevant
authorities aware of MOOCs' significance leading to a massive utilization among
African HEIs.
There is a suggestion that MOOCs can work better if packaged with recognition
of prior learning (RPL) programmes (Oyo & Kalema, 2014; Annabi & Wilkins,
2016) to open access to higher education for individuals who would otherwise not
have access to it. This is one possibility and further dialogue and research can
unpack how this could be achieved. In addition, research on how MOOCs can be
used in widening access to HE in the African higher education sector in the post-
COVID-19 pandemic era might be of interest and might produce useful insights
for both practitioners and policy-makers.
8. Study limitations
Shenton (2004) cautions that qualitative research results must be understood
within the context of the characteristics of the case. The findings of systematic
reviews are often limited to the research in the included papers, based on the
study's inclusion and exclusion criteria. Nonetheless, the lessons learnt from this
study are relevant to various stakeholders, including HEIs, education policy-
makers, local and international MOOC developers and anyone interested in
MOOCs in African HEI contexts. The study’s results should thus be understood
within the context of African HEIs’ approaches to MOOCs and based on the
papers included in this review.
9. Acknowledgments
I wish to thank Dr Melissa Bond from the EPPI-Centre, University College
London, for her selfless help, patience, guidance and support in using the EPPI-
Reviewer software program during this systematic review research project.
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Vol. 21, No. 5, pp. 104-125, May 2022
Digital Infographics Design (Static vs Dynamic):

Its Effects on Developing Thinking and
Cognitive Load Reduction
Nader Said Shemy
Arab Open University, AOU, Oman
Fayoum University, Egypt
Abstract. The current study investigates the effect of the difference

between two styles of infographics (static vs. dynamic) on developing
visual thinking and reducing the cognitive load of grade six students in
their science course. The researcher relied on the quasi-experimental
design. The random sample population included 40 students who were
divided into two equal experimental groups: the first group of students
was exposed to static infographics, while the second was exposed to
dynamic infographics. The experimental treatment of independent
variables was done by Wepik and Vyond web applications. Data were
collected by two tools, a Visual Thinking Test (prepared by the
researcher) and a Cognitive Load Scale (NASA-TLX). The results
indicated that there was a significant impact of dynamic infographics on
developing students’ visual thinking and reducing their cognitive load
compared with static infographics. This can be attributed to the diverse
stimuli and multimedia elements that dynamic infographics provide,
which are compatible with the students’ tendencies and abilities, as well
as their learning, cognitive and perception styles. Furthermore, the
presentation of concepts in a sequential and orderly manner can allow for
in-depth understanding and assimilation with a limited cognitive load.
Keywords: static infographics; dynamic infographics; visual thinking;

cognitive load
1. Introduction
Providing interactive e-educational content is an issue that is constantly raised in
education communities around the world. The repercussions of the COVID-19
pandemic on education have driven many researchers to find a different style to
provide interactive e-educational content through which students can form
serious interaction towards benefiting from this content and also to developing
many skills, the most important of which are thinking skills, and also benefiting
from this content in reducing the cognitive load they face when learning from
educational content that is traditionally presented. Several studies have suggested
new patterns in providing interactive electronic educational content.
©Authors
105
It is important to remember students now belong to the digital generation that has
different characteristics, requirements, and needs, the most important of which is
the need to interact with and participate in educational content delivered in a
manner that allows them to do so throughout their learning period.
Between 2010 and 2012, the use of Infographic Technology began to increase
strongly. From then until now, the massive Internet revolution has driven the
increasing need for infographics. The term infographics is a portmanteau of two
words: information, which refers to data, and graphics, which refers to images
and drawings. Converting information into images and graphics helps to simplify
complex pieces of information and facilitate their learning (Ali, 2019). In the search
for the best instructional methods and styles, the use of infographics offers various
advantages and merits. It was a fertile soil for researchers to study its impact on
learners for different instructional materials, educational stages, and study levels,
starting from kindergarten. In this regard, Al-Shuaibi (2018), for example, showed
the effectiveness of infographics in developing visual memory for kindergarten
children. As for other educational stages, Alzahrani (2020) demonstrated the
importance of infographics in English vocabulary retention for grade eight
students. Also, Shafi et al. (2018) showed the effectiveness of infographics at the
preparatory stage. At the university level, Alsaadoun (2021) showed the efficiency
of infographics in developing the concepts of instructional design for university
students. Moreover, infographic technology has the advantage of being able to
reach students of all groups, even the disabled, as discussed, for example, in Said
(2019) which demonstrated the effectiveness of that technology in raising the
achievement levels of students with hearing disabilities. Thus, infographics have
taken a primary role through raising the achievement levels and increasing
learning retention of students in different stages, in addition to developing
various visual thinking aspects and skills, which depend on understanding
displayed images and eliciting concepts and information from them; Habeeb
(2020) and Mohamed’s (2021) showed positive results from the use of infographics
in the development of learners’ visual thinking. Both studies involved subjects
relating to social sciences; whereas the current study seeks to employ infographics
for applied science subjects. Thus, the infographics used will be different in their
content and presentation style from those used in humanities and social science,
therefore there is a need to indicate the extent to which infographics affect
thinking and reduce the cognitive load of science students.
The strength and effectiveness of infographics vary according to the type and
patterns used. For example, Mustafa (2021) showed that there are varying ratios
and degrees between the two types (static vs. dynamic) of infographics,
concluding that the effectiveness of static infographics for instantaneous
comprehension came to 80%, while dynamic infographics were 55% more useful
for retrieving information, which indicates the broad capabilities of infographics
of reducing the cognitive load of learners.
Guzmán et al. (2021) pointed out that the acquisition of experimental equipment
has become a problem due to its high costs. To partially solve this problem, the
106
scientific community has developed new low-cost technologies that don’t require
users to have extensive knowledge of electronics and programming.
In light of this, and based on the many studies that have indicated the importance
of this technology in raising learners’ motivation and increasing their
achievement and willingness to learn, the researcher proposed the use of
infographics in presenting scientific concepts to sixth grade students, especially
because it contributes to self-learning. Keeping in mind the existence of at least
three types of infographics, the present study aims to discuss the differences
between static and dynamic types, and, furthermore, to investigate the patterns
that are the most appropriate for students' learning, and the most effective in their
retention of scientific concepts. Through my work with supervising field training
in schools, I noticed that providing educational content to students in the
traditional way does not help students develop their critical thinking skills,
despite the students’ motivation to share their ideas in the lessons. Additionally,
teachers at these schools confirmed that the traditional presentation of learning
materials bears a substantial cognitive load for many students. Thus, the main
research question can be stated as follows: What is the effect of the difference in
the two main types of infographics (static vs. dynamic) in the presentation of
instructional content among grade six students in a science course? The main
objective of the research is to measure the difference between the aforementioned
styles (static vs. dynamic) when presenting instructional content and its effects on
visual thinking and cognitive load among grade six students.
2. Research Theoretical Background

2.1 Infographics
As one of the tools used in conveying messages to the target groups across many
fields, infographics are highly efficient since they can give a comprehensive
explanation of the concepts that range from the least to the most complex (Kelidou
& Siountri, 2020). With the spread of infographics and the diverse methods and
ways in which they are used, many definitions have been assigned to them; for
example, Al-Shaltoot (2016) defined infographics as “the art of transforming data,
information and complex concepts into images and graphics that can be acquired,
understood and assimilated clearly and interestingly. This technique is
characterized by presenting complex and difficult information in a smooth, easy
and clear way” (p. 111). Meanwhile, Mustafa (2021) defined infographics as a
“visual and reduced narration of complex information and data through
drawings, icons and illustrations with the aim of enhancing the understanding of
the recipient and communicating the meaning in an interesting and attractive
way.” Based on these, infographics can be defined as a creative, innovative
instructional means through which both simple and complex scientific concepts
can be conveyed in the form of drawings, images graphs, charts and attractive
texts that enable students to easily understand these concepts, regardless of their
educational levels. The types of infographics vary according to the method of
classification, as many studies classify these according to the presentation type,
use, method of presentation, and the quality of the information provided (e.g. Al-
Sadhan, 2020; Muhammad et al., 2019; Saeed, 2019). However, the main research
interest here classifies infographics based on the method or style of presentation,
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which is divided into two types: static and dynamic infographics, allowing for the
study of the impact of these two patterns on developing visual thinking skills and
reducing the perceptive/cognitive load of learners.
2.1.1 Static infographics

Static infographics are considered one of the most used infographic patterns, due
to the ease of creating them. Many websites provide ready-made templates to help
produce this pattern, such as Wepik, freepik, Piktochart and others, in addition to
some computer programs, such as PowerPoint. Aldalalah (2021) defined this as
“a static design and a diagram or chart in the form of pictures, images, drawings
and graphics with information about a specific topic that continuously clarifies
the idea and explains it”. In the same context, Abdel and Heba (2019) adds that
this pattern or style displays the contents steadily, which makes it easy to display,
publish and share feasibly. Consequently, for the purposes of this study, the static
infographics are defined as a fixed design for a specific topic that contains
graphical forms, drawings, pictures, charts, and information about that target
topic, so as to display data in a simplified, clear, and easy way that is attractive to
learners.
As shown by Alsaadoun (2021), static infographics can be extremely effective for

developing the concepts of information technology among university students.
Similarly, AlRajhi (2020) confirmed the role of static infographics in enhancing
students' learning and retention of different terms, and increasing their
motivation to learn because of the factors and features provided that attract their
attention. Also, Muhammad et al. (2019) showed the effectiveness of static
infographics in developing visual thinking among preparatory school students.
2.1.2 Dynamic infographics

With the current technological trends and developments, along with people's
attraction to images and animation, animated/dynamic infographics have come
to the fore and have become more popular. Thus, many programs and websites
can facilitate the design and production of this pattern, including websites like as
Vyond and Powtoon. Ali (2019) defined animated/dynamic infographics as “the
animated or moving data/information design that includes the sound element,
which take the form of music, sound deepening, or sound effects to attract the
learner’s attention”. Wickens (2021) referred to one of the models of attention
theory, which is supervisory control, indicates that, in many attention-relevant
environments, the human operator is confronted with a wide array of dynamic
sources of information. These are referred to as Areas of Interest. These are the
areas a human user is attracted towards and interacts with on purpose, which
explains students’ interest in any source of information that is characterized by
movement and interaction. Furthermore, this explains the added value of the
dynamic infographic for student learning. Thus, for the purposes of this study,
dynamic infographics can be defined as an animated design that combines
between concepts and knowledge represented by images, tables and graphics,
and appropriate live sounds and movement that give life to the design. This
allows for displaying a certain concept divided into purposeful, attractive visual
forms.
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As with static infographics, dynamic infographics have been proven extremely

effective in the educational process, and its ability to present information and
communicate it to learners in an easy and smooth way. In this regard, Abdul
Hamid et al. (2020) proved the effectiveness of dynamic infographics in
developing chemical concepts among secondary school students and their
acquisition of practical skills in that school subject. The researchers recommended
the using dynamic infographics for presenting concepts that are difficult for
students to comprehend. Also, Hamid et al. (2020) confirmed the effective role of
this pattern in simplifying the Arabic grammar for university students, who
urgently and greatly demanded the design of complex courses and syllabi
through this style, because of its vital role in facilitating comprehension of the
curriculum and increasing their focus. Finally, Lievemaa (2017) showed the
positive impact of including and integrating this pattern in digital textbooks in
Finland.
A simple comparison between the two styles of infographics is presented in the

following table:
Table 1: comparison between the two styles of infographics

Static Infographics Dynamic Infographics
Can only carry small amount of Can carry relatively large amount of
information. information.
More complicated designs & organization
Suitable for simplified design and content.
are applicable.
Displayed as 2-dimensional data. Animated and interactive information.
Can be embedded in certain websites.
Can be embedded in almost every Some infographics are embeddable but
website, blogs, or social media with ease. will be shown as a static image of its first
frame.
The easiest way to spread interactive
Since the infographic is in form of an
infographic is by copying and sharing
image, the link can be easily copy-pasted.
direct link to the interactive infographic.
It is downloadable, printable and can be Is not downloadable. Its shareability is
stored in other media. limited.
It is very suitable for ever-changing data,
It is better off with simple data with small
user-driven data content and multi-
potential of it being extended.
layered data.
2.2 Visual thinking

You rarely find a teacher explaining an idea or anything who does not draw it on
the board, putting signs and signals to communicate their idea to students. This
way, they invite the students to visual thinking; that is, in a way that nourishes
their thinking with the images seen by students. In this regard, literature and
many research studies have suggested different definitions of visual thinking. For
example, Reed (2013) posited that thinking visually documents the many ways
pictures, and visual images influence our thinking. Much of comprehending
language depends on visual simulations of words or on spatial metaphors that
provide a foundation for conceptual understanding. Amer and Al-Masry (2016)
defined it as "an intuitive approach that facilitates learning, and the more complex
the task or idea is, the more useful this approach becomes". The authors also
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pointed out that this way of thinking involves using the right hemisphere where
creativity and emotion are dominant. The sequence of information received by the
eyes is organized intuitively. Thus, for the purposes of this study, visual thinking
can be defined as a learner’s ability to extract different knowledge and concepts
from images, drawings, and different visual forms and keep them in memory,
with the possibility of retrieving them when needed. Visual thinking consists of
several skills, which, according to Al-Rashidi (2021) and Amer and Al-Masry
(2016), can be arranged into five basic skills:
• Visual reading: the ability to identify the displayed shape and its components;
• Shape analysis: the ability to see relationships in shape and links and identify
these relationships;
• The skill of perceiving relationships: the ability to find relationships between
the elements of a figure and linking them;
• The skill of interpreting information: the ability to interpret and clarify the
relationships between the elements of a figure; and
• The skill of deriving or inferring meaning: the ability to access new concepts
and knowledge through the image presented.
These skills can be considered as steps that a learner goes through in their
awareness of the visual forms displayed to them, since reaching the last skill is
considered the primary goal that visual thinking aspires to. Many studies have
shown the role of infographics in developing visual thinking, including Shafee et
al. (2018), that confirmed the positive impact of infographics on visual thinking
and raising achievement levels of preparatory stage students. Similarly, Al-
Rashidi (2021) found that infographics contributed to the development of visual
thinking of Faculty of Education students. Furthermore, Muhammad et al. (2020)
showed the impact of infographics on the development of visual culture and
visual thinking among university students. Finally, Habeeb (2020) demonstrated
the importance of infographics in developing visual thinking among female
students in their acquisition of some social concepts.
2.3 Cognitive load

Cognitive Load Theory is one of the most influential theories in the design and
production of instructional technology materials, as it aims to develop a specific
mechanism for instructional design based on the premise that working memory
has a limited ability to deal with information (Alsherman, 2019). In this regard,
Garnett (2020) argued that the Cognitive Load Theory can enable teachers to
identify the ways in which their students learn, as well as the ways in which the
brain processes different information. If a teacher can identify these ways or
techniques, their instruction will be valid, and hence the instructor becomes able
to provide information in the appropriate way. A review of the existing literature
indicates that many definitions of cognitive load have been developed; for
example, Posey (2019) defined it as “the amount of mental effort needed to do a
task” (p. 115), while Hassan (2018) defined it as “a set of mental activities carried
out by learners with the aim of storing information in memory, and hence
recalling it” (p.6). Based on these, for the purposes of this study, cognitive load
will be defined as the mental effort exerted by a learner to identify scientific
concepts and their ability to recall them when needed. Some studies have devised
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a number of strategies to reduce the cognitive load for learners. Elsharman (2019)
and Posey (2019) presented a number of these strategies: (1) content
fragmentation: i.e. the target content to be presented is divided into small parts so
that the learner can absorb and memorize them separately; and (2) use of sounds,
images, and shapes: i.e. concepts and knowledge written in long texts can be
replaced by graphics, images, and shapes. Several studies have shown the
significant impact of infographics in reducing the cognitive load and increasing
academic achievement, including Nazeer (2019) that showed the role of
infographics in reducing the cognitive load of learners in e-learning
environments. Meanwhile, Aldalalah (2021) confirmed the effectiveness of
infographics in reducing the cognitive load of university students and increasing
their creative thinking, as well as design and achievement capacities. Khalifa
(2018) agreed that the use of infographics can reduce students’ cognitive load,
H’mida (2020) pointed out the role that animated or dynamic shapes play in
reducing the cognitive load of learners more than static pictures and shapes. This
was confirmed by Wang, Fang and Gu (2020) that found images and animation
represent the least cognitive burden for students, who had the ability to retain
knowledge well.
3. Research Hypotheses
Based on the literature reviewed, along with my personal experience with
instructional technology and the design and production of interactive
multimedia, the following hypotheses are proposed.
1. There will be a statistically significant difference at the significance level of 0.05
between the mean scores of the students of the first experimental group (static
infographics pattern) and the second experimental (dynamic infographics
pattern) in the post-administration of the visual thinking test in favour of the
students of the second experimental group (dynamic infographics pattern).
2. There will be a statistically significant difference at the significance level of 0.05
between the mean scores of the students of the first experimental group (static
infographics pattern) and the second experimental (dynamic infographics
pattern) in the post-administration of the Cognitive Load Scale in favour of
students of the first experimental group (static infographics pattern).
4. Research Methodology and Procedures

4.1 Research Design
The quasi-experimental approach was chosen for the purposes of this study. It
was deemed appropriate for testing and measuring the effect of the difference of
the two independent variables (static infographics and dynamic infographics) on
the two dependent variables (visual thinking and cognitive load) regarding
teaching science concepts to sixth graders. Furthermore, this approach provides
higher external validity than most true experiments, and higher internal validity
than other non-experimental approaches because they allow better control for
confounding variables than other types.
In the experimental design of the intervention, the post-test equally matched

groups design was used, excluding the pre-testing of the sample in the
experimental groups because the measurement process for the dependent
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variables (visual thinking and cognitive load) depends on the style of presentation
of the instructional content delivered through the independent variables (static
vs. dynamic infographics).
Table 2: Experimental design of the study

Experimental
Group Pre-testing Post-testing
Treatment
Static Infographics o Visual Thinking
1st Experimental Group
Pattern Test
NONE
2nd Experimental Dynamic Infographics o Cognitive Load
Group Pattern Scale
4.2 Research Sample

The target population included sixth-grade students in the Sultanate of Oman,
whose ages ranged from 11 to 12 years. Generally, the characteristics of this group
include speedy mental development, and the growth of their imagination from
illusion to realism, which tends towards innovation and creativity. In addition, at
this age, students show early signs of critical thinking towards the end of that
stage. The research sample consisted of 40 sixth-grade students from a private
school, who were divided into two experimental groups, each of which included
20 students. This number was suitable to be used as a sample for the current study.
In addition, the students’ records were reviewed in order to ascertain their similar
or close ages and follow up on the students’ achievement records and discuss
them with the relevant teachers. Then, the students who shared similar levels, and
their names of the students were used to create a new list. This was then used to
select the research sample through regular randomized sampling.
4.3 Research tools

For the specific purposes of the current study, two main research tools were used:
a visual thinking test, and a cognitive load scale. These are explained further in
the sections that follow.
4.3.1 Visual Thinking Test (prepared by the researcher):

After reviewing the relevant literature (e.g., Fernandez et al., 2020; Ware, 2021;
Mollon, 2017; Mouhebati; 2019; Sabry, 2020; Bystryantseva et al., 2020), a visual
thinking test was prepared, based on the objectives and instructional content
already designed as follows:
Objectives and test design: The main objective of this test was to assess the
effectiveness of infographics technology, with its static and dynamic patterns, in
developing visual thinking in science for sixth-grade students. The test included
10 questions, at a rate of two marks for each question. MCQ questions were
chosen, since results of this type are objective (i.e., they do not depend on the
student's written answers), with no interference from the researcher, as is the case
in essay questions.
To determine the validity and reliability of the test, it was administered to a

psychometric sample that consisted of 20 sixth-grade students, who were not from
the main research sample. The data obtained from the psychometric sample was
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uploaded to SPSS - a statistical program, then the validity and reliability was
assessed as follows:
Validity of the test: Structural validity was verified according to two methods:
internal consistency and the two terminal groups.
A- The internal consistency method:

The validity value for each item on the test was measured by calculating the
correlation coefficients between the degree of each item and the total score. The
results of the statistical analysis were as follows:
Table 3: Correlation coefficients between the degree of each item and the total score
Ite Correlati Ite Correlati Ite Correlati Ite Correlati Ite Correlati
m on m on m on m on m on
1 .486** 3 .640** 5 .560** 7 .510** 9 .535**
2 .667** 4 .399** 6 .634** 8 .563** 10 .477**
**Significant at the 0.01 level
It is clear from the above table that there is a correlation between each item and
the total score of the test. These correlations range between 0.667 and 0.399, which
are positive and statistically significant at the level of 0.01.
B- Validity using the two terminal groups:

The scores of the psychometric sample were arranged on a scale in descending
order, and the highest 25% (highest category of 5) and lowest 25% (lowest
category of 5) were chosen. Given that the two categories were of small samples,
the Mann Whitney test for independent samples was used to show the
significance of the differences between the two categories on the total score of the
scale/test. Table 4 below presents the findings:
Table 4: Average ranks, total ranks, and the value of Mann Whitney and its
significance
Average Total Significance
Categories No U Z (sig)
ranks ranks level
Visual
Highest
Thinking 5 8 40 Significant
category
Test 0.000 2.66 0.000 at the level
Lowest
5 3 15 of 030.0
category
It is evident that there are statistically significant differences between the highest
category and the lowest category, and these differences favor of the highest
category. That is, the test is valid, and its items possess a good discriminatory
ability among students.
Test reliability:
Reliability was calculated using Cronbach's alpha coefficient and the Spearman-
Brown coefficient on the validity and reliability sample. Table 5 below shows the
two reliability coefficients for the scale.
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Table 5: Reliability coefficients using the Alpha-Cronbach and Spearman-Brown

methods
Alpha-Cronbach’s value Spearman-Brown value
Total score of the test
0.734 0.760
It is evident that the test has a high degree of reliability through the split-half
method.
4.3.2 Cognitive Load Scale (NASA-TLX)

To ensure the scale of cognitive load was compatible with the characteristics of
the target sample group, as well as the requirements of the research, the cognitive
load scale (NASA-TLX) developed by the Ames Research Center at NASA in the
US, was selected (Hart, 2006). NASA-TLX is considered a widely used six-
dimensional self-assessment instrument that has been adopted in several research
studies. After translation and adaptation, its validity was confirmed by using
predictive validity through the internal consistency and discriminatory validity
methods.
1-Predictive validity:
(1) Internal consistency method:
The scale was administered to the psychometric research sample, consisting of 20
sixth-grade students. The internal consistency was calculated using the Pearson
correlation coefficient. The correlation of each item in the scale was compared
with the total score of the scale to verify this method. Table 6 below shows the
resulting correlation coefficients.
Table 6: The correlation of each item of the scale with the total score of the scale
Item Correlation Item Correlation Item Correlation
1 **0.630 3 **0.424 5 **0.782
2 **0.826 4 **0.760 - -
Significant at the 0.01 level **
It is evident that there is a correlation between each item and the total score of the
scale, and that these correlations range between 0.826 and 0.424, which are
positive and statistically significant at the 0.01 significance level.
(2) Using two terminal groups:

Again, the students’ scores on the cognitive load scale were arranged in a
descending order, after which the highest category was determined as 25% and
the lowest category was 25%. Then, the averages of these two groups and their
standard deviation were calculated, and the Mann Whitney scale was used to
show the significance of the differences between the two averages on the total
score of the cognitive load scale. Table 7 below shows the difference between these
two groups:
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Table 7: Average ranks, total ranks and the Mann-Whitney value and its significance
Average Total Significance
Categories No U Z (sig)
ranks ranks level
Cognitive Highest
5 8 40 Significance
load scale category
0.000 2.71 0.000 level at
Lowest
5 3 15 0.000
category
It is evident that there are statistically significant differences between the two
groups, which favor the highest group. That is, the scale is valid, and its items
have a good discriminatory ability among the examinees.
Scale reliability:
To ensure the reliability of the scale, reliability was calculated using Cronbach's
alpha and Spearman-Brown coefficients with the validity and reliability sample.
Table 8 below shows the reliability coefficients of the scale.
Table 8: Reliability coefficients using Cronbach's alpha and Spearman-Brown

Alpha-Cronbach’s value Spearman-Brown value
Total score of the scale
0.713 0.823
It is evident that the values reached by the researcher indicate that the scale has a
high degree of reliability through the split-half method.
4.4 Experimental treatment of Groups

The experimental treatment was done in the experimental groups. A set of
instructional design models for the design of technology for education was
reviewed, including that by Al-Shaltout (2016) and the ADDIE model, and great
similarities were found between them. Therefore, the ADDIE model was chosen
due to the clarity of its steps and its relevance to the nature of the current research.
This model consists of five stages: analysis, design, development, application, and
evaluation (Al-Sherman, 2019). In the following, I provide an explanation of the
steps followed in designing infographics of two patterns (static vs. dynamic):
1- Analysis: At this stage, the characteristics of learners, the learning environment,

and the instructional content to be conveyed were analyzed. The analysis yielded
the following:
• Characteristics of the learners: They were sixth grade (male and female)
students in a private school in the state of Muscat, who received their
education using the blended learning method, and whose ages ranged from
10-11 years. The developmental characteristics were common to most of the
students at that age. More specifically, they loved movement and exploration,
and their visual coordination appeared bigger and deeper. In addition, their
ability to innovate, create and imagine was well developed, as was the ability
to find and express relationships and solve problems. Of course, these
attributes would contribute a lot to their receptiveness in relation to
infographics technology. Prior to this study, the target group had not already
received any instruction through infographics technology.
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• Learning environment: This refers to the classrooms in which the materials

would be presented to students, and their physical components; thus, the
availability of computers and data display devices connected to them was
checked. In addition, a safe atmosphere was provided while taking all
precautionary measures, by ensuring the existence of appropriate lighting and
ventilation. In addition, it was ensured that all students were able to access the
school’s education platform in order to obtain infographics through it.
• Instructional content: Analyzing the content of Part one of the science
curriculum for the sixth grade, one of the lessons about the living organism’s
unit in the environment was chosen, which contained a group of similar,
interrelated concepts that are often confused by students.
2- Design: During this stage, the content and the method of presenting it to
students were determined. The outputs of this stage were as follows:
• Identification of instructional content:
o The general objective was to identify food chains.
o Instructional content: (1) the concept of food chains; (2) producing and
consuming organisms in food chains; and (3) food chains in different
habitats.
o Behavioral objectives: (1) to understand the concept of food chains; (2) to list
the components of food chains; (3) to connect and link between organisms
in food chains; (4) to identify the types of food chains in different habitats;
and (5) to design food chains according to the living organisms discussed.
• Strategies used: While delivering the instructional content, the researcher
relied on self-learning through infographics technology, as well as on
discussion strategy for presenting the basic content and achieving extensive
comprehension.
• Materials and Tools: A classroom in the school selected was equipped with
computers and a data display device, in addition to the possibility of accessing
the school's learning platform in order to present infographics in two patterns
to students.
3- Development: During this stage, the website Wepik was used to design the
static infographics, while Vyond was used for the animated/dynamic
infographics containing the aforementioned concepts. Both infographic designs
aimed to convey the same concepts and content. The technical and educational
standards of design that were presented in existing literature were taken into
account.
4- Application: At this stage, the school and the target learners were selected while
the design was finalised, with all the relevant requirements for application and
administration (e.g., activities and graphic cards). In addition, the researcher
determined the appropriate timing, which was the period during which students
attended school based on an alternate attendance procedure in light of the
repercussions of COVID-19 i.e., a week of actual attendance followed by a week
of distant learning, and so on. The suitability of the educational environment for
application was ensured.
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5- Evaluation: After each stage, a formative evaluation was carried out in order to
ensure the clarity of the outputs therein, and their appropriateness to be basic
inputs for the next stage. The design was also submitted to some specialists in the
Ministry of Education, including educators and designers, to ensure the integrity
and clarity of the submitted content. In addition, the design of the two infographic
patterns was tested in a pilot study by some students at the same level, who were
not members of the selected research sample, in order to ensure their ability to
understand the material through the chosen design and the clarity of its
components from their perspective. After finalising the designs, the researcher
was ready to administer and conduct the experiment to the target group.
4.5 Data Collection

After defining the research problem and objectives, the school where the research
experiment would be conducted, was contacted. An appointment with the
administration and the science teachers dealing with sixth-grade students was set
in order to clarify the purpose of the research and its premises in an accurate
manner. This meeting also served to discuss the teachers’ experiences with
infographics, and whether it was applied with the students at this stage or
previous ones. It was agreed with the administration and teachers to equip an
appropriate classroom with the aforementioned specifications. Also, the
conditions of selecting the sample were agreed upon. Students were then selected
for the two experimental groups from the same school, as the numbers required
for the sample were available. After identifying students and obtaining approvals,
the students were divided into two groups, randomly and regularly, such that the
first group would consist of students who attended in the same week, and the
second consisted of those who attended the week after. A date was set to conduct
the experiment on the two groups, so that the first experimental group would
learn via static infographics technology, which was presented to students in the
assigned hall. Students were allowed to discover it, obtain data through it, listen
to their interpretations, and discuss that. Then, the content was uploaded to the
student platform to allow them to review it at any later time and date.
The next day, the research tools were disseminated, then the experiment repeated
with the second experimental group - but using dynamic infographics technology.
Again, the lesson was also uploaded on the platform. Through observation of the
performance of students in both groups during and after presentation, students
demonstrated clear motivation, attractiveness, and great interest. This was
evident through the discussions conducted among students, and the rate and level
of questions that students posed to teachers, especially after being presented with
the infographics. Finally, the research tools were disseminated, the data gathered,
and the test results and the scale for the two experimental groups were treated
with statistical software.
5. Research Results
5.1 Testing the 1st hypothesis
To test or verify the validity of this hypothesis, an independent-sample T-test was
used. This revealed the significance of the differences between the students of the
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first experimental group and those of the second experimental group on the visual
thinking post-test, as shown in Table 9 below:
Table 9: T-test value of the significance of the differences between the mean scores of
students’ achievement in both the 1st and 2nd experimental groups in the visual
thinking post-test
STD T Significance
Group No SMA Freedom
Deviation value Level
Visual
1st
Thinking 20 14.20 2.16
Experimental
Test 38 8.30 0.0001
2nd
20 18.55 0.88
Experimental
It is clear that the value of T reached 8.30 at the probability value of 0.0001, which
is smaller than the significance level adopted in this research study (0.05).
Furthermore, there is a clear difference between the mean scores of the post-test
for both groups in favor of the second group, where the SMA of the post-test for
the first group was 14.20, while that of second was 18.55. This confirms the 1st
hypothesis and indicates its validity. Therefore, the well-designed visual elements
and movement in the dynamic pattern had the greatest effect in stimulating and
activating the visual thinking processes of the research sample in the second
group more than the first. Also, the characteristics of the sample group members,
including their age and academic level, evidently have an effect on the response
of this group to the dynamic pattern, since students with these characteristics have
a natural tendency towards the moving elements in receiving knowledge,
whether in the form of videos or animated cartoons. Liu and Elms (2019)
emphasized that students increasingly demand engaging, customized
multimedia content. Animation constitutes a powerful pedagogical tool by
combining audio messages with tailored visual cues and graphics, to serve the
dual functions of explaining complex concepts and engaging – and maintaining -
student interest in the learning process. Additionally, it is possible that the nature
of the target instructional content (i.e., the concept of food chains) and the
relationship of this concept to living organisms contributed significantly to the
success of the dynamic pattern in a greater development of the visual thinking
skill. This result agrees with that of previous studies, such as Lievemaa (2017),
Shafee et al. (2018), Muhammad et al. (2020), Barcelos & Azevedo (2020), Kaur
(2020) and Song (2021), all of which indicated the effectiveness of dynamic
elements in visual thinking skills development for learners.
5.2 Testing the 2nd hypothesis

To test and verify the validity of this hypothesis, an independent-sample T-test
was used. This revealed the significance of the differences between the students
of the two experimental groups on the post-administration cognitive load scale
test, as shown in Table 10.
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Table 10: T-test value of the significance of the differences between the mean scores
of students’ achievement in both the 1st and 2nd experimental groups in the post-
administration of the cognitive load scale
STD T Significan
Group No SMA Freedom
Deviation value ce Level
Cognitive
1st
Load 20 29.70 4.26
Experimental
Scale 38 10.78 0.0001
2nd
20 17.35 2.83
Experimental
The value of T reached 10.78 at the probability value of 0.0001, which is smaller
than the significance level adopted in the research (0.05), while there is a
significant difference between the mean scores of the Cognitive load scale test for
both groups in favor of the 1st group. The mean score of the first group came to
29.70, while that of the second group was 17.35, which onfirms and indicates the
validity of the second hypothesis. Thus, the students in the first group students
who were taught using the static infographics had a high cognitive load – in fact,
up to double that of their peers in the second experimental group, who dealt with
dynamic infographics. This confirms the ability of dynamic infographics in
organizing the learners’ cognitive load more effectively in learning while also
reducing the perceptive and cognitive burden by giving learners broader
opportunities for a deeper and more detailed understanding of the targeted
knowledge through the features and advantages provided by dynamic
infographics. At the same time, dynamic infographics allow learners to retain that
knowledge and retrieve it with a simple mental effort and in a relatively short and
quick time. This was also confirmed by Dina and Ensaf (2021), that indicated that
the interactive (dynamic) infographic employs tablets and mobile devices that
have proven to attract students’ attention and motivate them to learn. These
students learn patiently and pay careful and adequate attention to different
components associated with interactive (dynamic) infographics and focus on the
precise details. This will help them reduce their cognitive load and contribute to
deeper and faster learning. This also agrees with the findings of many previous
studies, the most important of which are Khalifa (2018) Aldalalah (2020), Hamid
et al. (2020), Mustafa (2021), Chen (2020), and Gjoreski (2020). All of them
indicated the effectiveness of moving or animated elements in reducing the
cognitive load of learners.
6. Discussion
6.1 Dissections related to the first hypothesis
The results of the study show a clear difference in the arithmetic means between
static infographics and dynamic infographics, which indicates the superiority of
the latter in developing students’ visual thinking. These findings are consistent
with those of previous studies (e.g., Abdul Hamid et al., 2020; Muhammad et al.,
2020), which showed the superiority of dynamic infographics in visual culture.
This superiority can be attributed to the combination of sound, image and motion
offered by dynamic infographics, which are compatible with different types of
learners; students can follow this style in an integrated manner without isolating
any of its properties (i.e. sound, image, and movement).
119
In addition, the sequential presentation used by dynamic infographics provides

students with the ability to analyze the components step by step, which
contributes to their understanding of the content and thus allows them to decode
all the information presented. In this era of digital technology, this pattern
represents a major factor in attracting learners’ attention, who prefer to link
movement, image, and accompanying sound effects, as they are accustomed to
these things through their personal electronic devices, such as videos, and games.
Lievemaa’s study (2017) confirmed that dynamic infographics was a factor that
attracts students’ attention, and considered them an invaluable tool in their
learning, and therefore, inclusion of dynamic infographics in education has
become inevitable.
In general, the potential of dynamic infographics contributed to the development

of students’ visual thinking and their ability to analyze the forms, images and
relationships presented to them, providing them with the ability to interpret the
information step by step and reach the meaning that the infographic seeks to
convey. Thus, it enabled them to deal with infographics in their own way and
according to their abilities and at their own convenience. For example, students
can stop or mute the sounds and look at the presentation only or listen to a certain
part again in order to focus on what they want. All this gives a visual value to the
students’ concepts, which leads to their ability to retain information and concepts
in a way that indicates understanding, as well as the student’s ability to retrieve
it every time they needed to.
Infographics offer many possibilities to simplify information and display it in a

way that students can extract concepts from it in a manner commensurate with
their abilities, remember it or retrieve it when needed. Students can read static
infographics in an appropriate visual way by maximizing or minimizing parts of
the screen, and scrolling right and left, then analyzing it and understanding its
components, followed by extracting the relationships and understanding the
whole picture, and thus deducing the general meaning of the infographic. Several
studies have indicated that infographics, especially dynamic infographics, can
provide in developing visual thinking skills. In this regard, Smolkowski et al.
(2020) confirmed that the use of shapes and animated images contributed to
improving the knowledge of group members relating to critical thinking concepts,
their ability to teach those concepts, their knowledge of concepts related to
argumentative writing and justification, and finally developing the actual ability
to perceive and analyze tasks and to understand the characteristics used to convey
concepts and meanings.
Ocobock (2020) also found that animated multimedia, like dynamic infographics,
develops many skills among learners, the most important of which are visual
thinking skills, which help learners to move learning outcomes towards the
creativity phase.
Similarly, Sato and Hayama (2020) emphasized that watching short video clips,
such as animated/dynamic infographics, allows learners to deepen their
understanding by creating a concept map while watching this clip; creating that
120
map allows learners to obtain the content interactively, helping them to learn
through visual, reflexive, and active thinking methods.
Furthermore, Chen (2020) confirmed that videos and animations have significant
and lasting effects on teachers' beliefs and self-efficacy if professional
development programs are offered. This effect goes further to modifying and
developing actual teaching behavior within the instructional situation. Another
study by Aguillon and Monterola (2020) indicated that videos that are limited in
their content and display time, such as dynamic infographics, contribute
significantly to the development of thinking skills, especially visual thinking,
among learners of science courses, especially chemistry. Averin et al. (2021) also
agreed that animation within the framework of infographics works to develop
students' visual thinking skills, especially in the early stages of education, in a
broad and effective manner considering the needs and requirements of the
education community in light of the pandemic. Alherz et al. (2020) further
confirmed that visual thinking skills contribute to improving the understanding
of visual images and lead to a significant improvement in mathematics, reading,
and socio-emotional learning, and that infographic animated clips and cartoons
can contribute to the development of these skills (i.e. visual thinking skills),
provided that animation design and development are based on uncomplicated
master frames and limited quantities of graphics, texts and effects.
6.2 Dissections related to the second research hypothesis

Regarding reducing the cognitive load for learners, the results of the study
indicated the superiority of dynamic infographics over static infographics, and
subsequently, understanding concepts and the ability to retrieve them without
effort. This can be attributed to the capabilities and features that characterize the
dynamic pattern as discussed above. This is consistent with Aldalalah (2020) that
emphasized the preference of dynamic infographics over static infographics in
reducing cognitive load. Similarly, Mustafa (2021) concluded that the role of
dynamic infographics can facilitate and simplify information by 60% for students,
which can be considered as a factor that enhances their cognitive load reduction.
Besides, the appearance of information in the form of sequential movements (slide

after slide) so that each slide of the presentation carries part of the information or
concept, accompanied by sound and commentary, prevents learners from being
distracted and keeps their focus on the relevant segment. This reduces the amount
of information that reaches the working memory so that it can be dealt with
appropriately and transferred it to permanent memory. Moreover, the diversity
in the dynamic infographics pattern renders it appropriate for different types of
learners, so that it does not constitute effort for them to receive information and
process it.
The effective role of dynamic infographics in reducing students’ mental effort to

learn gives them freedom and security while acquiring, memorizing, and
understanding concepts. This is consistent with Hamid et al. (2020) that showed
the role of this style in helping students assimilate Arabic grammar with freedom
and enthusiasm consistently with their abilities.
121
Geng and Yamada (2020) and Thees et al. (2020) pointed out the important role
that animated or dynamic images and figures play, regardless of the environment
in which they are presented, in reducing perceptual or cognitive load as learners
extract the target knowledge. Petko et al. (2020) also agreed that the lowest levels
of cognitive load correspond to viewing images, drawings, and shapes that are
animated or displayed at medium speeds that are close to natural motion.
Similarly, Chen and Kalyuga (2020) stated that images, cartoons, and animations
allowed learners to manage the process of improving their cognitive load in order
to improve their learning, and here the instructional design of these images and
animations plays an important role in the success of this improvement process.
Sweller (2020) agreed and pointed out that technological media, primarily images
and animations, contribute significantly to reducing the cognitive load of target
students, while Çınar et al. (2020) indicated that dynamic images and animations
often represent the easiest learning tasks that require low effort and cognitive load
on the part of learners. Furthermore, Caskurlu et al. (2021) showed that
instructional designers use animated and dynamic learning media, which focus
primarily on reducing learners' cognitive load in Massive Online Open Courses
(MOOCs) as much as possible. These types of courses (MOOCs) rely mainly on
videos or animations in providing instructional content to the target group; more
specifically, international platforms, such as edX, Coursera and Udemy, are
entirely dependent on videos or small animations in the form of mini learning
objects to provide instructional content in all courses. Finally, through
communication and discussion with the teachers, it became clear that the use of
infographics had a noticeable positive impact on the students’ performance, while
everyone – both teachers and students demonstrated enthusiasm and motivation
to use infographics for these scientific concepts.
7. Conclusion and Recommendations

Considering the above findings, expanding the reliance on infographics in general
and dynamic infographics in particular can provide interactive e-content that is
highly compatible with the characteristics of the digital generation. It is expected
presenting ideas in this manner will help not only with developing thinking and
reducing cognitive load, but also increases academic achievement rates and
develops many other skills they need.
A serious effort sthe dynamic infographic technology in education is highly

recommended, because of its potential to attract students' attention and
maximizes their desire to learn. Teachers should be trained to use the latest
technologies available, especially relating to dynamic infographics. If possible,
students also should be trained to design and produce infographics because this
technology provides a link or connection between images, texts, sounds and
movements. This supports their learning and enables them to find a way to learn
that suits them. Furthermore, those responsible for planning and designing
instructional curricula should be urged to introduce this technique in delivering
knowledge to students in all academic courses.
122
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Vol. 21, No. 5, pp. 126-142, May 2022
Received Mar 31, 2022; Revised May 18, 2022; Accepted May 23, 2022
Exploration of Malay Language Acquisition and

Learning Experience among Orang Asli Students
Nor Azwahanum Nor Shaid*

Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia
Shahidi A. Hamid and Marlyna Maros

Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia
Abstract. Orang Asli, the indigenous community in Malaysia, is among

minority groups facing difficulties acquiring the Malay language as a
second language. Poor achievement and lack of research on the
secondary school level among indigenous students have motivated the
inquisition for this study. Using an ethnographic case study research
design, a qualitative research approach was used to explore indigenous
students' Malay language acquisition and learning experience. A total
of 13 participants were chosen by purposive sampling technique in this
research, comprising eight Orang Asli students from the Temiar tribe,
two teachers and three of the students' parents. To acquire an in-depth
picture of the phenomena, the data was collected using observation
methods, interviews, and field notes at the only secondary boarding
school of indigenous people on the Malay Peninsula's west coast. The
study findings were analysed using the continuous comparison method
to identify the themes and subthemes involved. The findings revealed
that the learning and acquisition of the Malay language as a second
language were among the skills learned in school, just like any other
subjects. This study shows that efforts to cultivate the use of the Malay
language were found challenging due to the less conducive school and
social environments for a second language acquisition process. Thus,
this study contributes to a better understanding of indigenous students
perceive their second language, which has implications for improving
Malay language teaching and learning practices as a second language,
particularly among the Orang Asli community in Malaysia.
Keywords: Malay language; second language acquisition; indigenous;

experience; ethnographic case study
*
Corresponding author: Nor Azwahanum Nor Shaid, azwahanum@ukm.edu.my
©Authors
127
1. Introduction
Malaysia is a plural society, and the Malay language has been elevated as the
official and national language. It is the mother tongue for the Malays as native
speakers and a second language for other ethnic groups, including Chinese,
Indian and not to mention is indigenous people (Orang Asli) (Jumiya, 2014). Every
ethnic group has its native language and culture. However, the Malay language
served as the sole language of instruction in schools and universities. For native
Malay language speakers, mastering this language does not account for many
difficulties as it is mastered naturally. However, this situation is different for
minority communities, the non-native speakers who consider it their second
language. For these groups, the Malay language needs to be mastered through
formal learning in schools, making some face trouble mastering it. The focus is
often put on the Orang Asli community.
'Orang Asli' is an indigenous people of Peninsular Malaysia. The Malay language

term translates to 'first people' or 'original people’ (Muhammad Nazif, 2017).
There are eighteen tribes of Orang Asli, and Temiar is one of the largest tribes of
Orang Asli. Most Orang Asli reside in rural or secluded areas, typically left out of
mainstream development, especially in education (Nordin et al., 2012). Therefore,
it can be seen that the achievement in education among the Orang Asli
communities has not yielded desired outcomes. Compared to pupils from other
backgrounds, it was discovered that Orang Asli children lag considerably behind,
accompanied by high dropout rates (Farah, 2011; Abdul Razaq & Zalizan, 2009;
SUHAKAM, 2010; JAKOA, 2016; Wan Afizi et al., 2014; Norwaliza et al., 2014).
In the Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013-2025 by the Ministry of Education

Malaysia (2012), the dropout rate among Orang Asli students remained high.
Only 30% of them completed secondary school, while the national average
recorded 72%. According to the statistics for the passing rate of core subjects in
the Primary School Achievement Test, also known as Ujian Pencapaian Sekolah
Rendah (commonly abbreviated as UPSR), the national average recorded was
81%. However, the passing rate among Orang Asli primary schools was lower, at
61%. From that number, 35% of Orang Asli primary schools are in the low-
performing school band (Bands 6 and 7). This record indicates that the high
dropout rate among Orang Asli students causes low educational achievement.
The achievement of Orang Asli students in Malaysia is underwhelming in almost
all subjects. The lack of proficiency in the Malay language seems to be one of the
main reasons contributing to the difficulty of understanding the language used
by teachers (Wan Hafizi et al., 2014). This matter will escalate to the Malay
language proficiency issues, a concern since this language is declared the national
language of the country and the medium of instruction in public schools in
Malaysia.
Based on the literature search, there is a lack of research on Malay as a second

language related to how Orang Asli people perceive the language, especially in
secondary schools. Previous studies are limited and focused more on Orang Asli
students at the primary school level. However, there needs to be a continuum of
research at the secondary school level to improve existing efforts. This study is
128
important to ensure that students finish their studies and take the Sijil Peperiksaan
Malaysia (SPM) examination. Some previous findings show that the Orang Asli
at the secondary school faces problems adapting to the education context
(Sharifah et al., 2011). The 2019 news report from the Perak website portal stated
that the dropout rate of secondary school students among the Orang Asli has
increased in recent years. In 2014, it only recorded 36.3%, which increased to
40.01% in 2015, 42.43% in 2016, 42.90% in 2017 and 51.06% in 2018. These numbers
prove that the problem of Orang Asli dropout at the secondary level has become
more alarming, and there should be efforts to find the cause of this problem. Not
many studies have been done to deepen and understand the difficulties Orang
Asli students face in secondary school to graduate secondary school.
Based on the literature reviews and research findings on the low and poor
schooling status of the Orang Asli indigenous students, the researcher felt the
need to explore this group's second language acquisition and learning experiences
since they are non-native speakers and not fluent in the Malay language.
Moreover, exploring their acquisition of the Malay language and learning
experiences will help improve their second language proficiency and learning
abilities. Therefore, their experience acquiring and learning the Malay language
is described through a qualitative lens.
1.1. Research Objective

This study is aimed to explore the experience of acquiring and learning the Malay
language as a second language among Orang Asli Temiar students.
2. Literature Review
2.1. Malay Language as a Second Language
Malay language proficiency is essential because it is the primary tool in the
teaching and learning process and a communication tool in Malaysia (Mohd
Sharifudin 2019). It is common knowledge that the mastery of the Malay language
as a second language among non-native speakers plays a critical role. The life of
the plural society in Malaysia has demanded the Orang Asli community to master
a language understood by every member of the society for communication (Abd
& Karim, 2017). For communication, mastering the Malay language is essential to
bridge the social gaps between the Orang Asli and outside communities (Mohd
Sharifudin, 2019), allowing the community to trace the culture and civilisation of
other ethnic groups and widening their view of the outside world. As such, the
ability to master a second language by the Orang Asli community is a precious
asset.
2.2. Background of Orang Asli Temiar

Anthologists introduced the term Orang Asli, and eighteen sub-tribes have been
identified, comprising Negrito, Senoi and Proto-Malay (Carey, 1976; Nicholas,
2000; Burenhult & Majid, 2011). However, this study focused Temiar tribe, which
is the second-largest tribe after the Senoi tribe. The village of the Temiar tribe is
predominantly located on the hill slopes of the Titiwangsa Range in Perak,
Pahang and Kelantan. When the Temiar tribal community opened settlement
areas, they lived in longhouses for an extended period. After that, they lived
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separately and together with their respective families. Their settlement areas are
usually areas with abundant hardwood trees, such as Merbau trees. However,
they do not build houses using wood (Mazlan et al. 2009). The Orang Asli are not
a homogeneous group since each sub-group has its language and culture and
considers itself distinct from others (Masron et al., 2013; JAKOA, 2011-2015; Musa,
2011). Linguistically, some northern Temiar Orang Asli communities (particularly
the Senoi) speak Aslian languages, implying a historical connection between
Orang Asli groups and the indigenous people of Burma, Thailand and Indo-China
(Masron et al., 2013).
In terms of belief, the Orang Asli of Temiar is inseparable from animism belief.
They believe that all entities are either visible or invisible by supernatural powers
or spirits (Carey, 1976; Sharifah Zahhura et al., 2016). From the time of their
ancestors, this community believes that the natural environment has numerous
subtle beings and supernatural spirits. Based on the researcher's observation, it
was found that the Temiar community in this study still adheres to their beliefs
despite not living in their hometown. Obedience in maintaining these customs
and beliefs, they try to follow what has been taught by their families. However,
sometimes they have to adhere to the school rules.
2.3. Theoretical Foundation of The Study

Two main approaches founded this study, Stephen Krashen's (1985) five
hypotheses of the Monitor Model and Vygotsky’s (1978) Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD). Krashen's (1985) hypotheses include the Acquisition-
Learning Hypothesis, the Natural Order Hypothesis, the Monitor Hypothesis, the
Input Hypothesis, and the Affective Hypothesis. The Learning-Acquisition
Hypothesis describes the acquisition as an unconscious process, while learning is
a conscious process that takes place in the classroom. The Monitor Hypothesis
states that the information produced by the acquisition centre will be monitored.
Changes will be made if it does not match the correct information. The Natural
Order Hypothesis states that grammatical components of learning a new
language have a natural order. The Input Hypothesis posits that if students are
given access to easily understandable inputs, their learning will improve. Finally,
the Affective Hypothesis states that a mental screen can be erased to prevent
information from reaching the acquisition centre, slowing language acquisition
(Du, 2009).
Aside from that, the ZPD concept is being used in this study to seek how the
students’ second language acquisition is perceived under the guidance of the
adult. ZPD give perspective to the researcher to see where the students are at in
terms of knowledge acquisition and learning. This theory informed the researcher
to recognise the suitable teaching method/approach and establish the proper
pedagogy for the students based on their distinctions, particularly their age levels
if they are aware of these stages. In this matter, ZPD uses scaffolding to stimulate
the students to perceive better the world around them (Sadia et al., 2021). Various
perspectives can be linked to the way second language acquisition is developed.
This is because theory and study in second languages began to evolve from a
cognitively oriented perspective and expanded to a social orientation in essence.
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There is a cognitively flowing perspective that sees second language acquisition

as an individualistic mental process, functioning independently of the context and
use of language. Other perspectives view second language acquisition as a process
by looking at how a second language is acquired through interaction and used
rationally, contingently, and according to context (Hamidah, 2012). This gives a
new perspective to the researcher to take the cognitive and socio-cultural aspects
of the Orang Asli in exploring their experience of mastering the Malay language
as a second language.
According to the socio-cognitive approach to second language acquisition,

children acquire language by interacting with more capable social members such
as teachers, peers, family members and mentors (Sadia et al., 2021). The socio-
cognitive approach also emphasises the fundamental interdependence and
integration of cognitive and socio components of language acquisition. Putting it
in another way, second language acquisition is a process that involves a child's
cognitive and social environment.
3. Methodology
3.1 Research Design
This study was designed to explore the experiences of the indigenous students
using the qualitative ethnographic case study conducted for ten months. These
months were school periods used to run a study throughout the year to explore
their experiences in acquiring the Malay language as their second language. The
chosen approaches are a combination of ethnographic and case studies, which
mostly suit the objectives of this research. It provides a holistic and a stance in
understanding the lived experience of the participants in a natural setting, as
mentioned by Bogdan and Biklen (2007). In this study, patterns described through
the rituals and social behaviours of a community were identified, such as their
ideas and beliefs through their language and material activities (Fetterman, 2019).
3.2. Setting
The study was conducted at Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan (SMK) Bawong,
Sungai Siput, Perak. This school is the only secondary school in Malaysia that
enrols students from the indigenous tribe of Temiar tribe. Usually, the Orang Asli
community will assimilate with other majority races in school, especially in
secondary school. However, the researcher chose this school to see precisely
indigenous students perceive their second language in their comfortable
community.
3.3. Participants
Eight participants were selected from Form 4 indigenous students from the
Temiar tribe. Temiar tribe is one of the largest tribes of the indigenous
communities in peninsular Malaysia. In this study, the researcher used
pseudonyms to ensure the ethics of participants’ confidentiality was guaranteed.
In addition, data triangulation was made by involving two teachers and three of
the students’ parents as participants since they were also directly and indirectly
contributors to the learning and acquisition of the Malay Language among
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participants. The teacher participants were a Malay language teacher and a school
counsellor.
Purposive sampling was performed based on the inclusion criteria (Marshall &
Rossman, 2014) to guarantee that those picked had a good understanding of the
issues being investigated (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The criteria set by the
researcher were: Orang Asli students from the Temiar tribe who learn the Malay
language as a second language, specifically; i) the participants should be in the
same class as the researcher wants to control the bias as they received and learned
the language from the same teacher; ii) the students need to be in the school since
Form 1, and iii) the students are ready to participate in this study. The sample size
was determined through data saturation (Kyngӓs, 2020), which refers to a point
where the responses become repetitious. Therefore, no further information can be
collected by continuing the data collection.
3.4. Research Instruments and Data Analysis

This study collected data using semi-structured interviews, classroom
observations, and field notes. Using various data collection strategies allows
researchers to triangulate data during the data analysis level while reinforcing the
findings (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). As permitted by the participants via consent
form, their interviews were recorded for transcription purposes. For the duration
of this study, the researcher acted as a ‘visitor observer’ as suggested by Miles et
al. (2014). However, the role played by the researcher varies according to the
situation. Sometimes, the researcher sat at a table with the participants, making
indirect observations while assisting them in the ongoing teaching and learning.
At other times, the researcher did not interfere with the teaching and learning
process in the classroom for about 60 to 90 minutes. Both types of observations
were either non-participatory or participatory observations; the researcher briefly
noted all the findings that attracted the researcher’s attention in the field notes. In
addition, the researcher assumed the role as the main instrument by making
observations during the researcher's involvement with study participants either
in the classroom during teaching, outside the classroom during interview sessions
or their involvement in activities outside the classroom. Most activities outside
the classroom were when study participants were involved with school programs.
Data collection was terminated after receiving repeated responses from the
participants of the study, which imply that the data saturation point was
achieved. The collected data were analysed qualitatively using Nvivo software.
Themes and sub-themes were determined using the six steps of thematic analysis
as suggested by Braun and Clark (2006).
4. Findings
The data from observations and individual semi-structured interviews were
analysed thematically. The data were organised into two main themes, which are
the (i) Language Development Activities, which can be seen in Table 1, and (ii)
Self-Adjustment Conflict in Table 2.
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4.1. Theme 1: Language Development Activities

The result showed that the indigenous students in this study experienced various
ways of mastering the Malay language as a second language. Concerning second
language proficiency, it refers to the way a speaker learns a second language and
what they acquire naturally from the first language. To ensure that a speaker
masters a second language, specific steps are followed to develop their language
abilities. How they perceive the second language may differ from others. In this
case, summary of the results of the eight participants who narrated their
experiences in mastering the Malay language using different activities is seen in
Table 1 below.
Table 1. Abstraction Results for Theme 1 Language Development Activities

Main Theme Category Sub-category
Dependence on teachers
Conscious Peer guidance
Theme1: Learning Memorisation and drills
Language
Development Language development through co-curricular
Activities Unconscious activities
Acquisition Imitation and good association with teachers
Social environment mixing
4.1.1. Conscious Learning

It was found that the participants perceived their language through conscious
learning in a formal context in the classroom. The participants, the Orang Asli
Temiar, are non-native speakers who use Malay as their second language.
language development activities for the Malay language only occurred during
school hours, either in the classroom or outside the classroom. In the background
study conducted during school hours, the participants have gone through various
experiences to develop their second language potential.
The main finding was that the students were highly dependent on the teacher
while teaching and learning took place in the classroom. Based on the researcher's
observation of Malay language teaching and learning activities in the classroom,
it was discovered that the participants learned the Malay language through the
tasks given with a high attitude toward dependence on their teachers. The
participants could not complete the assigned tasks independently and required
direct guidance from the teachers.
Through the researcher's observation during the teaching of essay writing, where
the teacher taught the technique to construct the introductory paragraph, the
teacher showed a clear demonstration of the writing technique on the whiteboard
and guided the students on how to construct the paragraph
(observation_11/7/2019). However, when the teacher assigned another
assignment and asked participants to perform a group discussion, they failed to
construct a satisfactory paragraph even though the teacher had provided the
phrases to begin the sentence. During the given discussion time, the students were
seen calling the teacher to their tables to ask about the given assignment. The
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participants were found to be highly dependent on direct guidance from teachers

for understanding and reviewing assigned assignments. It was found that the
assignments could not be completed as they still needed ideas and sentences from
the teacher (field note_11/7/2019). This observation was acknowledged by
Teacher 1, stating that:
“They still expect the help of teachers greater than their efforts. If other
students in other schools, the probability of the teacher's role is around
30-40% as a facilitator. Guide only. But here's the reverse. 70% are still
teachers playing a role. Without expecting teachers, it means that it is
quite difficult for us to develop their ability to speak orally and in
writing.”
The tendency of students to seek guidance from the teacher indicates the trust that
they are trying to build not only to complete the assigned task but also to obtain
information regarding the language learned. Teacher 1 said:
"… I try to minimise my role as a teacher. To give them independence.
That's where I found it was not achieved. We have given info; hence,
existing knowledge should already be there. We have repeatedly made
practices, but when we gave them an assignment, they were still
disturbed, stunted, affected in terms of time and so on. That's why I say
that they still can't be let go. For students here, guidance should continue
with a higher rate of teacher involvement than usual. "
The participants required a high level of teacher guidance even in topics taught
by the teacher repeatedly. The same problem occurred when participants
appeared confused and needed guidance from the teacher. To some extent, it
affected the school's time allocated for teaching the Malay language.
On the other hand, this study found that Malay language learning among
participants took place in the classroom through the guidance of their peers who
were next to or close to them. In contrast, the teaching and learning process took
place in the classroom. The participants have given their effort to ask questions to
the friends they trusted more with the assumption that a friend with good
academic performance would be able to give good answers and understanding to
the questions asked. This was explained by the researcher's observation of Jerry,
who was observed to change seats every time the Malay language lesson took
place. When asked, Jerry replied:
What does Jerry do if he doesn't understand?
Ask a friend. Hilmi and Hairi always help.
I see Jerry sometimes sitting in the front and sometimes sitting in
the back, why?
I like to sit in the front. Because it can be quick for me to get something.
Get what?
Able to learn (easy to understand). Hairi sat in front. I want to
understand, I asked him. Hairi … his brain is very genius. In all subjects.
That's why I like sitting next to him. To ask, to get new knowledge. If it's
wrong, it's hard, I asked. I don't understand, I asked him.
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Also, the researchers found that participants tended and preferred to memorise
new vocabularies that are considered high language to them. High language in
this context carries the meaning of vocabulary that they rarely hear and use
mainly in everyday use. Kelly said:
“Sometimes I don't know if the teacher uses high language. Like teacher
Mat Nor, we don't understand how to use high language. I will memorise
that word every night. But, the word he used, we don't understand what
he means. It’s hard when we only can listen to how the teacher uses it in
the class but do not know how and when to use it. We only use it in essays
because it sounds nice.”
Based on the researcher's observation in the classroom, when the teacher delivers
the teaching, the teacher ends the lesson with reinforcement exercises done in the
classroom. Each student is provided with a worksheet in a file containing notes
and Malay language exercises. Teachers use this file in teaching in the classroom
by ensuring reinforcement exercises or drills are done together. This activity is
done by reviewing the participants' work and ends with words of encouragement
from the teacher. Through drills, teachers can reflect on teaching and provide
direct guidance to students who face problems.
4.1.2. Unconscious Acquisition

The mastery of the Malay language of the Orang Asli Temiar students is also
unconsciously developed through natural acquisition. Natural acquisition is the
process of acquiring a language that takes place outside the classroom through
the speaker's stimulation with the surrounding. Co-curricular activities are
activities held to provide opportunities for Orang Asli Temiar students to develop
their language potential. However, it is insufficient to assist the participants in
being on par with native speakers. Still, it helps develop the participants'
confidence in using the language. It is as said by Teacher 1:
“Kelly comes from an angle when she was involved as an MC. In terms
of pronunciation, her intonation was getting more and more steady. In
terms of the courage to face the audience as well, the feeling of
nervousness, embarrassment is getting thinner. There is courage, there is
seriousness, confidence, it seems that they have become more daring to use
language in front of the audience.”
The participants also acquired the Malay language by imitating what was said by
the teacher and practising the use of the Malay language daily. The participants
used this method since primary school. In addition, imitation through association
with teachers can make the acquisition of the Malay language as naturally as
possible. Teacher 2 said if students can get along well with teachers, this can break
the barrier that prevents Orang Asli Temiar from using the Malay language. If
they associate closely with the teacher, this will give them an advantage. They
usually imitate what they hear and see. As he said:
“If they are friendly, they are close, they have a chat to joke, for all sorts
of things. And that’s where I finally saw there was a contribution to their
language abilities. Compared to the embarrassment that is still
thickening, when asked one or two questions, answering using one or two
words is quite difficult.”
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Temiar Orang Asli has an inherent shy nature, and teachers are hoped to erode
their shyness. Therefore, the students would answer questions, carry on the
discussion, and give their opinions. This situation seems normal if in a regular
school. However, it is difficult in a situation with the full presence of Orang Asli.
When communicating with Orang Asli students, it is difficult to get feedback to
encourage communication. However, suppose students can communicate by
giving their own opinions. In that case, this situation can yield a positive
development as hoped by the teachers in the school.
Other than that, interacting with the social surrounding is an opportunity for
students to acquire the Malay language indirectly or naturally without involving
formal learning about the laws of grammar. This happens with the attitude of
experimentation and the desire of the participants to use the language. Language
without use will surely be buried. A language needs a form of reinforcement
through its use in daily communication. One of the ways to use it is through
communicating with other speakers in the social environment. In the context of
this study, the environment means using the Malay Language in schools.
The participants tried to communicate using the Malay Language with friends at
school or in the village. However, it was found that the communication took place
was in the form of trial and not a serious form of training to learn better or master
the Malay Language. Communication using Malay language for participants was
intended to joke to liven up the atmosphere of conversation, as said by the
following participants:
“I like to talk like that. With friends. That friend is the same, likes to
gossip. It's just try-try, sometimes I try to talk to my family and they will
laugh. Do some pick-up line and the love it. Something fun about it.”
[Shakila_SRI]
4.2. Theme 2: Self-Adjustment Conflict

Based on the findings, when the participants narrated their experiences in
mastering the Malay language as a second language, they revealed that they faced
conflicts in adjusting to school. This conflict is a dilemma faced by the participants
in their efforts to develop their Malay language proficiency. Through the
narration given by the participants, the researcher made a category classification
into four categories, as shown in Table 2 below:
Table 2. Abstraction Results for Theme 2 Self-Adjustment Conflict

Theme Category
Emotional disorders
Theme 2:
Self-Adjustment Language barrier
Conflict
The negative stigma of the community
Bound by exam-oriented
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4.2.1. Emotional disorders

Based on data from interviews with participants, it was found that they faced
emotional disturbances in adjusting to learning in school. Due to their instincts to
love nature, the participants stated that they felt disrupted in learning due to
longing for the atmosphere in their hometown. Usually, they are free to do
activities close to nature, making the participants feel emotional when away from
their hometown. This is as stated by Kelly:
“… in each subject, I am less focused. Because of a lot of playing. I kept
thinking about my hometown. The thought of going to friends’ houses,
making me want to go back and get myself in the river. Want to jump into
the river. I miss that so much.” [Kelly_SRI]
When their emotions are disturbed, they become less motivated to study in
school, thus going through things that are against school rules. Based on an
interview with Teacher 2, she said that the emotional disturbance due to longing
for their hometown made them return to their hometown on their own despite
the distance. He recounted that:
have they ever run away from the school?
They have. The very beginning. Students arrived safely. They will ride
anyone. The natives said that it is unique, they become brave, they can
follow anyone who wants to go up (the village is uphill). For them, the
surrounding villagers are their people to be reckoned with. [Teacher
2_SRI]
Therefore, the school has implemented various initiatives to overcome this

problem. Based on the researcher's observation, the school implies various
initiatives by setting up a gazebo that influences Orang Asli culture, namely ‘Balai
Sewang’, to make them feel they belong at school. The interesting part is the
construction of the ‘Balai Sewang’, which has elements of Orang Asli culture, a
collaboration by the Parents and Teachers Association (PIBG) of the school
involving parents of Orang Asli students who attend the school. Without
expecting a wage in the form of money, parents work hard to prepare the ‘Balai
Sewang’ for the convenience of their children. All these initiatives were
implemented to ensure that the emotions of Orang Asli students are in the best
condition to receive an education in school. The school also built a fishpond as a
place for them to protect fish and a foster garden for students to cultivate. For each
of these activities, the Orang Asli Temiar students are guided by certain teachers
to ensure that they understand the real purpose of the initiatives undertaken by
the school.
4.2.2. Language barrier

The participants said they faced barriers due to their mother tongue, the Temiar
language. Participants admitted that they had an idea to write but lacked in the
selection of appropriate vocabulary to use, as stated by Daus:
"In doing an essay for example. I want to make that sentence. There are
many ideas, but I want to make that sentence… difficult. I’m stuck to find
the words."
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According to the participants, the major problem in essay writing is finding a

suitable vocabulary. This is because they often face problems constructing
sentences due to the lack of Malay language vocabulary, making them want to
use their mother tongue. The participants admitted that they like writing in the
Malay language. However, they are plagued by their poor Malay language
vocabulary knowledge, making sentence construction difficult. In sentence
construction skills, participants narrated that they took more time due to
disruption in finding suitable vocabulary. The ability to find a suitable Malay
language vocabulary cannot happen individually. It has become common for
teachers who teach the Malay language to participants to use group discussions
in writing essays. This was confirmed by the following Teacher 1:
“They are not impossible but rather slow. For whatever reason, because
among other things, they are still bound by their mother tongue. This
means that we see for ourselves in group activities, discussions, pairs and
so on… they are still tied in terms of the use of their mother tongue more
than the Malay language. Even though we have given a reminder, but
they remain. It is difficult to free themselves to use the Malay language
completely.”
The dilemma faced by Orang Asli students was due to their reluctance to cultivate
the use of the Malay language in schools, even in the context of teaching and
learning in the classroom. This presents a great challenge to teachers to ensure
that each verse constructed is grammatically correct.
4.2.3. Negative stigma of the community

Based on the findings of this study, participants also experienced conflict in
adjustment due to the negative stigma of society that has a profound effect on
them. This was due to the prejudice of the outside community towards the Orang
Asli community that is behind the currents of modernity. The participants
described their experiences of being often ridiculed, humiliated, and marginalised
due to different physical characteristics and lifestyles from other societies. This
experience was narrated by the participants of the current study, respectively, in
the old school, which is a mixed school with students of various races. The
following participant acknowledged this by Kelly:
Sometimes they say we're dirty, rotten. It's like we do not take a shower.
If we passed in front of people's dorms, they would say ish… ..you guys
so out people! (while thinly driven away).
Many people still do not open their eyes to these Orang Asli children. The
scepticism of the outside community towards this community also occurs
towards the school as the school is a school with a full population of Orang Asli.
Therefore, it is possible that this conflict could disrupt their efforts to study in
schools, the place for them to master the Malay language as a second language.
This is likely due to the low self-esteem of Orang Asli adolescents in the school
associated with the negative stigma they received from the outside community.
However, participants felt comfortable with their current school making them
more comfortable not mixing with the outside community.
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4.2.4. Bound by exam-oriented

In addition, based on interviews with participants, the researchers found that
participants felt bound by the examination orientation that is often emphasised in
students faced by other schools. For example, Temiar Orang Asli students face
problems when their efforts to learn Malay language, which requires new
learning, are a form of skill that needs to be mastered from time to time. Yet, at
the same time, they have to follow a certain exam format. In this case, for the
participants, mastering the Malay language as a language to communicate daily
is not difficult. However, Malay language proficiency is often measured through
students' achievement in examinations. Therefore, the stipulations that need to be
complied with based on the examination format make them feel burdened to
master the Malay language. This is as stated by the following participant Hilmi:
“It's hard for us to make that cover. Want to draw a conclusion.
Conclusion because I want to tell a story. Got to enter the proverb, the
discourse marker. That's why it's hard to answer.”
In writing each paragraph of an essay, some elements are needed to ensure that
students can get good marks. Unfortunately, this makes the participants
burdened as each element is a new thing that needs to be learned and understood.
Suggestion
5. Discussion
This study found that overall, the mastery of Malay language as a second
language among Orang Asli students from the Temiar tribe did not depend on
their cognitive ability alone, as the speakers' social interaction with the social
environment also influences the increase in their language proficiency. As
discussed earlier, participants have repeatedly said that they improve their
linguistic ability by learning it 'in school', meaning through formal learning of the
Malay language system and structure in the classroom. However, informal
acquisition's importance also significantly influenced their Malay language
mastery, in line with the Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis by Krashen (1985).
Based on the data obtained, the language development activities described by the
Orang Asli Temiar students in mastering the Malay language are through
learning about the rules and structure of language in the classroom context, which
is a conscious learning process. In this case, the learning process was focused on
the formation of native speakers by training them to use the Malay language as
native speakers. Based on the findings of this study, the study participants
thought that to master Malay language, they needed to memorise and do a lot of
drills so that the Malay language could be used in the right context. However, it
was stated by Zulkifley (2011) that second language speakers, through
enrichment learning, could develop language skills to form professionally styled
language users.
In addition, the findings of this study demonstrated that almost all participants in
this study narrated their experience of mastering the Malay language through
participation in activities in the classroom. Their inclination was more towards
the type of discussion-type activity. They preferred peer discussion as classmates
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and with their teachers. In other words, activities such as conversation, problem-
solving in groups, problem discussion and working in pairs or small groups were
the most preferred ways of learning a second language. This is because the
common practices of Orang Asli life in groups in real life make them prefer the
way of learning through group discussion.
These findings also coincide with Vygotsky’s view of Sociocultural Theory,

asserting that active learning through discussion encourages collaborative
interaction and creates a social space where adolescents help each other in
resolving cultural situations and confusion as well as problems in language
learning (Lantolf, 2000; Vygotsky, 1962; Lantolf & Thorne, 2007). This is termed
ZPD, where learning takes place with the guidance of teachers and more skilled
individuals. The emphasis given in this idea lies on the higher cognitive function
where participants interact meaningfully with teachers as skilled individuals. At
the same time, peers are more capable of developing their language skills and
social skills appropriate to a particular culture. However, the researchers found
that the level of dependence of the participants on the teacher was very high,
making the participants on ZPD for a long time. This was acknowledged by the
teachers involved with the study participants, who acknowledged that close
guidance is needed in each time of learning despite repetitive learning that
occurred. This will make it difficult for the participants to reach a proficient level
in using the language learned.
In addition to the learning process, the study participants' language proficiency

was also enhanced through informal acquisition through social interaction in
communication and socialisation outside the classroom. The findings of this study
showed that the ability of Orang Asli Temiar students to use the Malay language
is evident because of their involvement in activities outside the classroom,
especially active involvement in co-curricular activities. Furthermore, through the
social interaction of Orang Asli Temiar students in the form of informal and non-
learning that requires high focus, the language ability of the participants was
found to improve from time to time. This was developed through the interaction
between the participants with teachers, who are mostly Malay in the school.
This study has found that the role of the social environment impacted the increase
in self-confidence of Orang Asli Temiar students to use the Malay language. What
makes the study school different from other mainstream schools is its social
environment. SMK Bawong is a school with a social community built to provide
a positive learning environment for the Orang Asli community when they no
longer have to compete with other races to stand out. From one perspective, it
seems to marginalise these minority communities due to differences in Orang
Asli's sociocultural practices that are different from other communities; yet, it
operates under the same applicable policies and curriculum as other mainstream
schools. This was seen to remove various social constraints reported in previous
studies, such as power, gender and race, from the learning environment by
providing equal resources and opportunities for second language learning. This
study found that the study school environment with the capacity of all Orang Asli
students, especially from the same tribe, allowed them to be more confident when
140
there was no competition between Orang Asli with the outside community from
other mainstream schools. Here, they have the same opportunity to cultivate the
use of the Malay language daily at school.
6. Conclusion and Implications

Based on the findings, the participants mastered the Malay language through
conscious learning, which can be developed through teacher-student learning in
the classroom. Other than that, informants also absorb the Malay language
unconsciously through acquisition within their surroundings developed outside
the classroom. This research has provided insight into how these young
indigenous secondary students perceive their second language. This research
suggests that a second language is acquired naturally by the interactions with
their surroundings. The language input would come from their teachers, friends,
parents, siblings, other adults, and other sources in their environment, which
would help develop the students’ understanding of the structure of the Malay
language.
This study has significant implications, especially for teachers' teaching practices.
Moreover, this study also expands our understanding of how Orang Asli students
at the secondary level perceived their second language and how to encourage
students to think about improving the pedagogical practice in second language
teaching. This study also shows a need for more studies on the construction of
modules that emphasise the implementation of second language acquisition. This
output hopes to add more insights to the less-explored area of indigenous
children, specifically among secondary students, in teaching approaches
employed by second language teachers. Malay language as a second language is
supposedly not to be learned by tedious drills that necessitate cognitive ability. It
can be simply learned if students use the language naturally with others,
particularly their peers. This might be accomplished by giving the students as
many opportunities to use the language as possible, such as group work and role-
playing, which will increase the children's confidence in using the language. As a
result, and because this was a qualitative study with a few instances, a
quantitative follow-up study to examine if the findings can be applied to other
groups is recommended.
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Vol. 21, No. 5, pp. 143-165, May 2022
The Development of Albanian School Principals:

A Challenge to Avoid Old Concepts and Value
the Importance of Development
Magdalini Vampa
Fan S. Noli University, Korçë, Albania
Abstract. The school principal is the driving force behind the culture
and performance of a school and directly influences the teachers and
students. However, the development of school leaders remains
problematic even after 30 years of education system reforms in Albania.
This paper primarily seeks to demonstrate the importance of forming a
generation of effective school administrators and universities’ critical
role in accomplishing this goal. Particular attention should be paid to
overcoming the lingering mentalities of the communist system, which
are unresponsive to the demand for professionals who can lead in
challenging and uncertain times. Using deductive thematic analysis and
the categories that resulted from the coding process, such as “leader
characteristics” and “leader’s formation models,” to interpret Albanian
official education documents from during and after its communist
dictatorship, results were obtained that support the importance of
universities in meeting school leaders’ training needs and providing
them with professional qualifications. The results show that the cultural
influences of communism affect the current leadership model in Albania
and leadership training policies should utilize higher education, as the
best and most efficient means to overcome the lingering influences of
communism.
Keywords: leadership; school leadership; school principal’s formation;

university role; communist leadership philosophy
1. Introduction
Modern schools face multifaceted challenges, and as institutions of paramount
importance, they must respond to these challenges vigorously to fulfill their
purpose. Schools must change their pedagogical approaches, methods, and
techniques as planned and regulated by legislation. School administrators must
motivate their staff to find new and suitable ways to prepare students for an
uncertain future, especially in light of the global pandemic and growing
dependence on technology.
©Author
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In this environment, the development of school leadership is undoubtedly of

pressing importance, as principals play a critical role in their schools’ response
to dynamic global pressures.
The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) report

Education Policy Outlook 2019: Working Together to Help Students to Achieve their
Potential provides an overview of education policy priorities in OECD countries
from 2008–2019. It states:
“The majority of policies collected for this report for school leadership
were first implemented in 2008–14. This suggests relative continuity
and stability in this policy area. Nevertheless, the small number of
recent policies, and the lower prominence of school leadership as a
priority should be noted.” (OECD, 2019, p. 37)
The report also highlights that

“The most frequently observed trends in policy developments related to
school improvement from 2008 to 2019 were on: improving education
systems’ learning environments (through general strategies for schools,
policies aimed at improving learning conditions to support all students,
and policies on digitalization of schools); developing high–quality
teachers (through measures such as professional frameworks and career
pathways, recruitment and registration, incentives and stimuli, initial
teacher education, induction processes and professional development);
and supporting school leaders (mainly through professional frameworks
and competence development).” (OECD, 2019, p. 56)
The document Strategy for the Development of Pre-University Education 2014–2020

drafted by the Ministry of Education, Sports and Youth (MASR) not only
provides a framework for implementing the organizational requirements
guiding Albania’s integration into Europe but also enumerates the requirements
of a pre-university education for the policymaking and implementing bodies in
Albania in a section titled “Improving Governance, Leadership and Human
Capacity Management.” It states, “Training mechanisms are established and
programs are developed for the preparation of leaders and managers in
education (school of leaders, etc.), to improve the performance of Educational
Institutions” (MASR, 2014, p. 30).
Educational institutions are struggling in the environment created by the global

pandemic. This suggests that schools should reframe their missions and
pedagogical methods to focus on educating and equipping students with the
necessary knowledge to become skilled citizens who are prepared to enter an
unknown future landscape.
Albanian school leaders are approaching challenges and demands that are
qualitatively different from those they faced in the past with an outdated
mentality, style, and toolkit of authoritative methods (models that they have
experienced and inherited), compounded by a lack of theoretical knowledge and
necessary skills. Factors such as the frequent transfer of principals, politically-
motivated appointments, and the lack of qualification requirements (e.g., that
145
candidates should have a degree in management and administration) affect the

quality and effectiveness of school leadership in Albania.
Meanwhile, Albanian school leadership, even after 30 years of a democratic

governance structure, continues to be burdened by mentalities retained from the
communist era, such as appointment methods and leadership development
models. The appointment of leaders in the communist system was controlled
and approved by the state party. Today, school principals are still appointed and
controlled by instructions provided by the MASR (AQSH F–511–1970–152–152.1;
MASR, 2020; Instruction No. 2 PROT. 762).
A half-century of communist influence is evident in the typical principal’s

approach to duty, discipline, and the climate of the school environment. This, in
addition to a lack of theoretical knowledge and practical skills, prevents the
development of a leadership model that would foster a climate of motivation,
achievement, and continuous learning among staff and the school community
(Vampa, 2013, 2018).
The appointment of leaders by their superiors cultivates another significant

cultural dimension in Eastern cultures called “proximity to power” (House et al.,
2004, as cited in Northouse, 2010). Proximity to power reduces the leader’s
autonomy, as appointments by top executives (rather than elections) make
school principals more vulnerable to executive control and impede their ability
to make disinterested decisions.
In addition to obligatory seminars and training sessions organized by the

Ministry of Education, other leadership development methods should be
considered. More specifically, higher education institutions should create
courses on both formal and informal leadership models that meet the
requirements laid out by MASR, cultivating leaders who can exercise autonomy,
take global economic development trends into consideration, and motivate their
staff and students to develop to their maximum potential (Vampa, 2018).
The principal’s leadership and management style directly affects their school’s
performance and quality and indirectly affects the “hidden curricula” (Pai et al.,
2006, p. 132) instilled in students, the future generation. Specifically, leadership
style, achievement orientation, power dynamics, conflict resolution between
administration and staff, the adoption of an education model that prioritizes
critical thinking in future citizens, and independence from power, particularly
regarding values, are elements of the whole panorama of school leadership,
which I will present and analyze in this paper.
2.1 A Short Historical Profile of School Principals in Neighboring Balkan Countries
The Soviet communist regime was established in the Western Balkan countries
after World War II, where the ideology found fertile ground due to the readiness
of the newly formed communist governments of these countries and the
demands of their educational systems. These countries emerged from World
War II with high illiteracy rates compared to the countries of Central Europe.
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Yugoslavia had an illiteracy rate of over 40%; Romania had a rate of 25%;
Bulgaria, 31%; and Albania, 80% (Grant, 1969). “They could have faced a clear
and pressing need for reform of some kind” (Grant, 1969, p. 73). The need for
infrastructure, study programs, curricula, textbooks, and, of course, teachers and
school administrators, constituted a kind of vacuum that communist
governments sought to fill according to the Soviet model. In the implementation
of the “red” model, even the smallest “resistance” of tradition and culture, such
as the influence exerted by the Catholic Church, was suppressed. “The position
of the (Catholic) Church has, in some areas, modified the regime.... Unlike
Catholicism and similar to Orthodoxy, Islam gave few direct problems to
communist governments in Eastern Europe” (Grant, 1969, p. 40).
“Totalitarian regimes understood that control of schools and the minds of young
people is essential to controlling the population” (Meredith & Steele, 2000, p. 29).
The communist control of schools for 45 years in Eastern European countries
“reached into the heart of education, affecting daily practice and the relationship
between teachers and students” (Meredith & Steele, 2000, p. 29).
The management of each educational institution in this period sought, first and
foremost, party loyalty. That “was always more important than formal
educational attainment, skills, knowledge or a successful track record” (Cakrt,
1993, p. 64). The responsible manager was an “ideological worker, even one of
the most important” (Counts, 1961, p. 13). In attempting to describe the profile of
a school principal in Balkan countries under communist regimes and the
application of the Soviet model of education, it is important to note that
“[t]he Communist regime hated and feared management. Even the word
itself—difficult to translate into Eastern European native languages—
was seen as having a negative connotation and its use was discouraged
by the Party. Instead, native equivalents of words such as ‘control,’
‘steering’ and others were part of the lexicon management.“ (Cakrt,
1993, p. 63)
The function and work of school principals were “to translate the policy of the
central authority into practice, to administer rather than initiate” (Grant, 1996, p.
150). “Heads of schools often regarded, as one of their chief duties, acting as a
link between the teachers and the education authorities” (Grant, 1996, p. 153).
Every school leader’s character under the communist regime, according to

Nelson (1984), was to be built through charisma, control, and coercion.
“A charismatic appeal, which links a ruler’s sanctity, personal morality,
and heroism to his knowledge of ideology, makes for a great power
orientation, control, and coercion, which may be the strategies of choice
for some… which produce rewards and punishments, [with] the latter
stressing the legitimacy of order and discipline... or ‘ideology of
compulsion.’“ (Nelson, 1984, p. 5)
One a school principal’s duties, after their function of observing the party line,
was “to visit teachers in their classes, discuss lessons with them, and give them
advice — although, since there are no prescribed methods, the teachers are
147
under no compulsion to accept it” (Grant, 1969, p. 329). These visits were a
means of exerting continuous control over the teachers. They also allowed the
school principal to question the teachers’ professional pedagogical performance.
Revolutionary “iron discipline” and careful oversight of its implementation were

also among principals’ main functions:
“Though reliance on punishment is discouraged, therefore, teachers will
have a battery of penalties at their command for dealing with the lazy or
badly–behaved child. These are carefully graded from mild reproofs by
the teacher to severe reprimands by the principal of the school, which are
reported to be highly effective.” (Grant, 1969, p. 100)
The school principal was primarily responsible for establishing a culture of

school discipline among students and teachers: “Discipline, to be worth
anything, must not only affect what a person does, but what he is” (Grant, 1969,
p. 103). This was necessary to integrate children into the proletarian order that
the communist leadership in Eastern European society during these years
intended to create. “In any case, it is expected that the whole curriculum, and the
extra–curricular activities, will be put to appropriate use in creating ‘a new type
of person ‘(Grant, 1969, p. 104).
As for how school directors were appointed: “First, party loyalty was always
more important than formal educational attainment, skills, knowledge or a
successful track record” (Cakrt, 1993, p. 64). Second, it was sufficient for a school
leader to successfully complete “short-term courses or state-run schools” with
abridged programs “that awarded diplomas equal to a university degree to
working-class cadres; these schools, were also controlled, staffed, and financed
by the Party”(Cakrt, 1993, p. 64).
2.2 Some Notes on the Philosophy of Albanian School Management During

the Communist Regime
In the early Albanian school tradition, several visionary figures of Albanian
culture, science, and society made civic contributions during the upheaval of the
nation’s formation at the end of the 19th century by building the model of
Albanian education (Aliçkaj, 1995). The mid-19th century was characterized by
“the lack of formal education which has always been the biggest obstacle
to the progress of Albanian culture. Three different cultural levels in
which the country was divided had brought different primary school
systems. The [Muslim] majority… could only go to madrassas that
spoke the Turkish language…. The Catholic minority in the
mountainous north of the country was led mainly by Franciscans and
Jesuits… while the Orthodox population in the south could attend Greek
language schools.” (Elsie, 1997, p. 143)
Under these conditions, the ideologues of the national Renaissance movement at

the end of the 19th century devoted their energies to the war and to establishing
Albanian as the language used in schools (Elsie, 1997).
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Islami (2002) emphasizes that those who became school principals from 1912–
1926 were also highly experienced teachers. Article 41 of the 1926 school
legislation The Law of Education Staff states, “Directors… are appointed [from]
those teachers who have… graduated [from the] Teachers professional school or
lyceum, have successfully passed the profession exam and who have worked for
at least 5 years as teachers.”
Under the 45-year communist regime following World War II, however, the
direction and management of schools were based on party ideology.
In his 1969 report, the Minister of Education and Culture, Thoma Deliana,
appealed to the entire hierarchy of education directors, ministry staff, executive
committees, and school leaders to strengthen the communist party’s political
and ideological presence in education and culture (AQSH, 1969).
“There is no doubt that the ideological content in school [assignments]
and work is fundamental…. For the solution of every pedagogical task in
the field of teaching and education, we should be guided by the political
and ideological aspect; pedagogy should serve… politics and we must
not rely on a narrow pedagogical and didactic professionalism.”
(AQSH, 1969, p. 151)
In other words, “intellectualism had to be fought and every subject had to be

treated under the ideological view” (AQSH, 1969, p. 155).
School administration and teachers received continuous training on how to

apply Marxist-Leninist ideology to the task of education (AQSH, 1969, p. 157).
Specifically, leaders’ qualifications were developed through seminars organized
by the Ministry of Education and Culture on such topics as the “education
system, to destroy the old bourgeois school concepts, to elaborate new socialist
concepts based on ideological axis, [and] student self–action in school and
outside it” (AQSH, 1969, F. 11, p. 21). Most of these training sessions had a poor
scientific and theoretical basis, with leadership examples and models that
oriented work and schooling toward government ideologies and policies. The
training conclusions that the ministry forwarded to the Central Committee
underlined the purpose of these seminars: “Our basic task is to analyze,
understand and implement the Central Committee decisions of the 8th plenum”
(p. 28) because the Minister of Education and the Prime Minister would
communicate to the nation (through the party press) that “we consider the
employees (i.e., our leaders) as political commissars fighting on the most delicate
ideological front” (AQSH, 1967, F. 10, p. 8).
Schools in 1960–1970 were characterized by a tradition of order, discipline,

student hygiene, and school facilities maintenance (AQSH, 1969, F. 11). In
general, these were the responsibilities of school leaders, which meant that there
was careful surveillance not only of the learning process, but also of more
personal student issues and, above all, their political education: “First of all the
school should prepare young people as revolutionaries, red commissars and
then specialists in their profession…” (AQSH, 1967, F.10, p. 9). Such discipline
was not intended to impart knowledge to students or facilitate their individual
149
growth but to create model indoctrinated ideological citizens from both teachers
and students. At this time, a tradition of control and planning in which the
school leader played the main role was established, with party representatives
required to be present at every reported problem. Additionally, the “art of
leadership” was developed according to ideological and political perspectives,
without regard for technocratic and bureaucratic aspects (AQSH, 1967, F.10).
3. Research Methodology
As examined in previous empirical studies (see Aliçkaj, 1995 and Vampa, 2013;
2018), current Albanian and various international institutions have expressed the
need to improve school leadership, allowing this study to evaluate institutional
reports’ emphasis on the need for leadership development and to predict the
future demand for it.
Previous studies have also pointed out that the philosophy of the models being
used for leaders’ development and selection today is similar to that of models
used before 1990. Political influences in the appointment and “circulation” of
leaders (Nathanaili, 2015, p. 206), as well as the organization of institutional
training under the Education Ministry’s superintendence, without consulting the
needs of actual leaders, testify to a lack of professionalism and orientation
toward a new leadership philosophy (Vampa, 2018).
Consideration of these variables drives this study’s aim to identify the factors
preserving this philosophy and argue that universities’ roles in establishing
appropriate models for the development of school leaders cannot be
underestimated.
This qualitative research was conducted in 2020–2021 using deductive thematic

analysis, which was selected as the most appropriate approach to identify the
factors that affect school operations and analyze the need for training school
leaders. As Braun and Clarke (2012) state, “Thematic analysis is a method for
systematically identifying, organizing, and offering insight into patterns of
meaning (themes) across a dataset” (p. 2).
3.1 Document Collection

To draw a clear picture of the revolutionary communist philosophy of school
management in Albania, the Central State Archive provides online archival
documents to scholars and researchers.
Specifically, Group Fund I was studied: Central State Institutions, Fund 511
Ministry of Education and Culture, the files of which spanned 1967–1971. These
years were selected because, according to previous scholars who have surveyed
the history of education and school management in Albania, such as Islami
(2000; 2002), Aliçkaj (1995), and Kraja (1993), they are when the revolution’s
mandates regarding the army, economy, and schools were issued, and when
every school was required to teach and raise the “new man,” the party
commissars. According to the orders, instructions, and written communications
filed in the Central State Archive, institutional bureaucratic leaders were
150
required to adopt the leadership models of countries where they had studied,
such as the Soviet Union, Poland, France, Greece, etc. These adopted models
were to be replicated rapidly through the process of school revolution, the
ideological orientation of which would be ordered by the state party and its
leader.
This study also referred to the January 2021 report of the Institute for
Educational Development, On Identifying the Needs of Educational Staff for
Professional Development, which identified and addressed the need for vocational
training for leaders (ASCAP, 2021).
For the elaboration of this paper, educational staff training modules provided by
the curriculum directorate of Professional Development Institutes during 2011–
2021 were examined, as well as modules offered by Albanian universities,
organizations, and agencies. These ASCAP-certified training modules are
offered throughout the academic year in the form of one- or several-day training
sessions for on-duty teachers at agencies or continuing education centers.
In recent years, the Regional Education Directorate of Korça provided the

appointment modalities of school principals and some implementation practices.
Those documents are unique to all Education Directorates issued by the MASR
(2020).
This paper has taken Aliçkaj’s (1995), Elsie’s (1997), and Islami’s (2000; 2002)
studies and Vampa’s (2013) doctoral thesis, which was conducted in Albania in
the field of education management and administration after the collapse of the
totalitarian system in the 1990s, into consideration. These international experts’
experiences and studies have provided a solid foundation for conducting this
analysis and building arguments based on the hypothesis that Albanian school
leaders need formal education.
3.2 Data Analysis

This study featured a deductive thematic data analysis to fulfill its aim.
1. The original documents from the archive were studied for several months as
the online and electronic versions offered by the General Directorate of
Archives of the Republic of Albania. These documents were carefully
examined to avoid any subjective interpretation during the analysis.
2. Vampa’s (2013) doctoral dissertation was used as quantitative research that

“aimed to provide an overview of the Albanian school leadership profile”
(Vampa, 2013). This empirical study served as a good basis for deepening
both the knowledge of school leadership in Albania and the analysis of
leadership development as essential elements of providing an effective
education and overcoming unexpected crises.
3. The documents of the Ministry of Education and its subordinate institutions

have served to support this paper’s argument supporting the need for
151
leadership training and also provided information on some “old” practices

in the appointment of leaders and professional education models.
According to Braun and Clarke (2012), the process of deductive coding and
analysis “is a ‘top-down’ approach in which the researcher brings to the data a
set of concepts, ideas, or arguments that they use to code and interpret the data”
(p. 3). The author drew on some concepts from Vampa’s (2013; 2018) and
Aliçkaj's (1995) previous quantitative research. “Essential to doing good
thematic analysis is a clear understanding of where the researcher is in relation
to these possible options, a rationale for making the choices they make, and the
consistent application of those choices throughout the analysis” (Braun &
Clarke, 2012, p. 5).
This study aims to identify, analyze, and classify the factors involved in school
management and ultimately suggest the most effective ways to prepare
Albanian school leaders as professionals. In the archives research during the first
7 months of 2020, and then in some field studies and the documentation of the
Ministry of Education, the codes that were used to guide the documentary
research represented the following themes: the direction of education under
communist ideology and the profile, appointment, training, and functions of the
ideological leader. In the second stage of coding, the following categories were
defined: the characteristics of Albanian school leadership under communism,
the need for reform, manager training, and the crucial role of the university in
redesigning the leadership model. The problems in the process of training school
leaders in Albania, the need for effective training, and the tradition of “training
principals” are components of the major theme that guided the collection and
analysis of data in this study.
Table 1: Coding framework of the thematic analysis

References Documents Publication Codes Categories Theme
dates
AQSH Archive 1967 Communist Characteris-
(Central State documents, ideology in tics of the
Archive), 514 pages leadership; leader of the
School
Fund 511, (jpg) communist
principals’
File 10 period
preparation;
AQSH Archive 1969 School
(Central State documents, principals’
Archive), 40 pages (jpg), training;
Fund 511, 169 pages Appointment
File 11 & 9 (jpg) of the school
AQSH Archive 1970 principals;
(Central State documents, Discipline of
the director;
Archive), 222 pages
Principal
Fund 511, (jpg) The need
control;
File 152 School for
Revolution leadership
Kraja, M Book, 1993 School The need for training
490 pages Revolution a new
Aliçkaj, J. Monograph, 1995 The school philosophy
152
188 pages principal as a in

political leadership;
medium; Education
Educational
reform
traditions
requires a
under the
pressure of new
communist direction
ideology The role of
Elsie, R. Book, literary 1997 Tradition – universi-
criticism, 291 patriotism – Insufficient ties is
pages school leadership central to
principal training this
Islami, V. Articles, 2000, 2002 School models; important
pp. 10–32; pp. discipline;
develop-
7–25 communist
ment.
ideology does
away with
some
traditions in Mandatory
school training (by
management law) for
Vampa, M. Doctoral 2013; 2018 Principals school
dissertation; need for principals
article education; on duty
Formal
education
priority Target
MASR Pre-University 2014; 2020 Need for coordinated
(Ministry of Education training of training
Education, Development school based on a
Sports and Strategy 2014– principals; national
reform of program;
Youth) 2020;
school as new
Instruction, paradigm:
NR. 2 Student–
Universities
centered
curricular
should
reform; create a
Controlled study
school program for
principal preparing
appointments school
Albanian Amendment 2018 Mandatory leaders
Government on Law No. School
69/2012 principal
Certification
Act (through
training)
ASCAL Training 2021 School
module principals’
offering training
153
These datasets have helped to answer the following key research questions:
1. What are the main characteristics of school management resulting from
45 years under the communist leadership model of a political and
ideological leader?
2. What are the needs and reforming factors that influence the development
and improvement in understanding the new philosophy?
3. Are the current management training approaches sufficient?
4. What is the role of universities in the development of school principals?
Efforts to answer these questions raised the issue of school principals’ formal
education and supported the argument that graduating from a higher education
institution is a more successful and effective leadership model than that
currently used in Albania.
4. Results
This section presents the factors influencing the preservation of the old
philosophy in Albanian leadership in general and school leadership in
particular, as well as the emphasis on the need for a new philosophy in
leadership development and the role of universities in this regard, based on
previous document studies.
4.1 Why the Impact of the 45-Year Period of the Communist Regime Was
Considered Important for This Study
Smith et al. (1996) analyzed data on the personal values and behavioral
intentions of 10,000 managers and employees from 43 nations. They concluded
that there is a fundamental divide between Eastern and Western Europe and
noted that the historical footprint that seems to have left the deepest imprint at
the moment is not the legacy of the Roman Empire, but that of the Soviet Union
(Smith et al., 1996, as cited in House et al., 2004). These “old” leadership patterns
cannot be changed by the desire for societal progress alone. In the educational
system, which has undergone continuous reform since the 1990s, studies have
shown that approximately 70% of Albanian teachers were trained during the
communist regime (Lama et al., 2011). School leaders are appointed by the
governing bodies of the MASR after a minimum of 5 years of experience on the
teaching staff, as the education document issued by MASR (2020) specifies.
The 45 years of communist power have had such an enormous influence on the
Albanian school model and school leadership because the education system in
Albania was established after an educational vacuum, high illiteracy rates, and
religious divisions. As noted, this system was based on the Soviet communist
model, and the leader ideally bore the characteristics of an “ideological worker.”
4.2 The Communist Model of the School Leader

The influence of the communist leadership culture is still evident in school
leadership.
154
(1) The appointment of school principals still includes the “intervention of

politics, steadily, in the appointment and dismissal of school leadership, [and]
lack of transparency in the selection of candidates” (Nathanaili, 2015, p. 206;
MASR, 2020)
(2) Training sessions are centralized and not related to leaders’ needs, as in the
old philosophy that did not serve the leaders’ professional development but
rather that of communist morals. School leadership was established based on On
the Pre-University Education System in the Republic of Albania Law of 2012, as
amended [in] 2018, article 55, point 2 (2018), and is obligatory for school principals.
The law only offers training sessions directed by the Ministry of Education.
(3) The leadership model is traditional, which, for the reasons enumerated
above, entails an authoritative style and requires limited professional
knowledge.
4.3 The Role of Universities

Albanian universities are the most capable institutions for preparing school
leaders. Not only do these institutions have the necessary human capacity and
will to offer proper study programs but they are more independent than other
institutions in terms of politics and the international scope they can offer.
“What is needed now in Central and Eastern Europe is to establish a public

awareness of management as a profession.... We need to introduce a
management culture, a way of thinking and doing things” (Cakrt, 1993, p. 66).
Based on this argument, school leaders should learn about leadership theories
and develop various skills and competencies to establish an effective work
culture while appreciating the complexity of the responsibilities of schooling, a
crucial institution.
5. Discussion
Based on the above analysis, this section discusses the results achieved.
5.1 Characteristics of School Leaders Under the Communist Regime

Based on the analysis of the results of predominantly archival documentation,
several key characteristics of school leadership during the communist years
were discovered.
1. Indoctrination and party political theories formed the basis of school
development, resulting in low-performing schools and a distortion of the
leadership figure. Even when school leaders were presented as scientific
and professional personalities, they modified their opinions and activity
according to political pressures, thereby self-censoring original and
innovative ideas.
After the 1960s, the leaders focused on political discussions and analysis,
“which stood before the pedagogical and scientific issues, [as] the party
leading role in school was absolute leadership” (Aliçkaj, 1995, p. 41), and
155
even the most talented and skillful leaders could not contest the pressure
of such expectations. The researcher notes that party organization in
schools caused fear, insecurity, and stress, which contributed only
regression to school life and activity.
2. The practice of appointing a school principal required detailed

consideration of party criteria, which resulted in the appointment of
many leaders who were loyal to the party rather than those who were
most professionally qualified and knowledgeable of pedagogical
practices (AQSH, 1970, F. 9, p. 152/1). As a result, school management
could not significantly improve performance levels.
3. Another factor that hampered school development and education

leadership was the censorship of foreign literature and the lack of
dialogue with foreign schools.
All this was justified by the slogan “with our forces,” and Albanian
schools were oriented “toward the original ways,” in which empiricism,
spontaneity, and indoctrination ruled. The imposition of communist
ideology did not allow intellectuals to manifest their leadership skills or
potential in the field of education, and instead emphasized the political
commissar model as the preferred leadership of the time. The data
obtained from the archive evinces that every decision a school leader
made was controlled by and dependent on the party organization within
the institution and at the district level.
The Albanian school leader during the communist era can be summarized as
follows: They were individuals appointed by the party organizations, marked as
ideological workers standing in the advanced line of fire, loyal to the party, and
exercising their function through the control and coercion of their subordinates
(Counts, 1961). “Control and administrative coercion may be the strategies
chosen by some communist elites in their quest for the authority to lead…”
(Nelson, 1994, p. 5).
5.2 Reformative Factors That Condition New Management Philosophies in

Albanian Education
The dynamic changes that Albanian society has undergone in the past century
have demanded various kinds of education reform, which have affected school
leaders’ ability to face the many daily challenges they encounter. From the
creation of the Albanian state to the 1960s, several dynamic achievements were
made in the field of education: the massive expansion of education in Albania,
secularity in schools, and the establishment of almost every phase of education
from preschool to university (Aliçkaj, 1995). An overview of leadership
traditions in Albania also highlights the school reform period of the totalitarian
regime, which was based on party schema and ideology. This period featured a
rigid curriculum in which scientific literature and contemporary methodologies
were censored (p. 41). Curricula focused on the mastery of formal terms and not
creating disciplined minds engaged in the pursuit of knowledge. Schools aimed
to develop political and ideological individuals rather than civic and educated
156
ones (Islami, 2002). After the 1990s, these and other deviations in the
organization and content of Albanian schools would ring alarm bells in society
at large and initiate demands for contemporary reforms in response to the
radical social changes that were occurring. The need for comprehensive
education reform engaged institutions in the project of making significant
improvements and trying to achieve and surpass European standards.
5.2.1 Reform Demands for Professional Development and Management Skills in

Albanian School Leaders
Scholars in the education field agree on some conclusions about education
reforms and their international orientation:
“The reforms currently being undertaken in different countries share
these orientations and commonalities. Almost all of them, whether in the
process of being developed or already validated and implemented, are
based on four different cornerstones: (1) logic of competencies, (2)
socioconstructivist perspective, (3) focus on learner, (4) strong emphasis
placed on learning situations.” (Jonnaert et al., 2006, p. 11)
These four principles can be found in almost all current educational system
reforms the world over, often combined in different ways to elaborate the
curriculum. According to this document, they form the constitutional elements
of the education system.
The most important orientation document for education development in Albania

is the 2014–2020 Pre-University Education Development Strategy, which clearly
presents the current school vision and strives for continuous education reform in
response to the demands and perspectives of Albanian society (MASR, 2014).
Specifically, this document defines a new curricular perspective in pre-college
education that uses a competency-based approach. This new educational
paradigm requires teachers and school leaders to restructure their style and
method, placing the student at the center of their instruction. However,
according to a study by Lama et al. (2011),
“As the Albanian educational system is implementing many reforms
(curricula, baccalaureate exam, student evaluation, etc.), teachers’
professional development still remains a problem.... There are the cases
where teachers cannot keep up with the changes in school curricula and
cannot adopt the new things.” (p. 48)
Thus, this reform is not only a challenge for elementary and secondary teachers
but also, and more importantly, for principals, who should have the conceptual
and technical skills to understand and convey this new philosophy as well as
evaluate its step-by-step implementation by faculty. The school leader should
practice distributed leadership, network with other institutions, and, by
transforming their leadership style, motivate and inspire their subordinates to
create a culture of continuous growth.
According to Nathanaili’s (2015) study,

“In some cases, leadership is a product of political circumstances. The
key skills missing in these cases are technical, resulting in an inability to
157
adapt the teaching program to local needs and to engage in monitoring,

evaluation, and professional development of teachers.” (p. 202)
The Institute of Education Development, under the purview of the Ministry of

Education and Sports, has managed to assess teachers’ demand and need for
training and continuous professional development by measuring their skills in
relation to curricula implementation, competencies and methodological skills,
ethics, communication, and understanding of inclusive education concepts
(ASCAP, 2021).
A national analysis indicates that “school leaders need professional training

through training agencies and organizations, especially the Education
Leadership Centre” (ASCAP, 2021, p. 77), as well as higher education
institutions that “prepare teachers in curricular improvements related to
technology use, student assessment” (ASCAP, 2021, p. 78), and so on.
5.2.2 The Insufficiency of Current School Management Approaches

The comprehensive education leadership literature describes several different
leadership models. Many of them have been built appropriately for the
environment in which they were written, as well as the subsequent few years.
As Stoll et al. (2002) state, “It could be argued that different aspects of various
models are relevant to the complex leadership challenge for… change at the start
of the twenty-first century” (p. 46).
Stoll et al. (2002) underline that “school leaders typically demonstrate six styles
of leadership: coercive, authoritative, affiliative, democratic, pace-setting, and
coaching. Significantly, however, leaders do not operate in only one particular
style. Instead, they combine styles, depending on the occasion and need” (p. 46).
It is difficult to clearly classify leaders by style due to the complexity and variety
of challenges that a school principal faces daily with colleagues, students,
parents, instructors, etc. Ultimately, a leadership model that fully possesses the
breadth and complexity of skills required in contemporary education
management cannot be established.
Albania inherited the “ideological leader,” not a professional or well-qualified

model in education, from the totalitarian system. Despite the efforts of the past
30 years, explicit orientation towards an effective leadership model in schools
remains a challenge.
After the 1990s, the necessary reform of curricula and textbooks to break with
the ignorance and ideological burdens of the previous curriculum, which “was
centrally controlled, mixing general content with Marxist ideology” (Meredith &
Stele, 2000, p. 31), in addition to reform in teacher training, together affected the
role of the leader. As Pont (2020) notes, “In many education systems, a shift is
observed: from a more administrative and bureaucratic function to one that is
more involved in working with teachers and staff to improve school outcomes”
(Adams & Gaetane, 2011; Glatter, 2014; Roach et al., 2010; Spillane & Kenney,
2012, as cited in Pont, 2020, p. 156). In Albania, education leaders before World
War II were “patriots and fighters of the Enlightenment” (Elsie, 1997, p. 143) and
158
were driven by this motive to establish Albanian education. After 1945, the
“ideological leader of the party” held sway, and since the 1990s, school directors
have been influenced by politics and the tradition of the communist leadership
model, while also being subject to the pressure of reforms that must be
implemented through new philosophies. Reforms in curriculum, teaching
methods, and student assessment are influencing the emergence of various new
developments and helping to change the school principal’s role, but the
performance of Albanian school principals still does not meet the expected
standards.
The evaluation of the 2014–2020 Pre-College Education Strategy (UNICEF, 2019)

states: “School administrators are seen as imperfect links in the system. The need
is to strengthen and improve the education management system with a focus on
building systems that include building monitoring and professional support
services” (p. 4).
Moreover, studies show that

“legislation encourages the concept of distributed and collective
leadership, as well as the cooperation of a large number of stakeholders to
successfully implement this concept, but is limited to definitions only.
The culture of individual leadership and the lack of conceptualization of
distributed leadership practices are obstacles that need to be considered.“
(Nathanaili, 2015, p. 202)
According to the GLOBE study (House et al., 2004), communist culture is

present in the dimensions of Eastern European leadership. Pont (2020) agrees,
writing, “In traditional countries, administrators may have a more
administrative and representative function of authority” (p. 157).
Leaders participated in professional teacher training sessions organized by

MASR and other agencies, but “UNESCO’s education policy review summarizes
findings from several studies that suggest that pre-service training programs in
Albania are not adequately supporting the country’s efforts at educational
reform” (UNESCO, 2017, as cited in UNICEF 2019, p. 34).
5.2.3 The Influence of Social Factors

Our society is comprehensively different from society 100 years ago and, due to
the COVID-19 pandemic, society 1 year ago. Changes can take many forms.
They can manifest as revolutions, like megatrends, or change forces entirely, but
they have one thing in common—their profound impact on education (Naisbitt,
1990; Fullan, 1993).
News spreads ceaselessly all around the world, immediately informing people
of conflicts, natural disasters, and traumatic situations brought on by the
pandemic. The World Bank 2020 Report presents new estimates of COVID-19’s
impacts on global poverty and inequality: “Harnessing fresh data from frontline
surveys and economic simulations, it shows that pandemic-related job
losses and deprivation worldwide are affecting already-poor and vulnerable
159
people, by changing the global poverty profile and by creating millions of ‘new
poor’” (p. 23).
Family structure is also changing; an increasing number of parents or

grandparents are living apart from their children or grandchildren.
Technological development is making the world smaller and affecting

employment by increasing opportunities for working from home in any country
via online access.
The phenomenon of part-time employment has implications on the long-held

belief that people will hold a job throughout their entire lives until retirement.
Many individuals entering the job market can and should be prepared to change
their job multiple times. All of these tendencies have implications for adults and
the education they should receive. Because of this, the education system faces
immense pressure to change.
“The drivers of educational change are not always found in
governmental policy. Rather, it is rapid and continual change in the
wider society that makes an impact on education. Government can help
by reconceptualizing the role and professional identity of teachers and by
providing conditions under which they can adapt successfully to these
changes” (Hargreaves, 1998, p. 10).
This paper has suggested how three particular forces for change influence
education.
“First, the powerful industrial sector associated with new technologies
views education as a market for its products…. Secondly, understanding
about broader theories of intelligence… leads to an awareness of need for
new approaches to learning… so school no longer controls an accepted
canon of knowledge. Third, the child[‘s] power is identified as one of the
most powerful … forces for all.” (Stoll et al., 2002, pp. 42–43)
Similarly, David Hargreaves (1998) points out that

“young people learn most readily from those they want to be like…. The
trouble with teachers is that their students do not want to be like them.
So, teachers and schools must stop serving as role models of fading
career structures and moribund communities and begin to model people
who are team-playing, networking and community-supporting, with an
ability to be continually creative in a world in which, by definition, fresh
problems unfold but must be solved quickly and locally.” (p. 12)
All of these external forces pressure schools and their leaders to change.
5.3 The Need for New Models

School leader appointments fall under the authority of the Head of the Regional
Education Directorate after the review of commission evaluations (MASR, 2020).
While the decision ultimately rests on their judgment, the Head of the Regional
Education Directorate is appointed by the Ministry of Education after every
regime change in Albania. School leader candidate criteria, compared with those
160
of the years before 2020, have increased in one point following the amendment
in the Law on Education for the Pre-University Level System 60/2012, with
mandatory attendance of leadership training organized by the Leadership
Training Centre. School principal appointments also pass through a panel of
district principals (i.e., interviews represent a significant percentage of
acceptance points compared with postgraduate qualifications).
The Leadership School is not a new approach. It offers a 27-credit training

program implemented by a training agency in cooperation with MASR after the
legal changes in 2018 gave it exclusive rights to leadership training in Albania.
Seminars and training programs remain passive and traditional efforts that do
not always meet the principals’ needs.
In addition to this form of training, which is legally binding for incumbents and
aspiring school leaders, other training sessions have also been conducted by
training agencies and higher education institutions in Albania since 2011. These
training sessions are accredited by the Ministry of Education and are organized
in modules based on data collected by the Institute of Education Development in
2011. There are 465 accredited modules, 20 of which are directly related to
educational leadership. Nine modules of these 20 belong to the Leadership
Training Centre mentioned above (MASR, ASCAP, 2021). The higher education
institutions’ particular, long-held intention has been to provide this service to
school leaders, and this is evident from the 18 accredited modules that have been
available since 2011.
Referring to a study conducted in the Korça Region in 2017, school principals

“agree that their knowledge and professional skills have been developed during
their university studies at the Faculties of Education in Albania” (Vampa, 2018,
p. 17).
The University of Korça conducted market research in the region, which has a
population of 217,422 people, fifth among the 17 regions of the country
(INSTAT, 2021). Both young and experienced school leaders in 217 pre-
university education institutions in the region expressed their need for training,
information, and assistance during the leadership training process (MASR,
2020). In 2018, the Department of Social Sciences at the University of Korça
argued before the University Senate for the third cycle of a new study program,
the “Executive Master in Education,” with 60 credits. The Ministry of Education
refused this program with a request for deeper market research to be conducted
when every aspirant or school leader is required to attend the Leadership
Training Centre.
On-the-job training should not be the only form of leadership development

because the practices mentioned above are not leading to adequate results.
According to Cakrt (1993), an educational system must be established in which
professional development and further training are not merely obligations to
fulfill the conditions necessary to be appointed director but a means of self–
realization for existing leaders and those who aspire to this position. This will
161
build the concept of the school as a “learning organization” (Pont, 2020, p. 157)
and promote a culture of continuous staff training.
Another obstacle that directly affects school functioning is “unstable school

leadership; especially in large cities... school leaders are changed frequently”
(Nathanaili, 2015, p. 206). This is a consequence of political intervention, as every
political administration change is followed by changes in school leadership.
These movements do not allow for continuity, development, or improvement in
the leaders’ performances, nor do they motivate them to undergo training.
5.4 Why Higher Education Institutions Should Play a Key Role in School
Principals’ Development
Researchers point out that “the United States provides us with the most
extensive literature on the design and delivery of educational leadership
preparation” (Grogan et al., 2009, p. 395), and “historically, the university has
hosted school leadership preparation and has exerted important direct influence
by defining the work of professors and the plan of study for professional
degrees” (McCarthy, 2009, p. 106). Universities “organized around courses that
prepare students for administrative licensure within a degree program…
Commonly, programs are divided into two distinct components: instructional
leadership coursework and internship” (Grogan et al., 2009, p. 396).
In a study conducted on the role of Albanian universities, “their willingness and

needs in providing continuing education” (Vampa, 2014, p. 137) underline the
role that these institutions can and should play in the study programs that
society or other institutions require.
Universities are the most autonomous educational institutions in Albania, which

is why they are uniquely positioned to develop contemporary curricula based on
Western models to prepare effective future leaders. These institutions have
expressed their willingness to assume responsibility for conducting continuing
education training for current school leaders and teachers and have provided
accredited training sessions from 2011 onwards. They also have a legal
obligation to study the market professionally and create new study programs
that meet market needs.
Offering degrees in management and administration in the field of education

will promote the conception of school leadership as a profession and will
encourage future leaders to become successful school leaders by providing them
with theoretical knowledge and equipping them with practical competencies.
University graduates will also demonstrate effective leadership skills by

establishing mechanisms to prevent the political instrumentalism of their
responsibilities and the communities they lead. In addition to their specialization
in education, graduates of management and administration will have greater
opportunities for sustainable career development and will be more likely to
avoid moves and reappointments after a change in government.
162
6. Conclusions
The methods used in the development of school leaders during the past 30 years
have not given satisfactory results. This is partly because the model of the
communist political leader is still influential in Albanian school leadership
culture.
In particular, the political nature of the appointment, dismissal, and movement

of principals, their inefficient training, and the lack of job specifications requiring
an appropriate degree demonstrate the influence of the old philosophy on school
leadership culture.
In post-communist countries, the autocratic use of power reduces efficiency and

does not allow schools to function as institutions that uphold democratic and
meritocratic values and shape citizens who actively participate in decision-
making. Instead, schools are encouraged to train individuals who approve of
every behavior and decision others take.
School leadership development is essential to meet the various challenges that

society encounters nowadays, and new models of leadership are necessary to
respond to these needs.
The universities’ role should be evaluated in terms of school leadership

development and certifying the profession. Universities are the most
autonomous educational institutions in Albania, and they have the ability and
the willingness to provide leadership training sessions beyond the reach of
political influences.
7. Limitations and Further Research

Few Albanological studies on education leadership exist. The data provided by a
greater number of studies would have been of significant help to deepen and
verify the results of this study.
This study could pave the way for further qualitative research on culture and
leadership. Future studies could build on the results of this study by defining
desirable school principal traits based on the opinions and expectations of
teachers and students, who need security, motivation, and personal and
professional career development opportunities.
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Vol. 21, No. 5, pp. 166-181, May 2022
Applying Peer-Review Checklist to Improve

Vietnamese EFL University Students’ Writing
Skills
Le Thi Tuyet Hanh
Vinh University, Vietnam
Bui Thanh Tinh

Dong Thap University, Vietnam
Abstract. This study was an attempt to investigate the effect of peer-

review checklists on Vietnamese EFL students’ writing performance and
students’ feedback on the application of the peer-review checklist. The
quasi-experimental study was conducted with fifty-eight non-English
major students at a university in the Mekong Delta. The participants were
divided into an experimental group and a control group. A mixed-
methods intervention design was applied, in which data were collected
from a pre-test, a post-test and a focus-group interview. The results of the
triangulation analysis, which compared datasets from the instruments,
revealed that EFL students utilizing a peer-review checklist performed
better than did their peers in the control group. More specifically,
students in the experimental group had significant progress in terms of
task fulfilment and utilizing vocabulary. The results also indicated that
most students’ feedback on the use of the checklist was positively noticed.
Although the findings of the study are limited because of the small
sample, use of peer review checklists in writing classes is recommended
for EFL students in tertiary contexts with some suggested cautions.
Keywords: assessing writing; feedback; peer-review writing checklist;

writing skills; peer review
1. Introduction
Learning English has been a compulsory requirement for almost all university
students in Vietnam (Hung & Thuy, 2021). However, learning English with
non-English major groups has been challenging for a range of reasons (Phan,
2019). There is a marked discrepancy between what the students have learned
in high school and what they have to achieve at the tertiary level. The issue
seems more conspicuous in universities in the Mekong Delta region because
most students are from rural areas where English is not an emphasized subject
in learning and teaching, leading to the limitation of students’ English
©Authors
167
proficiency. Furthermore, as Chokwe (2013) indicated, under-resourced high

schools and poor family backgrounds negatively affect EFL students’ English
competency. Among four language skills, writing is considered the most
difficult for English learners (Grami, 2012) because it requires them to have
cognitive analysis and linguistic synthesis (Lamia, 2016). It takes time and
effort to revise not only in terms of grammar and syntax but also in
organization of ideas. Weigle (2011) claimed that writers have to spend a huge
amount of cognitive energy managing different types of information such as
writing about a specific topic and acceptable forms of texts. Therefore, several
problems arise in the process of teaching and learning writing skills. For
teachers, reading and giving feedback on all compositions every week seems
to be a big challenge. From the perspective of students, it is greatly
demotivating if teachers do not give any feedback on their written production
because they might try their best to prepare for such compositions. In this
regard, seeking out a measure to motivate and help non-English major
students to learn writing skills effectively is important. One method that has
been proved to be effective is the use of peer-review checklists (Azarnoosh,
2013; Reinholz, 2016; Topping, 2013). According to Harutyunyan and Poveda
(2011), peer review (hereafter PR) activities are also useful for helping students
to improve writing skills. These researchers also acknowledged that the
ultimate results of writing are radically different compared with the first draft
when PR was not employed. Students enjoy the process of applying PR
because they feel a sense of respecting others and being respected. During the
PR process, a checklist is one of the tools that can be used as guidelines for
learners to stay focused on the target outcomes of every task. Checklists are
helpful for reviewers in terms of organizing the assessment and identifying the
most significant issues (Ferretti, 2013). As a result, it is suitable for students
who often face difficulty in English writing to pinpoint requirements of writing
skills. These positive outcomes potentially tackle the problems regarding
students’ poor background knowledge and motivations in writing classes. In
this study, applying peer-review checklists is proposed to help non-major
students to improve their writing skills.
2.1. Review checklists used for peer review in writing class
Review checklists were designed and have won common acceptance in English
writing classes. Seow (2002) suggested using a checklist in the stage of
responding to writing. A list of questions was presented to have students
provide helpful suggestions and comments for writers, not just vague ideas.
The author also emphasized that checklists can act as an aid for group or pair
responding. In other words, students can respond to each other’s compositions
in pairs or in groups using a checklist.
Demirel and Enghinarlar (2007) used a pair of checklists in their study to see
the influence of guiding questions on the writing process by students. In their
study, the checklists were given to pairs as Checklist A and Checklist B, which
were designed differently. The two checklists contained space for editor
students to provide comments and suggestions. Key items of a written
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production were also presented in the checklists. In checklist A, six groups of

questions are presented in part 1 (Introduction) and part 5 (Supporting
sentences). There are around 4 questions for each part in Checklist B.
Therefore, these two checklists were quite messy with many details that may
have confused the students.
Honsa (2013) adapted a checklist used for essays from the coursebook for
English Course Level 5 by Oshima and Hogue (1997). Honsa divided the
checklist into two columns: (1) Questions, and (2) Answer and comments. In
the first column, parts of essays are presented in order of Introduction, Body,
Conclusion, Grammar and Mechanics, and Sentence structure. This checklist is
elaborate and informative because it goes through almost all of the important
parts of an essay. More importantly, the checklist provides blank spaces in
which reader students can place comments. It helps both writer and reader
students to recognize the problems easily and develop critical thinking.
Garofalo (2013) designed a very user-friendly and effective checklist. The
checklist was not separated into columns, but covered all the issues of writing
and also allowed editors to provide comments. Regarding the appearance of
the checklist, it was easier to leave spaces for each issue in comparison to those
by Honsa (2013) and Demirel & Enghinarlar (2007). More importantly, teachers
can add or remove items easily if there is a need for changing content issues.
Furthermore, students follow the issues individually. This checklist was used
in this study as a tool for processing the peer assessment of writing skills.
2.2. Peer review checklist-related studies

Demirel and Enginarlar (2007) emphasized the importance of peer feedback on
writing. They stated that peer feedback formed a sense of audience for
students, which encouraged them to write more authentically. The researchers
also utilized checklists as tools for peer activities. In particular, checklist A and
checklist B were assigned to two groups of students to compare the number of
details provided through checklists. The results revealed that Checklist B
revised by Figley and Witte (1981) made students generate more peer feedback
than did the preliminary checklist. In a separate study, Al-Hazmi and
Scholfield (2007) aimed to improve the writing literary in English of Saudi
university students as EFL students. The regime of the study was on the use of
a checklist by a group of two to three students for peer review in different
writing assignments in the class or homework. In the conclusion of the study,
in the drafting stage, there was a clear improvement in quality, especially in
mechanics, despite the number of changes or mistakes identified through the
peer review. However, there was only little improvement from the drafting
stage to the final stage.
Deni and Zainal (2011) implemented peer-editing checklists on advanced-level

students in a university-level writing program. The results from observation,
a ranking survey, and a short-answer questionnaire showed that peer-editing
checklists benefited students affectively, communicatively, and linguistically,
but the method had more positive outcomes for editor students than for writer
students. The researchers also stressed the importance of checklists in
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“maximizing the number of areas in which a student editor can be productive”

and in “minimizing the confusion that can arise in the peer-editing process”
(p. 155).
Garofalo (2013) implemented peer checklists in EFL writing classes in a

university. Fifty after-hours university students took part in the study. They
were all at an advanced level of English. The peer editing checklists were
employed in the process of editing each other’s essays by circling the focus
areas and providing suggestions and corrections. A short answer
questionnaire and a raking survey were used to gauge the value of the method.
The results revealed that peer editing checklists benefited students in three
aspects: (1) affectivity, communicative purposes, and linguistics. Moreover,
the researchers found that peer editing checklists benefited both writers and
editors.
Tai et al. (2015) conducted a study on the impacts of peer review and corrective
feedback of teachers on EFL students’ writing performance on an online
platform. The study was designed to compare the impacts of teacher feedback
and peer feedback on the English writing performance in an EFL class. The
combination of both teacher feedback and peer feedback resulted in more
improvement in the English writing class than only the implementation of
teacher feedback.
Yosepha and Supardi (2015) investigated whether a peer checklist was

effective in teaching letter writing. The researchers used a pre-experimental
research on 34 eleventh grade students. The results of the study indicated that
the peer checklist helped students to improve application letters, particularly
in terms of self-awareness of writing criteria. Tian and Zhou (2020) conducted a
study with five EFL students to examine their engagement with teacher feedback,
peer feedback, and automated feedback in the online setting over 17 weeks. A
naturalistic case-study approach using textual and interview data was employed
in the study. The findings showed that reciprocal and dynamic engagement with
different feedback greatly affected the process of making decisions in feedback
uptake by learners. However, their engagement with these sources of feedback in
the cycles of essay tasks was widely varied.
In summary, a number of studies have employed checklists to support the peer

review process in learning and teaching English writing. These studies proved
the positive effects of peer review using checklists on students’ writing skills.
However, the participants of these studies were English-major university
students or high school students. There were no studies whose participants
were non-English major university students. Therefore, this study is the first
attempt at conducting an experiment among non-English major university
students.
In Vietnam, a few studies have been conducted to investigate the impact of

peer review on students’ writing performance. Ho and Usaha (2009), however,
applied a blog platform in the world of Internet users (bloggers) in a real EFL
170
context. The participants were second-year English major students taking an

academic writing course at a Vietnamese university. The students were asked
to use blogs to post their compositions (essays) after having been trained in a
procedure of peer response. They then provided and received comments twice
from their peers on the first and the second drafts. The data collected were
from drafts, students’ comments, learning journals, and semistructured
interviews. The quantitative analysis indicated that the most common kinds of
comments created via the blog-based peer response were “clarification”,
“suggestion/advice”, “explanation”, and “alteration”. Additionally, the
comments influenced the quality of students’ writing based on the qualitative
and quantitative analyses. Importantly, most students showed positive
attitudes towards utilizing blog-based peer responses in the classroom. The
study emphasized a comparatively new form of technology that can be used
to improve EFL students to become better writers.
Nguyen (2016) used peer feedback practice in EFL writing classrooms in

Vietnam to stimulate EFL students’ metacognition, which included knowledge
of cognition and regulation of cognition. The researcher developed Yes/No
checklists for students to use as both feedback givers and feedback receivers,
and guidelines for jigsaw peer feedback. The findings indicated that peer
feedback practice was informally conducted in this specific context and
provides few opportunities for learners to improve their metacognition.
Moreover, participants expected to innovate peer feedback practice in writing
classes. Therefore, the jigsaw peer feedback approach was created to provide
the learners with opportunities to boost their metacognition in learning a
language and to engage in peer feedback practice.
More recently, Do (2020) measured the effect of scaffolded peer review training
on texts produced by students of French as a foreign language at a Vietnamese
university. An experiment was conducted during one semester with an
experimental class consisting of 20 freshmen under a peer-assisted condition
in comparison with a control class (also 20 freshmen) who produced texts
individually. A training programme using a systematic peer review approach
was conducted in the peer-assisted class with the modeling of teacher,
customized checklists for peer reviewing, and sheets for giving and receiving
feedback. Quantitative and qualitative analyses revealed that the peer-assisted
class made better progress than the producing-texts-individually class
regarding the total gain scores, ideas development, task completion,
coherence, and grammar.
The current body of literature review shows that previous research mainly
focused on English major students in their English writing. There are few
studies applying peer-review checklists to non-English major students who
study in rural areas, particularly in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam. This group
of students should be involved in this method for more generalized findings.
Moreover, most other studies used a qualitative approach (Ho & Usaha, 2009;
Nguyen, 2016) or experimental evaluation of a training program. This study
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used a mixed-method intervention design, which is believed to yield more

reliable and comprehensive results (Creswell, 2018).
3. Method
3.1. Research design
A mixed-method approach was used in this study, which was believed to
maximize the strength of both qualitative and quantitative research and
minimize their limitation (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). More specifically, this
research was closely to the mixed methods experimental design, in which
qualitative data from students’ composition and interviews were collected and
analysed after the experiment in order to “assess participants’ experiences with
the intervention” (Creswell & Creswell, 2018, p. 271). In other words, a quasi-
experiment research which focused on the pre-test and post-test design was
mainly employed to collect the data as the primary source for this study in
order to see levels of changes in students’ written production after
experimental manipulation, thereby examining the effectiveness of the method
applied in the experimental group. According to Nunan (1992), although
quasi-experiments and true experiments both include a pre-test and a post-
test, the assignment of participants is not random for the former. In contrast,
the assignment of participants is random in true experiments. The participants
in this study were chosen based on their levels. Therefore, the study was
designed as quasi-experiment. Following that, the compositions were analysed
to deepen the findings from the pre- and post-test scores, and then the
interviews were used to receive the participants’ feedback to understand the
results more completely. Figure 1 illustrates this research approach.
QUANTITATIVE Qualitative and

quantitative
(Pre-test and post- Interpretation
test scores) (Interviews) of the findings
Figure 1. The visual model of data collection procedure.
3.2. Participants
Fifty-eight non-English major students at a university in the Mekong Delta
participated in this study. They were studying different majors, including
information technology (IT), Vietnamese studies (VS), primary education
(PrE), maths pedagogy (MP), and chemistry pedagogy (CP). All students came
from rural areas.
At the time of conducting this study, the researchers were teaching four
English classes that were administrated by the university. All students were
asked to a take pre-test. The two classes who were chosen in this study had
similar scores. Moreover, the number of students in each class was equal (29
students). Therefore, they were purposefully chosen as participants in this
study. The participants were then labelled as control group, who did not
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engage in writing activities with peer review checklist, and experimental

group, who applied peer reviewing in their writing class. The participants
were from two classes where the researcher was the writing teacher. Therefore,
the time progress and the syllabus used for two groups were similar so as to
minimize the extrinsic factors influencing the results All 29 students in the
experimental group were later invited to take part in the follow-up interviews.
3.3. Study instruments

3.3.1. Pre-test
The pre-test of the study was about writing an email which was in accordance
with writing task 1 according to The Vietnamese Standardized Test of English
Proficiency (VSTEP). The aim of the test was to assess participants’ email-
writing skills, which is a part of the target writing that the participants were
studying. This test was adapted from Preliminary English Test (PET) 3 book
with answers (University of Cambridge, 2003). The topic of the test was
“travelling”. The participants were required to write an email in about 100
words to answer an email from an Australian friend who would like to visit
the writer’s country for a month.
3.3.2. Post-test
In the post-test, the participants were required to write an email related to the
topic of health in about 120 words to give advice to a pen friend. Specifically,
the participants were asked to provide advice about three aspects of being
healthy, namely eating habits, exercising, and maintaining good daily activity.
The test was adapted from the Preliminary English Test 2 book with answers
(University of Cambridge, 2003).
3.3.3. Focus-group interview

The focus-group interview was considered useful for gathering feedback from
participants in the experimental group. Each interview lasted around one hour for
2 groups of 10 people and one group of nine. The interview was semistructured
so that it was possible to control the purpose of the interviews and add follow-up
questions to explore the problems. The interview protocol emphasized students’
reflections on the impact of peer-review checklist on (1) their writing learning
process and (2) their writing products. To ensure that all students had
opportunities to contribute their opinions, each student were asked the same
questions. For each question in the interview protocol, follow-up questions were
asked to gain in-depth information and further reasons behind the responses of
the students.
3.3.4. Writing checklist

The checklist was designed to feature two main aspects. First, the format was
adapted from the checklist by Garofalo (2013). Second, the content of each item
in the checklist was closely based on VSTEP rubrics for scoring the letter or
email, in which each criterion (task fulfilment, organization, vocabulary, and
grammar) was rated on 10-point scale. The process of validating the checklist
used in this study followed these stages: (1) the checklist was designed based
on relevant theories as presented above; (2) the checklist was sent to two
experts in the field to be revised. At this stage, many fruitful comments were
173
provided. For example, one lecturer suggested that the checklist should
include all the criteria for scoring. Another lecturer helped to re-word several
phrases to assist students when using when using the checklist. Then, the
checklist was piloted with eight students who were studying the same
curriculum as the participants in this study.
3.4. Data collection procedures

The data of the study were collected in different stages through four
instruments during the spring semester of the academic year 2020-2021. First,
the participants in two classes were divided into a control group and an
experimental group. All participants were trained to use the peer-review
checklist in week 2 in accordance with the following steps.
Step 1: Students were paired and exchanged their compositions with each
other.
Step 2: The teacher explained the purposes of using checklists before delivering
checklists to students. At this stage, the teacher also explained each item
on the checklist to ensure that students understood the nature of the
checklist. Students’ questions were addressed at this stage.
Step 3: Students worked as editors. They had to go through each item on the
checklist and comment if needed.
Step 4: Two students compared their checklists in each item. If there were
disagreements, teacher decided on the correctness as a mediator.
Step 5: After checking through the checklist, students as writers set about
revision.
Step 6: Writers submitted their revised draft to the teacher in the following
step.
In the first step, students were not allowed to choose a partner because they
tended to choose to work with their close friends. Yosepha and Supardi (2015)
perceived that letting students freely choose partners made them more
comfortable and work more effectively. However, the participants in this study
were from different majors, so they joined the class with some of their friends.
If they had been allowed to pair freely, they would have had no opportunity
to learn from others in the class. The process of using peer-review checklists in
class also followed the steps above, but step 2 was omitted to avoid wasting
time.
The pre-test and post-test were delivered to students directly in classes. They
had 20 minutes to do the tests. The process of taking the tests was monitored
strictly to ensure that the students did not use tools to support or copy from
their peers. After taking the pre-test and post-test, the participants’
compositions were sent for evaluation to two lecturers who had more than 5
years teaching English, had accomplished their master’s degrees in Australia,
and had participated in training courses of VSTEP assessment and test design.
The lecturers were not informed of the identification of the control group and
experimental group’s products when they received the compositions.
Second, the focus-group interviews were administered among the

experimental group participants with a view to further understanding the
comprehensive reflections of participants on using peer-review checklists in
174
their writing class. The participants were randomly divided into three groups.
They were appointed to take the interview directly in the classroom. The
interviews were in Vietnamese to ensure a full collection of informative data.
Regarding the intervention between pre-test and post-test, the two groups
studied the same syllabus, which took them 10 weeks to complete. The process
writing approach according to Kuyyosuy (2019) was adopted to teach both
groups. The only difference was that the experimental group was involved
with peer-review checklists.
3.5. Data Analysis

The data from the pre-test and the post-test were analysed in two ways. First,
SPSS 20.0 was used to compare the pre-test and the post-test scores which had
been evaluated by two experienced lecturers. Second, students’ compositions
were qualitatively analysed to clarify the quantitative data in the first phrase.
While quantitative data were analyzed by computing the mean scores
(frequencies) and sig. value, qualitative data from the interviews were
analyzed by categorizing the raw data, which were participants’ answers, in
each question from the focus-group interviews. Since participants’ answers
varied, they were organized by grouping key items to identify the
consistencies and differences.
4. Results
4.1. Impacts of peer review writing checklist on EFL university students’
writing scores
As can be seen in Table 1, in the post-testing, the mean score for experimental
group (6.36) was much higher than that for control group, with 7.034.
Table 1: Mean scores of the pre-test and the post-test.

Std. Error
Mean N Std. Deviation
Mean
Control the pre-test 4.9667 29 1.53 .28
group the post-test 6.3667 29 1.04 .19
Experimenta the pre-test 5.1897 29 1.05 .19
l group the post-test 7.0345 29 .66 .12
In order to determine whether these differences are significant, overall

comparisons were computed using a paired-samples t-test. The results are
presented in Table 2.
Table 2: A paired sample T-test score.

Paired Differences Sig.
(2-tailed)
Mean Std. Std. 95% Confidence Interval
Deviation Error of the Difference
Lower Upper
The Control-
-.24138 1.72 .320 -.89867 .41591 .458
pre-tests experimental groups
The Control–
-.77241 1.10 .20 -1.09242 -.25241 .003
post-test experimental groups
175
There was no significant difference between two pre-test scores (p=.458), but a
statistically significant difference between the scores of two post-test scores
(p=.003), indicating that the students who experienced learning writing with peer-
review checklists performed better than students in the control group.
To have more details from the pre-test and post-test comparison in both control
and experimental groups, students’ writings were rated according to four
different criteria: organization, task fulfillment, vocabulary and grammar. The
scores were then analyzed by using a one-way ANOVA. The results are shown in
Table 3.
Table 3: The post-test scores of four writing elements.
Std.
Group Mean N Sig. (2-tailed)
Criteria Deviation
Organization Control group 1.90 29 .36
.149
Experimental group 2.00 29 .23
Task Control group 1.85 29 .37
.036
Fulfillment Experimental group 2.03 29 .18
Vocabulary Control group 1.31 29 .30
.000
Grammar Control group 1.28 29 .29
.070
The quantitative results can be further clarified by analyzing details of the

compositions and from the interviews. In pretest, the mean scores participants in
both groups registered just around 1.5 (about 6 in 10-point scale), which can be
attributed to their lack of supporting points. Particularly, Student 3 in control
group only answered the first question as “you should go Vung tau” for the first
question, and “you can eat seafood”. The answer was too short to satisfy the
demands of the task. Similarly, SC 16 answered that “you should go to Dalat”,
and “you can see flowers beautiful” for the first and second question, respectively.
As opposed to the result from these students, 16 out of 59 participants (7 for
control group and 9 for experimental group) achieved 1.75 (equivalent to 7 in
VSTEP 10-point scale). Likewise, three and four participants in control group and
experimental group attained 2 (8 in 10-point scale) in terms of responding to the
request of the task.
In the posttest, the mean score of experimental group is higher than that of the
control group. This can be construed by how students provided supporting points
in their writing products. To be specific, 28 out of 29 participants in the
experimental group answered the questions in the posttest with good supporting
details. In comparison to students in the control group, students in the
experimental group showed a better performance in terms of fulfilling the task.
All the scores recorded were from 1.75 to 2.25 (from 7 to 8.5 out of 10). The
participants gave answers for each question in the topic clearly with supporting
details, although some supporting details were not very effective. Below is a part
of the answer by SE7 in the posttest
…Firstly, I think you should eat a lot of fruits and vegetables such as
tomato, water melon and orange because it contain a lot of vitamin. For
example, vitamin A in carrot, it’s necessary for your health. Secondly,
176
you should often do exercise, such as: play badminton, play volleyball…
finally, I think you should read book or listen to music daily. You can go
to the library in the school or go to the coffee shop, it helps you relax after
studying hard at school and helps you to improve knowledge.
It can be seen that there is a number of mistakes in the answer. However, in terms
of task fulfillment, the writer made considerable effort to explain the answer.
Regarding the significant improvement of lexical resources, in pretest, the scores
of control group and experimental group ranged from 0.25 to 1.75, and the mean
scores were 0.98 and 1.1, respectively. The scores are equivalent to band 4 to 5
according to the scoring scale in VSTEP scale and using wrong words was only
one of the problems leading to the low scores in the pretest. For example, SE6
wrote “it helps you strong as buffalo”. This problem is rooted from the
participant’s mother tongue which usually compares a strong person to a buffalo.
Another instance is from SC3, he used “country food” referring to perhaps “local
food” or “typical food in the countryside”. The other factors contributed to poor
results in terms of using vocabulary were that participants used a very limited
range of vocabulary and made spelling mistakes. In the post-test, the mean scores
for two group increased by 0.4, which means that there was an improvement in
both groups. It is worth pointing out that the score range of experimental group
was relatively equal. 15 out of 29 participants attained 1.75 (score 7 equivalently)
and one achieved 2 in terms of using vocabulary. Participant SE20 used simple
but effective phrases which were specific about the topic in post-test. Spelling
mistakes were rarely detected in this group. The control group also performed
better in the post-test, but there was no one achieving band score 2.
4.3. Students’ feedback on the application of peer review checklist on writing

performance
The second purpose of the semistructured interviews was to gain participants’
feedback about the intervention. The data were analyzed and grouped into two
categories: students’ perceptions of the impact of peer-review checklist on their
writing performance and students’ perceptions of the application of peer-review
checklist on writing class. The results are summarized in Figure 2.
N=29
Interpret the marking
criteria N=6 Be embarrassed
N=2 Positive
3
with very good
perceptions students
Develop critical thinking in
writing
N=22 N=7 Feel uncertain about
Negative
Identify mistakes more perceptions peers’ suggestions
easily N=17
Be affected
N=12 negatively by close
Learn good ideas from
peer relationship
peers’ compositions
Figure 2. Feedback on the impact of peer review checklist on their writing performance.
177
The majority of the participants expressed good perceptions of the effects of peer-
review checklist on writing performance. The frequency summarized in Figure 2
shows that all interviewees agreed that the peer–review checklist helped them to
be aware of different criteria in assessing a writing product. In addition to these
positive perceptions, ST3 and ST4 said that they liked the items presented in the
checklist the most because it helped them grasp how the writing products were
evaluated. ST4 emphasized that:
By deeply understanding scoring criteria, we would surely perform better
in writing. I felt much more confident in the classroom. It does mean that
I am good, but I know what to write
Additionally, 79.3% (N=23) students reported that their critical thinking skills
were developed from receiving other’s feedback. Identifying mistakes from peer
feedback was reported as another advantage with 75.9% (N=22) of positive
responses on the beneficial impacts of peer-review checklist on helping students
identify mistakes, much higher than 24.1% (N=7) of participants who disagreed
or were undecided on this idea. Furthermore, 41.4% of respondents perceived that
peer-review checklists created opportunities to learn from other compositions,
whereas 58.6% (N=17) disagreed with this statement. This finding was then
clarified by the follow-up question, those interviewees believed that not all of their
classmates could evaluate their English compositions appropriately because their
reviewers’ English proficiency was too limited. Considering the last question in
the interview protocol, the interviewees were asked about their suggestions for
better applying peer-review checklists. There was a discrepancy between
students’ perceptions of pairing students when peer reviewing. More specifically,
one half suggested struggling and outstanding students should be matched with
each other so that the former could be of assistance and learn from the latter, but
the other half had the opposite opinion. More interestingly, some students
preferred working with new friends to working with their close friends as the
former could help to avoid lack of concentration and joking time during the peer-
reviewing process. Instead students reviewed each other’s writing more seriously
with the checklist, which was also an essential factor influencing the effectiveness
of peer reviewing.
5. Discussion
This study aimed to investigate the impact of a peer-review writing checklist on
Vietnamese EFL university students’ writing skills and perceptions. Regarding
the impacts, in comparison to the result of posttest, the mean scores for the
experimental group were higher than for control group, indicating that the peer-
review checklist had a positive influence on students’ writing performance. The
interviews confirmed this finding to the extent that this assessment tool helped (1)
clarify the criteria that are needed in writing an email; (2) recognize mistakes from
others’ products; (3) learn from others, and (4) develop critical thinking skills in
writing. Several factors in this study were reported in previous studies (Babaii &
Adeh, 2019; Do, 2020; Ganji, 2009; Joh, 2021; Nguyen (2016); Yosepha & Supardi,
2015). This results of this study partly confirm previous research by Al-Hazmi
and Scholfield (2007) and Deni and Zainal (2011) who showed the positive
outcomes of peer-review on authenticity as well as collaboration among students
178
for writing feedback which was embedded to improve students’ assignments.

One pedagogical implication is that EFL teachers should take the application of
peer-review checklist into consideration when teaching English writing in EFL
contexts to maximize its benefits.
This study went a step further in analyzing the four criteria commonly used to
assess writing performance, namely organization, task fulfillment, vocabulary,
and grammar in students’ compositions. The checklist was associated with
significant improvement in task fulfillment and vocabulary. This can be explained
through the analysis of the qualitative data, which showed that the checklist made
students aware of the supporting details in their writing and that they can learn a
number of new words from their classmates’ writing products. This finding is in
line with Garofalo (2013) and Tai et al. (2015), and it challenges the findings from
Joh (2021) that, as previously discussed, peer feedback often primarily focused on
grammar and vocabulary, and the feedback on the discourse level was rarely
incorporated into the revised drafts due to reportedly limited time, which was
actually due to the limited attention paid by the participants. This study found a
significant improvement on task fulfillment in the experimental group’s writing
products. The checklist applied in this study focused on the ideas and supporting
details of the writing, which led to the students’ development in this criterion after
the treatment. One suggestion to the designers as well as teachers is that the
checklist must be created according to the criteria students need to improve in
their writing skills.
According to results from the interviews, the effectiveness might be confirmed if

it is widely disseminated and students are carefully trained in use of the checklist.
It will be of help to teachers' assessment and students in teaching English writing
in schools. This finding is in line with that of Do (2020), Min (2006), and Soares
(2007). Moreover, the majority of the participants expressed a strong agreement
on reviewing each other’s English compositions, a process they felt could benefit
them in many ways such as reducing grammatical mistakes, learning more about
the use of words, and enriching their ideas. This finding is similar to Adeh (2019),
Do (2020), Ganji (2009), Joh (2021), Nguyen (2016), and Yosepha and Supardi
(2015).
The study also indicated that a number of students were not enthused by use of
the peer-review checklist as it did not improve their writing due to the lack of
their classmates’ expertise. This is in line with Adachi et al. (2017), Chang et al.
(2011), Rasha (2021), and Topping (2013). The finding is useful for the teachers
themselves to modify the peer-review process to ensure the equal effectiveness
among all students in the classroom. In fact, this type of mixed-level class
resulted in many difficulties for the teaching process. This indicates that
students’ English levels and desires should be taken into account in the pairing
process. In addition, for a more objective judgment, students’ relationships, as
suggested in students’ interview responses, need to be taken into account. In
particular, students with close relationship should not be put together to avoid
the bias in the reviewing process.
179
6. Conclusion
This study examined the effects of using peer-review checklists in EFL writing
classes over a course of 10 weeks. The findings revealed that students who used
checklists throughout the course performed better than did those who studied
English writing without using checklists. Among the criteria, task fulfilment and
vocabulary were the two aspects in which students showed the most
improvement. Both the quantitative and qualitative data revealed that students
became more aware of adding supporting points whenever they wrote. Also, the
process of using checklists for peer reviewing helped to reduce the number of
spelling mistakes and created opportunities for students to receive feedback and
suggestions about using words from others.
The analysis have several pedagogical implications. First, the target students in
this study were non-English majors in a small university. They were evaluated to
be quite challenging in terms of learning English. However, they perceived that
they were highly motivated if there were interactions in the writing classroom.
Therefore, it is recommended, as well as once again confirming that, in English
language teaching, the interaction is significant to motivate learners, even
struggling students. Despite some limitations related to the small sample size, this
research has contributed to the related literature and has some pedagogical
implications for language teachers and learners, language syllabus designers and
educators, and researchers who are interested in the field.
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Vol. 21, No. 5, pp. 182-203, May 2022
Social Media for Teaching and Learning: A

Technology Acceptance Model Analysis of
Preservice Teachers’ Perceptions During the
COVID-19 Pandemic
John Mangundu*
Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
Abstract. The Covid-19 pandemic has resulted in the adoption of

lockdowns, social distancing, and quarantines as measures to contain the
spread of the coronavirus, forcing education spaces in both developed
and developing economies to suddenly shift towards adoption of
emergency online teaching and learning. However, developing
economies were lagging in the migration to online teaching and learning
strategies due to incapacity and lack of resources such as formal learning
management systems (LMS) that support the migration. Social media use
has been identified as an alternative given the sharp rise in social media
(SM) presence and activities around the world by individuals of different
age, regardless of economic status, during the lockdowns. A few studies
have been conducted on the perceptions of SM use by preservice teachers
in a developing country context. Through the technology acceptance
model (TAM), this study applied a mixed methods approach to examine
perceptions of preservice teachers on SM use in teaching during the
practice periods. Results revealed that preservice teachers perceived SM
platforms as mainly for social purposes rather than educational purposes,
despite their high usage of WhatsApp and YouTube. The study
recommends initiatives to change preservice teachers’ mindset as part of
teachers’ professional development to get them to appreciate the
usefulness of SM platforms in education contexts.
Keywords: preservice teachers’ perceptions; social media adoption;

teaching and learning; secondary schools
1. Introduction
Rapid increase in social media (SM) use has been noticed around the world amid
the Covid-19 pandemic (Haman, 2020). SM has been useful in communicating
rapid real-time messages during natural disasters, riots, entertainment updates
and any instances where information must reach a wider audience quickly and
*
Corresponding author: John Mangundu, jmangundu2009@gmail.com
©Author
183
widely (Saroj & Pal, 2020). Accordingly, SM played an instrumental role in

dissemination of information and general social interactions during Covid-19
pandemic lockdowns. Many to almost all secondary and high schools around the
world were closed during the Covid-19 pandemics (Sangster et al., 2020; Laato et
al., 2020) as part of measures to contain the spread of the virus (Zhang et al., 2020).
According to UNESCO close to about 94% of the world’s students were left out of
the learning environments. Schools in developed countries managed to respond
timely to the crisis brought by on by Covid-19 by switching to online teaching and
learning. As a result, learners were not inconvenienced from learning (UNESCO,
2020). In contrast, most schools in developing economies such as South Africa
could not respond timely to the inconveniences brought by the Covid-19
pandemic and divert to online teaching and learning. The South African minister
of basic education could not provide clear opening dates for schools after
lockdowns. Teaching and learning planning and calendars were greatly affected,
and in most instances learners and schools were unable to cover the curriculum
content. The inability to switch to online teaching and learning was mainly driven
by the lack of ICT infrastructure, internet connectivity, unaffordability of data
costs, and ICT-pedagogical integration skills among others (Ismail et al., 2020).
SM is mostly used for entertainment, social interactions, with some professional

uses (Whiting & Williams, 2013). However, SM also affords active exchange of
knowledge in many learning spaces (Voivonta & Avraamidou, 2018). SM enables
preservice teachers and learners to communicate through various internet-based
applications while observing social distancing regulations (Vordos et al., 2020).
The rapid growth of young people’s enthusiasm and presence on SM seems to
provide a new dawn on teaching and learning processes. SM is regarded as an
easy convenient communication media between facilitators and learners in the
education sector. Despite the general challenges for online presence in the context
of developing countries and that SM has not been officially formalised as a
teaching and learning platform, most teachers and learners in developing
economies like South Africa afford devices and connectivity data for SM presence.
Literature supports that SM enables learning in the social interaction spaces,
enabling teachers to design curricula that meet learners’ demands, presented on
platforms that learners are already acquainted with. SM use for teaching and
learning during lockdowns had great potential in advancing learning. Literature
also supports that SM effectively supports learners’ engagement, continuous
teacher professional development and development of life-long learners (Beemt
et al., 2019; Anasi, 2018). SM for teaching and learning stimulates learners to
technologically advance their learning process while at the same time promoting
preservice teachers’ ICT-pedagogical integration skills. As such, SM teaching and
learning should be a suitable instructional tool amid the Covid-19 pandemic as
alluded to by Fedock et al. (2019).
Social media has been contended to be indefinable (Tess, 2013). However, Kaplan
& Haenlein (2010) define SM as relating to internet applications that provide
creation and exchange of user-generated content that necessitate a certain extent
of self-disclosure that permits for a certain level of social presence. Literature on
SM and education highlights pedagogical application of precise applications such
184
as Facebook (Yang et al., 2011) or Twitter (Aydin, 2014) for teaching and learning
and examination of learning outcomes. Despite some researchers pointing out
that SM is never intended for pedagogical integration and use (Bruneel et al.,
2013), other researchers view this as a good starting point to discuss the possibility
of SM pedagogical integration (Taylor et al., 2012). The increasing popularity of
SM in teaching and learning results in it being crucial for teachers and learners to
comprehend and espouse SM sites to launch ways of positioning study materials
on technology-enhanced platforms (Bai et al., 2021).
While expectations remain high in some areas such as higher education, literature
demonstrates that SM has little to no attention in the context of preservice teachers
and secondary education teaching and learning processes. The unique
educational potential of SM to increase participation and inclusion is yet to be
discovered. Little is revealed about preservice teachers’ perceptions about SM use
in the classroom. These perceptions are critical for understanding the use of SM,
because behaviour arguably reflects underlying understandings of the media as
platforms of communication (Orlikowski & Gash, 1994). Non-realisation of the
educational benefits of SM could be grounded in different perceptions by
preservice teachers. If SM is to become an important platform for educational
purposes from now going to the future, preservice teachers must recognise SM as
such a platform. If ever SM is going to be an important educational tool between
teachers and learners, both need to perceive media as a useful, educational
communication tool.
Through empirical observation, it is apparent that there exists little to no use of

SM for educational purposes by preservice teachers in South Africa. This has been
evidenced by the request for preservice teachers to be present in schools during
their teaching practicum periods, on a rotation basis. In difficult situations such
as pandemics that require physical distancing, SM use could serve as the best
educational platform for advancing teaching and learning. SM use could be
argued to be most relevant in the context of South Africa, a developing country
that is characterised by poor ICT infrastructure in schools, network connectivity
problems, high data costs, and unaffordability of formal learning management
systems by secondary schools. Observed little to no use of SM by preservice
teachers could be better understood by understanding their perceptions and
concerns. This is in line with propositions by Beemt et al. (2019), that it is the
understanding of preservice teachers’ perceptions that could make SM integration
in teaching and learning possible. Importantly, unpacking preservice teachers’
perceptions of SM for teaching and learning during the Covid-19 pandemic
induced school closures becomes critical to potentially address the shortcomings.
The study seeks to assess preservice teachers’ perceptions towards SM integration
and use in teaching and learning amidst the Covid-19 pandemic and lockdowns.
2. Method and Material

Informed by the pragmatism research philosophy (Kaushik & Walsh, 2019), the
study followed an exploratory mixed methods approach (Creswell, 2017),
comprising of two data collection and analysis phases.
185
2.1 Qualitative data collection

Firstly, the qualitative phase mainly comprised of collecting data in the form of
30-minute interviews, conveniently sampling 20 preservice teachers interviewed
during students’ work integrated learning assessment visits. Interviews were
either conducted face to face and recorded or on the cell phone to maintain social
distancing. However, most of the interviews were contacted by use of WhatsApp
to comply with Covid-19 social distancing protocols. Interviews stopped when
data saturation was reached, where preservice teachers would repeat previously
raised SM perceptions and challenges, leading to a total of 20 recorded and
analysed semi-structured interviews.
2.2 Qualitative data analysis

Audio interview recordings were transcribed and analysed for emerging themes
through classifications and patterns that related to the data (Cohen et al., 2017).
The coding process was conducted in a reproductive manner, that is, there was
constant forth and back undertaking between the research data and the research
framework. The themes were inductively and deductively generated through
categorisation of the data through codes, ensuring that themes are tied to the data.
Themes were subsequently populated on the survey questionnaire for the
quantitative phase. In addition, the qualitative phase enabled the researchers to
gather potential survey questionnaire respondents’ WhatsApp numbers and
email addresses. In addition, the snowball research technique was applied to
gather more questionnaire respondents’ details for the second phase.
2.3 Survey Questionnaire

Subsequent quantitative data in the second phase was collected by use of an
online survey questionnaire Taherdoost (2016), which was developed on
SurveyMonkey, an online research data collection platform. The survey
questionnaire comprised of section A with question items covering respondents’
demographics, and section B comprised of a five-point Likert scale based on
question items (Adelson et al., 2010) on the frequency of using SM, and
agreements on respondents’ perceptions of SM in teaching and learning.
2.4 Survey Population

A database of 515 preservice teachers was populated with the assistance of work
integrated learning (WIL) placement coordinators from teacher training
institutions in Pietermaritzburg. As such, the study was based on a population of
515 preservice teachers.
2.5 Sampling procedure and sample size

Through Krejcie & Morgan’s (1970) sample determination table, a sample of 300
preservice teachers (Confidence Level = 95%, Margin of Error = 3.5%) was drawn
from the population and deemed statistically significant for the study.
Resultantly, survey links targeting 300 randomly sampled preservice teachers
were sent to the email addresses and WhatsApp numbers of preservice teachers
in Pietermaritzburg urban and rural schools. Quantitative data was collected over
a period of six months and 250 completed, valid responses were collected for
analysis.
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2.6 Ethical considerations

Prior to data collection, research approval was granted by the research ethics
committee of the institution. Participation in the study was voluntary and
participants were free to withdraw from the study at any given time with no need
to provide motivation. Furthermore, informed consent was granted by
participants prior to the interview process and questionnaire completion.
2.7 Survey data analysis

Quantitative data was analysed by use of SPSS for different statistical operations.
Descriptive statistics including frequencies and, where applicable, mean and
standard deviations were represented in tables or graphs. A chi-square test of
independence was used on cross-tabulations to see whether a significant
relationship exists between the two variables represented in the cross-tabulation.
When conditions were not met Fisher’s exact test was used. In addition, one
sample t-test was included to test whether a mean score was significantly different
from a scalar value. Lastly, independent samples t-test to compare two
independent groups of cases.
3. The Research Framework

SM adoption for teaching and learning is related to technology adoption in this
study. Several technology adoptions models have been proposed in literature,
including the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) by Rogers (1989), which has
been widely used in studies on users’ acceptance of new technological
innovations. The TAM mainly focuses on perceived usefulness and perceived ease
of use of technological innovation, which in turn directly influence the users’
willingness to use such innovations. According to the TAM, external variables
influence individual internal perceptions that in turn influence the behavioural
intentions to use a given technological innovation. Aside from the TAM,
Venkatesh et.al. (2003) proposed the UTAUT model that unpacks individuals’
acceptance of a technological innovation and their intention for its use. This study
employs the original TAM model and borrows the constructs that mainly focus
on perceptions and are fused with themes on perceptions that arose from the
qualitative phase. As a result, the constructs for interrogation in the quantitative
phase included perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, perceived learner
collaboration, perceived learner active engagement, and perceived enjoyment.
Perceived ease of use in the context of the current study pertains to the extent to
which preservice teachers believe that the use of SM in teaching and learning
would be effortless. As such, their perceived ease of use goes on to influence their
perceived usefulness, which denotes the degree to which preservice teachers
believe using SM for teaching and learning would enhance their teaching
experience and performance (i.e., improved comprehension of concepts by
learners, sustained pass rates). In addition, the current study focused on perceived
enjoyment in the use of SM as an innovation. Perceived enjoyment relates to the
degree to which using a technological innovation is viewed as fun (Venkatesh,
2000; Lee et al., 2019), and has an influence on the intention to use, perceived ease
of use and perceived usefulness (Park et al., 2014; El Shamy & Hassanein, 2017).
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The constructs were supported by the qualitative results and are discussed below.
4. Qualitative preservice teachers’ perceptions

Preservice teachers expressed different perceptions regarding use of social media
for teaching and learning. Some preservice teachers demonstrated some form of
aversion towards utilisation of SM platforms for teaching and learning. On the
other hand, some expressed usefulness of SM on their content delivery. The main
reason that emerged is the absence of real social distancing in the use of social
media. Below are some of the mixed perceptions regarding SM from the study
interviewees. Identification of the interviewed preservice teachers is represented
as PST 1, PST 2, PST etc. for anonymity purposes.
“Learners can be disrespectful on the SM platform and hence I would not
venture into mixing myself with learners in their turf. I cannot share my
cell phone number with learners, they can then communicate with you
during unholy times, so I rather keep my distance”, (PST 1).
The main social media platform that preservice teachers suggested that has near
universal access for the secondary school learners was WhatsApp. WhatsApp had
more accessibility when compared with other learning platforms such as Apollo
that were adopted post the Covid-19 pandemic due to data and connectivity
needs. This platform has a near universal presence as illustrated by one of the
respondents:
“WhatsApp can be useful in teaching and learning. In as much as we
adopted Apollo as a learning platform (Learning management system),
the upload of material had to be restricted to heads of departments or
subject heads. A lot of training needed to be done by the schools to the
school leadership as Apollo was new. However, everyone uses WhatsApp
with a few extreme exceptions who cite religious reasons for not using
WhatsApp”, (PST 2).
Another argued:
“WhatsApp has the advantage of being able to share media including
handouts in the form of documents which can be shared in portable
document format, or in the Microsoft suite which include words and
PowerPoint slides. In other words, during the pandemic initial period, I
had to share with my students via WhatsApp all the learning material”,
(PST 3).
The participant at an urban school suggested that WhatsApp was used as a

platform to share further study material where the handouts would be shared.
After submissions by the learners the answers were again shared on the
WhatsApp platform, so learners could then learn the skill of self-assessment. In
fact, answers were sent to individual learners who would have submitted the
work. Here is their statement:
“I submit problems on the SM platform then only sent answers to the
students who would have returned work showing that they were
working”, (PST 4).
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Another demonstrated the unhappiness with social media use due to the ways in
which the learners wrote responses on the different platforms and the effects of
this on social distance.
“On SM, learners tend to use unhelpful shorthand which they generally
understand. I therefore avoid such a platform because the learners have
become so used to their shorthand that they would not appreciate my
presence. Such shorthand as [lol] or [kkkkk] and some emoticons that may
not be in line with my expectation generally reduce that social distance I
believe should be maintained between the learners and their educator”,
(PST 5).
The other educator expressed the need for social distance: -

“To me it’s not professional to chat with students on social media, a
learner can’t be my friend on Facebook if they need to communicate with
me, they will rather do that via WhatsApp of make a regular call. But
Facebook and Instagram for me I just don’t think its professional, learners
might cross the line and think I am one of their friends besides I need to
maintain my privacy especially from these young one”, (PST 6).
One preservice teacher had different opinions: -

“I feel that SM would improve preservice teachers and learners’
relationship, personally I do not have a problem with communicating with
learners using certain tools of social media, but Facebook imposes
problems of privacy. It would be great and easier if as teachers we manage
to interact with and teach learners on social media, besides most of these
young ones are already present on most social media platforms. However,
I am worried if we would be able to control learners on these platforms.
Some learners are too forward and can send you private messages which
have nothing to do with learning”, (PST 7).
“I don’t know if any of my students are on Facebook of any other social

media platforms, it just feels weird to be friends with my students on such
socializing platforms. I can only connect there with my family and friends
not students, there must be that boundary”, (PST 8).
“With my students I have tried WhatsApp to communicate give them

assignments and do group discussions. But it didn’t go well, so now when
I think of Facebook, Instagram, and other platforms I feel it will be worse,
it’s hard to monitor and control learners on these platforms. Some divert
from learning and concentrate on disturbing things; I have received so
many complains so far from other learners accusing other learners of
sharing explicit and unwelcome content on WhatsApp. So, for me it’s a
no no!!”, (PST 9).
One of the preservice teachers expressed that: -

“I have been using WhatsApp to communicate with students and
everything was going well. I involved parents so that they monitor the
learners’ activities from home. You know learners can easily get distracted
and focus on other useless things. So, parents made it easier for me, and
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in most instances, I would prefer using parents WhatsApp details for

monitoring and control”, (PST 10).
“Social media has enabled me to share my own recorded videos delivering

content and share to learners during lockdowns. I would post the videos
o]in the class WhatsApp groups and ask students to watch and summarise
what’s standing out from the videos. It has been phenomenal, it worked
well for me. Although had instances where some learners did not have
data timeously, that became a challenge”, (PST 11).
“Social media teaching and learning cannot work for us. We had private
companies that came in and donated tablets to our school for learners to
use. All the devices were stolen, the communities around don’t value such
initiatives. We have also numerous incidences where learners got mugged
and their cell phones were stolen. In such instances how would someone
expect us to use social media for teaching and learning? We just wait for
directives from the department to go back to classrooms and do face to face
lessons that’s the only way that can work. I strongly feel social media
won’t work for us, maybe it works for privileged schools with high
security”, (PST 12).
“Platforms such as YouTube really helped me to share practical content

with my learners. For example, I teach biology, and those numerous
videos on such platforms helped my students to visualise things they
wouldn’t without it. remember our science labs have been vandalized and
there is absolutely nothing to show learners as we try to engage in
practicals”, (PST 13).
“Our learners travel long distances to come to and from school here in the
rural areas. Obviously despite all these problems caused Covid 19, if we
had gadgets simple as smart phone, network signals and the data, we
would be happy to use social media for teaching our learners. We would
easily give them assignments, supplement our content with media such
as videos, audio, and even online PowerPoint slides”, (PST 14).
From analysed qualitative data, it is evident that preservice teachers have mixed
perceptions of social media for teaching and learning. Some expressed perceived
usefulness and importance whilst others perceived social media use for teaching
and learning to be problematic. Interestingly, a trend emerged where urban based
preservice teachers generally cited the negative side of SM platforms whilst rural
based preservice teachers mostly cited challenges of SM use in teaching and
learning rather than perceptions. Context related perceptions emerged, differing
between rural and urban preservice teachers. Most rural based preservice teachers
believed SM could be useful in overcoming Covid-19 teaching and learning
challenges. However, they cited challenges associated with rural poverty and
unavailability of gadgets, let alone the WhatsApp connectivity data. Preservice
teachers in these contexts could not fathom the use of SM; they simply waited for
the turns of the announcements by the minister of education regarding pupils’
return to school. They cited absence of devices and the availability of the data
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while they may have appreciated the affordances of technology. They further
cited the challenge of digital literacy wherein Covid-19 meant everyone was
supposed to shift their mindset as well as ability to use gadgets, namely laptops
and cellular phones, for learning and teaching. This was almost an impossibility
given a number of learners staying with grandparents, where the most computer
literate household member would be the grade 11 learner or grade 8 learner who
has not been afforded access to the cellular phone.
Despite a few preservice teachers having made initiatives to communicate with

learners, these have been personal efforts, with no SM policies, procedures or
guidelines from the education authorities. Interviewees alluded to the need to
provide proper policies and guidelines in line with the ethos of netiquette which
will guide interactions on social media. They found SM to have potential which
can, and has been, leveraged by other learning platforms where they were able to
learn and cover the Covid-19 curriculum as well as engage in revisions for the
2020 National Senior examinations. The inconclusive results from the qualitative
phase were necessitated for the quantitative data collection and analysis phase.
Themes arising from the qualitative phase were incorporated in the survey
questionnaire. In addition, the quantitative phase was guided by Technology
Acceptance Model (TAM). The section below discusses the TAM and how it is
applied in the study.
5. Quantitative Data Interpretation and Results

5.1 Research construct validity
From a pilot study with 25 respondents who used SM for more than an hour per
day, a Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.7 is revealed for each construct. As shown in
Table 1, a value of 0.7 and higher provided a valid statistical basis for a wider
survey in accordance with Fernandes (2012). In that regard, modifications
informed by the feedback were implemented on the instrument for the formal
wider survey.
Table 1: Construct Validity
Constructs Items Loadings MSV Cronbach’s
Alpha
Perceived PLE1 .881 0.192 .834
learners’ PLE2 .812
engaged PLE3 .846
learning PLE4 .824
Perceived PLC1 .785 .340 .782
learners’ PLC2 .706
collaborative PLC3 .810
learning
Perceived PU1 .768 .280 .766
usefulness PU2 .796
PU3 .773
Perceived ease PEU1 .813 .345 .804
of use PEU2 .798
PEU3 .780
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PEU4 .809
Perceived PE1 .785 .230 .779
enjoyment PE2 .774
PE3 .876
SM Adoption SMA1 .858 .218 .848
SMA2 .872
SMA3 .892
Model fit indices Χ / df = 2.221 (p<.001); IFI = .950; CFI =
2
.940; TLI = .932; RMSEA = .066
5.2 Study Survey

The qualitative phase of the study provided different useful insights regarding
how preservice teachers perceived the use of SM in teaching and learning. The
quantitative phase of the study applied the findings to a wider context in the form
of a closed online questionnaire to collect data from 250 preservice teachers
around Pietermaritzburg urban and rural schools. The revised questionnaire was
loaded on SurveyMonkey, an online research data collection tool. Survey links
were sent to preservice teachers’ email addresses and WhatsApp numbers. Instant
alerts would report all completed survey responses as data collection proceeded.
A data file with all responses was exported from SurveyMonkey to Excel for data
analysis and presentation. From the 250 completed and valid survey responses,
135 respondents were male while 115 respondents were female. In addition, of the
total respondents, 155 are based in schools in the urban area while 95 respondents
are preservice teachers from the rural areas. The sample representation of urban
versus rural preservice teachers is different possibly due to network and data
availability disparities as they participated in the survey. The demographic
characteristics of the respondents to the study survey are presented in table 2
below.
Table 2: Respondents Demographics
Demographics Criteria Percentage
Gender Male 54%
Female 46%
School location Urban 62%
Rural 38%
Qualification Bachelor’s 70%
Honour’s 25%
Master’s 5%
Daily SM usage 1-2hrs 10%
3-4hrs 16%
more than 4 hrs 74%
Demographic data reveals that of all the questionnaire respondents, 40% had
some form of SM media presence and that on average they spent more than an
hour per day on SM. Demographic data demonstrates that 74% spend more than
four hours on SM platforms per day, the highest percentage of the respondents,
which could be attributed to more free time due to lockdowns. The results sustain
research from Koeze and Popper (2020) and Limaye et al. (2020), who found
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increased SM use during the pandemic. It would be expected that preservice

teachers take advantage of their SM knowledge to develop positive attitudes for
instructional use in teaching (Beemt et al., 2020; Buus, 2012). Constructs from the
data analysed in the qualitative phase were measured against the Likert scale of 1
(strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The section below presents preservice
teachers’ level of SM integration during Covid-19 lockdowns.
Table 3: Preservice teachers’ social media integration in teaching and learning.
Level of Integration (n=250)
̅
𝒙 S.D. Level
Integrate SM in teaching and learning
2.1 WhatsApp 3.96 2.10 High
2.2 Facebook 0.78 2.92 Lowest
2.3 Skype 1.01 1.56 Lowest
2.4 Blogs 0.20 1.12 Lowest
2.5 YouTube 3.95 2.07 High
2.6 Twitter 0.10 1.52 Lowest
2.7 Instagram 0.17 1.06 Lowest
2.8 Podcasts 0.14 1.08 Lowest
Table 3 above shows that the three social media platforms most frequently used
for teaching and learning were WhatsApp (high level of agreement; (𝒙 ̅ = 3.96, S.D.
= 2.10), followed by YouTube (moderate level; (𝒙= 3.95, S.D. = 2.07). Results reveal
̅
that other platforms had lowest levels of consideration by preservice teachers for
integration into teaching and learning. The finding on high usage of YouTube is
in line with Anna (2019), who reported that YouTube is one of the most installed
and used platforms by preservice teachers, as they access tutorial videos of
different concepts and can be adopted as an instructional channel (Krauskopf et
al., 2012). In addition, the results are supported by findings from Moran et al.
(2011), who revealed that education professionals mostly use YouTube, however
Twitter and Facebook were mostly used by the young generation (i.e., learners).
Having presented on the use of various SM platforms, the section below presents
on preservice teachers’ perceptions of SM integration into teaching and learning.
Table 4: Preservice teachers’ perceptions of social media integration in teaching and
learning
Perceptions of social media in
teaching and learning
̅
𝒙 S.D. Level of
Perception
3.1 I perceive social media as a useful tool for 2.97 2.05 moderate
teaching
3.2 I believe that social media can enhance the 2.90 1.99 moderate
teaching process
3.3 Social media can facilitate engaged learning 2.96 1.96 moderate
process
3.4 Learners can actively participate in the 3.60 1.02 high
comfort of their zones
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3.5 Social media improves learners’ problem- 3.20 1.20 high

solving capabilities
3.6 Social media facilitates collaborative 3.40 1.98 high
learning among learners
3.7 Social media can help develop independent 2.80 2.08 moderate
learning
3.8 Social media makes it easy for learners to 3.10 2.26 high
develop creating thinking skills
3.9 Social media will be easy to use for learners 2.96 1.06 moderate
because they are already present on the
platforms
3.10 SM use affords me opportunities that I 2.80 1.20 moderate
wouldn’t get in the classroom
3.11 SM brings enjoyment to learning 2.90 1.16 moderate
3.12 Lack of social media pedagogical 4.60 1.40 high
integration skills hinders integration
3.13 Social Media cannot be applied for formal 3.10 1.10 high
teaching and learning
3.14 No-one takes learning seriously when done 3.98 2.10 high
via social media
3.15 Difficult to monitor and control learners’ 1.20 1.01 low
activities on social media
3.16 Learners can easily become distracted on 2.30 2.16 low
social media
3.17 SM promotes anxiety and dependence on 3.90 2.60 high
learners
3.18 I intend to use social media in my teaching 1.60 1.04 low
Results in Table 4 reveal that preservice teachers perceived SM as a useful tool for
teaching and learning ( 𝒙 ̅ = 2.97, S.D. = 2.05). They also perceive that SM can
enhance teaching ( 𝒙 ̅ = 2.90, S.D. = 1.99), facilitate the learning process ( 𝒙
̅ = 2.96,
S.D. = 1.96), and improve learner problem solving capabilities (𝒙 ̅ =3.20, S.D. =
1.20). In addition, preservice teachers perceive that SM as a tool can facilitate
learners’ collaborative learning (𝒙 ̅ =3.40, S.D. = 1.98), while at the same time
promoting learner independent learning (𝒙 ̅ =2.80, S.D. = 2.08) and leading to
learners’ development of critical thinking skills (𝒙 ̅ =3.10, S.D. = 2.26). This is in
agreement with Carpenter (2014), who reported that preservice teachers
appreciated the benefits brought by SM, such as Twitter. These findings resonate
with Acarli and Sağlam (2015), who revealed that study participants were
enthusiastic to integrate SM in their future professions. Preservice teachers
perceive that it is easy to integrate SM in teaching and learning since learners are
already available on various SM platforms (𝒙 ̅ =2.96, S.D. = 1.06).
However, preservice teachers perceived a lack of SM pedagogical integration

skills as a hindrance to integration (𝒙
̅ =4.60, S.D. = 1.40). This result agrees with
Beemt et al. (2019), who reported that experience, lack of knowledge and skills
influences teachers’ attitudes towards SM integration. The importance of teachers’
skills and knowledge for SM pedagogical integration has been noted by Buus
(2012). With the rise in SM use during the COVID-pandemic as observed by
Limaye et al. (2020), the expectation would be that preservice teachers’ SM
knowledge and skills improved. However, the limited SM knowledge and skills
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previously reported by Moran et al. (2011) persist, resultantly demoralising

teachers on use of SM for teaching. Furthermore, preservice teachers perceived
SM as inapplicable in formal teaching and learning (𝒙̅ =3.10, S.D. = 1.10) as they
believe that no one takes anything done via SM seriously (𝒙 ̅ =3.98, S.D. = 2.10).
This is in agreement with Deng and Tavares’ (2013), whose study revealed that
preservice teachers viewed SM as informal, and teachers’ presence within the SM
space would limit free interactions amongst learners. In addition, there would be
a general reluctance to use SM (e.g., Hurt et al., 2012) until it is officially
implemented as a part of course delivery. As such, learners need to receive
developmental assistance that prepares them to learn with and through SM, as
the current appreciation is that SM is for social interaction and entertainment
purposes (Chen & Breyer, 2012). Furthermore, school level support (Ismail et al.,
2020) is needed to assist preservice teachers to improve SM instructional
integration and to align with learners’ developmental needs.
Preservice teachers perceived SM for teaching and learning rather as a source of

anxiety and dependence, as promoted by learners (𝒙 ̅ =3.90, S.D. = 2.60). Therefore,
as suggested by (Beemt el al. 2019; Kormos & Nijakowsk 2017), there is a need for
support to conquer digital fears and anxiety, especially for teachers in developing
economies that are characterised by a lack of integration abilities (Ismail, 2020). In
addition, preservice teachers felt that it was difficult to monitor and control
learners’ activities on SM (𝒙
̅ =1.20, S.D. = 1.01), and the perception is that learners
can easily become distracted (𝒙̅ =2.30, S.D. = 2.16). The challenge of learners being
distracted by SM during classes resonates with Cetinkaya (2017), whose study
suggested that close monitoring is needed when engaging learners through SM
as learners’ attention can easily be distracted. Results further show general
disagreement that preservice teachers would use SM in their teaching and
learning (𝒙 ̅ =1.60, S.D. = 1.04). For the above beliefs, it is undeniable that
preservice teachers do not have intentions to integrate SM in their teaching.
However, preservice teachers need to understand how their roles have changed,
as suggested by Hoyos (2014). Preservice teachers need to facilitate learning
leveraging on SM, regardless of the challenges. Accordingly, there is need for
encouragement and support from education authorities to shift preservice
teachers’ perceptions regarding SM use in teaching. These arguments resonate
with Ismail et al. (2020) who postulated that school-level support from mentors
and school principals would be valuable. In addition, support need to be
characterised by access to digital technologies and related devices, teacher
capacity development, redesign of the curriculum to include SM integration and
pedagogical concepts by teacher training institutions (Jogezai et al., 2018;
Mulenga & Marban, 2020).
Despite preservice teachers perceiving SM to be a useful teaching and learning

tool that can facilitate the learning process and problem-solving capabilities, they
felt that the lack of formalisation, integration skills and knowledge led them to
perceive SM as platforms that are irrelevant for teaching and learning. This agrees
with researchers (e.g., Crook, 2012), who postulate that misalignment exists
between SM use and support from schools’ administrators. In the absence of the
support from school administrators, preservice teachers become uncertain
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(Mathieson & Leafman, 2014) and can hardly explore emerging pedagogical
platforms such as SM. Despite findings revealing preservice teachers’ positive
perceptions on SM, and recognition of SM importance in promoting learner
independent learning, collaborative learning, and development of critical
thinking skills, there are also general negative perceptions that SM promotes
anxiety and dependence. Therefore, it would be difficult to monitor learners’
activities and learners would get easily distracted. As such, the results reveal
mixed perceptions on SM use in teaching and learning by the study participants.
However, overall, preservice teachers would not use SM for teaching and
learning. The researchers went on to perform independent sample t-tests to
comparatively ascertain the representation of rural preservice teachers against
urban preservice teachers in the mixed perceptions. Some unexpected results
were deduced from the t-tests as shown in Table 5 below.
5.3 Urban vs rural preservice teachers’ perceptions comparative analysis

Further analysis was done to ascertain whether SM perceptions were different for
urban and rural preservice teachers through independent sample t-tests as
presented in Table 5 below.
Table 5: Urban versus rural preservice teachers’ perceptions
Teacher’s N Mean SD
Context
Perceive social media as a useful tool for teaching Urban 155 3.18 .625
Rural 95 4.19 .608
Believe that social media can enhance the teaching Urban 155 2.94 .247
process Rural 95 4.82 .390
Social media can facilitate learning process Urban 155 3.65 .479
Rural 95 4.55 .549
Social media improves learners’ problem-solving Urban 155 3.49 .686
capabilities Rural 95 3.16 .668
Social media facilitates collaborative learning Urban 155 3.15 .854
among learners Rural 95 4.75 .488
Social media can help learners develop Urban 155 2.94 .589
independent learning Rural 95 3.91 .709
Social media makes it easy for learners to develop Urban 155 3.66 .699
creative thinking skills Rural 95 3.21 .787
SM use affords me opportunities that I wouldn’t Urban 155 2.14 .105
get in the classroom Rural 95 4.86 .608
Lack of social media pedagogical integration skills Urban 155 3.78 .754
hinders integration Rural 95 4.20 .682
Social media can’t be applied for formal teaching Urban 155 3.86 .511
and learning Rural 95 3.01 .802
No-one takes learning seriously when done purely Urban 155 3.86 .612
via social media Rural 95 3.02 .563
Difficult to monitor and control learners’ activities Urban 155 4.90 .305
on social media Rural 95 3.73 .451
Learners can easily become distracted on social Urban 155 4.33 .474
media Rural 95 3.05 .429
SM promotes anxiety and dependence on learners Urban 155 4.64 .602
Rural 95 3.04 .613
I intend to use social media in my teaching Urban 155 3.87 .373
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Rural 95 4.70 .462
Analysis to determine the existence of the difference in perceptions by rural and

urban preservice teachers revealed significantly more agreement by rural
preservice teachers (M = 4.19, SD = .625) than by urban preservice teachers (M =
3.84, SD = .609) that SM is a useful tool for teaching and learning. This is a positive
response to a call by Aguliera and Nightengale-Lee (2020), who argued that rural
schools need to exploit effortlessly available resources such as SM. However,
there is significantly more agreement by rural preservice teachers (M = 4.20, SD =
.682) than by urban preservice teachers (M = 3.78, SD = .754) that a lack of social
media pedagogical integration skills hinders integration. This result can be
attributed to a lack of exposure, resources and ICT support infrastructure that has
always posed a challenge for rural education contexts. Similar resource challenges
in rural contexts have been reported in the South African education context. For
example, a study by Oyedemi & Mogano (2018) demonstrated that an excess of
82% of the students from rural schools had no access to ICT and internet
connectivity resources. In addition, the findings on resource challenges in South
African rural education contexts resonate with Omodan (2022), whose study
suggests that a lack of resources impacted transformation in rural schools. It
becomes evident that resource constraints negatively impact rural schools and
learning contexts in their quest for advancing technologically supported
innovation in teaching and learning.
Interestingly, the results bring in a new dimension that urban preservice teachers
might have made towards efforts to integrate SM in teaching and learning, and
the challenges associated. This is demonstrated by the differences in their
perceptions. Urban preservice teachers’ perceptions seem to be guided from a
reflective standpoint of having engaged in SM integration initiatives and possibly
facing challenges first hand, due to their relative advantage with access to
technical and social resources in comparison to rural preservice teachers. This is
in accordance with findings by Mlitwa and Nonyane (2008). This is demonstrated
as the results reveal that there is significantly more agreement from urban
preservice teachers (M = 3.86, SD = .511) than rural preservice teachers (M = 3.01,
SD = .802) that social media cannot be applied for formal teaching and learning.
In addition, there is significantly more agreement by urban preservice teachers (M
= 3.86, SD = .612) than by rural preservice teachers (M = 3.02, SD = .563) that no-
one takes learning seriously when done purely via social media. Furthermore,
urban preservice teachers (M = 4.90, SD = .305) agree more than rural preservice
teachers (M = 3.73, SD = .451) that it is difficult to monitor and control learners’
activities on social media, and that SM is a distraction to learning. Lastly, urban
preservice teachers (M = 4.64, SD = .602) agreed more than rural preservice
teachers (M = 3.04, SD = .613) that SM promotes anxiety and dependence on
learners. These findings on preservice teachers’ negative perceptions are shaped
by the existence of policies that ban learners from utilising their personal digital
devices in South African schools as reported by Mwapwele (2019). Differences in
perceptions suggested in the current study is consistent with Bautista et al. (2022),
whose study on “Filipino teachers attitudes towards distance learning during
Covid-19 pandemic” reported negative attitudes and perceptions emanating from
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unavailability of infrastructure requirements and the difficulty in managing the

pedagogical technologies. Therefore, preservice teachers demonstrate different
perceptions, shaped by the contextual factors such as availability of required
resources to support the advancement of the innovation concerned.
Surprisingly, there is significantly more agreement by rural preservice teachers

(M = 4.70, SD = .462) than by urban preservice teachers (M = 3.87, SD = .373) that
they intend to use social media in their teaching. The findings in this study are
consistent with previous findings (Liu & McCombs, 2011) that teachers are keen
to incorporate SM in their teaching. Interestingly, rural preservice teachers
demonstrated positive perceptions about SM integration in teaching and learning
in comparison to urban preservice teachers through a convergence of quantitative
results with initial qualitative results that can be attributed to their appreciation
that SM can indeed be regarded as an important pedagogical tool in the twenty-
first century, as noted by Alghamdi and Al-Ghamdi (2021). The findings suggest
that positive perceptions by rural preservice teachers on SM for teaching and
learning as a potential alternative can be linked to the general lack of formal
resources such as computers, devices, computer programs, internet connection,
and computer labs in rural learning contexts which is consistent with findings
(Chibisa & Mutambara, 2022; Mlitwa & Nonyane, 2008; Mutambara & Bayaga,
2021).
However, rural preservice teachers reported a lack of SM integration skills as a

hindrance to the use of SM in teaching and learning. The current study finding
resonates with Mwapwele (2019), whose survey reported that South African rural
teachers were optimistic about ICT integration in teaching and learning, despite
resource access challenges they experienced. In a separate study, Mutambara and
Chibisa (2022) observed that in rural areas, technology affordability was beyond
the reach of many. Generally, negative perceptions of SM integration in teaching
and learning are observed from urban preservice teachers. Urban preservice
teachers argued that SM is difficult to apply in formal teaching and learning, that
no one takes learning seriously on SM, and monitoring and controlling learners’
activities on SM was difficult. This finding resonates with Ndebele and Legg-Jack
(2022), whose study suggests that preservice teachers’ mentorship on skills and
competencies are of vital importance for teacher professional development. This
is applicable in successful SM integration. The differences in the urban and rural
preservice teachers’ perceptions could be attributed to the digital divide, as noted
by Oyedemi and Mogano (2017), in that urban preservice teachers have indeed
tried integrating SM in their teaching and learning processes and failed, while
rural preservice teachers are still optimistic that given the necessary pedagogical
integration support, conditions on data, and connectivity are met, SM could be
useful in teaching and learning. We can, then, say that rural preservice teachers
appreciate SM as an alternative pedagogical approach to teaching. This finding
resonates with Nhongo and Siziba (2022), whose study postulates that rural
education contexts are normally excluded from the transformative initiatives
especially when generic strategies are applied across contexts.
198
6. Conclusion
The study explored rural and urban preservice teachers’ perceptions on SM in
teaching and learning in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. The need for
social distancing brought by the Covid-19 pandemic has necessitated preservice
teachers’ increased presence on SM, knowledge of SM use, and consequently
affected their perceptions of SM for general use. The study concludes that there
exist differences in the perceptions of SM in teaching and learning by rural and
urban preservice teachers. Accordingly, customised and targeted intervention
strategies need to be designed and implemented to improve preservice teachers’
perceptions. Most South African learners are already on various SM platforms. As
such, the South African basic education department needs to formally recognise
SM’s applicability as a supplementary teaching and learning tool that has the
potential to afford flexibility in learning. Resultantly, the integration of SM in
teaching could be beneficial to developing counties like South Africa in which,
according to Attwood et al. (2013), schools are characterised by ICT resource
constraints and incapable teachers (Ismail et al., 2020). It is imperative to
transform and reinforce preservice teachers’ perceptions into positive perceptions
through policies that support preservice teachers’ SM pedagogical integration
resources, knowledge and skills, as innovative platforms for learning inarguably
need to be advanced. This agrees with propositions by Mutambara and Bayaga
(2021), who advanced that for successful mobile learning in rural areas, resource
availability becomes imperative.
7. Research Implications
The study has significant implications for secondary school learners, preservice
teachers, school principals and basic education policy makers. The South African
secondary school system is in a crisis caused by the Covid-19 pandemic, in
addition to the alarming ever increasing number of secondary school learner
dropouts. As a high number of secondary school learners are affected and
deprived of learning due to school closures as part of Covid-19 responses, SM use
in teaching and learning could be part of the solution. However, to achieve SM
use in teaching and learning, there is need for a total shift of preservice teachers’
perceptions on the role of SM. SM’s significant effects on the preservice teachers’
perceptions call for the need for their support and encouragement on use in
teaching and learning. Training and support in the form of continuous teacher
professional development, mentoring, educator capacity building and resource
support in form of data, digital platforms and devices could make preservice
teachers’ perceptions of SM in teaching and learning shift.
The government, through the relevant department of basic education, needs to

design and implement initiatives for improved teacher SM awareness and
integration in the instructional design. These support initiatives need to be
implemented from the national department of basic education, developing SM
use policies in schools that permit controlled and guided use of personal digital
devices in school premises. The provincial department of basic education and
district education administrators could break down those national policies and
guidelines into manageable action plans. Schools could develop their own
securely managed SM webpages, chat groups, and ask preservice teachers and
199
learners to join and engage in educational discussions and access to learning

material. These platforms could be joined using official school learners’ numbers
for security and accountability purposes in case learners post irrelevant content.
Importantly, education stakeholders including the government, private sector
and non-governmental organisations need to participate in the capacitation of
schools and teachers through provision of improved ICT infrastructure and
internet connectivity as these are seen as lacking in a developing country context.
8. Limitations and Future Work

Despite the study having presented interesting findings, there are a few
limitations worth noting. The sample population was limited to preservice
teachers in Pietermaritzburg urban and rural areas. Hence, the study results may
not be generalisable to a wider South African context. In addition, the study
mainly focused on preservice teachers. Maybe future research could also
incorporate the learners to understand their perceptions of SM in teaching and
learning, as they are important stakeholders in its implementation. In addition,
future work could look at specific SM platforms for teaching and learning
separately as they could present different results.
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Vol. 21, No. 5, pp. 204-219, May 2022
Development of CDIO-Based Programs from

the Teacher Training Perspective
Tien Ba Tran*
Vinh University, Vinh city, Vietnam
Thu Hung Phan

Vinh University, Vinh city, Vietnam
Abstract. To meet the requirements of the Fourth Industrial Revolution

(4IR) Vietnam’s K-12 education has shifted from a content-based to a
competency-based approach. Teacher education institutions are,
therefore, required to make comprehensive curriculum reforms to align
with the K-12 education innovation. This paper is concerned with the
adoption of the CDIO (conceive-design-implement-operate) initiative
for teacher training programs at Vinh University in Central Vietnam. It
gives an account of the large-scale changes that involve significant shifts
in the culture of management, teaching, learning and assessment, the
revamp of the structure and contents of the curricula, along with
enhancement of faculty teaching competence, personal and
interpersonal skills, product, process, and system building skills, as well
as disciplinary fundamentals. It also describes how the university has
adapted the 12 CDIO standards for teacher training programs, and how
teacher training spaces, outcome-based assessment and program
evaluation have been adjusted in accordance with the CDIO principles.
The qualitative research method was employed for an evaluation of the
CDIO-based program implementation. The data were collected from
interviews with faculty members and students, observations,
documents related to the CDIO program implementation, reports of
departments and AUN-QA accreditation agency that assessed the
programs. It was found that the CDIO approach is highly applicable for
teacher training programs; it fits the outcome-based teaching and
assessment and the development of professional skills and
competencies with which future teachers need to be equipped.
Keywords: CDIO standards; program learning outcomes; competency-

based; project-based learning; outcome-based assessment
* Corresponding author: Tien Ba Tran, tientb@vinhuni.edu.vn
©Author
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1. Introduction
The CDIO initiative (conceive-design-implement-operate) is an innovative
educational framework originating from the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT). This educational model came into being in response to several
factors. First, the feedback from industries, graduates, and practicing engineers
indicated that those certain important professional skills were not developed in
the existing curricula. Second, the model meets the standards and criteria set by
accreditation bodies such as Accrediation Board for Engineering and Technology
(ABET). Additionally, the engineering enrolment was dropping, as students
found that engineering was too dull and theoretical in the first year of study
(Crawley et al., 2014). To date, more than 190 major universities in developed
countries, such as the United States, Great Britain, France, Sweden, Finland,
Portugal, Japan, China, Singapore, and Thailand, have applied CDIO programs
(CDIO, 2022).
The CDIO training model can respond to the new requirements of businesses and
stakeholders in enhancing students' ability to acquire fundamental knowledge,
while promoting the learning of soft skills, professional skills, and interpersonal
communication, building processes and systems, and manufacturing products
(Foley & Kyas, 2021). The CDIO training process starts from determining training
goals, building learning outcomes and designing outcome-based programs. This
process is designed to ensure strict scientific requirements and feasibility with the
participation of stakeholders, including employers, alumni, students, lecturers,
and scientists.
CDIO-based learning outcomes are based on stakeholders’ surveys and a careful

analysis of labor market requirements, including four blocks of knowledge and
skills: (1) disciplinary knowledge and reasoning; (2) personal and professional
skills and attributes, (3) interpersonal skills including teamwork and
communication; and (4) CDIO systems in the enterprise, societal and
environmental context. These knowledge and skills are integrated in the training
program and specifically assigned for each course based on the program matrix.
Thus, each course contributes to the achievement of the program learning
outcomes at different levels. Each instructor must adhere to the curriculum
standards for content and the respective teaching level I-T-U (introduce, teach,
utilize) to avoid duplication or omission of teaching identified piece of knowledge
and skills (Nhut & Trinh, 2010).
CDIO comes from aeronautical engineering and the application of CDIO

model has been still the most popular in the field of engineering to date
(Kamp, 2021). Recent studies indicate that this training model has shown its
relevance and superiority to the training of engineers in the 4IR (Malmqvist et
al., 2016; Crawley et al., 2020). Futhermore, students trained in the CDIO
model can work straight after graduation and there is almost no need of
retraining them. They are quicker at understanding the market and grasping
customer needs. In addition, students' interpersonal skills, such as
communication, teamwork, and presentation skills, also show improvement.
Research shows that the CDIO initiative can be applied to many different areas of
training, in addition to engineering, because it ensures a framework of knowledge
206
and skills (Crawley et al., 2020; Malmqvist et al., 2016; Martin et al., 2017;
Tangkijviwat et al., 2018; Kuptasthien, 2020). Therefore, in recent years, the
CDIO training model has also been applied in teaching humanities and social
sciences by many universities around the world. Some specific cases of the
CDIO program are at Instituto Politécnico do Porto in Portugal that developed
the CDIO program for a Master's degree in Development Practice, which was
based on 12 engineering CDIO standards (Martin et al., 2017). Singapore
Polytechnic applied the CDIO training program for the fields of Food Science
and Technology, Music Technology and Sound Engineering, and the
University of Applied Sciences in Finland applied CDIO training for the
discipline of Business Administration and Library Information. In Vietnam,
the National University of Ho Chi Minh City applied CDIO for disciplines in
humanities and social sciences, such as International Business, Journalism
(Malmqvist et al., 2016), University of Economics. The Hanoi National
University applied CDIO for International Economics major (Dung & Nha,
2012).
Crawley et al. (2014) also noted that CDIO could be applied to non-technical
disciplines based on the 12 CDIO standards, which can be summarized as
follows:
• Developing a description of the profession’s context of practice as a
starting point for educational design (corresponding to CDIO standard
1).
• Working with stakeholders to identify their requirements on the
graduates (CDIO standard 2).
• Adapting the pedagogical and curricular elements of CDIO (CDIO
standards 3-11 mainly) to the discipline’s needs.
• Applying the CDIO curriculum development and quality assurance
processes (CDIO standard 12).
Even though the CDIO model has been applied to several disciplines,
including humanities and social sciences, it has not been adopted for teacher
training programs anywhere else in the world. This paper, therefore, presents
an account of the first ever CDIO-based framework for teacher education at
Vinh University, Vietnam.
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2. A CDIO-Based Teacher Training Model

Vinh University is the first institution to adopt the CDIO initiative for teacher
training programs. Located in Central Vietnam, the institution was initially
established as a teacher training college in 1959, and then became a
comprehensive university in 2001. It offers 55 undergraduate programs, 38
Master’s programs, and 17 doctoral programs, among which teacher education
programs comprise of 14 undergraduate, 12 Master’s, and four doctoral. The
university follows a concurrent model of teacher training (Dinçer & Bikmaz,
2020), which means that pedagogical courses are delivered during the four years
of study at an education college.
It should be noted that Vietnam has undergone a comprehensive education

reform which shifted from the traditional knowledge-based to competency-based
education. While higher education institutions are relatively autonomous in
deciding their model of training, K-12 schools adopted a unified system known as
the National General Education Program 2018 (Ministry of Education and
Training, 2018). Given the changing context, the university is undergoing a
comprehensive educational reform with an ambition to utilize and implement
innovation in higher education to produce graduates with international standards
and to meet the pressing needs of the emerging market-based economy in
Vietnam.
The CDIO-based approach, which was first introduced to Vietnam in 2008, has
been adopted by the university since 2017. The CDIO framework for
undergraduate teacher education programs has been adapted to align with the
teaching profession and Vietnam’s national qualifications frameworks (Ministry
of Education and Training, 2021; Vietnam’s government, 2016).
Table 1 features the adaptation of the CDIO initiative for the 14 teacher training
programs of English, Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Literature, History,
Geography, Civic Education, Primary Education, Nursery Education, Physical
Education, Biology, Education Management, and Information Technology
Education.
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Table 1: Adaptation of the 12 CDIO standards for teacher training

The 12 CDIO standards for engineering Adaptation of the 12 CDIO standards for teacher
Standard
(version 2.0) (CDIO, 2011) training at Vinh University
Adoption of the principle that product,
The pedagogical CDIO program is designed in accordance
1 process, and system lifecycle development
with the national general education curricula in the
Pedagogical and deployment -- conceiving, designing,
context of Vietnam education in the period of
context implementing and operating -- are the context
international integration and the 4IR.
for engineering education.
Specific, detailed learning outcomes for
The learning outcomes of teacher education include
personal and interpersonal skills, and product,
2 knowledge, skills, qualities, attitudes, which are
process, and system building skills, and
Program learning consistent with the Vietnamese teacher competency
disciplinary knowledge, consistent with
outcomes framework for each specific subject and with the
program goals and validated by program
consultation of stakeholders.
stakeholders.
A curriculum designed with mutually
Designed to integrate related and complementary
3 supporting disciplinary courses, with an
courses to form knowledge, personal and interpersonal
Integrated explicit plan to integrate personal and
skills. Teachers need to know and be familiar with the
curriculum interpersonal skills, and product, process, and
National General Education Curriculum 2018.
system building skills.
Introduction to engineering: An
introductory course that provides the Introduction to teaching profession: An introductory
4 framework for engineering practice in course providing the framework for teaching practice at
Introduction product, process, and system building, and school, and introducing essential personal and interpersonal
introduces essential personal and skills for teachers, as well as preliminary school experience.
interpersonal skills.
The curriculum includes at least two design-implement
experiences, including one at a basic level and one at an
5
A curriculum that includes two or more advanced level, namely the Introduction to Pedagogy
Design
design-implement experiences, including one project and Graduation Project. Other projects may only
implementation
at a basic level and one at an advanced level. include partial elements in CDIO but they are
experiences
systematically designed to ensure full formation of
competencies and skills upon completion of the program.
Spaces for pedagogical training and practice: In addition
Engineering learning workspaces: to the traditional classroom, the university builds
6 Engineering workspaces and laboratories that learning spaces for students’ self-study, teamwork, and
Learning support and encourage hands-on learning of designing educational activity. Furthermore, the
spaces product, process, and system building, university sets up a network of affiliated schools so that
disciplinary knowledge, and social learning. students can regularly observe classes and directly
participate in educational activities.
Organizing teaching that combines specialized
7 Integrated learning experiences that lead to
knowledge with the development of personal qualities
Integrated the acquisition of disciplinary knowledge, as
and interpersonal skills, a systematic vision in educational
learning well as personal and interpersonal skills, and
practice; Increase the participation of teachers at high
experiences product, process, and system building skills.
school level and stakeholders in the training process.
Applying active experiential teaching methods that
8 Teaching and learning based on active
involve teamwork, project-based learning, presentations,
Active learning experiential learning methods.
discussion, micro-teaching, etc.
9
Actions that enhance faculty competence in Actions that enhance faculty competence in personal and
Enhancement of
personal and interpersonal skills, and interpersonal skills, ICT skills, and understanding of the
faculty
product, process, and system building skills. National General Education Curriculum 2018.
competence
10 Actions that enhance faculty competence in Actions that enhance faculty competence in providing
Enhancement of providing integrated learning experiences, in integrated learning experiences, in using active experiential
faculty teaching using active experiential learning methods, learning methods, and in assessing student learning
competence: and in assessing student learning. outcomes.
Assessment of student learning in personal Outcome-based assessment of student learning in
11
and interpersonal skills, and product, process, personal and interpersonal skills, in disciplinary
Learning
and system building skills, as well as in knowledge, as well as product, process, and system
assessment:
disciplinary knowledge. building skills required for teachers.
A system that evaluates programs against A system that evaluates programs against these 12
12
these 12 standards, and provides feedback to standards in line with the national education regulations,
Programme
students, faculty, and other stakeholders for and provides feedback to students, faculty, and other
evaluation
the purposes of continuous improvement. stakeholders for the purposes of continuous improvement.
The CDIO-based teacher training program consists of 126 credits and 36 courses,
which are structured to integrate the knowledge and skills identified in the
learning outcomes of each program with the following structure:
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General knowledge— 18 credits, including:

Political science and civic education modules (five courses with 11 credits): These
courses are delivered in the first six semesters; and foreign language courses
(English 1 and English 2 with 7 credits).
General pedagogical disciplines — 14 credits, including:

Introduction to Teaching Profession (3 credits); Psychology (3 credits);
Educational studies (4 credits); and ICT in education (4 credits).
Group disciplines (natural sciences education, social sciences education, etc.) —

about 24 credits, including:
Depending on the structure and characteristics of each discipline group (natural
pedagogy, social pedagogy), different number of credits for each discipline may
be required.
Disciplinary foundation and pedagogy — 70 credits, including:

There are some striking pedagogical differences between the traditional teacher
training programs and the new CDIO-based teacher education model. For CDIO
programs, students actively participate in project-based learning that involves
teamwork and interdisciplinary collaboration (Jaca et al., 2021; Chia, 2021). The
integration of learning topics will help students gradually familiarize themselves
with the new national general education curriculum.
Project-based learning also requires students to be the ones who directly do the
work, proactively in the process of discovering knowledge under the guidance of
the lecturer. When doing projects, students have many opportunities to work at
school. Right from the first year, they have their first school experience as partial
requirement for the Introduction to Teaching Profession course. In doing so, a
passion for the teaching profession can be instilled in students and the career
orientation can be initiated at an early stage.
Furthermore, assessment schemes have also been significantly improved. The
CDIO programs focus on outcome-based assessment (Gurukkal, 2020; Roslof,
2021), with various forms of evaluation including, but not limited to, portfolios,
quizzes, presentations, micro-teaching, field trips, teamwork, midterm tests, and
a final exam. The shift to the CDIO-based teacher training model is good
preparation for graduates so that they are able to teach and work under the new
National General Education Program 2018.
3. Methodology
The study employed the qualitative research method, which involves collecting,
analyzing and interpreting non-numerical data (Atkins & Wallace, 2012; Creswell
& Creswell, 2017). It gives an account of how the CDIO initiative has been adapted
for teacher education programs at Vinh University and presents an evaluation of
the CDIO-based program implementation after a cycle. The data were obtained
from interviews with faculty members and students, observations, documents
related to the CDIO program implementation, reports of departments and AUN-
QA accreditation agency that assessed the programs. These different sources
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provided varied perspectives on the evaluation of the CDIO-based teacher

education programs and, hence, ensuring the validity and reliability of the
assessment.
In qualitative research, the data in statistics can be categorically arranged
according to attributes and properties of the phenomena under investigation.
Therefore, the study focused on the six major CDIO-adapted standards (CDIO,
2011), namely, enhancing competence of faculty members, building CDIO-based
teacher training programs, teacher training spaces, active learning methods,
assessment of learning, and program evaluation. These six standards reflect the
fundamental changes for innovation of teacher training programs at Vinh
University.
4. Results and Discussion

One of the CDIO principles is to continuously improve the program. After a four-
year cycle of implementing the program, the university conducted a
comprehensive review of the CDIO program implementation. The teacher
training departments conducted surveys of stakeholders and organized meetings
to review the program implementation. Strengths and areas for improvement
were pointed out for the next cycle of revision. Reflections of faculty and students,
along with the AUN-QA’s external assessment show that the implementation of
the CDIO programs is a suitable choice for the university’s educational reform.
4.1 Enhancing the Competence of Faculty Members

When the university started to build and develop the CDIO-based teacher training
programs, only a few universities in the country applied this model. There was no
model of CDIO teacher training to consult. Therefore, one of the priorities was to
enhance the faculty’s competence in curriculum development, teaching and
assessment. A 16-member CDIO expert committee was established with
representatives from different departments.
The committee gives advice to the departments and guidance for implementing
the programs. The university also receives regular consultancy and advice from
an American professor who is an expert in CDIO programs. Based on expert
consultation and research, the university has developed CDIO competency
framework for teaching faculty, as shown in Table 2.
Table 2: CDIO competency framework for teaching faculty (Yen et al., 2021)
Domain of
Components Evidence
competency
Annual staff evaluation sheet
Political stance
Feedback from managers and colleagues
Work ethics Professional training certificate
Teacher conducts Feedback from managers, colleagues
and students
Knowledge Master degree in the field
Field Relevant degrees or certificates of
Skills
training
Field Planning the course Course plans
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Designing and development

Coursebooks, lesson plans, books
materials
Diplomas in teaching methodology
Using teaching methods and
Certificates of participation in
techniques
pedagogical training workshops
Certificates of participation in training

Assessing student learning
workshops on assessment
Building the learning Feedback from learners

environment Evaluation from administrators
Certificates in information-technology
as required by the Ministry and the
Foreign Using a foreign language and
University
language and information-technologies in
Products showing competence in a
information - teaching, research and
foreign language and information -
technologies communication
technologies (e.g., articles written in
English, e-learning lesson plans, etc.)
Designing and carrying out
research and technological Research products
Research transfer
Instructing learners to carry
Research products by the learners
out research
CDIO-based course syllabi that have

Designing CDIO curricula
CDIO been designed and implemented
curriculum Implementing and
Improved CDIO-based course syllabi
developing CDIO curricula
Setting up the network of
An established network of enterprises
Communication enterprises and/or
and/ or associations
with the associations
Results from partnership with
industries Communicating with
enterprises and/or associations
partners
To enhance the competency of the faculty members to implement the CDIO

program, the university regularly organized seminars and training workshops to
share experiences. Experts from Vietnam and overseas were invited to train the
faculty and staff for the construction and implementation of the CDIO program.
The training workshops focused on the writing program and course learning
outcomes, curriculum development, teaching methods, and especially on project-
based learning, CDIO-based assessment, and program accreditation. In addition,
faculty members and heads of departments were sent to other universities in
Vietnam and in the United States to learn about the experiences and best practices
of CDIO-based program implementation.
After four years of regularly implementing training and sharing experiences, the
capacity of lecturers has been significantly improved. However, many lecturers
are still not proficient in active teaching methods, especially project-based
teaching. This is the point that the university needs to focus on improving their
competency in time to come.
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4.2 Building CDIO-Based Teacher Training Programs

The CDIO-based teacher training programs at the university began with building
learning outcomes. First, the program learning outcomes of the CDIO-based
teacher training programs were scientifically developed and highly practical
because they were based on the survey results of stakeholders, including experts,
teachers, alumni, administrators of high schools, departments and offices of
education, pedagogical faculty and students. Based on the learning outcomes that
have been consulted with stakeholders, the university built an integrated teacher
training program including modules and knowledge blocks to ensure that
students will achieve the learning outcomes after completing the program. Along
with equipping specialized knowledge, students can form their personal qualities
and interpersonal skills such as communication, teamwork, presentation, and
critical thinking, which are critically important for teachers in the 4IR era. It can
be said that the CDIO teacher training program has fully covered the "hard" skills
as well as the "soft" skills that were insufficient in the previous programs.
The Introduction to Teaching Profession is a typical course of the CDIO program,

which was absent in the traditional model. It outlines the framework of teachers'
competencies and responsibilities, as well as familiarizing students with the
school context from the perspective of teacher students. With project-based
learning, students often work in groups, present, debate and go on field trips to
collect information to for projects on educational activities.
The feedback from students for the introductory course has been very positive.
Students are more interested when they can directly "switch roles" from students
to teachers when they interact with high school students, build their own
educational plans and feel like they are "being a teacher". Students are more
confident and self-assured when presenting in front of many people. These are
one of the many important skills a teacher needs and that are beneficial when
formed early in the training process. The Introduction to Teaching Profession
Course not only instills career passion for students from the first year, but also
helps them define what knowledge and skills to be equipped with in the
remaining years to become a teacher.
The instructor's feedback about Introduction to Teaching Profession has been

“very effective and highly practical. It is consistent with the philosophy of "Theory and
Practice go hand in hand" (Report of Primary Education Department).
The mentoring role of the teacher is promoted and students are closer to the
lecturers: “The bond between teachers and students is enhanced because teachers
frequently contact with students during group work and project implementation"
(Report of Mathematics Department).
In the first phase of CDIO program implementation, the remaining issue is that
project-based learning did not include interdisciplinary projects in the CDIO
programs.
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4.3 Teacher Training Spaces

CDIO training programs require a learning space that supports and encourages
the practice of building systems, processes and products, accumulation of
disciplinary knowledge, and interactive learning. The CDIO learning space for
engineering requires restructuring of the system for practice, experiments, self-
study and group work to support students in implementing the CDIO process.
For pedagogical disciplines, in addition to traditional learning spaces, such as
classrooms, lecture halls, libraries, and laboratories, the university has built an
additional self-study area that is open from 7 am to 10 pm, and assigns each
faculty member to connect with school teachers to set up a network for students
to practice, do internship and to exchange professional expertise. All these
activities are designed to link the training process with practice via partnerships
with 62 satellite schools. The collaboration between the university and the satellite
schools is mutually beneficial. The cooperation agreement includes the following
main details:
Table 3: Cooperation agreement between university and satellite schools
University Satellite schools
− Arrange faculty members to support and − Coordinate and support the

advise satellite schools on the contents university in teacher training
and methods of teaching, testing, such as internship, practice,
assessment, practice and experiments in implementation of educational
accordance with the National General research.
Education Program 2018.
− Support satellite schools in digitalization,

including building an online learning − Support the university in
management system (LMS); technical collecting opinions from
guidance on building e-learning lessons; stakeholders in order to
building a model of combined teaching implement the strategic plan for
and flipped learning classrooms; share development of the university
digital learning materials in the teaching and curriculum development.
and learning process of teachers and
students.
− Transfer to the satellite school the model − Support the university in

of active teaching, programs and developing continuous
necessary materials for teaching and professional development
learning English at the school, with the programs for school teachers.
outlook to international standards.
− Support and advise the satellite school on

experiential activities, career guidance, − Support the university to
life skills education, academic counseling develop faculty’s professional
and soft skills for students. skills.
− Support and advise teachers of satellite

schools to implement initiatives in
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teaching, and participate in contests for

− Coordinate with the university to
exemplary teachers.
implement piloting teaching
models in accordance with the
− Support satellite schools to build English
National General Education
speaking community models.
Program 2018.
Thus, the CDIO-based learning space for teacher training is not only confined to
the main campus of the university but also expanded to a network of affiliated
schools. Surveys on the use of study space show that students use the self-study
areas and library to their fullest capacity for group work, project implementation
and self-study. Before implementing the CDIO program, self-study and group
work were not as effective.
Students only focused on studying in the last month before the end of each
semester because their academic results depended largely on the final exams. The
CDIO programs require ongoing learning and continuous assessment from the
first week to the end of the course.
Findings from the interviews with students show that students were very satisfied
with the new teaching method that focused on developing skills concurrently
with equipping disciplinary knowledge. Students can enhance their skills of self-
study and teamwork. At the same time, they can have the opportunity to interact
with school pupils regularly.
Previously, the training program offered only two weeks of observation in the
fifth semester and eight weeks of practicum at school in the final semester. Now
students are more independent in the process of exploring knowledge and they
can have more opportunities to do internship and practice in real-world situation.
The fact that students are trained in an active learning environment will be a solid
foundation for effective implementation of the National General Education
Program 2018.
The feedback from lecturers on the use of learning space is that "Students are excited
to study and actively explore, create, practice teamwork and presentation skills" (Report
of Chemistry Department). Changing the assessment methods which involves
multiple components also has a positive impact on the use of the self-study space:
"Students are more active in self-study, group work, searching for documents and
learning content; …. Students' ability to present written reports is improved” (Report of
Foreign Languages Department).
CDIO's integrated program and active teaching method proved to be critically

effective in the training process and suitable for career orientation "The content of
the course is designed in such a way that students can understand and remember what
they learn deeply and it is in line with the overall general education program 2018”
(Report of Physics Department).
4.4 Active Learning Methods

To implement the CDIO training program, the university adopted a blended
learning model (Graham, 2013; Dziuban et al., 2018), which combines virtual
classes on the LMS (learning management system) with face-to-face meeting. The
215
teaching methods used by the lecturers are diverse, in which group activities are
prioritized for development of communication and cooperation capacity.
Furthermore, ICT application is maximized for students’ independent learning.
Active teaching methods to form and develop disciplinary and professional
competencies for learners are highly encouraged. Project-based learning which
involves teamwork and student-centric activities is dominant during the training
process. Through group activities, students develop skills for future careers
(organization and teamwork, project development, micro-teaching, and
presentations). For lecturers, through the process of implementation teaching
activities, as well as learning from experience, especially after revising curricula,
the awareness and responsibility of faculty members has increased remarkably.
They have invested more time into improving the quality of teaching to meet the
requirements of CDIO-based training.
Initially, some students could not follow the pace of learning as they had to work
harder both in face-to-face classes and e-classes. Some instructors complained that
"Although in general, the academic performance of students looks positive, some students
find it difficult to respond to the CDIO-based teaching because of their poor self-study
ability" (Report of Literature Department).
For large classes, the organization of group discussions and individualization of
learning faced certain difficulties. The traditional arrangement of desks attached
with benches is inconvenient for discussion and group work because it is difficult
to move and rearrange them due to restricted spaces. At the early stages of CDIO
implementation, some lecturers also faced certain pressures: “The faculty members
have to invest a lot of time to carry out the stages of CDIO. Some lecturers are not very
proficient in the application of information technology in CDIO-based teaching. Some
lecturers do not know much about CDIO training methods, so they are still confused in
organizing teaching and managing students' self-study and learning records. This exerts
a lot of pressure on teachers” (Report of Political Education Department).
These are the difficulties that need to be solved in the upcoming time to improve
the effectiveness of the CDIO training program.
4.5 Assessment of Learning

In accordance with the CDIO principles, the university’s learning assessment is
based on learning outcomes, including both continuous and summative
assessment. The former comprises, but it is not limited to portfolios, quizzes,
presentations, teamwork, and a midterm test; the latter is a final exam or other
alternative forms of assessment, depending on the course learning outcome
requirements. This is a significant improvement as compared with previous
assessment schemes, which mainly relied on midterm tests and a final exam. The
outcome-based assessment makes learning process becomes more productive and
focused. The constructive alignment of learning strategies and evaluation to
course learning outcomes help students to be informed of their progress at each
stage of learning.
Moreover, the application of many forms of assessment based on learning

outcomes creates a favorable condition for students to enjoy many opportunities
to strive for high results for each subject and to meet the requirements of
216
competence-based examination, instead of knowledge-based tests. Ongoing

assessment eliminates the stress and pressure of the exam as it once existed, and
requires students to work through the process.
However, the implementation of the CDIO programs reveal that some problems
need to be improved. Some lecturers still resorted to tests, which could not meet
the requirements of the outcome-based assessment. They did not effectively use
the rubrics for assessment of project-based learning. The report of Mathematics
Department indicated that “A number of lecturers were used to paper and pen tests.
Therefore, the shift to alternative assessment was a challenge for them at the initial
stage…. The rubrics did not adequately cover the academic content, skills and other
competences as indicated in the learning outcomes”. There was little involvement of
school teachers in the assessment of professional skills.
4.6 Program Evaluation

The reform of Vietnam's higher education in the past five years has involved
many aspects, in which educational accreditation has been of increasing
importance. The revised Higher Education Law and training regulations
require higher education institutions and training programs to be accredited.
The program has been highly appreciated by external assessors due to the
implementation of the teacher training program that adheres to the 12 CDIO
standards. This is a new model of teacher training in Vietnam whose
implementation is consistent with national and international accreditation
standards. Of the 14 teacher training programs, the Mathematics Teacher
Education Program was the first to be internationally accredited by AUN-QA
(ASEAN University Network–Quality Assurance) in April 2021. The international
assessors gave a high opinion of the program regarding its strengths, as detailed
as follows.
The information in the Bachelor Program in Mathematics Education (BPME)
Programme Specification is comprehensive and up to date with structured and
logically sequenced curriculum, allowing students to focus on graduation
internship to demonstrate the application of all they have learned from their
courses.
The constructive alignment of teaching and learning activities with the BPME
ELOs is evident in course specifications. The AUN-QA program assessment
report of assessor’s interviews with school headmasters indicated that:
Employers identify teaching methodology as one of the main elements for BPME
becomes a quality programme that produces good graduates. Various teaching
and learning activities are employed to foster life-long learning competencies.
Students are informed about details of their assessments which include methods,
timelines, weight distribution through the programme and course specification
documents. (AUN-QA program assessment report, 2021, p. 18)
In addition to the AUN-QA assessment of the Mathematics Teacher Program,
eight other teacher training programs have also been nationally accredited,
including English, Literature, Geography, History, Primary Education, Nursery
Education, Physical Education, and Chemistry. Thanks to CDIO-based
curriculum development, all these programs were highly appreciated by the
external assessors.
217
The assessed curricula are said to be structured and constructed in accordance

with the program learning outcomes, integrating relevant knowledge, skills,
attributes, and qualities that are required for future teachers. Methods of teaching
and assessment are in line with competency-based education. For instance, the
English Teacher Education Program is integrated with skills, knowledge,
competencies, and attributes that are highly relevant to the teaching profession.
The CDIO approach to curriculum development and program implementation
gives students many opportunities to intensive practical experience during the
training process.
The external assessors have a consensus that the CDIO approach to curriculum
development at Vinh University is a new model of teacher training program that
is highly relevant for the 4IR and it is particularly effective during the Covid-19
pandemic thanks to the integrated and blended mode of teaching and learning.
5. Conclusions
The CDIO-based teacher training programs at Vinh University grew out of the
need for a fundamental education reform in the context of 4IR. It is shown that the
CDIO-based education innovation requires implementing large-scale changes
that involve significant shifts in the culture of teaching, learning and evaluation
across the entire university. These changes involve revamping the structure and
contents of its curricula, as well as changing the principles and practices of
university management and governance.
Furthermore, a high priority and enabling factors for the curriculum reform
process are enhancing faculty teaching competence, their personal and
interpersonal skills, product, process, and system building skills, as well as
disciplinary fundamentals. The study of the CDIO-based teacher training
program implementation at Vinh University has proved that the CDIO
framework is highly applicable for pedagogical programs. It is not only suitable
for the outcome-based teaching and assessment, but also relevant for developing
professional skills and competence with which future teachers need to be
equipped.
It should be noted that the CDIO standards have been updated with version 3.0
(CDIO, 2022). In addition to a physical learning environment, a digital learning
environment that includes on-line tools and spaces that support and enhance the
quality of teaching and student learning is required for teacher training programs.
This study is hoped to make contributions to the innovation of teacher training
programs based on the CDIO standards.
Funding: This study has not received any financial support from other
individuals or organizations.
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220

Vol. 21, No. 5, pp. 220-238, May 2022
21st Century Teaching Skills and Teaching

Standards Competence Level of Teacher
Jesse T. Zamora and Jerome Jef M. Zamora
Mindoro State College of Agriculture and Technology
(now Mindoro State University)
Alcate, Victoria, Oriental Mindoro, Philippines, 5205
Abstract. Teachers’ roles have changed dramatically over the last

decades – from traditional spoon-feeders to facilitators of learning.
Teacher education institutions play a huge role in getting them ready for
the field. Thus, this study probed the 21st century teaching skills and
teaching standards competence level of the CTE graduates of Mindoro
State College of Agriculture and Technology (MinSCAT) who graduated
in the years 2016, 2017 and 2018. Two hundred and fifteen (215)
participating teachers (MinSCAT Graduates) and their immediate
supervisors answered a two-part questionnaire through Google Forms
exploring the extent of the graduates’ skills and competence. The data
collected were sorted and subjected to t-Test, ANOVA and multiple
linear regression. The results showed that the teachers’ skills and
competence are of high to very high extent. Specifically, the graduates
received high ratings on their effective communication skills, life and
career skills, and personal growth and professional development. The
teachers showed remarkable performances in the light of these
indicators. One way ANOVA revealed that there are significant
differences in the level of the graduates’ 21 st century teaching skills and
teaching standards competence level in terms of their indicators. The
study recommends for the CTE faculty and students to hold frequent
dialogues and consultations to ensure the development of potential and
acquisition of 21st century teaching skills and teaching standard
competence of the CTE students and to address students’ challenges.
Consistent sensitivity to the needs of the faculty and the students should
be given preferential attention to develop the culture of excellence in the
department.
Keywords: 21st century skills; competence; teacher education
1. Introduction
In the phase of an increasingly volatile, uncertain and complex world, changes
are inevitably occurring. These dynamics confront and challenge individuals
through the explosions of knowledge leading to a growing array of societal
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-
NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
221
problems. Globalization and expansion of international relations shift the

educational standard and measurement across countries. The pervasive
outbreak of media technologies results in the bombardment of information that
can be readily accessed by any age group and expands students’ awareness and
knowledge. In the Philippines, in specific, the launch of K to 12 Basic Education
Curriculum in 2012 pursued teacher quality reforms, which gave birth to the
establishment of a framework of teacher quality assessment response to 21st
century learning.
Such scenarios undeniably require teachers to play an imperative role in society.

“To establish, maintain and support a complete, adequate, and integrated
system of education relevant to the needs of the people and society” (1987
Philippine Constitution Article XIV Sec. 2 Paragraph 1) is one of the goals of the
government. Having learners of varying and growing needs and interests in this
changing world, teachers must keep up with what is both relevant to the time
and to the need of the time. Specifically, learners in the 21st century are raised in
an environment that encourages the prominence of fast-paced digitals where all
things are just a click away (Boholano, 2017). Educational reforms, likewise aim
for students’ success and, thus, require teaching to focus on them and make the
teachers’ performance vital toward students’ educational achievement (Roberto
& Madrigal, 2018).
Teacher-preparation programs provide future educators with the tools,

mechanism and hands-on experiences necessary for the foundation of their
beginning career and which stress the need to master content and necessitate the
acquisition of pedagogy for an effective and efficient instruction delivery. Pre-
service teaching provides a training ground where basic skill requirements
crucial in facilitating student learning are developed. Teaching as a multifaceted
and demanding profession requires a high-quality teacher development training
program for a high-quality teaching force, especially today when 21st century
teaching emphasizes standards of teaching practice. As the teaching profession
is put on a pedestal that merely examines the quality of products of Teacher
Education Institutions (TEIs), pre-service teachers must be totally prepared to
respond to the standards set against the competence framework and face the
challenge of 21st century learning. However, this can only be possible if young
professional teachers have fully acquired the content, pedagogical and
technological knowledge and completely attained the necessary skills for entry
level during their pre-service teaching. Hence, the attributes and skills of highly
effective teachers must be the aim in order to produce a shared direction for
effective practice of the profession (Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development [OECD], 2013).
“Quality learning is contingent upon quality teaching” (Department of

Education [DepEd] Order No. 42, 2017, p. 1). This is shown by teachers'
functions such as curriculum and learning management as well as personal
growth, which affects students' academic achievements. Students' academic
achievement is significantly and positively affected by curriculum and learning
management. Teachers with higher level of curriculum and knowledge
222
management seem to be able to improve student academic achievement. On

another note, student achievement is negatively but significantly affected by a
teacher’s personal growth. Aside from the major roles and duties played by
teachers, such as supplying instructional management, they also function to
carry out other tasks, like attending training, seminars or workshops for
personal and professional development. This, however, indirectly, affects the
instructional duties in schools (Prasertcharoensuka et. al, 2015).
In this light, it is safe to mention that evaluating teacher quality is significant to

withstand the transformations brought about by different national and global
frameworks such as the K to 12 Reform and the ASEAN integration,
globalization, and the evolving character of the 21st century learners. This also
imposes assessment of teachers’ relevant skills and competency based on the
current teacher standards (DO No. 42, 2017). Likewise, as education advances
with the help of technology, paradigm shifts to educational trends occur.
Teachers today have become facilitators of learning who focus on developing
learners of higher order thinking skills, effective communication, collaboration,
and relevant skills needed in the 21st century, and who also must exhibit these
relevant skills themselves. Teachers also develop new teaching strategies that are
radically different and which intensify students’ engagement to learning and
provide instruction through varied technological methods and pedagogical
approaches, proving the act as the most vital factor in learners’ development.
The concept of skill has merely focused on technical and professional

dimensions such as manipulation skills and the knowledge associated with the
techniques of the work process, enhanced via training and experience. For some,
skills are a combination of the knowledge, abilities and experience they have
obtained both before entering the profession and during their employment.
Some tend to define skill as a simple view of the necessities of a job after due
analysis and evaluation; and which are normally recognized and rewarded.
Skills relate to the use of knowledge and engage in a feedback loop with
knowledge (Bialik & Fadel, 2015). Twenty-first century skills comprise a wide
range of knowledge, abilities, work habits, and character traits that are believed
– by teachers, school reformers, college educators, employers, and others – to be
profoundly important to succeed in today's world, particularly in college
programs and contemporary careers and workplaces. However, members of the
workforce believe that a significant gap exists between what the organization
can actually produce and the skills needed for its attainment. It is becoming
increasingly clear that, to prepare students to flourish in the world, knowledge is
not enough. Employers are speaking out about their newly-hired graduates and
their lack of skills in the workplace (Bialik & Fadel, 2015). A survey among
members of the American Society for Training and Development (ASTD)
reiterated that the workforce is lacking with leadership/executive-level skills,
managerial/supervisory skills and profession or industry-specific skills. These
three skills are what the society demands from every teacher, especially in
carrying out the implemented curriculum (Souza & Fyfe-Mills, 2018). Teachers
must possess more than just content and pedagogical knowledge. Creativity,
innovation, skills in technology and personal growth play a huge part in the
223
success of the teaching-learning process. Through these, teachers are able to

create activities and learning and teaching materials, and devise new strategies –
which aids in the attainment of a successful teaching learning process.
Competency, on the other hand, is defined as “the set of knowledge, skills, and
experience necessary for future, which manifests in activities;” it is the
“knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, motivations and beliefs people need in
order to be successful in a job” (Selvi, 2016). Different phenomena affect the
competencies of teachers: other sciences and system of society affect educational
systems and teachers’ competencies. Scientific results of educational sciences,
psychology, economy, technology, sociology can serve as bases for the
educational system. Developing teacher competencies is based on the changes in
other systems and is not only associated with personal growth but also
professional development. Also, internationalization of curriculum ideas
requires teachers to ensure changes by embracing innovative ideas through
acquiring more competencies, which are incredibly important in both
curriculum implementation and training people. Hence, teachers who are
responsible in training of individuals need to be well-equipped to fulfill this
responsibility (Bansal & Tanwar, 2021).
There exists a significant difference between the level of teaching standards

competence and the actual performance of a teacher. Therefore, pre-service and
in-service teacher education should put emphasis on understanding and
application of teachers’ competencies. As the development of teachers’
competencies calls for sustainability, it should continuously be the subject of
research and the changes and reforms through scientific studies must be
reflected through analysis (Selvi, 2016).
With all the mentioned aspects, it cannot be denied that learners’ success greatly
depends on the quality of teachers we have. Through the years, it is undeniable
that one of the greatest problems in the Philippines is the dwindling quality of
education – in which one of the reasons is also the quality of teachers. Quality is
assured through assessing the teachers’ competence in line with the national
educational standards and the skills relevant to the needs and interests of the
learners. Thus, this study is pursued to assess how proficient and adept
MinSCAT Teacher Education graduates are in practicing the relevant
competencies indicated in the Philippine Professional Standards for teachers and
in exhibiting 21st century teaching skills to fulfill duties as Filipino Licensed
Professional Teachers. Relationship and differences between and among the
indicators of 21st century skills and teaching competence will be tested. The
study also aims to create a basis for a College of Teacher Education
improvement plan upon analyzing the results.
2. Methodology
2.1. Research design
The study used descriptive-correlational comparative methods of research.
Descriptive method of research went beyond data gathering and tabulation and
involved careful descriptions of educational phenomena. Correlational design
224
determined mainly the relationship between the 21st century teaching skills and
the teaching standard competence level of MinSCAT Teacher Education
graduates. It identified the possible patterns of relations that exist among the
variables and measured the strength of such association. Comparative design
was done through analyzing the contribution of variances paired and differed.
2.2. Respondents of the Study

This study considered 215 MinSCAT Teacher Education graduates of academic
years 2016 to 2018 who are already in the field of teaching in K to 12 in public
schools in Oriental Mindoro and are professionals, and the heads/ immediate
supervisor/ rating officer of the identified graduate-respondents of the
respective public school in Oriental Mindoro. CTE graduate-respondents came
from the college’s three campuses: Bongabong Campus, Main Campus and
Calapan City Campus.
To determine the respondents of the study, stratified random sampling was

employed for the number of graduates from the three campuses. The list of CTE
graduates (2016-2018) was requested from the campus’ respective registrar.
Updated list of professional teachers who are practicing the profession in public
schools was requested from the three campuses of MinSCAT. Survey was also
conducted to determine the school of assignment of the graduates.
2.3. Data Gathering Procedures

A set of procedures was used to guide in gathering pertinent data needed in this
research. Mainly, the research sought approval from the Schools Division
Superintendent and school administrators/ principals for the distribution of the
questionnaire. The instrument was formally administered by using Google
Forms with clear directions of answering the instrument. The instrument was
retrieved for data sorting, tabulation, analysis, and interpretation. Applicable
techniques and statistical tests in research were employed.
2.4. Research Instrument

Two sets of the research survey questionnaire, composed of two major parts
served as the vital instrument employed in data gathering of this study. The first
part assessed the 21st century teaching skills (P21 Frameworks for 21st Century
Learning) (Alberta Government, 2016; Lai & Viering, 2012; Purita et al., 2018;
Ravitz, 2014) in terms of effective communication skills; learning and innovation
skills; life and career skills; and information, media and technology skills. The
second part determined the extent of Teaching Standard Competence-Level (DO
42, 2017) based on the Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers (PPST) in
terms of: content knowledge and pedagogy; learning environment; diversity of
learners; curriculum and planning; assessment and reporting; community
linkages and professional engagement; and personal growth and professional
development.
All the data gathered for the study were tabulated, analyzed, and interpreted
using a scale that ranges from 1 to 5 with 5 designated as the highest of the
numerical scales and1 as the lowest. To make sure that all the items presented in
the questionnaire are reliable, a test and re-test method was taken by the
225
researcher in a government higher educational institution offering teacher

education in Oriental Mindoro. Responses from the respondents from the test-
retest were tabulated, analyzed and interpreted. To compute for the reliability
coefficients of each variable at 5% level of significance, Cronbach’s alpha was
utilized.
Validity and feasibility of the instrument were assured through referring to

previous studies related to areas of investigation so that all items can be better
improved and presented. The questionnaires were also forwarded to five experts
in the field for comments and suggestions. The study opted to revise and
simplify terms, words and phrases used in the questionnaire to facilitate deep
understanding of the respondents.
2.5. Statistical Treatment of Data

Two forms of statistical tools were used in the study to compute and treat all the
gathered data. Descriptive statistics included the weighted mean and ranks.
Inferential statistics were employed to analyze the degree of relationship
between the variables paired and the degree of differences among the
respondents’ assessment of the indicators and variables paired. This included
multiple linear regression, t-test, and One-Way Analysis of Variance,
respectively. Rejection and acceptance of null hypotheses was principally based
from the computed results of the regression and variance analyses at 5% level of
significance.
3. Findings
The results in Table 1 show that the graduates’ 21st century teaching skills are of
high (HE) to very high extent (VHE). The graduates rated their 21st century
teaching skills with high extent across all the indicators. On the other hand, their
immediate supervisors (school principals/ heads) gave Main Campus graduates
ratings of very high extent in terms of Life and Career Skills (LCS) and Effective
Communication Skills (ECS) and high extent in Learning and Innovation Skills
(LIS) and Information, Media and Technology Skills (IMTS). Bongabong and
City Campus graduates received ratings of high extent across all indicators, the
highest average ratings being in terms of LCS and ECS.
These results imply that the communication skills of the graduates are well-
developed and used excellently in their day-to-day activities as teachers. It is
imperative to note that communication in the field of education is of utmost
importance. Teachers need effective communication skills to efficiently facilitate
students and achieve good professional goals (Khan et al., 2017).
Additionally, life and career skills are also important especially in the context of
relationships and interactions as teachers deal with many different people –
colleagues, superiors, students, parents/ guardians and other stakeholders.
Ajala (2012) found that employees or members of an organization who have
better rapport consequently make them happier and more successful in their
roles in their workplace. Furthermore, Moleenar et al. (2012) found that teachers’
social relationships affect their professional development, collective
226
productiveness, collaborative decision-making, schools’ adaptability, innovative

climate, and student achievement.
It can be noted that the lowest means got the highest standard deviations, and
vice versa. The standard deviation and mean are both easily affected by small
and large values or values that veer away from most values in the data set. Thus,
it can be said that the graduates’ responses regarding IMTS are mostly of high
extent (4) with a few of very high extent (5) and other values lower than 4. This
suggests that some of the respondents recognize that there is always room for
improvement.
Table 1: 21st Century Teaching Skills

Main Campus Bongabong Campus City Campus
21st Century
Std.
Teaching Skills Mean Std. Dev. Mean Std. Dev. Mean
Dev.
Graduates’
Effective 4.37 (HE) 0.62 4.44 (HE) 0.59 4.38 (HE) 0.66
ratings
Communication
Supervisors’
Skills 4.51 (VHE) 0.53 4.40 (HE) 0.63 4.39 (HE) 0.65
ratings
Graduates’
4.14 (HE) 0.66 4.29 (HE) 0.63 4.18 (HE) 0.70
Learning and ratings
Innovation Skills Supervisors’
4.37 (HE) 0.63 4.23 (HE) 0.70 4.22 (HE) 0.69
ratings
Graduates’
4.25 (HE) 0.67 4.42 (HE) 0.49 4.28 (HE) 0.67
Life and Career ratings
Skills Supervisors’
4.56 (VHE) 0.57 4.49 (HE) 0.64 4.36 (HE) 0.67
ratings
Graduates’
Information, Media, 4.01 (HE) 0.89 4.20 (HE) 0.69 4.08 (HE) 0.77
ratings
and Technology
Supervisors’
Skills 4.35 (HE) 0.74 4.27 (HE) 0.78 4.23 (HE) 0.74
ratings
VHE – Very High Extent
HE – High Extent
Regarding the graduates’ teaching standard competence level, it is shown in

Table 2 that they gained ratings of high extent across all campuses – the highest
averages being in terms of Learning Environment and Personal Growth and
Professional Development. These results indicate that the graduates do well in
setting a cohesive learning environment to foster effective learning. According to
Kember et al. (2010), enhancing the learning motivation of students will take a
learning environment with eight supportive conditions which are: establishing
relevance, establishing interest, allowing choice of courses, learning activities,
teaching for understanding, assessment of learning activities, good teacher–
student relationships and a feeling of belonging between classmates.
Furthermore, the results suggest that the teachers are exerting efforts to continue
learning for their own improvement and for the improvement in the teaching
and learning process. Riveros et al. (2012) stated that initiatives for school
development focused on peer collaboration need to reflect deeper regarding the
culture and practices in schools, especially those that focus on professional
227
growth and learning. In order to work toward school improvement, they

suggest for teachers to enact their understanding of professional knowledge in
their practices.
Standard deviation is also presented in Table 2. In terms of Learning

Environment (LE), the averages of the responses of MBC graduates and their
immediate supervisors are equal but have different SDs. This suggests that the
responses of the graduates are more closely distributed around the mean
whereas their immediate supervisors’ responses are more scattered. On the other
hand, in terms of Diversity of Learners (DoL), the responses of MMC graduates
and their immediate supervisors have different averages but share the same SD.
This means that the responses from both groups are equally distributed around
the means. Notably, the averages and standard deviations of MCC graduates’
responses and their immediate supervisors’ responses are very close and
actually equaled in terms of DoL.
Table 2: Teaching Standards Competence Level

Bongabong
Teaching Main Campus City Campus
Campus
Standard
Std. Std. Std.
Competence Mean Mean Mean
Dev. Dev. Dev.
Graduates’
Content 4.28 (HE) 0.65 4.37 (HE) 0.57 4.27 (HE) 0.67
ratings
Knowledge and
Supervisors’
Pedagogy 4.46 (HE) 0.59 4.34 (HE) 0.71 4.34 (HE) 0.65
ratings
Graduates’
4.35 (HE) 0.56 4.41 (HE) 0.57 4.29 (HE) 0.66
Learning ratings
Environment Supervisors’
4.55 (VHE) 0.59 4.41 (HE) 0.73 4.35 (HE) 0.65
ratings
Graduates’
4.18 (HE) 0.67 4.31 (HE) 0.64 4.15 (HE) 0.74
Diversity of ratings
Learners Supervisors’
4.38 (HE) 0.67 4.23 (HE) 0.74 4.15 (HE) 0.74
ratings
Graduates’
4.31 (HE) 0.64 4.36 (HE) 0.58 4.29 (HE) 0.66
Curriculum and ratings
Planning Supervisors’
4.46 (HE) 0.60 4.35 (HE) 0.70 4.36 (HE) 0.68
ratings
Graduates’
4.20 (HE) 0.65 4.29 (HE) 0.58 4.20 (HE) 0.67
Assessment and ratings
Reporting Supervisors’
4.42 (HE) 0.61 4.28 (HE) 0.75 4.27 (HE) 0.73
ratings
Community Graduates’
4.28 (HE) 0.63 4.36 (HE) 0.58 4.28 (HE) 0.66
Linkages and ratings
Professional Supervisors’
4.49 (HE) 0.57 4.45 (HE) 0.65 4.33 (HE) 0.68
Engagement ratings
Personal Graduates’
4.29 (HE) 0.59 4.41 (HE) 0.58 4.34 (HE) 0.62
Growth and ratings
Professional Supervisors’ 4.59
4.49 (HE) 0.58 0.60 4.42 (HE) 0.65
Development ratings (VHE)
VHE – Very High Extent
HE – High Extent
228
One-Way Analysis of Variance in Table 3 showed that a significant difference

exists in the level of 21st Century Skills as assessed by both the graduates and
their immediate supervisors. This showed that the graduates have varying 21st
century skills by which variations may be attributed to the individual
differences of the graduates and the level of their acquisition of knowledge and
skills, exposure to different faculty, their specialization, learning environment,
peers, and experiences. According to Baeten et al. (2010), students in different
specializations differ in the learning approach that they adopt. Moreover, their
teachers (faculty) play a role in changing the students’ conceptions, which
results in an inclination to use deeper learning approaches.
Table 3: ANOVA of the 21st Century Teaching Skills Indicators

Variables df Computed F-value F-critical
21st Century Graduates 856 12.45* 2.62
Skills Supervisors 852 5.86* 2.62
A significant difference also exists among the indicators of Teaching
Competence – as shown in Table 4, which implies that the level of the graduates’
teaching competence varies. Such variations may be attributed to the graduates’
unique personalities and experience and the fact that they graduated in different
years (2016, 2017, and 2018). Vermunt and Endedijk (2011) stated that teachers
differ in the learning patterns they adopt. These learning patterns are distinct
depending upon the quality of professional learning and development in the
sense of transformation to adapt to the changes and innovations in education.
Table 4: ANOVA of the Teaching Standards Competence Indicators

Variables df Computed F-value F-critical
Teaching Graduates 1498 2.30* 2.10
Competence
Level Supervisors 1491 4.11* 2.10
In Table 5, significant difference exists between the level of 21st Century

Teaching Skills as assessed by the graduates and by their immediate supervisors.
Their perceptions varied in terms of Life and Career Skills and Information,
Media and Technology Skills. Though the graduates rated themselves a little
lower, the supervisors observed that they are performing a little better in the
field. This might be attributed to the longer teaching experience of the
immediate supervisors (school principals/ heads/ TIC) and their experiences in
supervising and rating teachers, which gave them an edge in evaluating them.
Table 5: t-Test on the Difference of the Level of the 21st Century Teaching Skills of
the Graduates as Assessed by the Graduates and by their Immediate Supervisors
Indicato Graduates School Principals
T P
rs Mean SD Mean SD
ECS 4.40 0.48 4.43 0.51 -0.43 0.67
LIS 4.20 0.56 4.27 0.59 -1.09 0.27
LCS 4.32 0.51 4.47 0.53 -2.42 *0.016
IMTS 4.10 0.64 4.28 0.65 -2.75 *0.006
*Significant at 5% level of significance
229
There is a significant difference in the Teaching Standard Competence Level of

the graduates as assessed by the graduates and by their immediate supervisors.
As shown in Table 6, the difference lies in the indicator Personal Growth and
Professional Development. According to Bills et al. (2016), improving teachers’
learning is an ongoing embodied process. The graduates, who have been in the
field for no longer than four years, still have more to learn whereas their
immediate supervisors perceived their growth to be exceptional.
Table 6: t-Test Results on the Difference of the Teaching Standards Competence Level
of the Graduates as Assessed by the Graduates and by their Immediate Supervisors
Graduates School Principals
Indicators t P
Mean SD Mean SD
CKP 4.31 0.50 4.38 0.53 -1.33 0.18
LE 4.35 0.55 4.44 0.58 -1.46 0.14
DoL 4.21 0.61 4.25 0.66 -0.35 0.73
CaP 4.32 0.53 4.39 0.59 -1.29 0.20
AaR 4.23 0.57 4.32 0.67 -1.33 0.18
CLPE 4.31 0.55 4.42 0.58 -1.57 0.12
PGPD 4.35 0.52 4.50 0.57 -2.41 *0.02
*Significant at 5% level of significance
The results of the multiple linear regression in Table 7 on the responses of the
graduates show 60.05% to 72.20% of the variance in the level of the graduates’
teaching standards competence, considering all of its indicators, and can be
explained by the level of the graduates’ 21st century skills. The remaining
27.80% to 39.95% can be attributed to other factors which were not considered in
the study.
Amongst the indicators of 21st century teaching skills, effective communication

skills and life and career skills have the biggest effect on the graduates’ teaching
standards competence. An increase of one unit in ECS and LCS, while holding
other factors constant, will result to an increase of 19.26% to 47.85% and 29.61%
to 55.70%, respectively, in the teaching standards competence of the graduates.
On the responses of the immediate supervisors, results revealed that 64.70% to

79.49% of the variation in the graduates’ teaching standards competence level
can be associated to their level of 21st century teaching skills. The remaining
20.51% to 35.30% may be attributed to other factors which were not considered
in this study. ECS and LCS also turned out to be the best predictor of the
graduates’ teaching standard competence level as assessed by their immediate
supervisors. An increase of one unit in ECS and LCS, while holding other factors
constant, will result to an increase of 18.18% to 52.36% and 14.96% to 37.54%,
respectively, in the graduates’ teaching standards competence.
Life and Career Skills are one’s ability to set learning, career, and wellness goals
to strive for personal excellence. This includes taking continuous professional
development courses. It ensures that teachers continually grow in the profession
and helps update their knowledge and skills. This also guarantees that the
content knowledge and teaching strategies of the teachers improve. In a study
230
conducted by Goldschmidt and Phelps (2010), they found that teachers

attending Professional Development Institutes showed growth in their
knowledge.
Khan et al. (2017) stated that effective teaching not only depends upon the
content knowledge of a teacher but also the teacher’s communication styles,
method and skills. Content knowledge must always come with pedagogical
knowledge because only then will content be effectively relayed to students.
Table 7: Multiple Linear Regression Results
Independent Dependent Variable

Variable Constant (21st Century Teaching Skills) r2
(Teaching ECS LIS LCS IMTS
Standard
Competence) βi P>|t| βi P>|t| βi P>|t| βi P>|t| βi P>|t|
Gr 0.4393 0.0125 0.3047 0.0000* 0.1459 0.0182* 0.2961 0.0000* 0.1543 0.0013* 0.7220
CKP
Su 0.5129 0.0006 0.2352 0.0004* 0.2874 0.0000* 0.1496 0.0288* 0.2173 0.0000* 0.7949
Gr 0.2692 0.1991 0.3053 0.0001* 0.1223 0.0975 0.4682 0.0000* 0.0451 0.4272 0.6586
LE
Su 0.1248 0.4678 0.1818 0.0178* 0.2678 0.0001* 0.3754 0.0000* 0.1584 0.0053* 0.7731
Gr -0.1506 0.5416 0.1926 0.0345* 0.1725 0.0478* 0.5570 0.0000* 0.0909 0.1751 0.6266
DoL
Su -0.4028 0.0541 0.1081 0.2427 0.3826 0.0000* 0.3539 0.0003* 0.2209 0.0014* 0.7402
Gr 0.3580 0.0714 0.3170 0.0000* 0.0170 0.8074 0.4616 0.0000* 0.1217 0.0241* 0.6738
CaP
Su -0.0240 0.8945 0.4153 0.0000* 0.1991 0.0060* 0.2489 0.0031* 0.1452 0.0149* 0.7563
Gr 0.0229 0.9129 0.2698 0.0005* 0.2285 0.0021* 0.3079 0.0001* 0.1779 0.0019* 0.6887
AaR
Su -0.5747 0.0060 0.5236 0.0000* 0.2174 0.0088* 0.1247 0.1918 0.2548 0.0002* 0.7493
Gr 0.3851 0.0936 0.3069 0.0003* 0.0977 0.2258 0.4325 0.0000* 0.0718 0.2486 0.6005
CLPE
Su 0.1918 0.3283 0.3288 0.0002* 0.2062 0.0086* 0.3528 0.0001* 0.0711 0.2691 0.7027
Gr 0.5762 0.0056 0.2961 0.0001* 0.0699 0.3358 0.4355 0.0000* 0.0729 0.1931 0.6248
PGPD
Su 0.4645 0.0270 0.4785 0.0000* 0.0608 0.4639 0.3022 0.0019* 0.0695 0.3103 0.6470
*Significant relationship Gr-Graduates’ response Su- Supervisors’
responses
4. Conclusion
This study explored how well the graduates of MinSCAT CTE are doing in the
teaching field a few years after they graduated. It can be concluded that a few
years into the profession, the graduates are thriving and fairing excellently. This
is well-observed by their immediate supervisors. Based on the results, the
graduates are excellent in effective communication skills, life and career skills,
and personal growth and professional development. All other skills and
competencies were rated with high extent but they must strive to do better in
terms of information, media and technology skills and diversity of learners.
Based on the results of the multiple regression analysis, the graduate
respondents must strive to become more adept in effective communication skills
and life and career skills as these two positively affect all indicators of teaching
standards competence.
It seems that the graduates of MMC often tend to underestimate their skills – an
opposite of the MBC graduates. On the other hand, the graduates of MCC seem
to have a good judgment of their own skills. Also, as it is shown in the results,
231
the immediate supervisors of MMC graduates appear to have a very good

impression about their 21st century skills and teaching standards competence
level. Their responses portray the idea that they have ultimate confidence in
these teachers.
Teachers are an integral part of the society. Hence, it is important that teacher
education is of high quality. Teacher education curriculum and teachers’
performance should be constantly evaluated to determine what to improve and
to meet the current demands of the society. With the constant changes that the
world is undergoing, teachers must also evolve to keep up with the pace.
5. Recommendation
In the light of the findings and the conclusions, the research forwards this
recommendatory statement.
Dialogue and consultations among the CTE faculty and officials should be held
more often to ensure the development of potential and acquisition of 21st
century teaching skills and teaching standard competence of the CTE students.
Consistent sensitivity to the needs of the faculty and the students should be
given preferential attention to develop the culture of excellence in the
department. Conduct/Adaption of the proposed basis for CTE improvement is
also recommended.
Replication of this study to integrate other variables not included in the study
and a follow-up study necessitates the strengthening of the MinSCAT CTE
Program.
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APPENDIX 1
QUESTIONNAIRE
I. 21st Century Teaching Skills ((P21 skills Framework; Bilbao, et.al., 2018;
Lai & Viering, 2012; Alberta Government, 2016; Ravitz, 2014). These are
teaching practices exhibiting 21st century skills and supporting students’
learning of the 21st century skills.
5 - Very High Extent (The teacher/respondent always observed the given

statements. He/she observed it every day in class with no exception.)
4 - High Extent (The teacher/respondent frequently observed the given
statements. He/she observed it many times in class.)
3 - Moderate Extent (The teacher/respondent sometimes observed the given
statements. He/she observed occasionally rather than all of the time in class.)
2 - Low Extent (The teacher/respondent rarely observed the given
statements. He/she observed it not occurring very often in class.)
1 - Very Low Extent (The teacher/respondent never observed the given
statements. He/she never observed it in class.)
A. Effective Communication Skill. This refers to the ability to organize

thoughts, data and findings and share these effectively through a variety of
media.
1. Use Mother Tongue, Filipino and English to 5 4 3 2 1
convey messages to students, parents, co-
teachers, and higher authorities.
2. Express messages or information through a 5 4 3 2 1
variety of media i.e., verbal, written and/or
emailed.
3. Give concise and clear feedback and suggestion 5 4 3 2 1
after students’ assessment and evaluation.
4. Keep parents informed of the student’s 5 4 3 2 1
234
achievements and learning challenges.

5. Collaborate with co-teachers to assess teaching 5 4 3 2 1
performance and seek advises from them.
B. Learning and Innovation Skills. This refers to one’s ability to think beyond
and develop new ideas.
1. Compare and evaluate information from 5 4 3 2 1
different sources/references before asking
students to complete a task.
2. Use idea creation techniques such as 5 4 3 2 1
brainstorming or concept mapping and consider
students’ different learning styles and multiple
intelligences.
3. Create an original product or performance to 5 4 3 2 1
engage students in expressing their ideas.
4. Encourages students to think out-of-the-box and 5 4 3 2 1
discover solutions to complex problems.
5. Provide activities that promotes critical thinking 5 4 3 2 1
and creativity among students.
C. Life and Career Skills. This refers to one’s ability to set learning, career and
wellness goals which strive for personal excellence.
1. Identify interests, values or skills to set learning, 5 4 3 2 1
life and career goals.
2. Explore, select and adapt strategies and 5 4 3 2 1
resources that support personal growth in life
school and career paths i.e., attending seminars
and taking graduate studies.
3. Make choices or take action promoting safety 5 4 3 2 1
and well-being of others i.e., community
extensions and services.
4. Build healthy relationship among students, 5 4 3 2 1
parents, co-teachers, higher authorities and the
community.
5. Demonstrate optimism, flexibility and resilience 5 4 3 2 1
in adapting to new situations and transitions.
235
D. Information, Media and Technology Skills. This refers to one’s ability of

effective utilization of technologies as a tool for teaching.
1. Introduce technologies and develop students’ 5 4 3 2 1
skills in using them as a tool for learning.
2. Use technology to create instructional materials 5 4 3 2 1
i.e., handouts & tests and to deliver the lesson
i.e., Geogebra, LanguageLab, Encarta.
3. Evaluate the credibility and relevance of online 5 4 3 2 1
resources and technologies before selecting
technology tools or resources for completing a
task.
4. Encourage students to share ideas and 5 4 3 2 1
knowledge through multimedia presentations
like sound or video, presentation software,
blogs, podcasts.
5. Manage students’ learning and produce 5 4 3 2 1
products using appropriate information and
communication technologies.
II. Teaching Standards Competence Level (DO 47 s. 2017; PPST). This

refers to the practices exhibit by teachers as reflected in the
Professional Standards for Teacher.
A. Content Knowledge and Pedagogy. This refers to the depth of one’s
understanding of the subject matter and of the appropriate methods to use
in the delivery of instruction.
1. Demonstrate content knowledge and its 5 4 3 2 1
application within and/or across curriculum
teaching areas.
2. Demonstrate an understanding of research- 5 4 3 2 1
based knowledge and principles of teaching and
learning
3. Show skills in the positive use of ICT to facilitate 5 4 3 2 1
the teaching and learning process.
4. Demonstrate knowledge of teaching strategies 5 4 3 2 1
that promote literacy and numeracy skills
5. Apply teaching strategies that develop critical 5 4 3 2 1
and creative thinking, and/or other higher-
order thinking skills.
6. Use Mother Tongue, Filipino and English to 5 4 3 2 1
facilitate teaching and learning.
7. Demonstrate an understanding of the range of 5 4 3 2 1
verbal and non-verbal classroom
236
communication strategies that support learner

understanding, participation, engagement and
achievement.
B. Learning Environment. This refers to the teacher’s ability to provide an

environment that promotes safe, security, fairness and support.
1. Demonstrate knowledge of policies, guidelines 5 4 3 2 1
and procedures that provide safe and secure
learning environments.
2. Demonstrate understanding of learning 5 4 3 2 1
environments that promote fairness, respect and
care to encourage learning.
3. Demonstrate knowledge of managing classroom 5 4 3 2 1
structure that engages learners, individually or
in groups, in meaningful exploration, discovery
and hands-on activities within the available
physical learning environments.
4. Demonstrate understanding of supportive 5 4 3 2 1
learning environments that nurture and inspire
learner participation.
5. Demonstrate knowledge of learning 5 4 3 2 1
environments that motivate learners to work
productively by assuming responsibility for
their own learning.
6. Demonstrate knowledge of positive and non- 5 4 3 2 1
violent discipline in the management of learner
behavior.
C. Diversity of Learners. This refers to the ability to address student diversity

and individual differences.
1. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of 5 4 3 2 1
differentiated teaching to suit the learners’
gender, needs, strengths, interests and
experiences.
2. Implement teaching strategies that are 5 4 3 2 1
responsive to the learners’ linguistic, cultural,
socio-economic and religious backgrounds.
3. Use strategies responsive to learners with 5 4 3 2 1
disabilities, giftedness and talents.
4. Demonstrate understanding of the special 5 4 3 2 1
educational needs of learners in difficult
circumstances, including: geographic isolation;
237
chronic illness; displacement due to armed

conflict, urban resettlement or disasters; child
abuse and child labor practices.
5. Demonstrate knowledge of teaching strategies 5 4 3 2 1
that are inclusive of learners from indigenous
groups.
D. Curriculum and Planning. This refers to one’s ability of interacting with

national and local curriculum requirement and translating content to
relevant learning experiences.
1. Prepare developmentally sequenced teaching 5 4 3 2 1
and learning process to meet curriculum
requirements.
2. Identify learning outcomes that are aligned with 5 4 3 2 1
learning competencies.
3. Demonstrate knowledge in the implementation 5 4 3 2 1
of relevant and responsive learning programs.
4. Seek advice concerning strategies that can enrich 5 4 3 2 1
teaching practice.
5. Show skills in the selection, development and 5 4 3 2 1
use of a variety of teaching and learning
resources, including ICT, to address learning
goals.
E. Assessment and Reporting. This refers to one’s ability to use processes

associated with a variety of assessment tools and strategies in monitoring,
evaluating, documenting and reporting learners’ needs, progress and
achievement.
1. Demonstrate knowledge of the design, selection, 5 4 3 2 1
organization and use of diagnostic, formative
and summative assessment strategies consistent
with curriculum requirements.
2. Demonstrate knowledge of monitoring and 5 4 3 2 1
evaluation of learner progress and achievement
using learner attainment data.
3. Demonstrate knowledge of providing timely, 5 4 3 2 1
accurate and constructive feedback to improve
learner performance.
4. Demonstrate familiarity with a range of 5 4 3 2 1
strategies for communicating learner needs,
progress and achievement.
238
5. Demonstrate an understanding of the role of 5 4 3 2 1

assessment data as feedback in teaching and
learning practices and programs.
F. Community Linkages and Professional Engagement. This refers to one’

ability to establish school-community partnerships aimed at enriching the
learning environment, as well as the community’s engagement in the
educative process.
1. Demonstrate an understanding of knowledge of 5 4 3 2 1
learning environments that are responsive to
community contexts.
2. Seek advice concerning strategies that build 5 4 3 2 1
relationships with parents/guardians and the
wider community.
3. Demonstrate awareness of existing laws and 5 4 3 2 1
regulations that apply to the teaching
profession, and become familiar with the
responsibilities specified in the Code of Ethics
for Professional Teachers.
4. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of 5 4 3 2 1
school policies and procedures to foster
harmonious relationship with the wider school
community.
G. Personal Growth and Professional Development. This refers to one’s

ability of personal growth and professional development.
1. Articulate a personal philosophy of teaching 5 4 3 2 1
that is learner-centered.
2. Demonstrate behaviors that uphold the dignity 5 4 3 2 1
of teaching as a profession by exhibiting
qualities such as caring attitude, respect and
integrity.
3. Seek opportunities to establish professional 5 4 3 2 1
links with colleagues.
4. Demonstrate an understanding of how 5 4 3 2 1
professional reflection and learning can be used
to improve practice.
5. Demonstrate motivation to realize professional 5 4 3 2 1
development goals based on the Philippine
Professional Standards for Teachers.
239

Vol. 21, No. 5, pp. 239-262, May 2022
Learning Sciences with Technology: The Use of

Padlet Pedagogical Tool to Improve High School
Learners’ Attainment in Integrated Sciences
Sakyiwaa Boateng*
Walter Sisulu University, Mthatha, South Africa
Mercy Nyamekye
University of Education of Winneba, Winneba, Ghana
Abstract. This study sought to examine the integration and application of

an online collaborative instructional technological tool, known as Padlet,
to reinforce and strengthen Ghanaian high school learners’
understanding of Integrated Sciences (IS). The study utilised a sequential
mixed-methods exploratory design to collect qualitative and quantitative
data. The study used purposeful sampling to select four high schools to
participate in the study. Twenty science teachers and 100 high school
learners were sampled for the study. The sampled teachers were trained
in a professional learning community on the utilisation and integration of
Padlet in classroom instructions and integrated the tool in their classroom
instructional practices for one month. Data collection was carried out
through classroom observations, semi-structured interviews, and learner
task performance assessments. Quantitative data were analysed
descriptively to determine the relationships between the variables using
the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences’ (SPSS) mean, frequencies, t-
test, and ANOVA. The qualitative data were analysed using thematic
content analysis. The findings show increased learner engagement and
retention, which improved learner achievement in the subject. Therefore,
it is recommended that effective pedagogical courses should be included
in the training of science teachers on technology integration to facilitate
learner understanding and retention in the subject.
Keywords: Integrated Sciences; online collaborative learning; Padlet tool;

pedagogical tool; science learners; science teachers
1. Introduction
Integrated Science (IS) is a compulsory subject in the Ghanaian Education system
that is offered to all senior high school learners across all grade levels from Senior
*
Corresponding author: Sakyiwaa Boateng, sboateng@wsu.ac.za
©Authors
240
High School (SHS) 1 through to Senior High School (SHS) 3 (which is comparable
to grades 10 to 12 in most global education systems). This subject combines
Physics, Chemistry, Biology and Agricultural Sciences. However, it has been
found that SHS learners have been achieving poor grades and have been
struggling to understand basic concepts in Integrated Science, especially abstract
concepts on energy and forces, interactions in nature, and basic chemistry
concepts (Anamuah-Mensah et al., 2017; Quansah et al., 2019). The situation
became more disturbing in 2018 and 2019 when the West Africa Examinations
Council (WAEC, 2020) recorded a high number of failures in Integrated Sciences
and the other elective science subjects. As most Integrated Science teachers use
the traditional approach of instruction, a significant number of these teachers do
not integrate or use pedagogical technological tools for the teaching and learning
of Integrated Science in Ghanaian classrooms. Similarly, high school learners in
Ghana do not get the opportunity to use interactive technological tools when
learning Integrated Science therefore they often find it difficult to understand
basic scientific concepts and are reluctant to study the subject (Azure, 2015).
Evidence from research has shown that science learners who achieve high scores
in science and pursue further studies in the science fields are more likely to
complete their degrees and find good jobs on completion (Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2016). Studies by the World
Bank have also shown that countries that produce more science-oriented
individuals are more competitive which leads to more significant development
and labour output (World Bank, 2016). Therefore, the Chief Examiner of the West
African Secondary School Certificate Examinations (WASSCE) (WAEC, 2019)
recommends that teachers conduct practical and activity-oriented lessons in
sciences and improve their instructional practices using technological tools. This
means that all stakeholders in education, including teachers, must ensure that
learners understand scientific concepts by using effective instructional practices,
incorporating simple digital web-based technologies and frequent formative
assessments that can engage learners with the learning process.
The use of effective instructional practices is one of the most substantial factors
involved in the process of learning (Han, 2021). In a school where science is taught,
alternative instructional delivery practices are required since the primary goal of
science education is to assist learners to achieve a functional understanding of
scientific concepts linked to real-life situations, attitudes, and values necessary for
their daily life encounters (Johnson et al., 2013). Bondie et al. (2019) mention that
learners who experience effective instructional practices from their teachers are
more likely to attain higher test scores and academic achievements.
Most learners who study science at the SHSs are not exposed to virtual platforms
and creative and innovative pedagogies. This prevents learners from developing
basic, integrated, and manipulative skills in the science process. In order for
teachers to utilise effective instructions in their classrooms, they need to know
their learners through assessments that inform them about their students’
progress (Gezer et al., 2021). This can be achieved through classroom assessment
techniques, which embed assessment within the instructional process and inform
teachers about students’ understanding and misconceptions (Veldhuis & Van den
241
Heuvel-Panhuizen, 2019). Lee et al. (2020) show that formative assessments

provide teachers with evidence-based proof that can support learners to reach
their planned learning goals. Black and Wiliam (2018) present three procedures to
reflect on formative assessments: where the learners currently are in their
learning, where the learners should be in their learning, and what must be done
to help them to get there. The teacher gathers data on learner understanding,
analyses and interprets the data, and adjusts instruction accordingly. However,
despite the body of research regarding the benefits of formative assessment on
learning outcomes and achievement, information about the manner and efficacy
of teacher use of the Padlet tool is very limited.
Integration of Web 2.0 tools, such as Padlet and other technological tools, and their
impact on science education have been documented in many empirical studies
(Firat & Köksal, 2019; Gursoy & Goksun, 2019; Onbasili, 2020). Many of these
studies have integrated Web 2.0 pedagogical tools into their classroom
instructions and have shown significant evidence of increased retention and
academic achievement among learners (Udosen, 2020). Hence, the need for the
government to support teachers to incorporate Web 2.0 into their classroom
instructions by ensuring that science teachers’ instructions provide the basis for
learner support and engagement (Baidoo et al., 2022) and utilise technological
tools that are aligned with learners’ needs, their prior experiences and their
technological competencies.
Although there have been numerous studies on Web 2.0 as a pedagogical tool in
the classroom for science teaching, learning and assessment (Hursen, 2020;
Nyawanza, 2017), there have been limited empirical studies on the types of
classroom dynamics that drive pedagogy in Integrated Science teaching and
assessment where science teachers incorporate the Padlet tool. Also, little research
(Baidoo et al., 2022) exists on how teachers, who use the Padlet tool, integrate it
with varied pedagogies and assessments to promote effective Integrated Science
learning and teaching. Furthermore, there are few studies about learners’ views
and attitudes regarding the use of the Padlet tool in Integrated Science teaching
and learning in high schools in Africa, particularly in Ghana. Against this
background, this study investigated the implementation of the Padlet tool in
Integrated Science classrooms to improve learner retention and achievement in
Integrated Science in high schools in Ghana. The following questions were posed:
1. What creative pedagogies are adopted by the science teachers to enable
learners to increase engagement and learner attainment when using the
Padlet tool as a vehicle for teaching and learning Integrated Science?
2. What is the impact of the Padlet tool as a vehicle for teaching and learning
of Integral Sciences on the learner’s achievement?
3. What are the learners’ and teachers’ views when using the Padlet tool as a
vehicle for teaching and learning Integrated Science?
The following hypotheses were tested:

1. Demographic variables, such as school, specialisation, and years of
teaching by the teacher, would significantly affect the Creative Pedagogies
(CP), Views of Teachers (VT) and the Formative Assessment (FA)
strategies used by teachers during Padlet integration.
242
2. There is a significant positive correlation between instructional practices

(IP), Thoughts and Opinions of Teachers (TAOT) and the Assessment for
Learning (AFL).
3. Using Padlet tools to teach significantly improves learners’ performance
in Integrated Science.
2. The Theoretical Framework

This study was anchored within the Online Collaborative Learning Theory
(OCL) and the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge Theory (TPACK).
The OCL Theory was proposed by Harasim (2012, p.81) as a “new theory of
learning that focuses on collaborative learning, knowledge building, and internet
use as a means to reshape formal, non-formal, and informal education for the
Knowledge Age“. OCL involves idea generation, organisation, and intellectual
convergence that are essential to learning. On the other hand, the TPACK theory
(Mishra & Koehler, 2008) focuses on teachers’ knowledge and proficiency in using
technological tools in classroom instructions. Thus, the model directly applies to
technology integration, as a teacher acquires technological skills, pedagogical
skills, and content knowledge to strengthen self-efficacy for integrating
technological tools in the classroom context. This study used these skills as an
evaluative framework for the teachers’ use of Padlet in their classrooms to teach
integrated sciences.
3. Literature and studies

3.1 Padlet as a 21st Century Pedagogical Tool
New technologies and innovations transform how we teach and learn in the
twenty-first century. Today, e-learning is an emerging demand of the information
age, as it serves as a substitute for traditional teaching methods for learners while
also encouraging collaborative learning (Myers, 2018). Moreover, technologies
create limitless chances for discoveries that will equip learners to confront current
problems. Learners are expected to use technological tools to synthesise newly
learned knowledge, collaborate with peers, solve issues, and make decisions to
succeed in today’s complex, diverse, and global world (Collins & Halverson,
2018). The success of this type of learning requires learners to adapt to the
information age and harness the power of technology to produce new knowledge
(Ramachandiran & Mahmud, 2018). However, teachers are regularly confronted
with new technology challenges of integrating technological tools into classroom
instruction, as the demands of these learners continue to evolve (Johnson et al.,
2016).
Padlet was introduced as a pedagogical tool to support both learners and teachers
for collaboration and creativity in the classroom. Padlet, formerly Wall Wisher, is
a free web-based tool that enables teachers and learners to build an online bulletin
board environment (Weller, 2013) similar to that of “sticky notes” as ideas and
responses are shown on the application’s wall. Users can create walls to publish
text, links, images, videos, and other related materials that are available to those
who have access to the Padlet wall. Padlet has been demonstrated to be
productive, enticing, and to have a positive effect on learners’ learning (Ali, 2021).
243
It also enhances learners’ skills in collaboration, creativity and writing by

engaging them in their learning (Nadeem, 2021).
Although Padlet is a Web 2.0 tool for interaction on a virtual wall and has been
used for simple instructional tasks and more complicated tasks among experts
(Weller, 2013), it was not explicitly created for educational purposes. Thus, a
presentation is required to demonstrate and explain the use of this tool and
encourage active involvement and idea sharing among learners (Deni & Zainal,
2018).
3.2 Using Padlet as an Adaptive Creative Pedagogical Approach to Enhance

Teaching and Learning
Borich (2016) explains that adaptive teaching methodology is a pedagogical
method of instruction where the teacher employs the topic’s content to suit the
learners’ needs, skills, interests, and characteristics. This is done to engage the
learners in their academic endeavours and to improve their conceptual
understanding of science concepts using technology. Ikwumelu et al. (2015)
believe that adaptive teaching involves the whole class but that instructions cater
to individual learners since the teacher gives feedback to the learners. Learners
revise their work after receiving feedback from their teacher.
Researchers believe that there are several ways for teachers to adapt and
implement adaptive pedagogy in their classrooms (Ikwumelu et al., 2015), for
example, the teacher could alter the lesson so that the science concepts are
meaningful to the learners’ level of understanding. Often, the teacher also alters
the way the content is assessed to measure the learners’ mastery of science
concepts by adapting games or audio-visuals to engage the learners.
4. Methodology
4.1 Research Design and Participants
The study employed a mixed methods sequential exploratory research design,
using a combined quantitative-qualitative approach. This design was used to
provide rich data by addressing different views from the participants allowing
respondents more time to evaluate their responses, provide clarification, provide
comprehensive examples when appropriate, and communicate their reasoning
with precision (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2009).
4.2 Sampling procedure

Purposive selection was made to obtain the four SHSs from the Greater Accra
Region as participants in the study. A simple random sampling method was used
to select five science teachers and 25 Integrated Science learners from each
participating school. The underlying principle was that the random sampling
gave each participant an equal chance of being selected and omitted bias. Sharma
(2017) suggests that simple random sampling minimises sampling errors. The
choice of the second-year Home Economics learners was made because we
believed that these learners had the fundamentals of Integrated Sciences and had
progressed to the second year with theoretical experiences that would enable us
to get reliable data. The lottery method of simple random sampling was used to
select the learners for this study.
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Participation in the study was voluntary. Each participant was notified of the
anonymization of the data and each step of the research procedure. The Research
Committee of the University of Education of Winneba gave ethical permission.
4.3 Research Instrument

For the quantitative part of the study, data were collected using structured
questionnaires (see supplementary resources). We adopted five questionnaire
items from the Dewitt et al. (2015) study on collaborative learning. There were
two types of questionnaires, for learners and for teachers. The Creative
Teaching/Pedagogies and Views Questionnaires (CTPVQ) for learners had three
main sections: Section A was biographical data and Section B contained ten items
which dealt with the teaching approaches used by the science teachers when
Padlet was integrated in class. Section C had ten items which sought learners’
views on the use of the Padlet tool.
The CTPVQ for teachers had four main sections: Section A was for biographical
data; Section B had items on creative pedagogies that teachers employed; Section
C had items on formative assessment strategies; and Section D had items on the
views of teachers on the integration of the Padlet tool.
Participants were requested to fill out a five-point Likert-type scale ranging from
1 to 5 (5: Strongly Agree; 4: Agree; 3: Undecided; 2: Disagree; and 1: Strongly
Disagree). The questionnaire items were validated by experts experienced in the
field. The internal consistency reliability value for the instrument was measured
using Cronbach’s alpha and achieved a reliability of 0.95. This value indicates
good internal consistency for the scale.
For the qualitative part of the study, data were collected using observation
schedules, interviews, and task performance analyses (see supplementary
resources). The interview questions were semi-structured and allowed for probes.
Interview questions were developed with the objective of the study in mind.
Unstructured observation schedules were used. Detailed field notes were taken
during the classroom observations. Standardised test questions were given to
learners at the end of the intervention to determine the impact of the intervention
on their performance.
4.4 Intervention
The 20 science teachers selected for the study were engaged in a three-day
community of practice workshop after school hours to gain mastery and
competency on using the Padlet as an instructional tool. The training focused on
assessments for learning and creative pedagogies that Integrated Science teachers
could use to improve learner retention and achievement in the subject.
Immediately after the training sessions, four teachers were purposefully sampled
from the 20 selected teachers to integrate the Padlet tool in their classroom
instructions. Data were collected for four weeks in the second term of the 2019
academic year. Videos on various Integrated Science topics were put on pen
drives for the teachers to upload onto the Padlet tool. This enabled learners to
better observe and understand abstract scientific concepts. Teachers used the
uploaded videos primarily as “starters” or “introductions” and in their main
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lessons. Learners watched the videos shown by the teachers and then responded
to all questions or tasks, which were also typed on the Padlet wall.
4.5 Data analysis

Quantitative data were analysed through SPSS (Version 21). Data were converted
to frequencies, percentages, mean scores, and standard deviations summarised
into tables. In addition, the data were subjected to statistical tests using
MANOVA, Partial Correlation, and Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation to
measure the relationships between independent and dependent variables
(creative pedagogies, views, and formative assessments). Qualitative data were
analysed using thematic content analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006). This method
identifies common or recurrent themes in the data and describes the essential
elements. The authors then reviewed the data using a constant comparison coding
process (Yin, 2015). Finally, to verify the interviews, the authors asked the
participants to check their responses and confirm that they were correct
reflections.
5. Results
5.1 Profile of Participants
The activities described in the previous sections are presented in this section. In
addition, the themes and associated categories emerging from the triangulation of
analysed data from the field notes, interviews and the questionnaires are also
presented.
Table 1: Demographic characteristics

Statistics
Variables Frequency Percentage (%)
Gender:
Male 7 35
Female 13 65
School:
School A 5 25
School B 5 25
School C 5 25
School D 5 25
Qualifications: Bachelor of Education
(BEd) 7 35
Master of Education
(MEd) 9 45
Master of Philosophy
(MPhil) 4 20
Specialisation:
Biology 4 20
Chemistry 4 20
Physics 4 20
Integrated Sciences 4 20
Agricultural Sciences 4 20
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Age
26–30 5 25
31–35 9 45
36–40 6 30
Number of
years teaching
1–5 years 7 35
6–10 years 8 40
11–15 years 2 10
16–20 years 3 15
Forms Taught
Forms 1 and 2 8 40
Forms 1 and 2 3 15
Forms 2 and 3 3 15
Forms 1, 2 and 3 6 30
5.2. Pedagogies adopted by the science teachers to increase learners’

engagement and attainment using the Padlet tool
The classroom observations were conducted to find out how teachers used the
Padlet tool in teaching topics in Integrated Sciences, how teachers involved
learners using creative pedagogies and how the teachers engaged and used
assessments for learning strategies. Results were coded and analysed.
The teachers used interesting starters to introduce their lessons, alongside sharing
the learning goal with their learners. These starters were always related to the
topic to be learnt for the day and were mostly audio-visuals (videos).
Teachers varied their instructions. The use of textual power point presentations
was very low as videos were more often used. Teachers allowed learners to share
their ideas in class through presentations. For all the schools, learners gave oral or
written summaries of their learning in a 3-2-1 count down. This strategy enabled
the learners to do quick mental science.
The teachers also arranged for learners to work in small groups to submit tasks
using the Padlet tool and to foster collaborative learning of both high and low
achievers.
The teachers created an environment with multiple modes of communication and

learning. Therefore, a creative ICT-based learning environment permitted
learners to express their knowledge through several forms which necessitated a
strategy that enabled students to compare, integrate, and synthesise many
channels of communication and learning.
The teachers encouraged student-initiated activities which appeared to centre on

engaging activities as a tool for encouraging learning. Student-initiated activities
necessitated the teachers’ support to foster an enabling environment and a
sensitive, interactive discourse.
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The teachers made good use of the formative assessment for learning strategies.
“Waiting time” was given to learners to think about possible responses to the
teachers’ questions. Groups provided varied answers from the observations of the
videos they watched. This made the learning and teaching of abstract science
concepts simple. Project assignments were placed on the Padlet for the learners to
do and submit in groups. The learners were very careful about the type of
responses they provided since it was a learning platform. At times, learners
provided answers to the teacher’s questions and then the teacher read and
provided feedback on the learners’ responses and clarified key ideas for learners.
It was hypothesised that “variables such as school, area of speciality and years of
teaching by the teacher would significantly affect the Instructional Practice (IP),
the Thoughts and Opinions of Teachers (TAOT) and the Assessment for Learning
(AFL) techniques”. This hypothesis was tested by exposing demographic
variables and teacher IP, TAOT and AFL to multivariate analysis to determine if
these variables had a significant impact or not. Results are shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Multivariate Analysis of Variance for IP, TAOT and AFL among Teachers
Categorised by School, Speciality, and Years of teaching
Independent Variables
DV/Statistics
School Specialisation Years of teaching
Mean (Std. Dev) Mean (Std. Dev) Mean (Std. Dev)
CP A = 46.40(1.14) Biology = 45.80(1.79) 1–5 yrs = 46.14(1.34)

B = 45.80(1.09) Physics = 45.20(1.30) 6–10 yrs = 46.25(1.75)
C = 45.60(1.14) Chemistry = 47.00(1.58) 11–15 yrs = 46.50(0.71)
D = 46.60(2.51) Integrated Sc. = 47.20(1.52) 16–20 yrs = 45.33(2.08)
A = 46.60(1.67) Biology = 44.20(2.68) 1–5 yrs = 47.14(0.90)

FA B = 45.40(2.79) Physics = 45.80(2.28) 6–10 yrs = 45.75(2.12)
C = 46.20(1.92) Chemistry = 47.00(0.71) 11–15 yrs = 48.00(0.00)
VT A = 47.00(1.41) Biology = 47.00(1.22) 1–5 yrs = 47.43(1.13)

B = 47.40(0.55) Physics = 47.20(0.84) 6–10 yrs = 47.50(0.76)
C = 47.00(0.71) Chemistry = 47.40(0.55) 11–15 yrs = 47.50(0.71)
Λ .168 .129 .529

Df 3,17 2,17 3,17
F .582ns 1.634ns .129ns
Sig .682 .402 .935
η2 .023 .008 .044
ns =
not significant at .05; A = School A; B = School B; C = School C; D = School D; CP = Creative
Pedagogies; FA = Formative Assessment; VT = Views of Teachers
The MANOVA results in Table 2 reveal a non-significant multivariate main effect

for area of specialty and number of years of teaching as independent variables, as
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related to teacher IP, AFL and TAOT (dependent variables) respectively. This
implies that the above hypothesis is not supported.
When the Wilks Lambda is not significant, school, as a variable, does not affect
the Instructional Practices (IP), Assessment for Learning (AFL) and Thoughts and
Opinions of Teachers (TAOT). However, Wilks Lambda reveals that one
independent school variable significantly affects multiple variables (IP, TAOT
and AFL). Therefore, Eta (η2) also shows the size of the impact of the independent
variable on the dependent variables (IP, TAOT and AFL).
Results for age, gender, teacher qualification and forms taught (as independent
variables) also show an overall insignificant effect on both teacher IP, TAOT and
AFL (as DVs). For gender, age, qualification area of specialisation and forms
taught [Wilks Lambda λ = 1.00, F(1,17) = 0.001, p>.05, partial η2 = .002; Wilks
Lambda λ = 1.00, F(2,17) = 0.002, p>.05, partial η2 = .003: Wilks Lambda λ = 1.00,
F(2,17) = 0.000, p>.05, partial η2 = .000; Wilks Lambda λ = 1.00, F(6,17) = 0.003, p>.05,
partial η2 = .001]. This indicates that demographic variables, such as gender, age,
qualification, area of specialisation and forms taught, do not affect IP, TAOT and
AFL of teachers.
5.3 Correlation between IP, TAOT and AFL

The second hypothesis stated, “There is a significant positive correlation between
IP, TAOT and AFL”. Results of this hypothesis are presented in Table 3.
Table 3: Partial Correlation between IP, TAOT and AFL

Predictor Variables Outcome Variables
CP VT FA
IP - - -
TAROT .285ns - -
AFL .327ns .228ns -
ns = not significant at .05; IP = Instructional Practices; AFL = Assessment for Learning; TAOT =
Thoughts and Opinions of Teachers
Results in Table 3 reveal a positive correlation between the three study variables
(IP, TAOT and AFL). However, these correlations are insignificant. This implies
that the second hypothesis is also not supported. TAOT is .285 and not significant
because the sample size is minimal. In addition, the coefficients are all positive.
5.4 Impact of the Padlet tool, as a vehicle for teaching and learning of Integrated
Sciences, on learner achievement
The third hypothesis states, “Using Padlet tools to teach significantly improves
learners’ attainments on the Integrated Sciences”.
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Table 4: Analysis of Difference between Task Performance of Learners before and

after the Use of the Padlet Tool
DV/Statistics Groups of Schools
A B C D
Mean (Std. Mean Mean (Std. Mean (Std. Dev)
Dev) (Std. Dev) Dev)
Task Performance 23.00(3.06) 24.96(3.03) 25.88(3.22) 23.32(2.61)

Before Use of Padlet
Tools
Task Performance after 34.08(2.46) 35.56(1.87) 35.40(2.71) 36.08(1.85)

Use of Padlet Tools
Df 24 24 24 24
T 26.135** 22.599** 16.240** 24.048**
Sig .000 .000 .000 .000
**s =
significant at .01; A = School A; B = School B; C = School C; D = School D; CP = Creative
Pedagogies; FA = Formative Assessment; VT = Views of Learners
Table 4 shows the mean score for assessment attainments before using the Padlet
tool and after using the tool. A Matched Pairs t-test analysis of mean difference
shows that a significant difference existed between the assessment attainments
mean scores before and after using Padlet. In each school, the mean score after the
use of Padlet was better than the mean score before the use of the Padlet tool. This
implies that the use of the Padlet significantly improved assessment attainment in
each school. Thus, the third hypothesis is supported.
Table 5: Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation between Learners’ Views on Use of

Padlet Tool and Teaching Approaches
Variables Teaching Approaches
df r Sig
Views of Learners on the use of the 98 .308** .002
Padlet Tool
** = <.01
Results in Table 5 show that learners’ views on the use of the Padlet tool positively
correlated with learners’ evaluation of teaching approaches adopted by teachers.
Hence, the learners had a positive view of the teachers’ approaches. Pearson’s R
was used because there were no variables to control such as gender and form.
5.5 Views in using the Padlet tool as a vehicle for teaching and learning
Integrated Science
In learners’ views, two themes emerged, namely, creative and innovative
pedagogies and getting engage oriented. Learners believed that their science
teachers used innovative teaching approaches during the lesson. For example,
they responded that their teachers gave them learning goals before the main
lesson was taught in class. They also noticed that their science teachers put them
in sizable learning groups to share learning ideas on different topics. According
250
to the learners, they mostly watched exciting videos about science concepts
related to different topics their teacher taught in class, which allowed them to
better understand the topic for the day. Two learners narrated:
“Yes, we watched science videos every time, especially at the beginning of
the lesson. Then teacher put us into small groups and make us share our
group ideas by typing it on the wall” (Rejoice).
“My teacher asks questions on the science videos we watch and mostly we
respond to the questions on the wall. With that we are able to read our
classmates’ responses” (Serwa).
The second theme which is getting engage and oriented manifest that the teachers
really orient the learners how to use Padlet before engaging them. The learners
also indicated that their teachers gave them orientation notes before using the tool
in their classrooms and gave them time to read the notes that prepared them to
use the Padlet tool. The learners felt that the Padlet was an excellent tool for
learning Integrated Sciences. One learner narrated:
We received some form of orientation by our teacher. That was
accompanied by orientation notes. The notes were made so easy to read.
As a result, we never struggle with the Padlet tool, although it was new
to us (Frank).
Other learners enjoyed using the Padlet tool. Learners’ engagement was strong
and learners were happy to see their own and their group ideas on the walls that
showed that they were able to learn from their friends quickly. More collaborative
learning was seen in the use of the Padlet tool. One learner mentioned:
“Indeed, this is a great tool because it can be used even outside my
classroom. I even like the fact that I can search the internet even when
using the Padlet to get more information on other concepts” (Tony).
Learners happily used the Padlet tool since they could locate the delete, upload,
and text features very quickly, which allowed them to type their work on the
Padlet wall.
5.6. Teachers’ views on the Integration of Padlet in the Science Classroom

Pedagogies
Two themes emerged from the teachers’ views, namely, the ability to use creative
pedagogies, and formative assessment strategies. The first theme focused on the
science teachers’ ability to use creative pedagogies/innovative teaching
approaches while integrating the Padlet tool in the science classroom. The
teachers used starters in introducing their lessons in class and showed more
videos to the learners which were related to the science concepts learners were
expected to learn. The creative pedagogies teachers used also included teachers’
sharing the learning goals with learners. The Problem-Based Learning (PBL)
approach was emphasised. Learners were given specific scenarios concerning the
science topic, and they were tasked to find solutions to the problems. Two teachers
narrated:
“I used interesting starters which were critical thinking questions based
on the topic to be learnt for the day” (Ms Agyei).
251
“I made the learners watch at least a video relating to every science topic
and ensure that I ask them questions which they respond to by writing on
the wall. I ensure that I give them enough time to respond to questions”
(Mr Ntim).
The second theme was the formative assessment strategies teachers used with the
Padlet tool. One hundred percent of the science teachers stated that they could
provide learners with varied, creative, high order questions to encourage them to
think critically on all the science concepts they were taught in class. These
questions followed a video on a science concept. After watching videos, learners
were tasked to talk about their observations in groups. One teacher mentioned:
“Most of the questions I posed are higher order questions. I often used
inquiry-based strategies to get learners thinking out of the box for
solutions. In addition, I also assess my learners through group
presentations” (Mr Nyame).
Through these varied questioning techniques, learners could respond to the

questions by typing their responses on the wall. Using the PBL strategies, teachers
gave learners tasks in which the learners provided varied responses in group
presentations in the classroom. The teachers enjoyed using the tool to provide
basic classroom assessments for learning strategies by allowing all high achieving
and low achieving learners to share their ideas on the wall and by engaging all
learners. One teacher narrated:
“I gave the learners problem questions to make them think more and learn
science better” (Mrs Anderson).
A series of tasks were designed for the learners to carry out after classes related to
activities done in class each week.
6. Discussion
The results of the questionnaire, classroom observations, and the semi-structured
interviews indicated that the implementation of Padlet, as a pedagogical tool, was
appreciated by the participants. With Padlet, as an instructional pedagogy,
teachers implemented creative pedagogies in their classrooms to increase
learners’ engagement, learning collaboration and the chance to master their
learning. Individual learners could learn at their own speed and participate
anonymously in online conversations. The entire class was engaged. Students
were observed reading information which the teacher had uploaded on Padlet,
including videos and other materials for each concept in sciences. This finding
aligns with the study findings conducted by Baidoo et al. (2022) that the use of
Padlet tool, as an instructional approach, allowed the teacher to engage learners
in a virtual interactive session, making learning meaningful, significant, and
relevant, while enhancing learners’ levels of attention and responsiveness. This
finding also supports Nadeem (2021) who found that using Padlet in education
enabled students to relate to the sub-topics discussed in class as students
interacted with classmates and the teacher. Thus, the creative pedagogies enabled
teachers to use group tasks, which fostered collaborative learning and
successfully eliminated the anxiety and disquiet of traditional teaching methods.
This means that there was a significant positive correlation between the Creative
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Pedagogies (CP), Formative Assessment (FA) and Views of Teachers (VT)

however, these correlations are not significant.
The Matched Pairs t-test analysis of mean difference shows that a significant
difference exists between learners’ achievement mean scores before and after
using Padlet. In each school, the mean score after the use of Padlet was better than
the mean score before the use of the Padlet tool. This implies that the use of the
Padlet significantly improves learner achievement and retention. This finding
corroborates that of Udosen (2020) which described Padlet as an effective tool
with a significant role in improving learner achievement and motivation.
The findings on learners’ views and their rating of teaching approaches adopted
by their teachers revealed that the mean records on learners’ evaluation of
teaching approaches were 41.00, 47.48, 40.84 and 42.12 for learners from schools
A, B, C and D, respectively. In addition, these means were subjected to a One-Way
Analysis of Variance, and the results indicated that a significant difference existed
between the learners’ evaluations of teaching approaches of their teachers. The
learners expressed positive views towards the use of the Padlet tool, which
confirms the results of a similar study conducted by Gursoy and Goksun (2019).
One hundred percent of the science teachers stated that they were able to
creatively provide learners with varied high order questions for them to think
critically on all science concepts they taught in class. This finding is in line with
Firat and Köksal’s (2019) study that reveals that Padlet is an effective tool in
education. Furthermore, it was remarkable that all the teachers and learners who
participated in this study said that this was their first encounter with an online
application and that the researchers provided guidelines for them to successfully
use the Padlet tool without any difficulties.
7. Conclusion
The outcome of the study of the integration of Padlet tool in improving learning
outcomes among high school Integrated Science learners in the Greater Accra
Region of Ghana shows that the implementation of technological tools in
education can be successful. Effective use and integration of web-based tools will
enable both teachers and learners to cope with the numerous challenges arising
from conventional teaching and learning. It is evident from the results of the study
that using and integrating the Padlet tool in science teaching allowed teachers to
engage in interactive virtual sessions where learners instantly submitted and
shared completed class tasks and group assignments. The Padlet tool allowed the
learning process to extend remotely beyond the classroom while it enhanced
learners’ levels of attention, responsiveness, interest, engagement, and
participation. This, in turn, made learning more meaningful, significant, and
relevant. Therefore, it is recommended that governments and policymakers
embark on developing practical pedagogical courses geared towards the training
of teachers in the use of technological tools in science classrooms. In addition,
existing government policies on technology should be periodically reviewed to
ensure the rapid integration of technology in the teaching and learning of
Integrated Science in schools. The Ghana Government and the Ministry of
Education should also consult internet providers to ensure that all senior high
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schools have high-level connectivity at subsidised rates to empower teachers and

learners to access science information from the internet. Finally, more Professional
Learning Community sessions should be established countrywide to tailor more
learning and teaching activities to accommodate all learners.
Acknowledgement
Our appreciation goes to Walter Sisulu University Research Office for providing
funding to present a part of this paper at 2022 AERA/WERA collaborative
conference in San Diego, California, USA.
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256
APPENDIX 1: RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
INSTRUMENT A: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TEACHERS
Creative pedagogies and views questionnaire for teachers

This short exercise is to investigate science teachers’ creative teaching approaches /
pedagogies and views on the use and integration of the Padlet tool in the Integrated Sciences
classroom, to enable learners increase in engagement and learning outcomes. Please kindly
provide truthful responses to each item. You are to indicate the extent to which you agree
with the items below. There is no right or wrong answer. Please in each case, tick (√) in the
appropriate box. Your effort will be a useful contribution to knowledge. The information you
provide will be treated with all confidentiality.
SECTION A: Demographic characteristics
Name of School:
Sex: Male: Female: Age:
Qualification:
Area of Specialization:
Number of Years of Teaching:
Classes/ Forms Taught:
SECTION B: Creative Pedagogies

Items Fully Agree Undecided Disagree Fully
Agree Disagree
1.I set goals at the beginning of

Integrated Sciences instruction.
2. In teaching Integrated Sciences

concepts I show video simulations on
the Padlet for learners to observe.
3. In teaching Sciences instruction

concepts, I can also show power point
presentations to engage learners.
4. I use group work to engage learners

on the Padlet tool during Integrated
Sciences instruction lessons to improve
learning outcomes.
257
5. I can use the Padlet to perform more

scientific practical activities to improve
learning outcomes.
6. I allow learners to discuss Integrated

Sciences instruction concepts in pairs
and then share their views on the Padlet
tool.
7. In using the Padlet, the teacher is to

occasionally give projects to learners in
groups.
8. The teacher is to build an online

Integrated Sciences portfolio with
learners when using the Padlet.
9. I can also use the Padlet to find out

what learners already know about an
Integrated Sciences concept to be
taught.
10. The teacher can use the Padlet to

search for more information on the
internet on Integrated Sciences topics
SECTION C: Formative Assessment Strategies used by Integrated Science Teachers

Agree Disagree
1.Before I teach Integrated Sciences, I

share the learning goals with my
learners.
2.When using the Padlet tool, I ask

learners divergent questions about
scientific concepts in class.
3. When using the Padlet tool, I ask
learners convergent questions about
scientific concepts in class.
4. I give learners questions to check for

their understanding of scientific
concepts using the Padlet tool.
5. I give learners the task of drawing out

a concept or idea that they learned in
the Integrated Science lesson.
258
6. I give learners time to think before

they respond to my questions on the
Padlet tool.
7. The teacher is to provide prompt

feedback on learners’ responses to
Integrated Sciences questions on the
Padlet tool.
8. The teacher is to provide prompt

feedback to learners’ responses orally
and written on the Padlet.
9. I ask learners to write down three

things that they have learnt in
Integrated Sciences on the Padlet tool.
10. I ask learners to write a summary of

the scientific concepts they have learnt
for the day to check their
understanding.
SECTION D: Views of Teachers on the use and Integration of the Padlet Tool
Agree Disagree
1. I have no difficulty in using the

Padlet in the Integrated Sciences
classroom.
2. I like to see my learners/ comments

on the Padlet
3. Padlet motivates me to interact with

my learners inside and outside of the
Integrated Sciences classroom.
4. Padlet encourages my learners to
interact and complete tasks together or
in groups.
5. I feel less stressed when I use the

Padlet to teach Integrated Sciences in
class.
6. I feel less stressed when I use the

Padlet to give learners Integrated
Sciences projects to work on.
259
7. Padlet encourages my class to interact

in groups to complete an assigned task
together.
8. Padlet allows me to read all the

responses from learners in class by
reading their posts and comments on
the class wall to check for their
understanding of Integrated Sciences
cconcepts.
9. When I post on Padlet wall, I am

careful to check my grammar and use
the right Integrated Sciences terms.
10. It is a good idea to use Padlet to

teach Integrated Sciences.
INSTRUMENT B: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR LEARNER
Creative Pedagogies and Views Questionnaire for Teachers

This short exercise is to investigate learners’ ideas on the use of the Padlet tool in learning
Integrated Sciences concepts. Please kindly provide truthful responses to each item. You are
to indicate the extent to which you agree with the items below. There is no right or wrong
answer. Please in each case, tick (√) in the appropriate box. Your effort will be a useful
contribution to knowledge. The information you provide will be treated with all
confidentiality.
SECTION A
Name Of School:
Sex: Male: Female Age:
Programme:
SECTION B: teaching approaches used by the Integrated Sciences Teachers

Items Fully Agree Agree Undecided Disagree Fully
Disagree
1.In teaching Integrated

Sciences, the teacher set goals
at the beginning of instruction.
2. The teacher showed video

simulations on the Padlet for
us to observe.
260
3. In teaching Integrated
Sciences concepts, the teacher
showed a power point
presentation to engage the
learners.
4. The teacher made us work

in groups to engage learners
on the Padlet tool during
Integrated Sciences lessons to
improve our learning.
5. I can use the Padlet to

perform more scientific
practical task and activities to
improve learning.
6. The teacher allows us to

discuss Integrated Sciences
concepts in pairs and in
groups and then we share our
views on the Padlet tool.
7. In using the Padlet, the

teacher occasionally gives
projects to us in groups.
8.When we type our responses

to our teacher’s questions, we
build an online Integrated
Sciences portfolio together
with our teacher.
9. Our teacher makes us write

about what we know already
or what we will like to know
about an Integrated Sciences
concept on the Padlet wall.
10. The teacher can use the

Padlet to search for more
information on the internet on
Integrated Sciences topics.
261
SECTION C: Views of Learners on the use of the Padlet Tool

Agree Disagree
1. I have no difficulty in using the

Padlet in the Integrated Sciences
classroom.
2. I like to see my classmates

share on the Padlet.
3. Padlet motivates me to interact

with my classmates inside and
outside of the Integrated Sciences
classroom.
4. Padlet enables me to share
ideas with my friends.
5. I feel less stressed when I use

the Padlet to learn Integrated
Sciences in class.
6. I learned new concepts from

the other posts on Padlet
7. The materials posted on Padlet

were clear
8. The materials posted on Padlet

were useful
9. When I post on Padlet wall, I

am careful to check my grammar
and use the right scientific terms.
10. It is a good idea to use Padlet

to learn Integrated Sciences
INSTRUMENT C: INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR TEACHERS
The purpose of this interview is to find out the teaching approaches, formative assessment
strategies and views adopted by Integrated Sciences teachers to improve learning outcomes
during the use of the Padlet tool. Your responses will be treated with all confidentiality.
Thank you for your co-operation.
1. Do you include knowledge and skills into your learning goals?

If ‘yes’, why do you say so? If no, give your reason.
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
262
2. How will you define learner engagement?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
Do you believe your learners were more engaged, less engaged or about the same
during the use of the Padlet in the Integrated Sciences classroom?
If yes, why do you say so? If no, give your reason.
………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………..
3. What do you feel is one of the greatest benefits or positives that resulted from the use
of the Padlet tool?
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………….............
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
4. Did you notice any negatives or drawbacks because of using the Padlet with learners
during the study?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………................
5. Tell me about the techniques or strategies you use to encourage learners to
participate in class when you ask questions to check if learners understand
Integrated Sciences concepts.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
INSTRUMENT D: INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR LEARNERS
The purpose of this interview is to find out the views and teaching approaches adopted by
your Integrated Sciences teacher/s to improve your learning outcomes during the use of the
Padlet tool. Your responses will be treated with all confidentiality. Thank you for your co-
operation.
1. Do you find it easy to use the Padlet tool?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
Did your teacher take you through the orientation notes on the Padlet before you
started using it?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. What Integrated Sciences topic/s did you use the Padlet to learn in class?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. What do you feel is one of the greatest benefits or positives that resulted from the use
of the Padlet tool?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
263

Vol. 21, No. 5, pp. 263-280, May 2022
Measurement of Non-academic Attributes in the

Situational Judgment Test as Part of School Teacher
Selection: Systematic Literature Review
‘Azad Iqram Nadmilail , Mohd Effendi @ Ewan Mohd Matore*
and Siti Mistima Maat
Faculty of Education, National University of Malaysia, Malaysia
Abstract. The Situational Judgment Test (SJT) has become an increasingly

well-known measurement method that is frequently used in various
fields, especially for personnel selection, promotion, and professional
development. The SJT also has a greater potential in relation to the
selection of teachers in the education sector. Teacher selection aspects
such as non-academic attributes, specifically the interpersonal and
intrapersonal, are the focus of this study. This study uses a Systematic
Literature Review (SLR) consisting of a review protocol to determine the
topic that has been researched and the method used for making revisions.
The SLR approach has four phases: searching, screening, analysing, and
the results with numerous criteria established. The review consists of
seven studies on teacher selection using the SJT instrument over the past
ten years during the period January 2012 to December 2021. Eight
interpersonal attributes were obtained based on six previous studies,
namely organisation, planning, empathy, communication, teaching,
relationships with colleagues, counselling, and contingency. Meanwhile
seven intrapersonal attributes were obtained, namely conscientiousness,
mindset, emotion regulation, adaptability, enthusiasm and motivation,
resilience, and professional ethics. The attributes found can be utilised as
they are fundamental for teacher selection criteria. The previous studies
employed the same attributes. However, the attributes should only be
employed according to the suitability of the selection context being
performed.
Keywords: interpersonal; intrapersonal; situational judgment test (SJT);

systematic literature review (SLR); teacher selection
1. Introduction
The Situational Judgment Test (SJT) is popular and is widely used in various fields
such as education, medicine, nursing, and the military (Nadmilail & Mohd
*
Corresponding author: Mohd Effendi @ Ewan Mohd Matore, effendi@ukm.edu.my
©Authors
264
Matore, 2021). The SJT is also used in the selection of personnel and as part of
promotions (Whetzel et al., 2020). The selection of personnel is a priority at the
international level. In fact, the medical field in the United Kingdom has decreed
that selection is among the first procedures to be carried out when engaging in
medical education and training (Patterson et al., 2016). This clearly shows that
admission to medical colleges at the international level is a priority in the selection
of personnel. Likewise, in the United States for example, the military field also
evidences a high level of competition among newly appointed officers for
promotion (Lievens et al., 2008). Potential members seeking to assume the
position of officer should choose the best response from among the response
options given. In the promotion test, the SJT is used to measure select leadership
considerations (Whetzel et al., 2020). This situation shows that the SJT is
implemented not only in the selection of newly appointed personnel but also for
the purpose of promotion. Overall, most Western countries have conducted SJT-
related studies such as the United States of America, the United Kingdom, and
Germany.
As the SJT grows in popularity as a predictor of personnel performance, various

organisations around the world have adopted the use of SJT as a psychological
gauge and individual marketability tool (Weekley et al., 2013). The main challenge
is accurately predicting a person’s future work performance based on the findings
using the limited information available during the selection process. Moreover,
this prediction is very useful, especially in the research of educational psychology,
as well as when explaining the achievements of university students (Breen &
Lindsay, 2020). This is because predictions, such as student success and hidden
talent, are also useful to enable educational institutions to identify students who
are having difficulty adapting to the college environment and who are at risk of
failing academically (Matošková & Kovářík, 2017). In some cases, work situations
in relation to achievements can contextually provide additional information on
the appropriate criteria and personality measurements (Golubovich et al., 2020).
Most of the studies using the SJT were done by measuring the psychology of the
test candidates based on hypothetical situations to describe select interpersonal,
intrapersonal, and intellectual constructs (National Research Council, 2015). As
such, the SJT is increasingly being accepted worldwide in various professions and
it is used for various purposes.
For a better understanding, it is important to further explore the issues using the
SJT in relation to teacher selection. Therefore, this review will identify and analyse
the attributes measured using the SJT related to prospective pre-service teachers
based on previous studies in terms of non-academic attributes. The non-academic
attributes cannot be measured solely on the premise of the IQ Test achievement.
Patterson et al. (2012) also stated that the SJT can accurately assess the non-
academic characteristics that are relevant in clinical practise, such as integrity,
empathy, and resilience. Understanding human attitudes, particularly those
including non-academic characteristics, can assist both stakeholders and
researchers in understanding a current phenomenon. In fact, future predictions
can be made based on the data obtained. As a result, this review will provide
insights into the human attitudes studied that include non-academic attributes.
265
2. Literature and Studies

Lievens and Coetsier (2002) said that the SJT is used as a method of measurement
to evaluate the respondents’ views or interpretations of the work-related
environment that reflects the actual work scenario. The SJT also aims to measure
competency and the interpersonal attributes related to work (Lievens et al., 2008),
while the methodologies are designed to measure the non-academic attributes of
targeted characters (Patterson & Driver, 2018). Basically, the SJT is an instrument
of psychological measurement that contributes ideas and knowledge to enable
researchers to decide and evaluate any result based on the responses given by the
test candidates (Nadmilail & Mohd Matore, 2021). In addition, the SJT is one of
the best predictive measurement methods and strategies due to its varied possible
test structures (Ployhart, 2013).
The SJT is also known as a simulation method (O’Connell et al., 2007) that requires
the respondents to make judgments in situations that highlight problems in the
assignment (Al Hashmi & Klassen, 2019). The simulation test contains a set of
actual state tasks and asks the respondents to respond as if they are doing it. These
reactions or responses are interpreted as an indication of the respondents’ future
behaviour expectations. Generally, the fidelity of the test denotes a simulation test
that varies according to the way that the test is performed (Nadmilail & Mohd
Matore, 2021). The test, when it is used as an accurate expectation of genuine
working conditions, denotes a high-fidelity simulation test. Therefore, a high-
fidelity simulation test is important to reflect a real situation possible in a
particular field of work. As such, the SJT is designed to create individual
assessments in a contextual workplace environment (Ryan & Ployhart, 2014). To
link it to work-related situations, a collection of critical situations and responses
are provided as a checklist. The collection will then target the attributes or
competencies based on an analysis of the job description. The selected response
will provide a prediction of the actions taken based on the description of the
targeted task.
There are several theories underlying the SJT in the development of similar
instruments. Past studies have shown that some researchers have approached the
subject with a variety of views and opinions on SJT-related theories such as
Motowidlo et al. (2006) who targeted the Theory of Behavioural Consistency as a
theory related to SJT, and Motowidlo et al. (2013) who explained the Implied
Nature Policy. To date, there are considerably clear views related to the basis of
the SJT theory.
There are two predominant theories proposed by past researchers. The first theory
is the Theory of Behavioural Consistency. This describes behaviour in the past as
being the best predictor of future behaviour. The main principle of this theory
highlights the current behavioural sample to enable the prediction of future
behaviour (Motowidlo et al., 2006). SJT has proven to be a predictor of good work
performance as it measures the understanding of procedures about effective
behaviour in certain situations (Lievens & Patterson, 2011). Thus, the predictions
shown by the test candidates provide a clearer picture to the panel of selectors as
the key indicators in the decision-making process related to the selection,
266
promotion, and professional development requirements, especially in the

workplace.
Second, Implicit Trait Policies (ITPs) is another theory that has created a consensus
and attention among researchers regarding literature reviews. ITPs are implicit
beliefs about the impact and cause of the consequences expressed by various
actions related to the effectiveness of said actions (Motowidlo et al., 2013). These
actions are measured as the main function along with the behavioural
characteristics of the response options and the individuals’ consideration of the
effectiveness of their behaviour. However, it depends also on specific areas such
as employment level, job knowledge, and job description (Motowidlo & Beier,
2010; Patterson et al., 2016). In any given situation, measurements that express
inner nature are referred to as behaviours (Golubovich et al., 2020). Furthermore,
tendencies or traits that have been patterned will contribute some ideas about
behaviours and characteristics that will be permanent. Human beings
individually have different beliefs about the effectiveness of the behaviours that
related to inherent tendencies or personality traits.
In the field of teacher education, a large number of studies have been carried out
by many researchers using the SJT as a model for various purposes. This includes
the selection of personnel, recruitment, and professional development. The main
importance of an education policy, at the international level, is to produce quality
teachers who can engage in quality teaching (Beauchamp et al., 2013). This means
that the teacher selection policy becomes important as the main policy of concern.
The focus on the teacher selection policy of relevance is always given special care
and attention. This is aimed at attracting as many candidates as possible and
producing quality teacher candidates (Feuer et al., 2013; Schleicher, 2014). Over
the years, many studies involving personnel selection in relation to schoolteachers
have been conducted and are increasingly active in various countries. Klassen and
Kim (2019) reviewed and found there to be a total of 32 studies that have been
conducted on the subject from 2000 to 2017. The findings also involved studies
that measured academic and non-academic attributes as well as measuring the
effectiveness of the teachers using an external measurement. However, the focus
of this review is on measuring non-academic attributes, specifically intrapersonal
and interpersonal ones, using the SJT in a more current study time interval.
3. Methodology
3.1. Research Method
This study used the Systematic Literature Review (SLR) as the research method,
specifically consisting of a review protocol that determines the topic to be
investigated and a customised method when conducting the subsequent review.
The SLR is a systematic and explicit method used for identifying, selecting,
critically evaluating, collecting, and analysing data from related past research
(Moher et al., 2009). This method was chosen on the basis that it helps to
synthesise all relevant academic literature in depth. The SLR is also a fundamental
procedure for recognising important literature studies and examining how the
data was obtained from major studies. The SLR is based on the method proposed
by Karabulut-ilgu et al. (2018) as shown in Figure 1. The four phases involved in
267
this review were the search phase, the screening phase, the analysis phase, and
the results phase. In this review, all articles were identified using the keywords
"Situational Judgment Tests" and "Teacher Selection." The SJT was used to obtain
a comprehensive picture of the attributes used in teacher selection based on a
systematic analysis of the relevant publications.
Google
Web of
Search Scopus (n=19)
Science (n=29)
Scholar n=154
(n=106)
Level 1 did Level 2 did After

Screening not meet the not meet the screening
criteria (n=18) criteria (n=35) n=108
Not relevant Recurring

Analysis (n=88) articles (n=13)
Selected
Result articles (n=7)
Figure 1. Adaptation of the Article Selection Process from Karabulut-Ilgu et al. (2018)
3.2. Data Gathering Procedure

3.2.1. Article Search Strategy
This phase consisted of the article search strategy using a search database focused
on three major scientific databases, namely Scopus, the Web of Science (WoS), and
Google Scholar. WoS was chosen because it has grown into one of the world’s
leading scientific citation, discovery, and analytical information search platforms.
It is used as both an academic library research tool and a rich dataset for
information of a large scope across a wide range of academic fields (Li et al., 2017).
Meanwhile, Scopus was considered as well because it is progressively used in
academic papers (only slightly less than WoS competitors) and it challenges the
WoS division method externally (Zhu & Liu, 2020). In addition, Google Scholar
can help to develop important resources for publicly accessible archives covering
a wide range of disciplines and languages, It is unmatched by others in terms of
the provision of efficient and effective online scientific documents (Gusenbauer,
2019).
The keywords "Situational Judgment Tests" and “Teacher Selection” were used in
this phase. The appropriate keywords were selected based on the objective to be
achieved following the search process. Researchers also used the phrase search
function and the Boolean OR or/and operator to combine keywords in the initial
search process. This review used three basic techniques in the manual search:
handpicking, backward tracking, and forward tracking (Mohamed Shaffril et al.,
2020). Subsequently, a search strategy was added to obtain the latest articles.
Finally, the relevant articles were selected by limiting the publication year to
between January 2012 and December 2021 which is within ten years. This is
because SJT-related studies on school teachers are still underway and therefore
limited (Nadmilail & Mohd Matore, 2021).
268
3.2.2 Article Selection Criteria

To obtain accurate and appropriate articles, several stages as part of the screening
of the original articles were applied using the SLR. The main screening process
was dependent on the designated inclusion and exclusion criteria shown in Table
1.
Table 1. Screening Criteria Setting

Main Criterion Inclusion Criterion Exclusion Criterion
Year of Publication January 2012 – December 2021 Other than January 2012 –
December 2021
Type of Publication Empirical Articles Other than Empirical Articles
Language English Other than English
The two inclusion criteria were (1) within the time frame from January 2012 until
December 2021, and (2) empirical articles written in English. The two exclusion
criteria were (1) studies outside of the time frame from January 2012 until
December 2021, and (2) non-empirical studies in a language other than English.
The next strategy was to remove past articles and studies that recurred through
the method of title reading and abstract reading. The final analysis was carried
out through a full and in-depth reading of the remaining articles to remove any
articles that were not relevant to the requirements of this study. A total of seven
articles were selected based on the search, screening, and analysis processes. The
seven selected articles are shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Summary of the Selected Articles

Authors & Year Country Study
Bardach, Rushby, & England The Selection Gap in Teacher Education: Adverse
Klassen (2021) Effects of Ethnicity, Gender, and Socio-Economic
Status on the Situational Judgement Test
Performance
Bardach et al. (2021) England Using video-and text-based situational judgement
tests for teacher selection: A quasi-experiment
exploring the relations between the test format,
subgroup differences, and applicant reactions.
Klassen et al. (2020) England Can we improve how we screen applicants for
initial teacher education?
Chao et al. (2019) Taiwan Construction of situational judgment tests for
teachers.
Al Hashmi & Oman Developing a situational judgement test for
Klassen (2019) admission into initial teacher education in Oman: An
exploratory study.
Klassen et al. (2016) England Developing a Proof-of-Concept Selection Test for
Entry into Primary Teacher Education Programs.
Klassen et al. (2014) England Applicant reactions to a situational judgment test
used for selection in initial teacher training.
4. Results
The main objective of this review was to identify and analyse the characteristics
of non-academic interpersonal and intrapersonal attributes as part of teacher
269
selection using the SJT instrument. A total of seven research articles related to the
topic of the SJT and teacher selection were identified. Studies on the measurement
of non-academic attributes have attracted a high level of interest among
researchers around the world, particularly those looking into personnel selection.
This is because non-academic attributes such as integrity, empathy, and resilience
are believed to be important in practice (Patterson et al., 2012). However, studies
on the use of the SJT as a teacher selection mechanism are still new and have been
rarely carried out.
This literature review makes a valuable contribution to other researchers by

giving them a critical assessment of the existing research on related topics. The
findings may explain a more critical perspective on the impact of the SJT on non-
academic attributes as an indicator that can be considered continuous and useful.
Such a review has been previously conducted by Patterson et al. (2012) but the
review was only limited to the years of publication between 1990 to 2010. The
review also used other databases such as MEDLINE, PsycINFO, BIOME, and
BioMed Central. Moreover, the review did not focus on specific areas of selection
and the findings did not list the areas of education, particularly those involving
teacher selection. Klassen and Kim (2019) also conducted a meta-analysis looking
into the method and mode of teacher selection. However, the results did not list
any studies using the SJT. Additionally, Webster et al. (2020) conducted a meta-
analysis of the validity of SJT users in personnel selection. However, the review
only involved the medical field. Therefore, the current review focuses on the SJT
and only involves the selection of teachers to assist other researchers embarking
on studies related to the SJT and teacher selection specifically. This review can
also provide a clear picture to other researchers regarding the popularity of non-
academic attributes which are often the choice of researchers looking into the
context of personnel selection in the teaching profession.
In teacher selection, the three main aspects are measured as the selection aspects,
namely intellectual, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. Intellectual constitutes the
academic attributes, whereas interpersonal and intrapersonal constitute the non-
academic attributes. The review of the literature, specifically regarding the
analysis of non-academic attributes, has always been the concern of researchers
around the world. The analysis could help other researchers to evaluate the
attributes that are actively or poorly used when measuring the performance of test
candidates (Patterson & Driver, 2018). The findings obtained from this review
focus on the patterns of the attributes that researchers are interested based on the
SJT instrument in teacher selection. The measured interpersonal and intrapersonal
attributes in teacher selection using the SJT are as shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Measured Attributes

Authors & Year Interpersonal Intrapersonal
Bardach, Rushby, & Not discussed • Conscientiousness
Klassen (2021) • Mind-set
• Emotion regulation
Bardach et al. (2021) • Organisation • Adaptability
• Planning • Resilience
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Authors & Year Interpersonal Intrapersonal

• Empathy • Conscientiousness
• Communication • Mind-set
Klassen et al. (2020) • Organisation • Adaptability
• Empathy • Conscientiousness
• Mind-set growth
Chao et al. (2019) • Classroom Not discussed
management
• Teaching
• Relationships with
colleagues
• Parent-teacher
communication
• Counselling
• Contingency
Al Hashmi & Klassen • Communication • Resilience
(2019) • Organisation • Adaptability
• Planning • Professional ethics
• Enthusiasm and motivation
• Empathy
• Communication
• Empathy
• Communication
Table 3 shows a list of the measured non-academic interpersonal and

intrapersonal attributes based on the previous studies. Five studies have
measured interpersonal and intrapersonal attributes, namely Al Hashmi and
Klassen (2019), Bardach et al. (2021), Klassen et al. (2014), Klassen et al. (2016), and
Klassen et al. (2020). Only one study measured intrapersonal attributes, namely
that of Bardach, Rushby, and Klassen (2021), while one study examined
interpersonal attributes, specifically the work of Chao et al. (2019).
5. Discussion
5.1. Interpersonal
Golubovich et al. (2017) defined “interpersonal” as the perception and processing
of a cognitive interaction as well as the selection of behaviours to provide
appropriate responses. This statement is also supported by Bedwell et al. (2014)
who stated that “interpersonal” is the concept of there being multiple dimensions
between an individual’s cognitive and behavioural aspects. Meanwhile, Pavlidou
et al. (2020) explained that “interpersonal” is a process of successful
communication and interaction with others. In short, interpersonal shows there to
be an active relationship between cognition and behaviour that effectively
highlights the external characteristics of an individual. Table 4 shows a summary
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of the findings of the previous studies that measured interpersonal attributes in

the selection of trainee teachers using the SJT.
Table 4. Summary of the Findings on Interpersonal Attribute

Authors (Year)
Bardach et al. (2021)
Klassen et al. (2020)

Chao et al. (2019)
Klassen (2019)
Al Hashmi &
Total
Interpersonal
Attribute
Organisation x x x x x 5
Planning x x x x x 5
Communication x x x x x 5
Empathy x x x x 4
Relationships with colleagues x 1
Teaching x 1
Counselling x 1
Contingency x 1
Based on Table 4, eight interpersonal attributes were obtained based on six past
studies, namely organisation, planning, empathy, communication, teaching,
relationship with colleagues, counselling, and contingency. Four studies
measured the attributes of organisation and planning (Al Hashmi & Klassen, 2019;
Bardach et al., 2021; Klassen et al., 2014, 2016). Organisation and planning were
combined in these studies, focusing on the ability to effectively organise and
manage the time and planning skills of the organisation (Klassen et al., 2014).
These attributes were used to improve the positive learning interactions with the
students. Meanwhile, Klassen et al. (2020) measured only the organisational
attribute and Chao et al. (2019) had only measured planning focused on classroom
management.
Three of the previous studies measured both attributes of communication and

empathy (Bardach et al., 2021; Klassen et al., 2014, 2016). Communication and
empathy were combined in the studies focused on the ability to listen actively and
where an open dialogue with students and colleagues was involved (Klassen et
al., 2014). In addition, communication and empathy focus on the ability to adapt
the communication style used and the nature of the dialogue accordingly.
Meanwhile, Al Hashmi and Klassen (2019) only focused on communication and
Klassen et al. (2020) focused only on empathy. Chao et al. (2019) divided
communication into two, namely communication with parents and relationships
with colleagues. In addition, they also measured other interpersonal attributes,
namely relationships with colleagues, teaching, counselling, and contingency.
Four popular interpersonal attributes, specifically organisation, planning,

empathy, and communication, were explored by Klassen et al. (2014). The first
group of researchers conducted a SJT study looking into teacher selection and
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three more studies similarly used the same attributes (Bardach et al., 2021; Klassen
et al., 2016, 2020) but based the context on different situations. According to
Klassen et al. (2014), the selection of attributes is based on the situation and
background of the place according to the contextual environment of the school.
All situations in the SJT were built through discussions with specialist teachers
who worked closely with trainee teachers using critical incident techniques.
Organisation, planning, communication, and empathy are the most popular

interpersonal attributes based on past studies. Organisation and planning are
among the requirements of job marketability (Zakaria et al., 2014). Both attributes
are also used as key benchmarks to ensure that the personnel selected are of good
quality, and the same goes for empathy and communication. Communication
includes many facets that reflect the ability of the personnel when engaging in a
two-way interaction with others. These two attributes are closely intertwined.
Good communication is seen to increase a person's level of empathy (Kataoka et
al., 2018). Therefore, past studies that combine communication and empathy as
one attribute are appropriate given how the two attributes are closely intertwined.
Chao et al. (2019) used the highest number of attributes, namely planning,
communication, relationship with colleagues, teaching, counselling, and
contingency. They listed the attributes based on the needs in the field of
Taiwanese education, specifically the profession of teaching in Taiwan. The
attributes are classroom management, teaching, relationships with colleagues,
parent-teacher communication, counselling, and contingency. These attributes
were selected because teachers have very complex jobs. Teachers need to keep up
to date with the latest curriculum, motivate their students to learn, and actively
participate in the learning process. In addition, teachers also need to encourage
learning and prepare the students to be productive. The complexity of the
teachers’ duties should be considered when developing better measurement tools
regarding admission to the training programme. The research team identified
attributes to build the situation in the SJT which was implemented through a
discussion involving 60 experienced teachers in Taiwan. All of the situations
developed were cross-checked with education experts to ensure that the items
were realistic and reflect the real situation.
In short, the measured interpersonal attributes are of urgent interest and are
needed in the teaching profession on both a global and local level. The selection
of these interpersonal attributes is also based on the needs that have been used in
the selection of other professions such as among doctors, the military, and
nursing. However, among the eight listed attributes, four of them were not
usually used by the authors except for Chao et al. (2019), namely a relationship
with their colleagues, teaching, counselling, and contingency. Thus, future
researchers can use the existing attributes or other unexplored attributes in
teacher selection. This will also provide new insights and goals for other
researchers to explore new attributes in the context of the teaching profession.
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5.2. Intrapersonal
Sambaiah and Aneel (2016) defined “intrapersonal” as personality, attitude, self-
concept, self-management ability, and integrity. This statement was also
supported by Park et al. (2017) in that “intrapersonal” denotes self-awareness that
requires an accurate assessment of one's feelings, interests, and values. Table 5
shows a summary of the findings of the past studies that have measured
intrapersonal attributes as part of teacher selection using the SJT. Seven
intrapersonal attributes were obtained from the six previous studies:
conscientiousness, mindset, emotional regulation, adaptability, enthusiasm and
motivation, resilience, and professional ethics.
Table 5. Summary of the Findings on Intrapersonal Attributes

Authors (Year)
Bardach, Rushby,
& Klassen (2021)
Klassen (2019)
Bardach et al.
Al Hashmi &
Klassen et al.
Klassen et al.
Klassen et al.
(2021)
(2020)
(2016)
(2014)
Total
Interpersonal
Attributes
Adaptability x x x x x 5
Resilience x x x x 4
Conscientiousness x x x 3
Mind-set x x x 3
Emotion regulation x x x 3
Professional Ethics x 1
Enthusiasm & Motivation x 1
A total of six previous studies selected the adaptability attribute (Bardach, Rushby
& Klassen, 2021; Bardach et al., 2021; Klassen et al., 2020; Al Hashmi & Klassen,
2019; Klassen et al., 2016; Klassen et al., 2014;). Adaptability is defined the ability
to make changes according to a particular suitability based on a particular
situation (Klassen et al., 2014). Meanwhile, Ryan and Ployhart (2014) defined
adaptability as a person's ability, skills, inclination, readiness, and motivation to
change or adapt to different tasks, as well as the social and environmental
features. In the teaching profession context, adaptability is needed to test a
teacher's ability to change their teaching style in response to various situations in
the classroom. Hence, researchers have long highlighted adaptability as an
important attribute to be measured.
Resilience is the second most selected intrapersonal attribute, featuring in four

studies (Al Hashmi & Klassen, 2019; Bardach et al., 2021; Klassen et al., 2014, 2016).
Resilience denotes an individual’s ability to stay calm, stable, and focused while
under pressure (Klassen et al., 2014). Leys et al. (2020) defined resilience as a
dynamic process that allows for a positive adaptation in the context of significant
difficulties. In the context of the teaching profession, resilience is always necessary
in the selection of personnel because a teacher needs to be able to remain
professional when it comes to balancing his or her duties and personal life. Thus,
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resilience is an important attribute for teachers when facing challenges involving

their duties and personal life.
Three of the previous studies have focused on the conscientiousness attribute

(Bardach, Rushby, & Klassen, 2021; Bardach et al., 2021; Klassen et al., 2020).
Conscientiousness refers to the stable feelings, thoughts, and behaviours that
make up a unique individual (Turiano, 2020). Meanwhile, Stoll et al. (2020)
defined conscientiousness as the tendency to be meticulous, punctual, and to
follow the rules. The conscientiousness attribute was chosen in past studies
because the teachers had high scores in conscientiousness, particularly those
involving situations in the classroom (Klassen & Kim, 2019). The teaching
profession requires a high level of conscientiousness, especially among the
teachers who teach at an early education level. They are faced with children under
the age of seven who have self-management difficulties. Therefore, such teachers
should have a high level of conscientiousness to enable them to manage the
children as well as to help the children manage themselves.
Other than conscientiousness, the “mindset” attribute was also selected by three
of the previous studies (Bardach, Rushby, & Klassen, 2021; Bardach et al., 2021;
Klassen et al., 2020). Mindset denotes the formation process of different meanings
and goals, motivations, and behaviours (Schroder et al., 2017). Seaton (2018)
explained that mindset is an individual's view of intelligence that can be
developed and expanded. The mindset attribute was selected as one of the target
attributes due to the teachers’ belief in the nature of learning and the flexibility of
the student’s abilities which can impact the teachers’ teaching as well as the
students’ performance and self-confidence. Hence, mindset is important to teach
students who have various levels of intelligence. Teachers should also have a
good mindset as well so then the teaching and learning process can be
implemented smoothly.
Additionally, the “emotion regulation” attribute was selected by three of the

previous studies (Bardach, Rushby, & Klassen, 2021; Bardach et al., 2021; Klassen
et al., 2020). According to Aldrup et al. (2020), “emotion regulation” refers to the
process in which an individual influences his or her emotions and the expression
of emotions. Meanwhile, Koschmieder and Neubauer (2021) defined emotion
regulation as the ability to modify emotions through self-control strategies. In the
teaching profession context, teachers must deal with emotional situations in their
daily working lives. Any work with such a high consumption of emotional energy
can be burdensome and result in emotional exhaustion. Emotional fatigue is one
of the main elements of burnout, especially in the workplace. Burnout is
considered to be the result of an ineffective response strategy that results in
constant stress that can lead to more chronic problems.
Al Hashmi and Klassen (2019) selected the “professional ethics” attribute as well
as the enthusiasm and motivation attribute in their study. Professional ethics is
divided into two, namely ethics and professionalism. Ethics denote a moral value
or behavioural principle that an individual or a group holds (Ahmad & Mat Zin,
2001). Peterson and Arthur (2021) defined “ethics” as a moral principle that deals
275
with the advantages or disadvantages of a habit or temperament. Meanwhile,

“professionalism” is defined as a privately held belief about one's conduct as a
member of a profession (Burmeister, 2017). Therefore, professional ethics is the
moral principle and belief of an individual or a group of employees when doing
a job. Correspondingly, professional ethics was selected as an attribute to ensure
that the personnel selected are individuals who have good morals and adhere to
the discipline of the employment profession in question. In the teaching
profession context, professional ethics is referred to as a moral quality that has a
direct connection to any type of classroom practice, including caring about the
students, thoroughness, determination, and a willingness to cooperate with
colleagues.
Enthusiasm and motivation are closely intertwined. Enthusiasm can be defined

as the pleasure, excitement, and joy that individual experiences while doing a job
(Lazarides et al., 2018). Heckhausen and Heckhausen (2018) defined motivation
as activating the life orientation towards positively assessed goals. Meanwhile,
Tohidi and Jabbari (2012) described motivation as empowering the personality to
achieve a high level of performance and being able to overcome any obstacles to
change. In short, enthusiasm and motivation are related to the positive qualities
that a person needs to have while doing something to produce a positive work
result. Both enthusiasm and motivation are important to ensure that teachers are
always passionate about teaching and can provide more support to their students.
They can also have a positive impact on the students’ motivation. Therefore,
enthusiasm and motivation are qualities that personnel need to demonstrate to
establish credibility with the recruitment organisations (Bougie & Sekaran, 2020).
The five main intrapersonal attributes that the previous researchers have most
often selected are adaptability, resilience, conscientiousness, mindset, and
emotion regulation. All five intrapersonal attributes were selected owing to the
interest in choosing competent and qualified personnel to become future teachers.
To meet the challenges in the education field through teaching and learning, this
situation requires teachers with high flexibility and resilience when facing any
situation so then education can be delivered in various circumstances. This exerts
a strong influence on the empathy of teachers based on the high level of
conscientiousness needed. This is as well as a stable mind and approach to
emotion regulation so then any challenges encountered can be overcome. Hence,
the aforementioned five attributes are appropriate to ensure that the selected
personnel can become competent teachers to meet the global challenges.
6. Conclusion
This review reveals some of the commonly utilised characteristics that have been
used as interpersonal and interpersonal attributes. The popularity of the chosen
attributes were determined based on the continuation of the research as well as
according to the locality context. However, there are still unexplored
characteristics that could still aid in predicting individual quality as a
schoolteacher. The novelty of this review is that it provides an in-depth focus on
the non-academic attributes measured for the selection of schoolteachers using
the SJT. The previous reviews conducted did not focus on the use of the SJT
276
instrument. Instead, they were more generic and made it difficult for the
researchers to relate to the issues at hand. This review will make it easier for future
researchers to obtain direct concentrated information. For future studies, the
unexplored attribute judgements can be employed as the predictors of teacher
selection because each of them has unique features that need to be considered.
This review also anticipates that with the continued research focus on ways to
improve teacher quality, more attention will be given to the characteristics chosen
based on the policy practiced and its associated requirements. Additionally,
future SJT reviews can be further explored in terms of item development, scoring,
opportunities, and contributions. As recommended, researchers should also
explore the highlights of other studies through in-depth research based on related
experts, screening articles in other foreign languages, and using a wider database.
7. Acknowledgement
We appreciate the financial support provided by Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
(UKM) as part of the FPEND Research Grant Data (Grant no: GG-2021-K021854).
We are thankful to those who provided insights and expertise for inclusion and
consideration within this study. We would like to thank all experts for their
constructive feedback as part of improving this manuscript. The authors would
also like to thank Ms Madihah Tan Sri Dr Abdullah for always giving her full
support and encouragement during the writing process.
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Vol. 21, No. 5, pp. 281-308, May 2022
Received Jan 6, 2022; Revised May 11, 2022; Accepted May 25, 2022
Teachers’ Perceptions and Challenges to the Use

of Technology in Teaching and Learning during
Covid-19 in Malaysia
Nurshuzishafiqah Ishak
Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,
43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
Rosseni Din*
Learning & Teaching Innovation Research Centre, Faculty of Education,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
Nabilah Othman
Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,
43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
Abstract. The use of technology in education has been an ongoing debate

among educators. Although educators are highly encouraged to integrate
technology in the classroom, they are still sceptical to fully utilize them.
This changed drastically during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 which
forced educators and learners to rely heavily on the use of technology to
support learning. This paper identifies teachers' technology usage in the
classroom, their perceptions on the use of technology in the classroom
and the challenges of integrating technology in teaching and learning. We
employed a quantitative research approach with survey design and non-
probability snowball sampling. To collect the data, a questionnaire was
distributed to 78 primary and secondary school teachers. We found that
teachers in that particular area mostly used smart phones to access
internet and conduct lessons due to the limited availability of devices
from the students’ end, internet connectivity, and limited instructional
time. Despite the challenges presented, they believed the importance of
technology in education, and it helped enhance students' digital
competence and responsible use. This research, thus, present an insight
to the educational authorities in Malaysia of the general perceptions of
teachers on the technology used during the pandemic and in turn, will
increase digital access and awareness for a better quality of technology
integration in teaching and learning.
Keywords: teaching and learning; technology integration; technology

use; pandemic
* Corresponding author: Rosseni Din; rosseni@ukm.edu.my
©Authors
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1. Introduction
The importance of the use of technology in education is widely spread. Following
the Malaysia Education Blueprint, the education system has aspired Malaysia to
better prepare Malaysian children for the needs of the twenty-first century to raise
the international education standards in the country. Even in early childhood
education, the National Association for the Education of Young Children
(NAEYC) and the Fred Rogers Centre for Early Learning and Children's Media
agreed that children needed to be equipped with technological knowledge from a
young age (Schomburg et al., 2012). By preparing them with the ethical and
positive exposure, they could support learning and relationships.
The former education minister, Maszlee Malik encouraged teachers to utilize any
available platform as it could enhance learning experience (Bernama, 2019). He
also mentioned that teachers and school management should play their key roles
as agents of change in this ICT-rich environment to keep up with the current
changes (Bernama, 2019). The Malaysian education system has supported the use
of technologies in the classroom to enhance students' learning experiences.
Furthermore, ICT infrastructure, technology-based materials, and Internet
connectivity have been broadly improved in certain areas in Malaysia mainly in
the city and urban areas.
Although educators were highly encouraged to integrate technology in the

classroom, teachers were sceptical to fully utilize them. UNESCO (2013) reported
80% of teachers in Malaysia used ICT less than one hour per week and mostly
used it for word processing applications. Overall, there were 57% teachers who
used technology for education and only 39% of them admitted to not receiving
any training in using technology ((Ebrahimi and Yeo, 2018). However, this
situation drastically changed due to the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak in 2020.
On March 26, 2020, UNESCO announced 1.6 billion students from 165 countries
were out of school (Wan, 2020). The ministry of education of the 165 countries
decided to shut down school operations as a control measure to minimize the
transmission of the virus. Education leaders had to resort to multiple strategies
and the most effective mechanism to assure learning continues with the use of
digital technology.
This situation forced teachers, educators, and learners to rely heavily on the use
of technology to support the teaching and learning process. This was especially
significant for lower education as it previously revolved heavily around face-to-
face communication with some integration of technology. Meanwhile, for
decades, some of Malaysia’s technology-forward universities and higher
institutions already have a rich online bank of teaching and learning materials.
Furthermore, online learning posed less challenge to adult learners than to the
children of lower education. Before the pandemic, lessons were in the form of
hands-on learning with the integration of technology but due to the first school
closure from March until July 22, 2020, technology in the form of online learning
and classroom was used as the main medium of instruction and learning. In April
of the same year, in response to the demand arising from concerns of the teachers,
283
neccessary steps were taken to ensure students can still learn despite not being
able to come to school physically.
Covid-19 pandemic has changed educational perspectives in Malaysia. Most

countries had to close educational institutions to prevent the spread of the Covid-
19 virus (Md Shah et al., 2020). The effects of the pandemic make changes and
shape new environments by contributing to the increased use of technology for
teaching and learning. It has changed the use of technology among students and
teachers when they were forced to use technology when the school was closed
and there was no better, easier, and cheaper way to deliver education except
through online teaching and learning via video, Facebook, Zoom, and other
computer-mediated communication devices and platforms. In consequence, this
posed challenges for the teachers to navigate coursework through online and
remote learning. This study gives an insight to the education authorities and
people of interest on teachers' perceptions as well as the challenges towards
technology use in teaching and learning during the pandemic.
The research objectives are to (i) identify teachers’ technology usage in teaching
and learning during the pandemic, (ii) identify teachers’ perceptions of their level
of technology use in teaching and learning during the pandemic, and (iii)
determine teachers’ perceptions on the challenges of integrating technology in
teaching and learning during the pandemic. The structure of the paper includes
(i) a literature review revolving around four subtopics; technology in education
to give an overview of how technology has become the go-to medium to continue
teaching and learning; teachers’ current perceptions in the use of technology in
teaching and learning; the challenges of integrating technology in teaching and
learning during the pandemic and; the situation where the pandemic covid-19
and school lock down has changes the use of technology in Malaysian education,
(ii) the methodology in which this research has employed a quantitative research
approach with survey design, (iii) the findings and (iv) a discussion revolving
around the three research objectives.
2.1 How the Pandemic Covid-19 and School Lock Down Changes the Use of
Technology in Malaysian Education
Malaysian citizens were not aware of how deadly the virus was as there was no
intention of banning travellers from China on January 25, 2020 (Md Shah et al.,
2020). However, the increase in the number of positive COVID-19 cases in
Malaysia on March 8, 2020, caused Malaysians to panic and consequently, the
government took various steps to calm the masses. On March 18, 2020, a
Movement Control Order (MCO) was implemented resulting in schools' closure
as a preventive and control measure of the virus that had hit the country
(UNICEF, 2020) causing billions of students losing access to education (Wan,
2020). Malaysia was not the only country affected by this predicament. The
Ministry of Education (MoE) of China had also closed all educational facilities to
control the spread of the virus (Yang, 2020) alongside the MoE in the forty-six
countries (as of March 12, 2020) resulting in disrupted classes (Huang et al., 2020).
284
Technology is indeed no longer a tool used to facilitate learning but has become
the main medium of instruction and learning to support flexible online education
in the event of school closure (Huang et al., 2020). In the period of crisis, the
education system's solution to the most effective ways to keep going is by turning
to technology and online education mediums (Mavrou, 2020). China being the
most applauded country regarding their quick response towards the unfortunate
event has disclosed a handbook on facilitating flexible learning during this time
of concern. The ministry launched "Disrupted Classes, Undisrupted Learning"
signalling that even through the crisis, the learning would still go on through
flexible online medium to over 270 million students from their homes (Huang et
al., 2020).
In Malaysia, amid the concerns for how the learning would take place, UNICEF
has helped the MoE to consult with teachers on their needs to carry out the
initiatives through a survey with 86% indicating they needed support to deliver
distance learning. Thus, the ministry launched an online teaching and learning
platform nationwide to equip teachers with the skills and knowledge of digital
and distance learning. Furthermore, an online teaching and learning platform of
the MoE's TV Pendidikan (EduwebTV), hosts on-demand content for Pre-
Kindergarten to secondary school students. This platform has kept the
continuation of learning for the three million children (UNICEF, 2020). The online
platform consists of current updates from the ministry, digital textbooks for
students across all levels, and most critically, the Teacher Digital Learning
Community which assists and equips teachers with the skills and knowledge to
deliver an effective and efficient distance class through a five-module online
teacher training course (UNICEF, 2020). As of 8 July 2020, around 24,000 teachers
from over 1,600 schools have participated in the online teacher training.
The sudden change of medium of learning through technology has increased the
government and private sectors' awareness on the flexibility for teachers to choose
the most suitable solution for a given context and maximize students' learning
experiences. Teachers were no longer limited to use fixed tools and applications
but rather they took consideration of the student's accessibility to the online
learning platform, as it might not be available to all students with economical or
technical constraints (UNICEF, 2020). The current situation has forced many
parties to provide plenty of opportunities for teachers and educators to connect,
interact and provide feedback. As the learning program was self-paced, it allows
teachers to select modules according to their needs and schedules (UNICEF, 2020)
and has created opportunities for Malaysian researchers to play their part by
developing different technologies to help Malaysians face the pandemic (Md Shah
et al., 2020).
2.2 The Challenges of Integrating Technology in Teaching and Learning during

the Pandemic
Despite the abundance of strategies implemented to ensure the continuation of
education during the pandemic, there were unfortunate setbacks affecting
students and teachers likewise. For example, in a report by Masatienwong and
Nongtrud (2021), the effects of the pandemic towards Thai children and youth
were significant as the problems and challenges have increased significantly over
285
the two years of pandemic especially in less developed areas and countries where
the discrepancies between people of different socioeconomics and geographical
backgrounds were large. This include the high rate of poverty caused by the
educational inequality, the closure of schools led to the trap of learning, more
students were out of school, learning loss caused learning discontinuity,
technological readiness, content readiness and educational disruption. They
further noted the lack of accessibility to technological devices and internet played
a role.
However, Sung et al. (2015) had mentioned that insufficient preparation of the
teachers persisted as one of the largest obstacles to implement effective
technology integration in the teaching and learning process. The OECD (2020) has
also listed four challenges in implementing online teaching and distance
education which are (i) Balance digital with screen-free activities, (ii) Keep a pulse
on students’ emotional health, (iii) Access to devices, (iv) Manage access to IT
infrastructure.
Based on four challenges in implementing online teaching and distance education,

teachers would need to balance digital with screen-free activities because if online
lectures were to replace school hours, it would affect students' health either
physically or mentally. They also pointed out that teachers would need to
recognize the importance of keeping a pulse on students' emotional health as this
crisis might be unsettling and disorientating for students. As students came from
different socio-economic backgrounds, access to devices may vary for each
student, and thus, teachers would need to consider the possibility of students not
having the devices to carry on with the workload. Meanwhile, teachers would
also need to manage access to IT infrastructure as having students connect at the
same time and place may be a problem for certain students. Abdul Hamid and
Khalidi (2020) state that the reality was quite different from what teachers,
students, and parents were used to and everybody was still grappling with e-
learning. While many parties in Malaysia have put an effort to support these
abrupt changes, the responsibility fell heavily onto the teachers.
2.3 Teachers’ Current Perceptions in the Use of Technology in Teaching and

Learning
The teachers' world view towards digital technologies were influenced by their
thoughts and beliefs about teaching and learning. Salavati (2016) noted that
teachers would find it easier to adopt and use innovations if they believe that these
integrations can help in the learning outcome. However, pre pandemic research
showed that some educators were still sceptical of making full use of the available
technologies even though students were showing readiness towards mobile
learning with 70% showed a willingness to learn anytime and anywhere
(Rahamat, 2019).
Rahamat (2019) in her studies of designing mobile learning in Malaysian

secondary schools for students revealed that students wanted to use their own
mobile devices as the learning tool such as laptops (75%), smart phones (14%),
and hand phones (11%). This further supports Pine-Thomas affirmation that to
remove the teachers' barriers to the integration of technology in the classroom and
286
for effective integration of technology to take place, teachers needed to develop a

paradigm shift in their thinking (Pine-Thomas, 2017).
The pandemic acted as a catalyst to the change of mindset that teachers had
towards online education when they were forced to adopt remote and distance
learning and utilize any approach appropriate to continue teaching and learning.
Gunjan & Priyamvada (2020) reported that 45% of schoolteachers agree online
methods provide positive benefits to students compared to the traditional
methods. 77% teachers believed that students were able to concentrate more and
revise lecture at their own pace by doing it through online media teaching.
Furthermore, educators also believed that the integration of technology in
teaching and learning such as the usage of video in edutainment helped to
improve student’s concentration (Ab Razak & Din, 2020). This provides a positive
outlook on teachers' perceptions of the use of technology in teaching and learning.
In China, as a response to the epidemic prevention and control, teachers exhibit a

willingness to support online teaching with 52.12% of the 15,438 valid responses
strongly supporting the initiatives (Yang, 2020). This can also be influenced by the
teacher's readiness to deliver online teaching as the study found that most
teachers already had experience with e-learning platforms, which makes the
sudden change more endurable (Yang, 2020).
The COVID-19 pandemic has changed the course of our thinking about how the
education sector need to be improved and operated (The World Bank, 2020).
Educators all over the world had to carry the burden of the entire education and
training system on their shoulders. They needed to cope with ministerial
directives that were forcing and expecting the immediate result to end programs.
They teach in abnormal contexts during this emergency and lacking adequate
tools and resources in unfriendly ecosystems (Lifelong Learning Platform, 2020).
Without the support from the agencies around the education sector and the
government, it was a toll on teachers' mental health as the idea of education going
digital was not simple (Agnoletto & Queiroz, 2020). In this troubling predicament,
going digital has complex ingredients as there was a sense of urgency, unprepared
readiness to deal with Virtual Management System (VMS) and online teaching
tools, digital fluency, and the requisite of dealing with fear and boredom of social
isolation (Agnoletto & Queiroz, 2020).
3. Methodology: Procedure and Data Analysis

An instrument to measure the respondents’ perceptions was adapted from
various studies (Bailey & Lee, 2020; Vu et al., 2020; Gunjan & Priyamvada, 2020;
Hoffmann & Ramirez, 2018; Loague et al., 2018; Aminu & Abu Samah, 2019;
Rasmitadila et al., 2020; Vassallo & Warren, 2018). A content validity was done
with a language expert, an expert in the field of measurement and technology, one
in the field of resource and information technology, and a senior assistant of a
secondary school. They were given information about the study aim and
objectives with the instrument to review. The language experts also used
technology in Teaching English as a Second Language (TESL) and was involved
287
in research in the subject area. Face validity was also conducted before the real
study to ensure enough time were given to the respondents to answer the
questionnaire and all items in the questionnaire can easily be understood.
Appendix 1 has the first draft of the questionnaire.
We employed a quantitative research approach with survey design. The rationale

for using this method was to have an efficient means of gathering data by asking
a specific, concise question to obtain data that were measurable and observable
on the variables (Creswell, 2012). The revised and validated questionnaire was
used to collect data. The experts examined and verified the questionnaire to
ensure that it fulfilled the aim of this study.
The questionnaire comprised 44 items divided into four sections; Section A (i)
teachers’ demographics profile; Section B (ii) technology usage; Section C (iii)
perception of the use of technology and Section D (iv) challenges in integrating
technology in the classroom during the pandemic. The participants answered the
questions based on the 5-point Likert scale level of agreement: 1- strongly
disagree, 2-disagree, 3- partially agree, 4- agree and 5- strongly agree. The
questionnaire was originally adapted from English sources but given that the
respondents may not have English as their first language, the researchers opted
to translate and provide a bilingual questionnaire, which were in Bahasa Melayu
(Malay language) and English to accommodate non-English speakers. It was
developed and distributed through a self-administered web-based electronic data
collection, Google Form.
The reliability test is a method for checking a scale’s internal consistency.

Cronbach’s alpha is used as the indicator, the value of which should be above 0.7.
The overall Cronbach’s alpha value for the instrument was 0.70 indicating an
acceptable internal consistency (Table 1).
Table 1: Reliability Statistics

Section Cronbach’s Alpha N of Items
B 0.46 18
C 0.87 10
D 0.83 10
We employed snowball sampling, a non-probability sampling method. Polit &

Beck (2006) described snowball sampling, also known as network sampling or
chain sampling, as a convenience sampling variation. They explained that early
sample members were requested to refer others who fit the eligibility criteria in
this method. This strategy is most utilised when the population contains people
who have difficult-to-identify features (e.g., people who are afraid of hospitals). It
allowed us to continue to recruit participants until an acceptable number is
achieved through a referral from one respondent to another. For this study, the
population was Malaysian teachers and the sample consisted of 410,471 primary
and secondary school teachers. Based on Krejcie & Morgan (1970), the sample size
for population of 75,000 to 1,000,000 is 382 to 384 with a 95% confidence level and
288
5% on error estimate. The Figure 1 below show the Formula for determining
sample size from Krejcie & Morgan (1970).
Formula for determining sample size
s = X2 NP (1 - P) ÷ d2 (N - 1) + X2 P (1 - P)
s = required sample size

X2 = the table value of chi-square for 1 degree of freedom at the desired confidence level (3.841)
N = the population size
P = the population proportion (assumed to be .50 since this would provide the maximum sample size)
d = the degree of accuracy expressed as a proportion (.05)
Figure 1. Formula for determining sample size from Krejcie & Morgan (1970)
However, due to the constraint of time and resource, we surveyed only 150
teachers ranging from primary to secondary school. Even so, we were only able
to collect 78 due to limitations in terms of time and resources. From the 78
responses, there were altogether 31 secondary school teachers and 46 primary
school teachers with one teacher teaching in both schools. Although
generalization could not be made with only 78 participants as opposed to 384 or
even 150, the findings can still be used to infer same feature of teachers in
Malaysia.
The questionnaire was distributed during Phase 2 of conditional MCO from 4th
May 2020 to 9th June 2020 and Phase 3 of recovery MCO from 10th June to 31st
December 2020 through Google Form to two teachers’ community Facebook
groups, TcherCollection - TC and CikguKongsi. However, reluctance of the
members to participate in such survey was a limitation as there was little number
of respondents from the groups. Hence, we distributed the questionnaire across
private and public groups through messaging applications, WhatsApp and
Telegram focusing on referral of respondents to gather more responses. To ensure
that there was no double submission, the respondents had to sign into their email
and were only allowed to enter one response. Afterwards, we screened through
each response to ensure the data fulfilled the criteria. The recorded responses
were fed into the IBM SPSS Statistics version 22 software to be analysed and coded
through descriptive statistics. We measured the frequency and the central
tendency mainly on the means and standard deviation to simplify the display of
information in a data set in the form of graphs, charts and tabulation.
The method of distributing the questionnaire and analysing the data without any
physical contact was good and applicable in the times of the pandemic but there
were limited number of participants from our targeted groups. Since we used
snowball sampling, there was no guarantee about the representativeness of
samples as it was less possible to determine the actual pattern of distribution of
population. Therefore, it was challenging to determine the sampling error and
make statistical inferences from the sample to the population due to the absence
of random selection of samples.
289
4. Finding
We first present the findings on the demographic profile of the respondents; then
the extent of technology usage; followed by teachers’ perception on technology
use; and finally, the challenges of integrating technology in teaching and learning
during the pandemic.
4.1 Demographic profile

Table 2 illustrates the demographic profile of the respondents. Most of the
respondents are female and most have more than 10 years of teaching experience.
The highest level of education is bachelor’s degree and most respondents teach at
primary school, compared to secondary school, while only two teachers teaching
at post-secondary school. The respondents are allowed to choose more than one
subject that they are currently teaching and many of them are teaching languages.
Lastly, most respondents are teaching in rural area. The demographic profile
helps in giving insight and understanding on the respondents’ background.
Table 2: Demographic profile of respondents

Category Item Frequency %
Gender Male 15 19.2
Female 62 79.5
Prefer not to be disclosed 1 1.3
Teaching experience Less than 3 years 4 5.1
From 3 to 5 years 6 7.7
From 5 to 10 years 14 17.9
More than 10 years 54 69.2
Highest level of education Diploma 2 2.6
Bachelor’s Degree 69 88.5
Master’s Degree 7 9.0
Doctoral Degree 0 0.0
Other 0 0.0
Grade level that they are Primary (Standard 1 to 6) 47 60.3
currently teaching Lower secondary (Form 1 to 20 25.6
3)
Upper secondary (Form 4 24 30.8
and 5)
Post-secondary (Form 6) 2 2.6
Subject that they are Languages 40 51.2
currently teaching Mathematics 11 14.1
Sciences 15 19.2
Vocational and Technical
Subjects 6 7.7
Health and Sport Sciences 3 3.8
Domestic Science 0 0
History 5 6.4
Geography 0 0
Islamic Studies 15 19.2
Moral Education 7 9
Other 14 17.9
Area of schools they are Rural 40 51.3
currently teaching Urban 38 48.7
290
4.2 Extent of technology usage in teaching and learning

This section reports the findings on the extent of teachers' use of technology. In
this part of the questionnaire, respondents could choose more than one item. For
the devices used to access the internet, teachers can use multiple devices ranging
from laptops, smart-phones, tablets, Smart TV, and video game consoles although
the findings in Figure 2 indicates that smart-phones are commonly use possibly
due to the ease of conduct during the lesson as teachers mostly use messaging
applications. Furthermore, the most used medium, teachers used to conduct the
asynchronous lesson is WhatsApp and Google Meet for synchronous lesson.
Teachers' Technology Usage Percentage (%)
55.1
WhatsApp Video Call 28.2
Synchronous Video
17.9
Medium for
Other 15.4
Lessons
10.3
YouTube Live 10.3
2.6
Google Hangout 2.6
1.3
Instagram Live 0
94.9
Asynchronous Lesson
Telegram Group 44.90

20.5
Medium for
Discussion boards/forum 12.8

12.8
Blogs/weblogs 3.8
1.3
Not Applicable 0
0
Wikis 0
93.60
to Access the
Device Used
Laptop 91.00
Internet
17.90
SmartTV 12.80
3.80
Video game console 1.30
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00 90.00100.00
Figure 2. Percentage of Teachers’ Technology Usage
Meanwhile, Figure 3 illustrates the platform teachers used to access digital

resources and learning materials. The data reveals that most of them prefer to use
Google classroom and Facebook over any other platforms.
291
Google Classroom 51.3
Facebook 51.3
Other 47.4
Platform
DeLIMA 42.3
EduwebTV 24.4
Microsoft Office 365 16.7
Apple Teacher Learning Center 1.3
Not Applicable 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Percentage (%)
Figure 3. Percentage of Teacher and Platform for Digital Resources and Learning
Materials
This research also shows the frequency of technology usage by purpose illustrated
in Table 3. This is shown by how often they instruct students to use educational
technology by giving specific purpose. The data reveals that technology is
commonly used for entertainment ranging from daily usage and three to four
times a week for specific skills and information purpose. Many of them used it for
specific skills, creative and information purpose for once or twice a week. Besides
that, for specific and entertainment purpose for two or three times a week. At the
same time, most of them only used technology in classroom for creative activity
once a month and less.
Table 3: Frequency (f) of Technology Usage by Purpose
Purpose Daily Three or Once or Two or Once a month

four times a twice a three times or less
week week a week
f % f % f % f % f %
Specific skills 6 12.8 12 25.5 11 23.4 10 21.3 8 18.0
Keyboarding 6 12.8 10 21.3 9 19.1 7 14.9 15 31.9
Creative 3 6.3 9 19.1 11 23.4 4 8.5 20 42.6
Entertainment 16 34.0 6 12.8 6 12.8 10 21.3 9 19.1
Information 7 14.9 12 25.5 11 23.4 8 17.0 9 19.1
292
Table 4 shows the frequency of technology usage by activity type, which are
written text, graphics, basic skills, research, correspondence, blog/wikis, social,
presentations and creative work. Significantly, most teachers used technology
daily for correspondence activity and three or four times a week for basic skills.
Many of them used it for social activities for once or twice a week and for graphics
for two or three times a week. At the same time, most of them only used
technology in classroom for creatice activity once a month and less.
Table 4: Frequency of Technology Usage by Activity Type
Purpose Daily Three or Once or Two or Once a month or

four times a twice a three times less
week week a week
f % f % f % f % f %
Written text 3 9.4 5 15.6 12 37.5 7 21.9 5 15.6
Graphics 3 9.4 6 18.8 11 34.4 8 25.0 4 12.5
Basic skills 4 12.5 9 28.1 10 31.3 8 25.0 1 3.1
Research 3 9.4 5 15.6 13 40.6 7 21.9 4 12.5
Correspondence 8 25.0 8 25.0 10 31.3 5 15.6 1 3.1
Blogs/ wikis 2 6.3 5 15.6 12 37.5 5 15.6 8 25.0
Social 3 9.3 7 21.9 14 43.8 6 18.8 2 6.3
Presentations 1 3.1 6 18.8 13 40.6 5 15.6 7 21.9
Creative 2 6.3 4 12.5 11 34.4 6 18.8 9 28.1
4.3. Perceptions of the use of technology in teaching and learning during the
pandemic
Next, we present the findings on teachers' perceptions of the use of technology in
teaching and learning during the pandemic to answer the second research
objective. The findings have been categorized into (a) the technology use for the
benefits of the students and (b) technology use for the benefits of the teacher. The
benefits of the students include increase of student collaboration, academic
achievement, enhance digital competence, active participation, prepare for future
workforce, and encourage instructional and learning purpose. On the other hand,
the benefits of the teacher include continuation of teaching and learning; enhance
professional development, access to greater resources, and changes of role. In
analysing the teachers’ perception of the use of technology, data is analysed
descriptively to determine the mean and the standard deviation.
Teachers have an average high level of agreement with the statements in this
section of the questionnaire. It is found that the highest mean is recorded for the
benefits of the teacher (𝑥̅ = 4.42; SD= 0.629) as compared to the benefits of the
students (𝑥̅ = 3.73; SD= 0.700). The data in Table 5 reveals the statement which
receives the highest mean (𝑥̅ = 4.62) which is “Technology is essential to the
continuation of teaching and learning during the pandemic” with 71.8% (56)
strongly agree and 17.9% (14) agree with the statement. Nevertheless, 10.3% (8)
partially agree while none disagree with the statement. In simple term, none of
the teachers disagree that “Technology is essential to the continuation of teaching
and learning during the pandemic.
293
Meanwhile, teachers have high level of agreement (x̅ = 4.13) to the benefits of
students in the statement “The use of technology in teaching and learning
enhances students' digital competence and responsible use” 42.3% (33) strongly
agree and 33.3% (26) agree with the statement. 20.5% (16) shows their partial
agreement. Although, 2.6% (2) and 1.3% (1) shows their disagreement to the
statement. In summary, only an insignificant number of teachers from the sample
3.9% (3) disagree that “The use of technology in teaching and learning enhances
students' digital competence and responsible use.”
Table 5: Level of agreement to the statement(s)
Item (Statement) f 1 2 3 4 5 Mean Level

% (x̅)
Technology is essential in the
continuation of teaching and f 0 0 8 14 56
4.62 High
learning during the COVID-19
% 0 0 10.3 17.9 71.8
pandemic.
The use of technology in
teaching and learning enhances f 1 2 16 26 33
4.13 High
students' digital competence and
% 1.3 2.6 20.5 33.3 42.3
responsible use.
4.4. Perceptions on the challenges of integrating technology in teaching and

learning during the pandemic
This section reports the findings of the third research objective, which is to identify
teachers' perceptions on the challenges of integrating technology in teaching and
learning during the pandemic. The findings have been categorized into (a) the
challenges of the students and (b) the challenges of the teachers. The challenges
for the students include technology literacy, conduct of assessment, student’s
participation, and socio-economic background. The challenges of the teacher
include lack of knowledge, instructional method, and unfamiliarity with the
setting, providing corrective feedback, instructional time, and privacy issues. We
found that the highest mean was recorded for the challenges of the students (𝑥̅ =
3.88; SD= 0.748) as compared to the challenges of the teachers (𝑥̅ = 3.35; SD= 0.681).
In Table 6, the statement which receives the highest mean (x̅ = 4.13) is “Students
from lower socio-economic strata whom teachers worked with cannot afford
devices to participate in online learning”. It illustrates that most teachers at 41%
(32) strongly believe that students from lower socio-economic strata whom they
worked with cannot afford devices to participate in online learning with 34.6%
(27) agree to the statement. Furthermore, 20.5% (16) partially agree. Even so, 3.8%
(3) disagree. Thus, this shows that 3.8% (3) disagree that “Students from lower
socio-economic strata whom teachers worked with cannot afford devices to
participate in online learning”.
On the other hand, the statement that has the highest mean ((x̅ = 3.69) under the
challenges of the teacher is “The instructional time during online learning tends
to be short”. Majority of the teachers 37.2% (29) agree and 21.8% (17) strongly
agree to that the instructional time for them to conduct online learning was short
294
compared to face-to-face and physical classroom. In addition, there are 30.8% (24)
partially agree to the statement but only 9.0% (7) and 1.3% (1) showing their full
disagreement.
Table 6: The level of agreement to the statement(s)

Item f 1 2 3 4 5 Mean Level
% (x̅)
Students from lower f 0 3 16 27 32 4.13 High
socioeconomic strata whom % 0 3.8 20.5 34.6 41.0
I worked with cannot
afford devices to
participate in online
learning.
The instructional time f 1 7 24 29 17
during online learning Slightly
3.69
tends to be short. 1. High
% 9.0 30.8 37.2 21.8
3
5. Discussion
We discuss the (i) The Extent of Teachers’ Technology Usage in Their Teaching
and Learning During the Pandemic; (ii) Teachers’ Perceptions on the Use of
Technology in Teaching and Learning during the Pandemic; and (iii) Teachers’
Perceptions on the Challenges of Integrating Technology in Teaching and
Learning during the Pandemic. However, readers should be aware of some
limitations that we had to faced when conducting this research which are the
limited time and resources. As this was conducted during a strict movement
control order (MCO), we were confined to the resources limited to what was
available via online and any interaction between researchers was only conducted
through messaging app and video calls. Moreover, as mentioned in the
methodology section, this research did not go as well as we had planned for.
During the first three weeks after distributing the questionnaire to the two teacher
community Facebook groups, there were little number of responses, and it did not
achieve the expected number. The members of the groups may be reluctant to
participate in such survey where most teachers were government workers, and
this type of surveys might be private to the use within the sector. For future and
more complete studies, researcher may want to consider looking into and adhere
to the procedures set by the ministry to request permission to conduct research to
the schools in order to gain more responses.
5.1. The extent on the use of technology in teaching and learning during the
pandemic
Firstly, based on the findings, we found that the commonly used device to access
the internet was smartphones. It was possibly because it was a hand-held design
that was easier to carry around and access. Most students would likely to have
smartphones nowadays and thus, have higher access to participate in the teaching
and learning compared to other types of the lesson, which required other devices.
Secondly, the commonly used medium to conduct asynchronous lesson were
WhatsApp and Telegram which were both a type of messaging applications
which could be installed in the smartphone. This was probably because it required
less internet data and shared a similar reason for the choice of device.
295
Thirdly, the most preferable medium to conduct synchronous lessons was Google
Meet but there was a significant number of teachers who were unable to conduct
such lessons due to internet connectivity, having lived in a less developed area
and students were not well-equip with devices and Internet at home. Fourth,
teachers mostly access Google Classroom and Facebook for digital resources and
learning materials. However, there was not much significant difference among
the platforms possibly because teachers were open to using such platforms to suit
their search for various learning materials. Fifth, technology was frequently used
for entertainment purpose for primary school teachers and correspondence
activity for secondary school teachers.
Based on the findings, we can see that the teachers were not reluctant to
incorporate technology in the classroom albeit they had to adapt the lesson into
mobile-friendly activities to suit their students’ conditions. If there were only 57%
of teachers used technology in education before the pandemic (Ebrahimi & Yeo,
2018), now all the respondents used them in their classroom. There were also 77%
of teachers who believed that students were able to concentrate more and revise
lectures at their own pace through online media teaching. This provided a positive
outlook on teachers' perceptions of the use of technology in teaching and learning.
This was a shift in teachers’ mindset compared to before the pandemic, as teachers
were more motivated to use technology in their teaching. Despite the change of
the mindset, there were other setbacks that could not be ignored. Although
teachers may prefer to use elaborate mediums to conduct asynchronous and
synchronous lessons, they were restricted by students' ability to join and
participate in them. Abdul Hamid and Khalidi (2020) stated that in the times of
pandemic, the level of e-learning adoption seemed to be linked to a country's level
of development. This further pointed that Malaysia was still at a nascent stage
with limited availability of devices to support such endeavour as 37% of the
900,000 students in Malaysia did not have the appropriate device. A study
conducted by Gunjan & Priyamvada (2020) reported that there were 45% of
schoolteachers who agreed that online methods provide positive benefits to
students compared to the traditional methods.
5.2. Teachers’ Perceptions on the Use of Technology in Teaching and Learning

during the Pandemic
Most respondents agreed that technology was essential to the continuation of
teaching and learning during the pandemic. Being that teachers were unable to
meet physically and discuss students’ learning developments, online meeting
platforms have been the go-to medium to support the teaching and learning.
Thus, they realized the difficulty to cope with working remotely with no or lack
prior experience or skills to tackle online learning by using technological tools,
media, and platforms and as such the ministry as well as the teachers' community
in the social media, resorted to provide and share learning materials through such
platforms for easier access. Other than that, by providing the opportunity to
students to utilize the learning platforms enhances their digital competence and
responsible use. With 42.3% teachers agreeing how technology had helped their
296
students in their digital competence, this was a step up compared to a survey of

1,647 primary Year 1 pupils which was undertaken by the MOE and Microsoft
Malaysia in late 2005. They reported that the pupils displayed fundamental
computer hardware and software recognition, which met the learning objectives
for that age range but poor levels of skill in typing, voice recording, and drawing
activities were discovered during the assessment (UNESCO, 2013). Students may
not know how to record, make videos, or even use Google Classroom before, now
they were equipped with the knowledge to handle simple or even complicated
technology.
As technology has become essential in the current situation, it cannot be ignored.

Teachers are forced to explore various types of approaches to continue teaching
and learning despite. Emerging technologies in education such as cloud
computing, mobile technology, Massive Open Online Courses (MOOC), games
and gamification, augmented reality, and virtual reality needs to be explored and
utilized (Hashim, 2018). If smartphone was the only device available to use,
educators need to find other approaches to explore the potentials of the device.
Research conducted by Che Murat et al. (2020) found that all their respondents
owned a smart-phone and they showed high readiness towards mobile learning.
They further stated that mobile learning could help stimulated students’
motivation to learn independently because mobile devices such as smartphones
were extremely easy to use, have attractive features, are flexible and thus,
educations could be accessed anywhere and anytime.
Being thrown drastically into a situation that required all teachers to depend on
and explore these various approaches, many has seen the negative and positive
effects of using technology in the lesson. Teachers seem to have an affirmative to
the positive effects of integrating technology in classroom and this further
strengthen the need for our education system to have well-equip, up to date and
re-invent environments to support more technological usage in teaching and
learning. Hashim (2018) stated that the traditional teaching paradigm are
challenged by today's new generation and due to the current event, it further
escalated the need to accommodate the learners and to cater to their needs, the
learners' capabilities, preferences, experiences, the frame of reference and
familiarity with technology should be considered. Teachers already considered
these criteria when they independently took initiatives to create the lesson
materials. However, the curriculum and assessment for formal education were
still quite rigid to accommodate them.
5.3. Teachers’ Perceptions on the Challenges of Integrating Technology in

Teaching and Learning during the Pandemic
Most respondents found that students from lower socio-economic strata whom
they worked with could not afford devices to participate in online learning.
Affordability to own a device to participate in online learning was a recurring
concern and deserved to be investigated. Finance has always been a concern for
many people from lower socio-economic backgrounds. While there was a low
number of people who owned personal computers, laptops, and tablets,
smartphones have a higher percentage of ownership at 46%, which was why it
297
was the most common device to be used by teachers to conduct their lesson
(Abdul Hamid & Khalidi, 2020). Teachers were forced to choose the most suitable
tools, platforms, and materials for all their students to be able to participate in
class. If materials that are more complex were used, some students might be
unable to participate due to limited devices and Internet connectivity. Thus, it
would hinder their learning development during this remote learning
environment.
Although it was a suitable alternative to not having any devices at all, it was still
limited in terms of the instructional features among other criteria. Most likely,
teachers would impart instructions to the parents and have the parents monitor
and guide the students. This further supported the statement that not all students
were technology literate. Some would have limited understanding and ability to
navigate technology on their own, required parents, and family intervention,
which was acceptable if it was for lesson development although it would bring
another set of challenges for the parents. However, it may hinder fair assessment
and evaluations on the students and thus, teachers would be unable to truly
observe and analyse their students' understanding and learning growth.
On the other hand, teachers found that the instructional time during online
learning tends to be short. Over the years, students were provided with
information physically either teachers-students interaction, reading materials
from books or unlimited access to the school’s library (Balan et al., 2020).
However, it has changed now with teachers providing virtual classroom or online
materials to be reviewed in students’ own time and it may affect student’s
attention span. There were many activities that teachers could do during physical
classroom to help increase students’ attention span, but online learning offered a
different set of challenge. Hence, teachers chose short and concise materials and
straightforward approach to conduct their lessons. While this may help to retain
students’ attention and focus on the topics at hand, it was a challenge for teachers
to ensure the information was enough.
The momentum that was born out of necessity to change from traditional learning
to advanced technology learning needed to be continued and further explored by
the authority and people of interest. As stated in the literature review, the first
difficult part to integrate technology was to shift teachers’ paradigm and when
that limitation was removed, the changes should be easier to follow. However, the
lack of readiness of the system to support to such changes inhibit the motivation
to do more. The schools in every area should provide better facilities to support
technology. Not only that, but telecommunication service providers in our
country also needed to upgrade as the current and immediate challenge was that
the more populated area and rural area have difficulties connecting to the internet.
Furthermore, if the richer schools were able to provide enough facilities and
devices to their students to support and accommodate online teaching and
learning, why shouldn’t less fortunate schools be provided the same especially in
our centralized education system? By providing these incentives to the students,
both teachers and students would have more time to focus in other areas to
298
expand on their experience and knowledge. Ease of conduct and freedom for
teachers to experiment with their methods of teaching via technology depended
on the time that they spent to prepare for these materials. Teachers should be
given more time and training to enhance professional developments and be given
the space that they need to explore and experiment maturely. Hastily
implemented strategies were beneficial in times of emergencies but it was not
substantial and stable enough to be the foundation of the educations in the new
norms.
Teachers, educators, and trainers all over the world had to carry the burden of
the entire education and training system on their shoulders. As they needed to
cope with ministerial directives that were forcing and expecting the immediate
result to end programs, teach in abnormal contexts during this emergency and
lacking adequate tools and resources in unfriendly ecosystems (Lifelong Learning
Platform, 2020). Without the support from the agencies around the education
sector and the government, it was a toll on teachers' mental health as the idea of
education going digital was not simple (Agnoletto & Queiroz, 2020).
6. Conclusion
This research reveals the extent of teachers' technology usage in teaching and
learning during the pandemic in which teachers mostly used smartphones to
access the internet and the preferred medium to carry asynchronous and
synchronous lesson are through messaging application, WhatsApp and Google
Meet respectively. Moreover, teachers would rather use Google Classroom and
Facebook to gather resources compared to other platforms. Aside from that,
technology is frequently use for entertainment purposes for primary school
teachers and correspondence activity for secondary school teachers.
Furthermore, this research discusses the general perceptions of teachers on the

technology used during the pandemic which proves their acknowledgement to
the essential role of technology in the continuation of the education system and
how it enhances students' digital competence and responsible use. This shows a
shift in teachers’ perceptions towards technology in classroom as they are more
positive and motivated to incorporate it in their own class. Despite the positive
outlook that teachers have towards technology in education, the most significant
challenges that persisted were the limited availability of devices and the short
instructional time which deters more frequent, and various use of technological
media, platforms, and tools. These challenges need to be addressed and actions
must be taken to absolve further implications.
In conclusion, technology has become an essential part of our lives and it is not
limited to the education sectors. It has become a means of continuation for various
sectors in our country. Teachers, educators, the government, and even students
need to be aware and concern about the future of the education system. In the face
of the current predicament of school closure and remote learning, it is important
to note that students, as well as teachers, are affected in short and long-term
implications. The challenges need to be addressed to provide more opportunity
for students and teachers to use more and various types of technology, which can
299
support their specific and different needs. This research is hoped to give an input
and a push to increase digital access and awareness in Malaysia for a better quality
of technology integration in teaching and learning. Malaysia needs to be more
prepared than what we have now to face the unexpected future to ensure that
nobody was left behind.
7. Acknowledgment
We would like to convey our utmost appreciation and thanks to all who
supported our study, especially to Learning & Teaching Innovation Research
Centre, STEM Enculturation Research Centre, Faculty of Education, and
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia for grants GG-2021-014. We extend our sincere
appreciation to all researchers under the Personalized Education Research Group
for financial, intellectual, spiritual and moral support.
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Appendix
INSTRUMENT VALIDATION FORM

FACULTY OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITI KEBANGSAAN MALAYSIA
TITLE
TEACHERS’ COMPETENCY IN INTEGRATING TECHNOLOGY IN
THE CLASSROOM DURING LOCKDOWN DUE TO COVID-19
PANDEMIC
KOMPETENSI GURU DALAM MENGINTEGRASI TEKNOLOGI DALAM
KELAS SEMASA PANDEMIK COVID-19
Research Objectives are/ Objektif Kajian adalah:
1. To identify teachers’ technology use in the classroom during the pandemic.
(Mengenal pasti penggunaan teknologi dalam bilik darjah semasa
pandemik.)
2. To identify teachers’ perceptions on the use of technology in the classroom
during the pandemic.
(Mengenal pasti persepsi guru terhadap penggunaan teknologi dalam kelas
semasa pandemik.)
3. To determine teachers’ perceptions on the challenges of integrating
technology in teaching and learning during the pandemic.
(Menentukan persepsi guru terhadap cabaran mengintegrasikan teknologi
dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran semasa pandemik.)
STUDENT NAME:
EXPERT REVIEWER NAME:
POSITION:
303
Please give marks for each item according to suitability and appropriateness of
language and constructs. Comment from Prof / Assoc. Prof / Dr / Sir / Madam /
Miss is greatly appreciated.
0: Not accepted, remove.
1: Accepted with correction.
2: Accepted without any correction.
PART II:
TEACHERS’ TECHNOLOGY USE IN THE CLASSROOM DURING THE
PANDEMIC. (PENGGUNAAN TEKNOLOGI DALAM BILIK DARJAH
SEMASA PANDEMIK.)
Item Sources 0 1 2 Comment

1. I access web information through: Giovannella,
Saya mengakses maklumat web Passarelli &
melalui: Persico 2020
o Laptop/computer (Komputer
riba/ desktop)
o Smartphones (Telefon pintar)
o Tablet/iPad
o SmartTV (TV pintar)
o Video game console (konsol
permainan video)
Other (please state). Lain-lain (sila
nyatakan): …………………………
2. I conduct my asynchronous lessons Self-developed

through: (Dibangunkan
Saya menjalankan pelajaran tidak sendiri)
segerak melalui:
o Email (Emel)
o Discussion boards/forums
(Ruang perbincangan/ forum)
o Blogs/Weblogs
o Wikis
o Podcasting (fail audio digital)
o E-Portfolios
o Telegram Group
o WhatsApp Group
Other (please state). Lain-lain (sila
nyatakan): …………….
304
3. I conduct my synchronous video Self-developed

lessons (live teaching via video (Dibangunkan
stream) through: sendiri)
Saya menjalankan pelajaran video
segerak saya (pengajaran langsung
melalui aliran video) melalui:
o Zoom
o Google Hangouts
o Google Meets
o Microsoft Teams
o WhatsApp’s video
calls(Panggilan video
WhatsApp)
o Instagram live
o YouTube live
o Other (please state). Lain-lain
(sila nyatakan): ……………..
o None (Tidak berkenaan)
4. I utilize the digital resources and Self-developed

learning materials through: (Dibangunkan
Saya menggunakan sumber digital sendiri)
dan bahan pembelajaran melalui:
o EduwebTV
o DeLIMA
o Google Classroom
o Microsoft Office 365
o Apple Teacher Learning
Center (Pusat Pembelajaran
Pengajaran Apple)
o Other (please state). Lain-lain
(sila nyatakan):
………………..
o None (Tidak berkenaan)
305
PART III:
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTION OF THE USE OF TECHNOLOGY DURING
THE PANDEMIC.
(PERSEPSI GURU TERHADAP PENGGUNAAN TEKNOLOGI DALAM KELAS
SEMASA PANDEMIK.)
Item Sources 0 1 2 Comment

1. I am confident in my Hoffmann &
technological skills. Ramirez
Saya yakin dengan kemahiran 2018
teknologi saya.
2. Technology increases student Loague,

collaboration in a classroom. Caldwell &
Teknologi meningkatkan Balam 2018
kolaborasi pelajar di dalam
kelas.
3. I do not face any difficulty in Cam-Tu Vu

online teaching during COVID- et al 2020
19.
Saya tidak menghadapi
sebarang kesukaran dalam
pengajaran dalam talian
semasa COVID-19.
4. I encourage the use of smart Hoffmann &

phones in my class for Ramirez
instructional/learning purposes. 2018
Saya menggalakkan
penggunaan telefon pintar di
kelas saya untuk tujuan
pengajaran dan pembelajaran
.
5. Online teaching is best to Cam-Tu Vu

replace face to face class during et al 2020
the pandemic.
Pengajaran dalam talian
adalah yang terbaik untuk
menggantikan kelas tatap muka
semasa wabak.
306
6. Students are actively engaged Cam-Tu Vu

in online sessions. et al 2020
Pelajar terlibat secara aktif
dalam sesi dalam talian.
7. I have a wide band access to the Giovannella,

Internet. Passarelli &
Saya mempunyai akses jalur Persico 2020
lebar Internet.
8. My school’s ICT infrastructure Cam-Tu Vu

is ready for transformation et al 2020
during COVID-19.
Infrastruktur ICT sekolah saya
bersedia untuk transformasi
semasa COVID-19.
9. Teachers at my school are ready Cam-Tu Vu

for transformation during the et al 2020
outbreak.
Guru di sekolah saya bersedia
untuk menghadapi
transformasi semasa wabak.
10. My school’s policy are ready Cam-Tu Vu

for transformation during et al 2020
COVID-19.
Dasar sekolah saya bersedia
untuk menghadapi
transformasi semasa COVID-
19.
307
PART IV:
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF THE CHALLENGES OF
INTEGRATING TECHNOLOGY IN TEACHING AND LEARNING
DURING THE PANDEMIC. (PERSEPSI GURU TERHADAP CABARAN
MENGINTEGRASIKAN TEKNOLOGI DALAM PENGAJARAN DAN
PEMBELAJARAN SEMASA PANDEMIK.)
Num. Item Sources 0 1 2 Comment

1. Implementing technology in Rasmatadila et
the classroom is challenging al 2020
due to my lack of knowledge
in technology.
Menggunakan teknologi di
dalam kelas memang
mencabar kerana saya
kurang pengetahuan tentang
teknologi.
2. It is difficult to create online Bailey & Lee
lessons. 2020
Adalah sukar untuk membuat
pelajaran dalam talian.
3. Setting of online systems are Rasmatadila et
too complex. al 2020
Penyediaan sistem dalam
talian adalah terlalu rumit.
4. Not all students are Internet Rasmatadila et
literate. al 2020
Tidak semua pelajar celik
Internet.
5. I cannot fairly conduct Rasmatadila et
assessments due to parents’ al 2020
intervention.
Saya tidak dapat membuat
penilaian dengan adil kerana
campur tangan ibu bapa.
6. The instructional time during Rasmatadila et
online learning tends to be al 2020
short.
Waktu pengajaran semasa
pembelajaran dalam talian
cenderung untuk menjadi
singkat.
7. It is difficult to track students’ Bailey & Lee
participation. 2020
Sukar untuk mengesan
penyertaan pelajar.
308
8. It is challenging to provide Bailey & Lee

corrective feedback. 2020
Adalah sukar untuk
memberikan maklum balas
untuk pembetulan.
9. The different socioeconomic Verma &
strata of the society affects Priyamvada
students’ experience of 2020
learning.
Strata sosioekonomi
masyarakat yang berbeza
mempengaruhi pengalaman
belajar bagi pelajar.
10. I am reluctant to use online Self-developed
learning platform as privacy (Dibangunkan
issue is a concern. sendiri)
Saya enggan menggunakan
platform pembelajaran dalam
talian kerana masalah privasi
adalah suatu kebimbangan.
Remarks
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
THANK YOU FOR YOUR EXPERTISE, HELP, AND COOPERATION
309

Vol. 21, No. 5, pp. 309-325, May 2022
Gamification in the University Context:

Bibliometric Review in Scopus (2012-2022)
Jesús Manuel Guerrero-Alcedo*
Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Perú
Lorena C. Espina-Romero
Universidad San Ignacio de Loyola (USIL – EPG), Lima, Perú
Ángel Alberto Nava-Chirinos

RIDICIENCIA, Madrid, España
Abstract. Gamification is a learning approach that transfers the power of

games to the education context, with the purpose of improving the
performance of students in the classroom. The present study aimed to
analyze scientific activity related to gamification in the context of higher
education by using a bibliometric and bibliographic approach and the
Scopus database. A bibliometric study was applied with the help of
VOSviewer and RStudio software, and the authors managed to identify
287 documents published between 2012 and 2022. The results were
classified according to the most influential published documents,
keyword co-occurrence network, trend topics, collaboration maps
between countries and authors, scientific production by countries, and
geographical scientific gaps. The findings show a large geographical
scientific gap for the African continent, in particular. This research
provides an overview of publications on the topic of gamification in the
university environment.
Keywords: gamification; education; university; learning; play
1. Introduction
In recent years, the use of gamification by university professors as an innovative
trend aimed at improving the teaching-learning process has increased. The rapid
advancement of information and communication technologies has led to the
implementation of a variety of techno-pedagogical tools in university education,
thereby incorporating multimedia education and active learning applications
into the curricula. Educational games (Socrative, Brainscape, Kahoot!, etc.),
mobile applications, and even simulations with patients around health, are
*
Corresponding author: Jesús Manuel Guerrero-Alcedo, jguerreroa@científica.edu.pe
©Authors
310
considered gamified training platforms (Bencsik et al., 2021; McCoy et al., 2016;
Panagiotarou et al., 2020; Rojas et al., 2021).
Gamification is defined as the application of the features and benefits that a

game can provide to real-world processes and problems (Gentry et al., 2019).
This tool differs from serious games by the intention of the design, which
provides an educational utility beyond simple entertainment. In other words,
gamification involves the use of game components outside the game
environment (Espina-Romero & Guerrero-Alcedo, 2022; Rodrigues et al., 2019;
Romero Parra et al., 2022), which may also involve a reward for completing a
learning module. It also allows greater participation by users in setting their
own learning goals and objectives, personalizing the intervention and improving
academic performance (Gentry et al., 2019).
In the university environment, gamification offers opportunities for students to

participate in active and collaborative learning, solve real problems, develop
analytical, strategic thinking, knowledge, decision-making, communication, and
motor skills, and acquire experience in a risk-free environment, without the need
to involve users as applied in professional practice. In addition, games have
motivational properties that can be used for educational purposes (Dichev &
Dicheva, 2017; Gentry et al., 2019; Smiderle et al., 2020). Gamification encourages
frequent interaction between students, frees up time for teachers and involves
better use of class sessions. However, opportunities to ask questions and hold
open discussions in lessons are limited by the use of games, and unless games
are properly evaluated, they can become distractors instead of learning
facilitators (Espina-Romero et al., 2021).
To date, we know that using gamification has the potential for benefit in the
educational field, because the student can contribute with their knowledge and
ideas, collaborate to improve the process, and pass on lessons learned to other
students. Several review studies have explored the potential effects of
gamification on the teaching-learning process (Díaz-Ramírez, 2020; Dreimane,
2018; Gentry et al., 2019; Nah et al., 2014). Bibliometrics is a tool that enables the
identification of quantitative variables, to determine trends in scientific
publications on the use of gamification in the university environment, where
authors, institutions, countries, and more productive journals stand out, as well
as types of documents and collaboration between authors. It also enables the
implementation of mapping techniques that organize and analyze scientific
information on a given topic (Aria & Cuccurullo, 2017; Idris et al., 2020;
Resmayani & Putra, 2020). Starting with the question, what is the global trend of
scientific publications indexed in Scopus on gamification in the university
context? this review was initiated to identify the main bibliometric indicators of
production and collaboration of the scientific literature related to the use of
gamification in the university environment, to determine relevant topics and
trends in publications that allow identification of new areas of interest for future
studies.
311
2. Methodology
This study undertook a bibliometric review that followed the steps proposed by
Zupic and Čater (2015), which include the identification of the study design, and
the collection, analysis, visualization, and interpretation of the data. It should be
noted that the authors of this research had access to the Scopus database because
of the subscription agreements that their institutions had with the company
Elsevier.
The search for information was carried out in the Scopus database, using a
search strategy through the title or title/abstract, with some restrictions to
minimize false positive results. The keywords were obtained from already
published literature on educational gamification and university, using search
strings with Boolean operators AND/OR. It should be noted that no restrictions
were used by type of document, year, or language, however, the title, abstract
and keywords had to have, at least, an English language translation.
The search and retrieval of the information was carried out on August 28, 2021.
A total of 1,727 studies met the referral criteria for educational gamification.
After applying the filters, 287 studies referring to gamification in the university
environment were identified, which were exported in BibTex format for analysis
in the Biblioshiny Software, synchronized with the RStudio statistical package
and in RIS format for VOSviewer 1.6.8 software. The software generated figures
and data that was used to create tables that were visualized, and which will be
interpreted in the discussion of this research.
Table 1 presents a synthesis of the information collected from the database,

where conference articles on the selected theme (n = 139) are the documents with
the greatest presence in the period between 2012 and 2022, followed by original
articles (n = 115), conference reviews (n = 23), literature reviews (n = 8) and book
chapters (n = 2). The number of authors of the papers was 827, with an average
citation per document of 5.93, an average of paper citations since publication of
2.52, and an author collaboration index of 3.47.
Table 1: Synthesis of the Information Collected in the Scopus Database1

Description of the data collected Results
Time 2012:2022
Sources (magazines, books, etc.) 170
Documents 287
Average years since publication 2.52
Average citations per document 5.934
Average citations per year for documents 1.499
References 8,472
Keywords (ID) 1,201
Author keywords (DE) 736
Types of documents
Article 115
Book chapter 2
Conference article 139
312
Conference review 23
Revision 8
Authors
Authors 827
Authors’ appearances 914
Single-author document authors 35
Authors of multi-author documents 792
Collaboration by authors
Single-author documents 59
Documents by author 0.347
Authors by documents 2.88
Co-authors by documents 3.18
Collaboration index 3.47
Data analysis was performed by considering the following categories of analysis:

type of document, annual scientific output, most productive countries,
institutions, journals and authors, author keywords, article citations,
collaboration map by country and the collaboration network by country and
authors. A threshold of 10 authors, countries, journals, and institutions with the
greatest scientific production was taken as a reference, as well as the 10 most
cited documents. This selection was made arbitrarily with reference to already
published bibliometric studies.
3. Results
A total of 287 papers exploring the use of gamification in the university context
and published between 2012 and 2022 were identified. The scientific production
per year was as follows: 2012 (1; 0.34%), 2013 (3; 1.4%), 2014 (12; 4.18%), 2015
(16; 5.57%), 2016 (22; 7.66%), 2017 (26; 9.05%), among them the manuscript titled
“Visual and Computational Modelling of Minority Games” (Damaševičius &
Ašeriškis, 2017), 2018 (33; 11.49%), among which is research entitled “Towards
Better Understanding of Ancient Civilizations by Storytelling and Gaming”
(Dimova et al., 2018), and 2019 (61; 21.25%), among them “The Effect of the
STEAM-GAAR Field Learning Model to Enhance Grit” (Chujitarom &
Piriyasurawong, 2019) and “Is There a Link Between Creativity and
Multiculturalism in Education?” (Ogrutan et al., 2019). 2020 (75; 26.13%) is the
year with the greatest number of publications, among which the following three
investigations: “The Use of Innovative Learning Methods in the System of
Modern Economic Education in the Russian Federation” (Pashkov et al., 2020),
“Digital Storytelling through Teamwork Gamification Model to Encourage
Innovative Computer Art” (Chujitarom, 2020) and “Evaluation of Gamification
in e-Learning Systems for Elementary School Students” (Alshammari, 2020).
The publications of 2021 were fewer by almost half compared to 2020 (37;
12.89%) and, finally, 2022 (1; 0.34%) at the time of this review. The countries and
institutions with the highest production on the subject are shown in Table 2.
313
Table 2: The Ten Most Prolific Countries and Institutions for Publications on
Gamification in the University Context
Ranking Countries TD Institutions Country TD
1 Spain 78 Technische Universität Dresden Germany 7
2 United States 29 Vyatka State University Russia 7
United
3 26 Russian State Social University Russia 6
Kingdom
Nosov Magnitogorsk State
4 Canada 21 Russia 5
Technical University
Peter The Great St. Petersburg
5 Germany 17 Russia 5
Polytechnic University
6 Ukraine 15 Universidad de Granada Spain 5
7 Portugal 14 Universiti Putra Malaysia Malaysia 5
8 Indonesia 13 McMaster University Canada 4
Universidad Internacional de la
9 Mexico 12 Spain 4
Rioja
10 China 11 University of Alicante Spain 4
Note: TD: Total documents
Table 3 presents the ten most productive journals/conferences on the subject,

detailing the total documents (TD), the total citations received (TC) and the H
index.
Table 3: The Ten Journals/Conferences with the Most Publications

H
Ranking Journals/Conferences TD TC
index
Proceedings of the European Conference
1 15 27 3
on Games-Based Learning
2 Ceur Workshop Proceedings 11 35 2
ACM International Conference Proceeding
3 10 56 3
Series
4 Lecture Notes in Computer Scienc” 10 4 1
Advances In Intelligent Systems and
5 8 10 2
Computing
Communications in Computer and
6 8 1 1
Information Science
IEEE Global Engineering Education
7 7 6 1
Conference Educon
8 Perspektivy Nauki I Obrazovania 7 6 1
E-learning And Software for Education
9 5 2 1
Conference
Proceedings of the European Conference
10 5 1 1
On E-Learning ECEL
Note: TD: Total documents. TC: Total citations.
The published documents, in total, were cited 1,703 times in the Scopus
database; 159 articles received at least one citation. The average citation per year
of the top ten articles ranged from 3.55 to 34.25. Table 4 shows the ten most
influential publications detailing their authors, DOI, total citations, and average
citations per year.
314
Table 4: The Ten Most Influential Publications

Publications Authors DOI TC TC/year
“Gamified learning in
(Subhash
higher education: A
& Cudney, 10.1016/j.chb.2018.05.028 137 34.25
systematic review of the
2018)
literature”
“Gamification as a tool
(Nevin et 10.1136/postgradmedj-
for enhancing graduate 98 12.25
al., 2014) 2013-132486
medical education”
“The effects of
gamification-based
teaching practices on (Yildirim,
10.1016/j.iheduc.2017.02.002 96 19.2
student achievement and 2017)
student’s attitudes
toward lessons”
“Gamification: a
(Mora et
systematic review of 10.1007/s12528-017-9150-4 89 17.8
al., 2017)
design frameworks”
“Students’ perception of (Licorish
Kahoot’s influence on et al., 10.1186/s41039-018-0078-8 67 16.75
teaching and learning” 2018)
“Game-based learning
(Cózar-
and gamification in
Gutiérrez
initial teacher training in
& Sáez- 10.1186/s41239-016-0003-4 54 9
the social sciences: an
López,
experiment with
2016)
MinecraftEdu”
“New challenges for the
motivation and learning (Borrás
in engineering education Gené et None 50 8.333
using gamification in al., 2016)
MOOC”
“Gamification: An
innovative teaching-
(Day-
learning strategy for the
Black et None 40 5.714
digital nursing students
al., 2015)
in a community health
nursing course”
“The role of serious
(Almeida
games, gamification and
& Simoes, 10.30935/cet.554469 34 11.333
industry 4.0 tools in the
2019)
education 4.0 paradigm”
“GradeCraft: what can
(Holman
we learn from a game-
et al., 10.1145/2460296.2460350 32 3.556
inspired learning
2013)
management system?”
Figure 1 shows the authors’ keyword co-occurrence network, which is organized

into five clusters (red, blue, green, yellow, and purple) that evidences the use of
gamification in the context of higher education and its relationship with techno-
educational variables and processes. The red cluster is lead by the keyword
“gamification” with close relationships to the words “university students”,
315
“education”, “motivation”, and “serious games”. The blue cluster is headed by

the keyword “learning”, closely related to the words “university student”,
“university sector”, “adults”, and “universities”. In the green cluster, the word
that dominates is “e-learning”, with strong links to the words “learning
systems”, “programming”, and “university course”. The yellow cluster
encompasses words such as “engineering education”, “educational technology”,
and “personnel training”. Finally, the purple color cluster is composed of the
words “educational innovation”, “educational environment”, and “blended
learning”. Figure 2 shows trending topics, considering documents published
before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Among the trend topics for the
period 2012 and 2019, active learning, collaborative learning, educational
technology, educational gamification, higher education, training, and
commitment stand out. In turn, the trend topics during the pandemic were e-
learning, augmented reality, blended learning, serious games, game-based
learning, educational software, and evaluation. In addition, the topics of
gamification and active learning remained in force.
Figure 1. Network of Co-Occurrence of Keywords
316
Figure 2. Trend Keywords 2012–2019 and 2020–2022
Figure 3 reports on an analysis of international collaboration between countries.

It shows that, of the 287 publications, only 28 (32.18%) involved international
collaboration. Of the ten most active countries, Spain had the highest number of
documents with international collaboration (N = 8), followed by the United
Kingdom (N = 6), the United States (N = 3), China (N = 2), Turkey (N = 2),
Brazil, Finland, Greece, Jamaica, and Poland (N = 1).
Figure 3. Map Showing Collaboration Between Countries
317
The different blue colors of the Country Collaboration Map indicate the number
of nations involved in each collaboration group: the more intense the blue color,
the greater the number of countries that make up that group.
Finally, the analysis of collaboration between authors presented in Figure 4

identifies 17 clusters of collaboration between authors: a cluster composed of
five authors (red) and five clusters with four authors (yellow, blue, light blue,
green, purple). The rest of the clusters were made up of three authors (four
clusters) and two authors (seven clusters).
Figure 4. Map Showing Collaboration Between Authors
4. Publications by country and geographical scientific gap

Figure 5 was generated by the RStudio software, and indicates the countries
with the highest production of documents, with the variable under study
highlighted in blue colors and of different intensities, as well as the countries
that do not have production of documents highlighted with the gray color.
318
Figure 5. Countries with Production on the Topic of Gamification
The African continent is made up of 54 countries, of which only 9 countries have

published research on the subject under study. That means that 83.33% of
African countries do not have scientific production related to gamification in the
university context. The 9 countries with the greatest number of publications are
South Africa (18), Ghana (11), Nigeria (8), Ethiopia (7), Egypt (2), Tanzania (2),
Zimbabwe (2), Botswana (1) and Zambia (1).
Table 5: Publications by country in Africa
Country Documents
South Africa 18
Ghana 11
Nigeria 8
Ethiopia 7
Egypt 2
Tanzania 2
Zimbabwe 2
Botswana 1
Zambia 1
Table 6 reports on countries with scientific production on the topic of

gamification in the university context in the Americas. North and South America
is made up of 35 countries, though only 9 countries have published research on
the variable of this study. Consequently, 74.29 % of American countries have not
published studies related to gamification in the university context. The table is
headed by the United States (87), followed by Canada (18), Peru (12), Brazil (11),
Chile (8), Colombia (4), Mexico (4), Argentina (3) and Ecuador (2).
319
Table 6: Publications by Country in the Americas
Country Documents
USA 87
Canada 18
Peru 12
Brazil 11
Chile 8
Colombia 4
Mexico 4
Argentina 3
Ecuador 2
The Asian continent is made up of 47 nations (Table 7), of which 19 countries

have published research on this topic. This means that 59.57% of Asian countries
have not published on gamification in the university context. The countries with
publications are Turkey (43), China (28), Jordan (18), Malaysia (17), Indonesia
(13), Bangladesh (11), Saudi Arabia (10), Iran (5), India (4), Oman (4), Japan (3),
Lebanon (3), Afghanistan (2), Uzbekistan (2), Bahrain (1), South Korea (1),
Kuwait (1), Sri Lanka (1) and Thailand (1).
Table 7: Publications by Country in Asia
Country Documents
Turkey 43
China 28
Jordan 18
Malaysia 17
Indonesia 13
Bangladesh 11
Saudi Arabia 10
Iran 5
India 4
Oman 4
Japan 3
Lebanon 3
Afghanistan 2
Uzbekistan 2
Bahrain 1
Korea (South) 1
Kuwait 1
Sri Lanka 1
Thailand 1
320
Table 8 shows the 46 countries that make up the European continent. In this
continental group, 30 countries have published scientific work on the variable in
question. Consequently, 34.78% of European countries do not have research on
gamification in the university context. The 30 countries with publications are the
United Kingdom (50), Spain (32), Finland (25), Belgium (13), the Netherlands
(12), Switzerland (11), Croatia (10), Italy (7), Czech Republic (7), Romania (6),
Portugal (5), Germany (4), Belarus (4), Cyprus (4), France (4), Sweden (4),
Denmark (3), Ireland (3), Latvia (3), Austria (2), Bulgaria (2), Slovakia (2),
Greece, (2), Hungary (2), Lithuania (2), Norway (2), Poland (2), Albania (1),
Slovenia (1) and Ukraine (1).
Table 8: Publications by Country in Europe
Country Documents
United Kingdom 50
Spain 32
Finland 25
Belgium 13
Netherlands 12
Switzerland 11
Croatia 10
Italy 7
Czech Republic 7
Romania 6
Portugal 5
Germany 4
Belarus 4
Chipre 4
France 4
Sweden 4
Denmark 3
Ireland 3
Latvia 3
Austria 2
Bulgaria 2
Slovakia 2
Greece 2
Hungary 2
Lithuania 2
Norway 2
Poland 2
Albania 1
Slovenia 1
Ukraine 1
321
Table 9 shows the group of countries that make up Oceania. This continent
comprises 15 countries only 2 nations have manuscripts linked to gamification in
the university context. Therefore, 86.67% of the countries of Oceania do not have
publications related to the variable under study. The two countries are Australia
(39) and New Zealand (5).
Table 9: Publications by Country in Oceania
Country Documents
Australia 39
New Zealand 5
5. Discussion
The present study carried out a bibliometric review that identified production
indicators by countries, institutions, journals/conferences, and authors, as well
as current issues. This information should give researchers an indication of the
progress of research into gamification in the context of higher education.
The trend line in scientific production on the subject suggests a considerable

increase in publications in recent years, increasing from 1 article in 2012 to 75 in
2020 (Andriushchenko et al., 2020; Koravuna & Surepally, 2020) and 37 at the
time of the study in 2021 (Brezolin et al., 2021; Denden et al., 2021; Liu & Lu,
2021; Luo, 2021; Metwally et al., 2021). The most productive countries were
Spain, the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, and Germany, which
account for around 59% of the documents published. In addition, four
institutions in Russia, three in Spain and one each in Germany, Malaysia and
Canada produced 52% of scientific production worldwide. Conference papers
and articles were the types of documents chosen by the authors registered in the
287 investigations selected for this bibliometric review. Conference proceedings
were also a common medium of publication. Subhash, S. and Cudney, E.A. were
the authors with the greatest impact due to the number of citations (TC: 137). In
2018, Subhash and Cudney published the article with the greatest impact,
Entitled “Gamified Learning in Higher Education: A Systematic Review of the
literature” in the journal, Computers in Human Behavior, with an average citation
per year of 34.25.
As for the trend themes that stand out for the period 2012-2019, we have active
learning, collaborative learning, educational technology, educational
gamification, higher education, training, and commitment. For the period 2020-
2022 were e-learning, augmented reality, blended learning, serious games,
game-based learning, educational software, and evaluation, keeping the themes
of gamification and active learning in force.
It should be noted that the term gamification was introduced into the general
vocabulary from 2011 (Deterding et al., 2011; Fitz-Walter et al., 2011). From
there, it has become a trend in research, possibly based on expectations that it is
322
associated with motivation, behavioral changes and the promotion of

competencies and skills, in addition to enhancing collaboration in different
contexts. However, knowledge about gamification and its application in the
university educational context is still limited (Chujitarom, 2020). Therefore, it is
necessary to continue investigating what benefits gamification could generate in
the teaching-learning process. This bibliometric review offers a global overview
of the progress that this topic has received in the university environment.
As for the limitations of this research, it should be clarified that bibliometric

reviews only provide information on a specific topic in a general way, therefore
it cannot replace a thorough reading of the subject. In addition, the data was
gathered exclusively in a search of literature available in the Scopus database,
therefore, it is possible that the search strategy was not able to identify all the
relevant documents. Similarly, the low number of citations of the documents
could be associated with the years of publication, since it is expected that
publications of longer ago will have been cited more often, compared to more
recent publications, therefore, the interpretation of the findings must consider
these limitations.
6. Conclusion
Once the assessment of the scientific activity around gamification in the
university context had been completed, numerous geographical scientific gaps
on the five continents were identified. Africa is home to the most important gap,
because only 16.67% of the 54 countries that make up this continent have
published research on the variable in question. Another important scientific gap
is that located in Oceania, where only 13.33% of the 15 countries have published
studies on the subject under study. We suggest that authors conduct research in
collaboration with authors on continents with geographical scientific gaps.
This bibliometric review identified trends in publications in the context of

university education during the period 2012–2022. Information on current
progress in the subject provide researchers with guidelines for future studies.
Greater support is needed from university-level institutions, especially in Latin
America, to promote research that evaluates the use of gamification tools with
educational indicators in the short, medium, and long term. This research is
current to February 2022 and was limited to the Scopus database.
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Vol. 21, No. 5, pp. 326-350, May 2022
Augmented Reality: The Effect in Students’

Achievement, Satisfaction and Interest in Science
Education
Norazilawati Abdullah
National Child-Development Research Centre
Faculty of Human Development, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia
Vijaya Letchumy Baskaran

Zainun Mustafa
Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organisation (SEAMEO)
Regional Centre for Education in Science and Mathematics (RECSAM)
Siti Rahaimah Ali , Syaza Hazwani Zaini

Abstract. The purpose of this study was to analyse the students' views
and the effects of using Augmented Reality (AR) in learning Science.
Given that Science education emphasizes the understanding of the
physical and the natural world, the science lesson is basically received
through systematic observation and experimentation. The introduction of
abstract concepts in the science lesson is implemented gradually by
scaffolding the concrete understanding during primary schooling. The
potential use of AR, as a teaching tool in facilitating the process of
understanding concrete facts, could be beneficial in science education.
The introductory topic, "Senses," was chosen; since it is directly related to
the students’ anatomy; and it cultivates their interest in Science. A quasi-
experimental methodology was utilized to examine the impact of AR on
primary school students’ academic achievement, interest, and science-
process skills in this study. During the science lesson, the experimental
group was exposed to AR stimulation, whereas the control group was
not; and rather it learnt through the conventional method. A set of post-
test questions was conducted, in order to collect the data on student
achievement and science process skills, while a set of questionnaires was
employed, in order to identify the students’ interest. The data were
analysed by using descriptive statistics and the t-test. In this study, the
real world had been augmented by using virtual information, thereby
providing new possibilities for science education to become more
meaningful. The findings indicated that AR had a significant favourable
©Authors
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effect on all three aspects of the experimental group's achievement,

interest, and science-process skills.
Keywords: academic achievement; Augmented Reality; interest; Science-

Process Skills; Science Education
1. Introduction
The emergence of Augmented Reality experience in technology assisted learning
has become a key trend, with more than 3000 research documents that were
indexed in WoS and Scopus by 2021. It is a significant finding; since it reflects
researchers' interest in delving into the benefits, advantages, and potentials of
Augmented Reality in education. The fast and widespread use of wireless
communication networks have contributed to the surge in popularity associated
with the use of AR users worldwide. Seamlessly combining the digital
information with the real-world environment on screen alters how individuals
interact with virtual objects and visual-graphic experiences. The use of AR,
however, does not mean that the virtual environment completely replaces the
real-world; rather, it integrates virtual items into the real world by having AR as
the interaction among human-computer-physical world (Papadopoulos et al.,
2021).Thus, the use of AR in much formal education avenue encourages the
students to have exciting learning experience, while acknowledging their real-
world physical surroundings: teachers, peers and educational tools. To address
this concern, the past studies on AR in education are highly contextualized,
according to the subject matter, the cognitive level, the socio-cultural and digital
competency ( i.e: Law & Heintz 2021; Karakus et al., 2019; Akçayır & Akçayır 2017;
Fidan & Tuncel 2018).
In an educational environment, AR exists in different ways. In a study conducted

by Diegmann, Schmidt-Kraepelin, Eynden, & Basten (2015), there were five types
of AR directions used in educational environments. Firstly there is discovery-
based learning, where the user is provided with information about a real-world
place that has been of interest to them. For instance, AR is often used in museums,
historical venues, and astronomical simulations, in order to exhibit information
visually. Secondly, object modelling, which allows users to identify how a given
item would look in a different setting, Thirdly, there are the AR Books, which offer
3D presentations and interactive learning experiences for the users. Fourthly,
there is skills training, which requires visually composite simulations. Finally, AR
gaming enhances the power of gaming in educational environments. The
implementation of AR in educational environments will provide many new ways
to indicate relationships and their connections. Students exposed to these types of
applications should be able to provide interactive and visual forms of learning.
AR has also attracted a lot of interest in the research community; because it

provides unique learning experiences for individual learners by offering a
platform that enhances the interactivity with content and visualisations of
scientific phenomena, which in turn, reduce the cognitive load of a learner.
According to Cipresso et al. (2018) and Garzón & Acevedo (2019), AR applications
have extended their use into the social sciences. For instance, research conducted
328
by Akçayır & Akçayır (2017), Bernal et al. (2019), Cano et al. (2019) and Radu
(2014) has shown that AR has a positive effect on students’ academic achievement
and learning outcomes. Meanwhile, in a study conducted by Arici et al. (2019),
Bacca et al. (2018), Chiang et al. (2014), and Ibañez et al. (2020), it has been proven
that AR also has positive effects on the students’ motivation. In the same vein,
Brown et al. (2020) have reported that AR is highly effective in augmenting
traditional forms of pedagogy, whereas Tekedere and Göker (2016) and Garzón
et al. (2020) indicated that the effectiveness is medium.
In the educational studies, the use of AR was predominant in science education

when compared to other subjects (Fidan & Tuncel, 2018). In the context of science
education, the use of AR could be engaged in problem-based learning (Daineko
et al., 2018) laboratory settings (Kearney et al., 2020; Kumar & Mantri, 2021), the
modelling of certain cause-and-effect studies (Ables, 2017), 3-dimensional objects
(Hendajani et al., 2018; Xiao et al., 2020) and interactive digital text-books
(Kelpšienė, 2020; Nordin & Daud, 2020). The advantages of AR among primary-
school students in several countries has been documented (Beyoglu et al., 2020);
as this technology facilitates in improving students’ cognitive abilities to
transform abstract ideas into a better perception when learning sciences.
AR helps in facilitating primary school students to convey abstract-visual

representation during the teaching and learning process to a much more concrete
one. This shows that AR is aligned with constructivist theories. Learning science
requires the acquisition of scientific knowledge that is not only limited to just
comprehending the facts, but also to mastering the science-process skills, in order
to improve the analytical thinking skills and to be more critical in decision-making
and solving a problem (Curriculum Development Division, 2014; Kementerian
Pendidikan Malaysia, 2019). Students should be able to combine scientific
information, procedures, and Science-Process Skills, in order to comprehend a
scientific topic by bringing about an insight whether by face-to-face, or through e-
learning, when using AR. The use of AR provides students with exceptional
learning experiences and to engage them in immersive, enriched, situated, and
seamless learning (Bozkurt, 2018) by illustrating concepts and visualizing the
content knowledge, skills and ideas explicitly, by using AR during the process of
learning Science.
Since AR applications are able to provide diverse and meaningful learning

experiences for students in the process of learning Science, this study was
conducted to identify the students’ views and perceptions on applying AR
methods in science lessons in terms of their academic achievement, interest and
the mastery of science-process skills in the national context. The findings from this
research should provide baseline data in order to reflect the use of AR applications
among primary-school students.
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2. The Literature Review

2.1 Augmented reality in science education
Our modern world is undergoing an epistemological and technical revolution that
is increasing quantitatively and qualitatively all the aspects of life, with education
serving as the foundation for these areas. Other sectors are benefitting
tremendously from its development. Furthermore, we are aware that technology-
assisted learning, such as AR application is becoming more prominent in our
world.
AR is an interactive environment that alters a person's ongoing perception of the

physical world by computer-generated information. The information could be
visual, aural, haptic, somatosensory, and olfactory that incorporates AR
technology in real-time, interactively and manipulatively. In the same way, the
AR also holds a huge potential for the collection and distribution of tacit
information in the semantic context of environmental cues. Therefore, the use of
AR enhances the natural environments or circumstances; and it provides
perceptually enriched experiences, generally known as immersive perceptual
experiences (Bozkurt, 2018).
The mention of AR in Mark Zuckerberg’s speech has sparked more interest in the
AR application in the daily lives of students. In the transcript of his speech about
the future revolution of social media, the potential for AR application in the world
of education is indefinite (Zuckerberg, 2021). For instance, he demonstrated the
learning of astrophysics through interactive AR by ‘bringing’ those solar systems
closer to the students. This futuristic way of learning is actively studied all over
the world; but it seems to be favouring certain developed and developing nations
(Fidan & Tuncel, 2018). To date, the use of AR are as supplementary to the
traditional national curriculum with the emphasis on utilising various sensory
modalities to enhance learning, whether it is physical, hybrid, remote (Bozkurt,
2018; Kelpšienė, 2020). For instance, several studies look into possibilities of
graphic (Hendajani et al., 2018), video (Young-Yong Kim et al., 2015), and music
(Ye Yang, 2020) to be integrated into the real-time experience of AR to be used as
pedagogical tools in formal education.
Arici et al. (2019) found that the most favoured types of AR used in science
education are; 1) marker- based material and 2) mobile applications; as these could
be developed more easily. It is clear that both types of AR focus on cognitive,
affective and psychomotor development in both- theoretical and practical classes.
The fundamental application of AR is in displaying visual pictures in textbooks
(Nordin & Daud, 2020; Wong Kung Teck, 2019), flashcards, and other
instructional reading materials, which may have embedded "markers" or triggers
that, when scanned by an augmented reality device, provide students with
additional information in a multimedia format for theoretical session. Similarly,
augmented-reality videos were incorporated into the mobile application, in order
to demonstrate experimentation. The AR use in experiments basically relates to
the ability to view specifically animated activity of cause and effect.
330
Several AR applications are specifically designed for science education. There are
thousands of commercially developed learning apps that fundamentally work
with AR technology; however, this literature review tries to look into several
varieties of field-specific AR, which are reported publications. For instance, AR in
chemistry subjects enables students to inspect the 3D structures of molecules and
interact with a molecule's spatial structure (Patrick Maier et al., 2009). In the
chemistry subjects as well, AR notecards were designed to understand
mechanisms in organic chemistry and the AR video projections, onto laboratory
instrumentation, in order enable the user to be guided through the equipment set-
up and operation by a virtual expert (Plunkett, 2019). In an anatomy lesson, the
use of AR enables the students to visualise the human body's various systems in
3D anatomy (Kuang & Bai, 2019; Ozdamli & Karagozlu, 2018). This has increased
learners’ understanding; and it provides intrinsic benefits, such as greater
engagement and learner immersion.
AR can also be used to enrich the learning experiences in electromagnetism

(Ibanez et al., 2019), analytical chemistries (Naese et al., 2019) and astronomies
(Xiao et al., 2020) by increasing one's visual thinking (Ahmad, 2021) and visuo-
spatial abilities (Ibanez et al., 2019).
In short, integrating augmented reality into education, especially in science

education, allows students to engage and connect more authentically with content
knowledge through technology-assisted learning. The majority of research found
that students have positive impacts from AR, while becoming more active in the
physical classroom when they interact with their computer-stimulated
environment, while still being in a traditional classroom (Alizkan et al., 2021;
Kuleto et al., 2021; Law & Heintz, 2021; Saadon et al., 2020).
2.2 Augmented reality for primary children

From the constructivist standpoint, the young children's cognitive development,
from birth to seven years old progresses from innate sensorimotor co-ordination
to concrete thinking, to abstract logical reasoning through the acquisition of
continuous information from their environment. This means that, children will
start to receive stimulus from their surroundings by using their sense of vision,
touch, hearing, and smell. Having the innate sense and the environmental cues, a
child would start to construct knowledge through meaningful forms that arise
from their individual experiences and perceptions. Simply defined, perception is
referring to one’s interpretation of information garnered through
multimodal senses. Generally, at the age of seven, children's early perceptions are
established through formal or informal education, regardless of whether they
attend preschool, or not. However, because these perceptions are primarily
concrete, science teaching for primary school should be designed to be scaffolding
gradually towards much abstract and logical thinking.
Therefore, the research in the use of AR is aligned with the theoretical foundation
of constructivists, such as Piaget and Brunner. As in a conventional way of
learning, young learners would be exposed to the use of concrete manipulatives
and images in learning alongside with images, such as cubes, models, real
331
organisms and clays for them to retain the knowledge taught and learned. These
concrete objects should allow the children to utilize all their senses effectively
during their lesson; and later, the object would be manipulated to learn more
abstract ideas. For instance, the use of a single cube could be used to learn about
shapes or building blocks. Later, these concrete objects could also be manipulated
in order for the children to comprehend more complex ideas, such as how the
concept of stability is linked with the height of stacked cubes. The cognitive ability
for children to ease the transition of concrete towards abstract, and at the same
time the psychomotor development during the interaction could be promoted
with the use of AR. The idea of associating AR to concrete ideas (Trory, 2016),
known as virtual manipulatives (Bouck et al., 2014; Petit, 2013; Siti et al., 2018) or
virtual concrete.
The idea that the careful and effective use of AR in young learners could mimic
the concrete manipulatives is backed by research evidence, with some constraints
that need to be looked into (Barrett et al., 2015; Klahr et al., 2007).
2.3 Students’ satisfaction, interest and science-process skills

Studies at Romania and Serbia show that the millennial and post-millennial
children have more acceptance in the use of digital technology in education
(Kuleto et al., 2021) as compared to the teachers (Alalwan et al., 2020).
Consequently, most of the research concluded that the use of AR among the
young learners had caused them to garner their attention in the learning process
(Ozdamli & Karagozlu, 2018) and to enjoying their learning sessions (Alizkan et
al., 2021). Other studies found that AR has contributed to the intrinsic motivation
among these young learners by exposing them to authentic scientific inquiries
(Saadon et al., 2020). This further decreases the level of anxiety among the
learners, when learning Science (Beyoglu et al., 2020).
Previous studies found that students were still unable to implement Science-
Process Skills during practical activities in the laboratory; and subsequently, they
do not gain a meaningful learning experience (Lue, 2020). In the Malaysian
context, Irene Lue (2020) found that students in Malaysia have difficulty in
mastering Science-Process Skills, such as defining operationally, interpreting
data, stating inferences and making predictions. This situation occurs probably
because these skills were applied among students indirectly; while the students
were carrying out their activities; and it is not planned implicitly. Activities in the
laboratory are mainly carried out by students, based on a list of instructions from
teachers or textbooks and students' understanding of Science Process Skills, which
are not emphasized by teachers (Sembak & Abdullah, 2017).
Science teachers need to plan a lot of practical activities, so that scientific skills can
be applied when students plan, handle, and analyse data using a variety of tools.
However, many constraints faced by teachers in administering practical activities,
such as a lack of science laboratories, a lack of apparatus (Gultepe, 2016) and the
inability of teachers to control students in the laboratory (Rauf et al., 2013), in
addition to not having sufficient knowledge to apply Science-Process Skills in
their teaching and learning activities (Hikmah et al., 2018).
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3. The Problem Statement

The development of science and technology has changed the world from the use
of human energy (IR 1.0) to the use of supercomputers, smart robots, driverless
vehicles, genetic modification and the development of neurotechnology that
allows humans to better optimize their brain function (Reischauer, 2018; Guangli,
2018; Ciolacu, 2018).These scenarios have greatly impacted the world of
education, in which students are seen to be more comfortable in learning when
using pedagogy and cybergogy methods (Ismail et al., 2019), blended learning
(Ahmad, 2018), WhatsApp (Chear, 2017), functional diversity of gadgets and
modern application tools (Shatto, & Erwin 2016), learning through gamification
(Ding, 2017), Skype, Face-Time and Hang Out, as well as learning by using
heutagogical methods. The recent ones include the Augmented-Reality
application in the learning process.
Yusoff, Jamaludin & Abda (2015) presumed that, there must be a cohesive
relationship between current wants and needs in the world in which technology-
assisted education has become a preferred method of learning. They further
denote that the modernity of Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
and the advent of Industrial Revolution 4.0 (IR 4.0) has opened up opportunities
for students to explore information a click-away. This revolution makes an
important impact on the learning process at the school level (Yusof & Tahir, 2017),
including in Science Education.
Science education is an essential component of 21st-century education; therefore,

a few challenges must be addressed. One of the most pressing issues in scientific
education is the generation of unpleasant emotions and experiences. The learners
struggle to grasp scientific courses, which leads to an increase in rejection and
drop-out rates (Mellado et al., 2014; Vidakis et al., 2019). Furthermore, the
teachers' lack of motivation, knowledge of relative subjects, methodology
connected to teaching science, and overall unpleasant experience could well be
transferred to their students (Kalogiannakis et al., 2021). Therefore, the students
must always be introduced to new ways to investigate and understand scientific
concepts, while promoting active and critical thinking. Unlike learning in a
traditional setting, the application of AR should be able to encourage students to
become more proactive, and to try new ways of learning, as indicated by Al-
Azawi et al. (2016). Furthermore, AR is often linked to a socially interactive and
constructive learning environment, in which it helps students to become more
open to learning (Chan et al., 2017); and it provides a safe environment for
students to learn (Kim, et al., 2018).
Therefore, a significant effort must be carried out to improve the students’

scientific inquiry, while learning the subject. Innovative teaching practices must
be implemented, in order to engage students in science education (Loganathan et
al., 2019). The AR technology may also be used to complement other teaching
techniques, such as inquiry-based learning, project-based learning, or experiential
learning (Khazanchi et al., 2019). Scientific inquiry has long been regarded as an
important component in obtaining science literacy and developing a scientifically
literate workforce, which is the primary goal of science education. since science
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is an enquiry process, inquiry-based learning has been widely applied, assisting

students in learning science by acting as scientists, actively designing, engaging
in, and carrying out enquiry activities, rather than merely obtaining passive
knowledge from teachers.
AR is a technology that has the potential to be used in education. Due to the sheer
efficacy of this technology in recent years, the number of studies on AR is
increasing in a variety of educational settings. AR, in particular, is a good
technique to represent a model that has to be visualised. AR also enables seamless
interaction between the real and virtual worlds, as well as the utilisation of a
tactile interface metaphor for object handling. AR integration in school produces
beneficial learning and teaching results (Alkhattabi, 2017). Le and Nguyen (2020)
claimed that the use of augmented reality (AR) in education provides portable,
low-cost, stress-free, and promising alternatives for application in a wide range of
academic situations. The implementation of AR in the teaching and learning
process was inspired by the realisation that the traditional chalk-and-talk
instruction, and the usage of static textbooks fails to interest students; and it
results in poor learning outcomes.
On the other hand, in order to produce a society, especially of science-literate

students, reasoning skills and scientific skills are essential. Science process skills
are components of scientific skills that are needed to find answers to a problem or
to make decisions systematically (Rauf et al., 2013; Turiman et al., 2012).
According to a research conducted by Azmah et al. (2014), a teaching approach
that is more oriented to the science process and more interactive, requires a high
level of knowledge and visualisation skills. To meet the demand of visualisation,
AR works with a strategy that enables teachers to increase three-dimensional (3-
D) shape learning – Instead of the old method of using wooden manipulatives by
teachers. Not limited to the static 3-Ds, AR also enables rich visualisation and
object motion, which could reduce misconceptions that occur from students'
inability to visualise abstract concepts, such as chemical bonding. Henceforth, the
AR also offers the benefit of providing macro- and micro-visualisation of objects
and concepts that are not visible to the human eye. At the same time, AR shows
things and concepts in a variety of ways and from various perspectives, thereby
allowing students to have a deeper understanding of the subjects (Cerqueira &
Kirner, 2012). The way AR is planned, implemented, and integrated into formal
and informal learning environments has a direct impact on its educational value.
How AR technologies enable and afford effective learning is a key consideration.
Educators might benefit from viewing AR as a tool for the facilitation of skills and
knowledge, rather than a specific sort of technology.
4. The Research Questions

The research questions of this study are:
1. What is the effect of AR on students’ satisfaction?
2. What is the effect of AR on students’ ability to obtain information?
3. What is the effect of AR on students’ learning ability?
4. What is the effect of AR on students’ attitude?
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5. What are the effects of AR on students’ learnability level in learning

Science?
6. What are the students’ interest levels towards Science education?
7. What are the students’ interest levels towards Augmented-Reality
application?
8. What are the differences in students’ achievement in Science subject before
and after using the AR application?
5. The Methodology
Population and Sampling
The data were collected from 60 Year-1 students from a school in Putrajaya,
Malaysia. The school is located in a suburban area where the majority of students
have moderate academic achievements. The teachers also have been exposed to
the use of digital technology, in order to facilitate the teaching and learning
process.
The Research Design

This study was carried out using quasi-experimental methods. Two group of
student with similar academic achievements were chosen. One class was made
into a treatment group that was taught using AR; while another class was a control
group that was taught by using conventional methods.
The development of AR applications

The development of AR teaching materials was based on the ADDIE model. The
phases are stated below:
Phase 1 Phase 1 was carried out when the Year 1 Science Curriculum was
(Analysis) analysed. This is for the researcher to identify the suitable topic, the
students; their requirements, and any previous knowledge.
Phase 2 Phase 2 involves designing the apps by referring to the learning
(Design) objectives, delivery format, activities and also exercises.
Phase 3 (Develop) Phase 3 will be developing the teaching materials, the creating
prototypes, developing course materials, the review and the
planning of a pilot session.
Phase 4 Phase 4 involves implementing the prototype in selected schools.
(Implement)
Phase 5 Phase 5 will be on evaluating the effect of teaching by using AR on

(Evaluation) academic achievement, interest and science-process skills.
However, the AR developed must be suitable for local students; and for example,
the language used in the AR application should be available in both Malay and
English (For DLP schools). Teaching methods that allows student to be
comfortable, while learning, will be impactful towards students’ interests, and
their achievements in science from an early stage. The control group was taught
by using the traditional teaching method, and non-AR strategies.
The school selected for this study is in Putrajaya; and it involved only first-year
students. This school was chosen; because it has a large number of students; and
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the majority of them are with moderate achievement. The Science teachers at that
school have been constantly exposed to technology-assisted teaching methods
and materials. In total, this study involves only 60 students. The instruments used
in this study are pre-test and post-test questionnaires, as well as a questionnaire
identifying the students' interest in science, while using AR applications. The
instruments had been simplified by the researcher for the Year 1 students for them
to understand and give feedback.
6. The Research Findings

Augmented Reality-usability effects on students’ satisfaction
Descriptive analysis was conducted to identify the level of Augmented Reality’s
Usability among primary-school students.
Table 1: Item analysis

Number of Items Items
5 Students’ satisfaction on AR
7 Students' ability to obtain information through AR
5 Ability of AR in assisting the students to learn.
3 Ability of AR in controlling the students.
5 Students’ learnability using Augmented Reality,
while learning Science.
The data were analysed to determine the mean value, the mean score, the
standard deviation and the overall mean value for each item of the Augmented-
Reality Usability-Measurement Questionnaire among primary school students.
The analysis of this study was analysed by using the Statistical Package for The
Social Sciences (SPSS) version 23. The mean values were interpreted, based on the
mean-score table, as shown in Table 2.
Table 2: The Mean-score Interpretive Table

Min score Interpretation
1.00- 1.66 Low
1.67 - 2.33 Average
2.34 - 3.00 High
Students’ Satisfaction on AR
Based on Table 3, the overall mean of students’ satisfaction on Augmented Reality
is at a high level with a high mean score of M = 2.85.
Table 3. Mean, Mean Score, and Standard Deviation of Students’ Satisfaction on

Augmented Reality
No Statement Mean Mean Standard
Score Deviation
1 I love this AR video 2.91 High 0.38
2 I want to watch this AR video to the end 2.87 High 0.41
3 I want to use this AR video with my friend 2.90 High 0.38
4 I want to use this AR video again 2.78 High 0.59
5 I love Science after watching this AR video 2.81 High 0.52
Total mean value 2.85 High
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Augmented Reality usability effects in students obtaining information.

Based on Table 4, the overall mean to identify students' ability to obtain
information from Augmented Reality application is at a high level, with a mean
score of M = 2.51. The analysis had shown that Augmented Reality can effectively
assist students to obtain information on their learning.
Table 4: Mean, Mean Score, and Standard Deviation of Students' Ability to Obtain
Information From Augmented Reality Application
Standard
No Statement Mean Mean Score
Deviation
1 I understand the description in this AR
2.81 High 0.39
video.
2 I got to know about Science after using this
2.93 High 0.24
AR.
3 I can recognize 5 senses in this AR video 2.84 High 0.36
4 I became so good at Science after using this
2.81 High 0.39
AR video.
5 I love Science after watching this AR video. 2.81 High 0.52
6 I love this video in AR. 2.12 Moderate 0.85
7 I was scared after seeing the video in this
1.30 Low 0.46
AR.
Augmented Reality’s effects in assisting the students to learn.

Based on Table 5, the overall mean of the extent to which this Augmented Reality
assists students is at a high level with Mean Score of (M = 2.84). The analysis had
shown that Augmented Reality can assist students to learn more effectively.
Table 5: Mean, Mean Score, and Standard Deviation of the extent to which this
Augmented Reality assists students
No Statement Mean Mean Standard
Score Deviation
1 I can retell what is in this AR video. 2.96 High 0.17
2 I enjoyed learning Science after watching this 2.87 High 0.48
AR video.
3 I can study Science on my own after using this 2.72 High 0.57
AR video.
4 I understand the kind of senses after watching 2.93 High 0.24
this AR video.
5 I love the girlish character in this AR video. 2.72 High 0.57
Total Mean Value 2.84 High
Augmented Reality’s effects on students’ attitude.

Based on Table 6, the overall mean to identify the extent to which this Augmented
Reality controls students is moderate with the mean score of M = 2.27. The
analysis had shown that Augmented Reality moderately affects students’ attitude.
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Table 6: Mean, mean score, and standard deviation of control the extent to which this
Augmented Reality controls students.
No Statement Mean Score mean Standard
deviation
1 I'm not tired of watching this AR video 2.72 High 0.45
2 I don't like watching this AR video 1.21 Low 0.41
3 I can do Science activities after watching 2.90 High 0.38
this AR video.
Total Mean Value 2.27 Moderate
Augmented Reality effects on students’ learnability level.

Based on Table 7, the overall mean of the extent to which this Augmented Reality
facilitates students to learn is at a high level, with a mean score of M = 2.82. The
analysis has shown that it can facilitate students’ learning at a high level, and very
effectively.
Table 7: Mean, Mean Score, and Standard Deviation of the extent to which this
Augmented Reality enables students to learn.
No Statement Mean Mean score Standard
deviation
1 I learned new things after watching this AR 2.87 High 0.33
video.
2 This AR video gives me the knowledge I 2.78 High 0.41
want to know.
3 Love this AR video because it's easy to 2.87 High 0.33
download.
4 I feel good after learning to watch this AR 2.66 High 0.64
video.
5 This AR video is interesting. 2.96 High 0.17
Students’ interest level towards Augmented Reality application.

Descriptive analysis had been carried out to identify the students’ interest level
towards science, while using Augmented-Reality application.
Table 8: Item Analysis

Number of
Items
Item
5 Interest in Science Education
5 Interest in using Augmented Reality application.
The data were analysed to determine the mean value, the mean score, the
standard deviation and the overall mean value for each item of the Students’
Interest Level towards the Science-Education Questionnaire among primary
school students. The analysis of this study was analysed by using the Statistcal
Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 23. Mean values were interpreted,
based on the mean score table, as shown in Table 9.
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Table 9: Mean Interpretative Table

Mean Score Interpretative level
1.00 -1.66 Low
1.67 - 2.33 Average
2.34 - 3.00 High
Students’ Interest in Science Education

Table 10 below shows the overall mean value of students’ interest in Science
Education. It shows that students have a high level of interest in science education
with a mean score of M=2.69.
Table 10: Mean, Mean Score, and Standard Deviation of Students’ Interest in Science
Education.
No Statement Mean Standard
Mean
Score Deviation
1 I like to learn Science subjects. 2.93 High 0.24
2 I have fun while learning Science. 2.72 High 0.51
3 Learning Science is not difficult. 2.66 High 0.73
4 I want to read books on Science every day. 2.69 High 0.68
5 I can read Science books for a long period
2.48 High 0.79
of time.
Students’ Interest in using Augmented Reality applications.

Table 11 below shows the overall mean value of students’ interest in using
Augmented Reality applications. It shows that students have high levels of
interest towards using Augmented Reality application in their learning process
with a mean value of M=2.77.
Table 11: Mean, Mean Score, and Standard Deviation of Students’ Interest in using
Augmented Reality applications.
Mean Standard
No Statement Mean
Score deviation
1 After using AR application, I like to learn
2.69 High 0.64
Science.
2 After using AR application, I think learning
2.72 High 0.51
Science is easier.
3 After using AR application, I want to learn
2.81 High 0.52
Science every day.
4 When teacher is using AR, while teaching, I
2.78 High 0.54
have fun in learning Science.
5 After using AR application, I am not afraid
2.87 High 0.41
to learn Science.
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Differences in students’ achievement in Science subjects before and after using

the AR application.
Inferential Statistics: Paired Sample t-Test of Pre- and Post-Test Evaluation for
the topic of Senses when using the Augmented-Reality application.
Empirical data were analysed following the methods used by Chiang et al. (2014)
and Di Serio et al. (2013). The overall mean values of the pre-test and post-test
questionnaire were used to compare students’ achievement and determining
whether there was any statistically significant difference in motivation.
Table 12 shows the values of paired sample t-test carried out between the Pre- and
Post-Tests for the topic of Senses using Augmented Reality. The report showed
that t (32) = -.35.310, p <0.0005. It showed that the mean value of the test and the
t values, had significant improvement after using Augmented Reality application
from 9.48 ±1.77 to 21.36 ± 2.40 (p<0.0005)
Table 12: Paired Samples Statistics

Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
Pre-test 9.4848 33 1.66060 .28907

Pair 1
Post-test 21.3636 33 2.40855 .41928
Table 13: Paired Samples Test

Paired Differences Sig.
t df
(2-tailed)
95% Confidence
Mean
n
Deviatio
Std.
Mean
Std. Error
Interval of the
Difference
Lower Upper
Pre-test –
Pair 1 -11.87879 1.93258 .33642 -12.56405 -11.19353 -35.310 32 .000
Post-test
7. Discussion
Based on the data obtained from this study, the research questions have been
discussed and answered as follows:
1. What is the effect of AR on students’ satisfaction?
From Table 3, it can be concluded that the satisfaction level of students using the
AR application is high ((M = 2.85, SD = 0.456). The satisfaction obtained after
learning is a type of reward because it brings a sense of achievement, praise and
entertainment. According to S. Malik (2014), students should be provided the
opportunity to practise (or apply) their newly learnt skills, as soon as feasible in a
relevant situation, in order to maintain their satisfaction. The finding from this
study is similar to a study that was carried out by Pipattanasuk & Songsriwittaya
(2020). Pipattanasuk and Songsriwittaya explained that students' satisfaction
with the AR instructional model is very high because the instructional package is
a modern technology popular among the students. This technology allows the
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student to interact via various senses, including textual, graphic images, colours
ques, dynamic motions, soundtrack, and audio, all of which enrich their learning
experiences. The students were given the ability to tailor their lesson, according
to their needs and time. This findings also resonate with those of the Chien et al.,
(2010) report. Chien was exploring the satisfaction of medical students who
learned and interacted with a computer-generated 3D skill by using AR. The
result had supported that AR improved students’ motivation to learn anatomy
and their retention of knowledge, while also promoting an interactive
environment for the medical students to learn more effectively.
2. What is the effect of AR on students’ ability to obtain information?

AR provides a realistic learning experiences, while learning Science Education.
The findings from this study showed that he overall mean for identifying
students' ability to obtain information from Augmented Reality application is at
a high level, with a mean score of M = 2.51. The analysis had shown that
Augmented Reality can effectively assist students to obtain information on their
learning. It is more clear in Item 2: I got to know about Science after using this AR.
This item has the highest item in the domain.
This study finding further supports the Vázqtuez et al., (2018) report. Vázquez et
al., (2018) showed that AR supports kinaesthetic learning, where it allows
students to understand and memorize content through 3D visualizations. For
him, the students will be able to learn faster and more effectively, even in complex
learning situations. In the related development, Bitter & Corral (2014) and Deng
et al. (2019) had evaluated the present status of AR application in mobile learning
situations, notably for fixed and mobile wearable devices. In their article, the
researcher has chosen educational topic areas that have been positively influenced
by AR and made recommendations for AR applications in these areas. In an
example given by Bitter & Corral (2014), they found that the museum tour
applications might be used to reconstruct objects in the field of history. They
further denoted that, AR reimagines the original structure, if its structures have
deteriorated over time.
3. What is the effect of AR on students’ learning ability?

Based on the findings, the ability of AR in assisting the students to learn is high,
with a mean score (M: 2.84, SD: 0.406). Augmented reality works by
superimposing sounds, videos and graphics onto an existing environment. In this
way, educational institutions can incorporate interactive classrooms in their
curriculum, thereby helping the teachers to create interactive classrooms to
increase student engagement. A study conducted by Jessup et al. (2019) had
discussed the various aspects of education in which AR has a huge impact. The
findings from this study go hand-in-hand with a study conducted by Constan
(2017) which had proved that AR has the ability to enhance education with
immersive and interactive experiences in disciplines ranging from Science and
Engineering to foreign languages and social sciences.
AR works well in improving empty gaps in certain activities, which require a high
level of immersion that a conventional teaching and learning method could not
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achieve (Dalim et al., 2017). Item 1: I can retell what is in this AR video, explains very
well how AR is helping the students to learn; since it has the highest mean level
among all the other items. Students love studying subjects that they would not
have learned otherwise during ordinary teacher-centred learning. When AR
technology is used, students are seen to enjoy browsing library catalogues and
solving mathematics and science problems. Using a manual or systematic
technique of doing such chores, on the other hand, increases irritation. Increased
concentration refers to learners' increased attentiveness while utilising AR
technologies throughout the learning process, according to the findings of
Diegman et al., (2015); since using AR in learning scenarios enhances students'
physical interactions, which leads to a deeper focus.
4. What is the effect of AR on students’ attitudes?

The findings of this study have shown that AR has moderately affected students;
attitude in learning Science. Item 2: I don't like watching this AR video, had recorded
the lowest mean value, which explains students having a positive attitude
towards AR application, while learning Science. Meanwhile, Item 3: I can do
Science activities after watching this AR video, had the highest mean value. Therefore,
it has clearly been proven that students are positively inclined to participate in
Science activities after watching the AR video. This is similar to a study by Delello
(2014), Tomi and Rambli (2013) had shown that AR application has the ability to
attract students’ attention in the classroom.
Learning with AR had made the interactions more similar to natural face-to-face
collaborations than were screen-based collaborations, as claimed by Giraudeau et
al. (2019) and Martín-Gutiérrez et al. (2015). They had stated that AR promoted
the collaborative and autonomous learning of Science practices without the
assistance of a teacher; and students have described AR as “nice”. Another study
by Chu et al. (2019) and Pellas et al. (2019) had stated that AR in academic settings
improved students’ motivation and engagement. With realistic images, an
effective and authentic interface, and engaging information, AR applications set
themselves apart from traditional paper learning and computer-assisted learning
(Wang et al., 2016; Nurul Ain Hidayah et al., 2022).
5. What is the effect of AR on students’ learnability level in learning Science?

The findings from this study have shown that AR is helping in students’
learnability level. This had been proven by the mean score (M: 2.82, SD: 0.376). AR
can be defined as a series of computer programs that can visualize abstract or
complex phenomena carried out in the field, to improve learning activities, in
order to develop the skills needed in problem-solving. AR is able to help in
students’ learnability level by providing tools and the surrounding media that
allow them to solve problems through experiments with animation or video. This
scenario will enable affective and active learning to be promoted. For instance, AR
can be enriching the learning experiences; and later motivate students to conduct
experiments with inter-actively and to develop experimental skills.
Fundamentally, AR is built by replicating the real world with digital images

(Constan, 2017). As compared to the traditional textbook that just employs a 2D
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model to explain an abstract concept. Means that, the students might find
challenges to imagine a picture or view of something they might never be able to
experience (Kumar et al., 2015; Norazilawati et al., 2021). Therefore using AR
could open many possibilities that they had not previously encountered.
6. What are the students’ interest level towards Science education?

Science is one of the important subjects to be studied and given exposure at an
early stage. The objective of early science education for children is to shape and
encourage the development of knowledge and skills that can be done at the
primary school level. Knowledge in science education provides a conceptual
framework to enable children to understand the environment. Children’s
exposure to early science education would emphasize the concept of active
learning. The activities and learning methods applied will involve children in
activities to become active through the interactions that take place. This can be
evidenced when children well understand the learning conveyed through
observation methods, tactile methods, taste methods and manipulating of
learning materials, used to build more complex understandings.
This study had proven that the students’ interest level towards Science education
is high with a mean value of (M: 2.69, SD: 0.59). Item 1: I like to learn Science subjects;
obviously has the highest mean value. It has proven that these students are very
much motivated to learn Science at schools. The term "augmented reality" refers
to a three-dimensional technology that allows students to acknowledge and
perceive the actual world, while being surrounded by virtual items (Leung &
Bsauw, 2020; Nor Hasnida et al., 2020).
7. What are the students’ interest levels towards Augmented-Reality application?

AR is responsible in the interactivity between the physical and virtual worlds and
the after- effects would be enhancing the user’s perceptions of the real world. AR
facilitates students’ manipulation of scientific hands-on experiments in authentic
contexts. In this study, students’ interest towards AR application is high, with a
mean score of (M:2.77, SD : 0.524). Item 5: After using AR application, I am not afraid
to learn Science which, had shown the highest mean value among all the other items.
It clearly explained that learning Science using the AR application is highly
interesting for these students.
Positive outcomes from these students are similar to the findings by Karagozlu et
al.(2019). where it has the same result of students being satisfied with AR in
learning, which Science, According to Şahbin & Yıl2020), AR-based applications
can assist students to have a more positive attitude about the course. In today's
educational system, it has been seen that augmented reality-based applications
have quickly earned a position in science classes, as well as in many other courses,
in which they help students to achieve academic achievement and develop a
positive attitude towards the course.
8. What is the differences in students’ achievement in Science subjects, before and

after using the AR application?
Inferential statistics have indicated that students’ achievement among the
experimental group has more significantly improved results compared to the
control group. Therefore, it can be proven that AR application plays an important
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part in improving the students’ achievement, while learning Science. AR

technology can be said to be suitable to science structure due to its advantages,
such as realistic structure, making experiments easier, concretizing topics, being
re-search and investigation-based and other characteristics (Yoon et al., 2017).
This is especially crucial when Science subjects commonly have abstract and
complex contents (Dünser et al., 2012). As a result, providing students at this level
with technology-based environments will ensure that their interest and
motivation remain high and that they achieve academic achievement. In fact,
studies show that AR-based applications improve academic progress in primary
schools (Contero & Lopez, 2013; Hwang et al., 2015; Tosik & Atasoy, 2017; Petrov
& Atanasova, 2020) and maintain interest and motivation (Di Serio et al., 2013;
Chen et al., 2017; Bistaman et al., 2018). AR has been found to be beneficial in
academic settings where it allows more efficient visualization of abstract concepts
that would help in students’ engagement and learning intentions. A study carried
out by Quintero et al., (2015) has reported the benefits of better visualizations in
complex academic situations by using AR in educational settings. These
advantages of AR in teaching and learning methods are directly proportional to
the student’s achievement levels, nonetheless.
8. Conclusion
The findings from this study would be able to provide research-based evidence to
encourage the interest and collaboration among education specialists with the
computer science expert to develop the effective AR-based pedagogy based on
student-centric survey. ‘A study conducted by Huang et al., (2019) had indicated
that students who learned using AR have the tendencies to score higher on tests
when compared to those who learned through traditional teaching methods. By
focusing on the studied factor, all the findings suggest that AR could be an
imparted as an important learning tool for improving students’ knowledge
retention. Having that, AR plays a significant role in improving the absorption of
new knowledge while solving problems in a settings that were more realistic, AR
is no longer perceived as a novel concept, and is expanding in tandem with the
expansion of e-learning platforms. This research discovered that AR combines
current technology with real-world situations to give learners with an engaging
e-learning experience the advantages of using this approach in e-learning contexts
that include, but are not limited to, improving kinaesthetic and collaborative
learning, enabling high-risk e-learning in real-time, as well as visualisations,
supporting real-world simulations with interactive objects, and increasing
learners' motivation, satisfaction, attention, and content retention.
However, hurdles to AR acceptance and implementation have been identified,

notably learning, pedagogical, and technological concerns. Regardless of the
obstacle, training and continuing education were considered as potential answers
to the primary difficulties in AR adoption in e-learning contexts, despite the fact
that the industry remains dependent on technology improvements in this area.
The primary drawback of this study is that it recognised the benefits and problems
of employing AR in e-learning environments based on empirical study findings,
which may have limits in terms of research design and evidential validity. This
constraint is exacerbated by the fact that the use of AR in education is still in its
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early stages, and additional study is required. Given this, new research directions
are recommended. Firstly, while using AR in the classroom has academic benefits,
further study on how successful this strategy is for distant and remote learning is
still needed. Since learners' attentiveness and ability in the use of technology vary
greatly, measuring its efficacy is critical for education.
Secondly, in connection to the first future path, further study on the drawbacks of
employing AR and how to reduce them in educational contexts is required. For
example, several research have found that adopting AR in teaching might cause
cognitive overload in children. Learners may get overwhelmed by the platform's
intricacy or the volume of information offered. Future study should look at how
such learning barriers might be addressed or minimised, in order to improve the
effectiveness of AR in enhancing academic achievements.
Student and teacher training on how to utilise the programme is required to boost
the adoption and utilisation of AR in e-learning situations. This requirement was
identified, with the argument that a lack of training is a primary source of
deployment and implementation issues. On-the-job training for instructors would
not only help with the deployment of AR in e-learning contexts, but it could also
help to overcome opposition to AR and speed up its adoption. AR's applicability
and usage should be included into teacher training courses and student curricula,
in order to provide future instructors and students with an essential
understanding of AR technology, and to assure their continued use thereof.
The effectiveness of AR application in science learning has been looked into by

using six main domains: Students’ Satisfaction, Obtaining Information, Assistance
in Learning, Attitude, Learnability Level and Interest. All of the domains except
for attitude have shown high level of effectiveness in implementing AR
application while learning. These findings are consistent with many other
research projects being carried out before implementing AR to enable teachers to
educate students without alienating them from classroom reality and form natural
interactions with virtual objects and the physical environments surrounding them
(Matcha & Rambli, 2013; Sin & Zaman, 2010).
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to extend their gratitude to Research Management and
Innovation Centre (RMIC), Sultan Idris Education University (UPSI) for the
Fundamental University Research Grants (code GPUF: 2019-0206-106-01) that
helped to fund the research.
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Vol. 21, No. 5, pp. 351-366, May 2022
Revitalizing the Oddi Continuing Learning

Inventory
Nicolaj Riise Clausen
UNESCO Center for Problem-Based Learning, Aalborg University, Denmark
Claus D. Hansen
Department of Sociology and Social Work, Aalborg University, Denmark
Abstract. The Oddi Continuing Learning Inventory (OCLI) is one of the

most popular instruments for measuring self-directed learning (SDL).
Although several previous studies have validated it, an exploratory
application of confirmatory factor analysis had not been attempted; such
an analysis provided new insights. Responses from 159 students from
Aalborg University, a Problem-Based Learning institution known for its
high degree of self-directed project work, were analyzed. This
investigation examines all previously suggested factor structures against
commonly applied measures and further develops the most promising,
identifying a new three-factor structure reaching standard thresholds of
model fit. The newly identified underlying dimensions of the OCLI—
internal locus of control, the ability to be self-regulating, and avidity for
learning—simplify the interpretation of the factors and help mitigate
some of the instrument’s previous problems. This will serve to keep the
OCLI relevant as an instrument for measuring self-directed learning in
the future. We recommend further studies to revise the OCLI,
rephrasing and reconceptualizing items that have aged poorly as well as
investigating the pattern of the reverse-coded items. Lastly this paper
suggests that other statistical instruments might be revitalized through
the application of similar methods, taking advantage of the advances in
computation and statistical analysis.
Keywords: self-directed learning; validation; scale purification;

quantitative analysis; confirmatory factor analysis
1. Introduction
For decades, researchers in adult education have tried to identify students’
characteristics and aspects crucial to their success in learning. Few aspects have
received as much attention as self-directed learning (SDL), albeit in many
different but somewhat overlapping conceptualizations such as self-regulated
learning and lifelong learning (Leary et al., 2019; Saks & Leijen, 2014).
©Authors
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An aspect that SDL shares with the rest of adult education is the inclination
toward qualitative research in contemporary scientific publications. While the
last few decades have seen a return from a heavily theoretical to a more
empirical focus, this has almost exclusively been the result of a rise in published
qualitative studies (Clair, 2011; Taylor, 2001). In the most recent studies looking
at the field through three leading journals, Boeren et al. (2018) found that only
about one sixth of the published articles applied quantitative methods. The vast
majority of these reported only descriptive statistics, apparently not applying
any deeper analysis (Boeren et al., 2018). A more detailed analysis of the most
referenced articles in the same journals from 2005 to 2012 found that while 62%
had used some form of qualitative analysis, only 7% had used quantitative
methods and 5.3% mixed methods (Fejes & Nylander, 2015). While there are
certainly many valuable insights to be gained from qualitative research, the
application of a pluralism of methodologies within a field ensures that topics can
be explored from different perspectives and angles, and a better representation
of quantitative studies in adult education would allow for broader studies of
general characteristics involving an increased number of subjects, enhancing the
generalizability of the results (Robson & McCartan, 2016). Daley et al. presented
similar sentiments in an article calling for a renewed discussion of
methodological diversity and further quantitative research in adult education
research, concluding with three recommendations (Daley et al., 2018). To these
we would add that in other disciplines there have been trends showing an
interest toward making inferences from quantitative studies. A prerequisiste for
a similar endeavor in the field of adult education, however, is that there are
validated instruments that capture essential constructs that are of importance to
causal analysis.
One of the resources that could be applied advantageously to this end and to
mitigate the methodological skew in adult education is the vast array of
standardized scales and statistical instruments already developed. While such
instruments might hold great promise for both research and practice, they do,
however, need to be rigorously validated and their theoretical interpretations
refined.i Within SDL, one such instrument is the Oddi Continuous Learners
Index (OCLI), which we in this article make an effort to validate cross-culturally
through an analysis of responses from Danish students enrolled at Aalborg
University. There are several reasons for returning to measures such as the
OCLI, one being the relative ease with which we can now conduct the statistical
analyses needed to discuss the validity of the scales in more detail. When Oddi
developed the OCLI, conducting even single computations of the factor
structure of the scale could take a considerable amount of time (Oddi, 1984).
Conducting the same analyses today takes much less time, and it is thus easier to
refine the scales by examining several different models. In addition, the
developments in the field of scale validation have led to the invention of several
new fit indices that enhance our knowledge surrounding the relationship
between indicators in the measures (Brown, 2006).
Initially, we will present a review of the background for the development of the
instrument and the previous efforts to validate it. After the review we will
present our analysis of the instrument, in which we examine both instrument
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reliability, construct validity, and possible interpretations of the results through

confirmatory factor analysis.
2. Background
Several statistical instruments have been developed to try to assess SDL in
people, but only two have gained notable success and prevalence. The Self-
Directed Learning Readiness Scale (SDLRS) and the OCLI were found to make
up more than 85% of all applications of statistical instruments to measure SDL in
a recent meta-review. Guglielmino developed the SDLRS as a part of her
doctoral dissertation to ascertain how ready individuals are for self-directed
learning, based on several complementary skills, attributes, and attitudes (1977).
In the years following the development of the SDLRS, a debate about whether
SDL should be conceptualized as an instructional method or a personality
characteristic emerged (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991). The consequence of either
understanding would mean that a measurement of an individual’s propensity
for SDL would either be through a role adopted during learning, encompassing
certain skills and attributes, or as a state attained through psychological
development (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991; Brookfield, 1984; Oddi, 1987). The
OCLI was developed by Lorys Oddi, partly as a reaction to this debate and
criticisms of previous instruments, but primarily because of a difference of
approach. Oddi argued that the current models overemphasized aspects such as
self-management and the use of particular methods and approaches, so instead
focused on cognitive and emotive elements such as developed attitudes and
resultant behaviors. Oddi held the assumption that SDL should be
conceptualized as a personality trait that determines certain behavioral
tendencies characterized by initiative and persistence in learning over time, and
developed the OCLI to identify what she called “self-directed continuing
learners” (Oddi, 1986, 1987). When Oddi developed the scale, she initially
conducted a literature review and deduced three underlying personality
dimensions, all existing as continuums with one end conducive and the other
non-conducive to SDL. The three dimensions— (1) proactive drive versus
reactive drive, (2) cognitive openness versus defensiveness, and (3) commitment
to learning versus apathy or aversion to learning—became the basis for 100
questionnaire items formulated by Oddi. Oddi gradually reviewed and reduced
the number of items through content validation, expert reviews, evaluations of
individual items, item-total score correlations, item-subscale score correlations,
and a factor analysis, ending up with the final instrument consisting of 24 items
(Oddi, 1984).
2.1. Factor validations

Several efforts to validate the OCLI have been undertaken since its original
development; they inform our approach. These efforts can be divided into 1)
factor validations, examining the factor interpretations of the instrument, and 2)
construct validations, examining the extent to which the instrument correlates
with other closely related measures, where associations are expected. Oddi
conducted an explorative factor analysis upon finishing the OCLI, which
revealed a three-factor structure, differing from her suggested theoretical
dimensions. Oddi interpreted these factors as: “a general factor relating to
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several other elements of self-directed continuing learning, such as the ability to

work independently and learning through involvement with others,” “ability to
be self-regulating,” and “avidity for reading” (Oddi, 1986, p. 103). Building on
the work of Oddi, Jack E. Six showed that the factor structure found by Oddi
was replicated across another sample. He compared two sets of derived factors
from different samples to analyze to which degree they correlated and found
that the factor structures co-varied on individual factors from .93 to .99 level,
thus successfully demonstrating the replicability of the OCLI across samples
(Six, 1989). The stability of the factor structure has also been tested in a different
cultural context and was largely replicated in a German sample. The analysis
showed that the OCLI performed slightly worse on a German sample, attaining
a lower reliability, and the factor structure identified by the authors had about
two thirds of the items loading on factor structures similar to those of Six and
Oddi, where the most notable difference was that several items related to social
aspects of SDL were moved from factor 1 to factor 3 (Straka, 1996). The
appropriateness of a three-factor structure was brought into question by Harvey
et al. who found that a four-factor structure constituted the best fit when testing
the instrument through an explorative and subsequent confirmatory factor
analysis. The structure identified by Harvey et al. has the notable advantage that
the explained variance and number of items are spread almost evenly across the
four factors, thus simplifying interpretation (Harvey et al., 2006).
While much of the factor structure is stable across the different analyses, they all
build on the exploratory work of Oddi and largely replicate her procedures. To
be able to, in the most appropriate manner, accommodate testing several three-
and four-factor structures as well as the other mentioned issues, we have chosen
to apply a confirmatory approach in an exploratory fashion in our analysis,
which allows us to test all the identified factor structures and continue working
on the one with the best fit. Using confirmatory factor analysis in an exploratory
fashion is recommended in a case like ours when no single compelling model
can be suggested (Long, 1983). If none of the previously identified structures
meet the chosen thresholds of the applied measurements, “scale purification”
will be conducted. This procedure removes items from the instrument based on
their lack of sufficient correlation with the rest of the items until a satisfactory
factor structure is attained (Wieland et al., 2018). A similar approach has been
applied on a different cultural sample in Korea in the most recently published
analysis of the factor structure of the OCLI; it resulted in a three-factor model
including 15 items, reaching common thresholds for a number of fit indices (Han
& Lee, 2009).
2.2. Construct validations

Oddi also tested the construct validity of the OCLI by arguing that SDL should,
based on theoretical assumptions, correlate positively with the internal locus of
control as measured by the Internal-External Scale, participation in educational
activities measured by the Leisure Activity Survey, and four subscales of the
Adjective Checklist (ACL) purporting to measure more complex aspects of
personality.* Further, it should not correlate in either direction with IQ measured
*
For a more thorough examination of the instruments see Oddi (1984, pp 141–166).
355
by the Shipley Institute of Living Scale. By distributing these instruments

alongside the OCLI, she analyzed whether her assumptions held true, largely
attaining support for the construct validity of the OCLI. Boyer et al., in a newer
meta-analytical review that analyzes the research on SDL and related constructs,
identified studies suggesting that generally, SDL as a theoretical construct
correlates with internal loci of control, motivation, support, self-efficacy, and
increased performance, and found that the OCLI, in particular, correlates with
measures of self-efficacy, support, and increased performance (2014). The
authors also notably concluded that the connection between SDL and motivation
is still unclear, and more research is needed (Boyer et al., 2014). This concluding
remark is echoed by Oddi’s conclusions about the OCLI’s construct validity, in
which she suggests that it should be distributed along another measure of
motivation for further study, and by Guglielmino, who holds the same
reservations about the SDLRS (Guglielmino, 1977; Oddi, 1984). For these
reasons, and to be able to assess whether the translated OCLI behaves as
expected – e.g., correlates positively with motivation – a measure of motivation
was included in our data collection. We distributed the Academic Motivation
Scale (AMS) as a measure of motivation and GSE as a measure of self-efficacy
alongside the OCLI. The AMS has been used extensively and has proven to be a
reliable and valid instrument for measuring student motivation in a similar
cultural context (Støen Utvær & Haugan, 2016; Vallerand et al., 1992, 1993).
Because of the aforementioned positive correlation between the OCLI and self-
efficacy, the General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE) was selected to help assess the
construct validity of the translated OCLI (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995).
This article aims to present the results of a validation of a Danish translation of

the OCLI. This is part of an attempt to revitalize quantitative measures in adult
education research by testing the instrument developed in the 1980s and its
stability on a present-day sample. Our validation encompasses common model
fit measures, assessing a potential factor analysis, a construct validation, and the
instrument’s correlation with other instruments measuring theoretical constructs
known to correlate with SDL or the untranslated OCLI.
3. Method
The data used for this study was collected at Aalborg University, which teaches
based on a problem-based learning (PBL) curriculum focusing on work in
project groups since its establishment in 1974. PBL can be considered one form
of self-directed learning (SDL) as it emphasizes the responsibility of the students
for taking the learning experiences into their own hands as well as highlighting
the importance of acquiring the ability to learn throughout their lives even after
leaving university and joining the labor market. As part of continuing the
improvement of the pedagogical model of the university, a project was enacted
that focused on examining how PBL might be adapted to better suit the needs of
future students and of those employing the university’s alumni.
For the pilot study that we report on in this paper, 159 students (77 students
from construction engineering and 82 students from sociology) participated.
They were third- and first-year students, respectively, implying that the pilot
was conducted among a group of students with working knowledge of the
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university’s expectations of self-directed learning as well as a group who were

still new to this form of learning experience. Although the OCLI score was
slightly lower for the first-year sociology students, this difference was not
statistically significant.
3.1. Measurement instruments

As mentioned above, Oddi as well as others have argued that in order to
examine the construct validity of OCLI, it would be necessary to include other
measures theoretically hypothesized as closely associated with self-directed
learning in order to validate the appropriateness of the measurement instrument
in a cultural setting other than the one in which it was developed (Boyer et al.,
2014; Guglielmino, 1977; Oddi, 1984). For this reason, we have included the
college version of the Academic Motivation Scale (AMS-C 28) and the General
Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE) in our examination (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995;
Vallerand et al., 1992).
The OCLI was initially translated to Danish by both authors individually, and
where discrepancies were still present, external assistance was brought in for
comments. After a final translation was negotiated between the authors, the
OCLI was sent with the original version for comments to an external academic
with expertise in survey methodology who regularly publishes in both English
and Danish scientific journals. Incorporating the external comments finalized the
translation.
3.2. Statistical analyses

The responses to the three instruments were collected using the electronic
questionnaire system, SurveyXact. Data were then transferred to STATA16,
where the analyses were carried out (Statacorp, 2019). Total scores and standard
deviations on the three instruments as well as the reliability of the scales
(Cronbach’s alpha coefficient) were calculated. After this, we started fitting the
OCLI following the models suggested by Oddi (1984), Harvey et al. (2006), Six
(1989), and Straka (1996). As part of this procedure, we used confirmatory factor
analysis to provide several fit indices that indicated the degree to which the
theoretical measurement model specified by us was appropriate for describing
the data that we had collected among the students. We used four fit indices to
evaluate the models and to make decisions as to which model best fit our data: a
standard chi-square test was used to assess the models but due to the rigor in
this type of test we supplied the analyses with the root mean square error of
approximation (RMSEA) including confidence intervals, the standardized root
mean residual (SRMR), and the comparative fit index (CFI) (Brown, 2006;
Jackson et al., 2009). RMSEA is a so-called badness-of-fit index where a low
value indicates a less bad fit of the scale, indicating a good fit of the data to the
proposed model, while CFI is a goodness-of-fit incremental fit index which
assesses relative improvements in fit by comparing a suggested model with a
given baseline model (Kline, 2016; Shi et al., 2019). SRMR is a another badness-
of-fit statistic, a standardized version of a root mean square residual and based
on the general dissimilarity between observed and predicted correlations (Kline,
2016). SRMR is often applied alongside the CFI to mitigate issues of sensitivity
inherent in either index (Hu & Bentler, 1999). Taken together, these four fit
357
indices made it possible for us to evaluate the best version of the OCLI in our
Danish context. Because of the cross-cultural translation, we drew most heavily
on the work of Straka because the translation to a German context came closest
to the situation in which we were using the OCLI. However, as suggested by
Wielandt et al., it was necessary to conduct “scale purification” in a vein similar
to Han and Lee, removing entire items from the scale instead of fitting
numerous extra covariance terms between the items performing poorest (Han &
Lee, 2009; Wieland et al., 2018). Finally, in order to examine the construct
validity of the OCLI, we computed correlations between the total OCLI score
and the AMS and GSE.
4. Results
4.1. Validation of the scale
Table 1 contains the results of the descriptive analysis of the OCLI and the two
other measures included in our pilot. As can be seen from the table, the
reliability of the OCLI was rather low, with a total coefficient of 0.68 in the
overall sample but with as low a score as 0.59 among the construction engineer
students. The average item-total correlation was 0.38—close to the mean
reported by Harvey (2006). However, the individual correlations ranged from as
low as -0.02 (item 21) to 0.56 (item 1). The coefficient alpha was clearly higher for
the two other constructs (0.86 and 0.83, respectively), indicating that the OCLI’s
relatively low alpha score was not due to a general problem with the
participants in the study but more likely related to the translation to a Danish
context.
Table 1: Descriptive statistics of OCLI, AMS and GSE

All (n=159) Sociology (n =82) Construction eng.
(n=77)
Mean Chronbachs Mean Chronbachs Mean Chronbachs
(Std) α (Std) α (Std) α
110.7 0.68 109.8 0.73 111.8 0.59
OCLI-total
(12.5) (13.6) (11.1)
142.3 0.86 143.0 0.88 141.6 0.84
AMS
(20.2) (21.3) (19.1)
30.2 (4.3) 0.83 29.3 0.81 31.2 0.84
GSE
(4.0) (4.4)
Table 2 reports on the factor scores from the confirmatory factor analysis that
produced the best fit. The main difference between the three-factor model
presented by Straka and our model was that we excluded many items due to
low correlations and general bad fits (1996). This meant that items 3, 8, 9, 11, 15,
19, 21, and 23 were removed from our final model, whereas this was only the
case for items 19 and 21 in Straka’s three-factor model. This was the case in most
of the versions of the OCLI, the reverse-coded items loaded on the same factor,
which in our case was factor 2. When comparing the correlations between the
individual items and the latent variable, we found similarities in our model to
that of Straka. We interpret this as evidence that exclusion of the problematic
items from the scale makes it possible to fit a version of the scale that produces
reliable results.
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Table 2: Factor structure of OCLI.

Straka – 3 factor model Clausen – 3 factor model
OCLI- Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3
items
1 .6387498 .6292107
2 .3008753 .2682278
3 .4231888
4 .4500869 .438638
5 .4557258 .4627243
6 .3631328 .4113728
7 .2719541 .3069611
8 .2900065
9 .2742458
10 .476421 .4378024
11 .4513803
12 (R) .4317774 .4315807
13 .2656626 .3307074
14 .3210174 .4032973
15 .093144
16 .213702 .2863036
17 (R) .6868287 .6765717
18 .5377946 .6177122
19
20 (R) .748563 .7632641
21 (R)
22 .3530351 .4454629
23 .1936029
24 (R) .342474 .3290299
NOTE: R = reverse coded. Standardized scores reported.
In Table 3 we show the procedure carried out for choosing the final model that
was fitted to the data. As can be seen from the fit indices, only after removing
the above-mentioned items does the fit of the model become acceptable; i.e., the
chi-square statistic becomes insignificant (p = 0.22), the RMSEA falls below 0.05
(0.026), the SRMR is lower than 0.08 (0.061), and the CFI climbs above 0.95
(0.955). In the discussion, we speculate the reasons for the model to fit only after
having excluded these items from the scale.
Table 3: Confirmatory Factor Analysis – Comparison of model fits

Chi2 Df P-value RMSEA SRMR CFI
(95% CI)
Oddi’s 3- 324.32 206 <0.01 0.060 (0.05- 0.084 0.708
factor 0.07)
model
Harvey’s 4- 396.39 252 < 0.01 0.060 (0.05- 0.108 0.662
factor 0.07)
model
Six’ 3-factor 253.54 149 < 0.01 0.066 (0.05- 0.087 0.715
model 0.08)
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Straka’s 3- 316.49 206 <0.01 0.058 (0.05- 0.083 0.713

factor 0.07)
model
Clausen 3- 111.69 101 0.22 0.026 (0.00- 0.061 0.955
factor 0.05)
model
Finally, in Table 4 we find the correlations between OCLI and the two other
constructs included in the pilot study, namely AMS-C 28 and GSE. Both of the
measures correlate with OCLI in the expected direction; i.e., higher levels of self-
directed learning (as measured by the OCLI) is associated with higher levels of
general self-efficacy (0.57) and with higher levels of academic motivation (0.31).
Table 4: Correlations between OCLI, AMS and GSE.

OCLI AMS GSE
OCLI 1.00
AMS 0.31 1.00
GSE 0.57 0.19 1.00
4.2. Factor interpretation

Evaluating the quality of a factor structure is a quantitative endeavor that must
still account for a qualitative evaluation of the structure. The three-factor
structure identified by our analysis includes 16 of 24 items from the instrument.
Further, to allow readers to make their own interpretation of the meaning of the
factors, we will present the items included here. The structure is adapted
through confirmatory factor analysis from Straka’s study, chosen because it
provided the best model fit of the previously suggested structures. As such, we
will highlight the differences in both by displaying the items included in his
structure and excluded in ours, in italic, under each factor.
Factor 1:
1: I successfully complete tasks I undertake.
2: My work is beneficial to society.
5: My values and beliefs help me to meet daily challenges.
16: When I do a job well, it’s because I have been prepared and have put in
personal effort.
18: Once I start to work on a task, I keep working until it’s done to my
satisfaction.
22: I work more effectively if I have freedom to regulate myself.
8: I am able to resist the efforts of others to pressure me into doing something I don’t
want to do.
9: I regularly read professional journals.
11: I volunteer for new assignments.
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15: I resist judging others (such as new managers or teachers) until I’ve had an
opportunity to associate with them.
We interpret this factor as an expression of the respondents’ “internal locus of

control.” Items 1, 16, and 18 are direct expressions of whether or not a person
believes that when they make an effort, they succeed. Items 5 and 22 gauge the
respondents’ beliefs in their own internal directions, be it through the ability to
self-regulate or through their values and beliefs. Item 2 is closely related to both
the previous notions, but items 5 and 22 are internal expressions that predate
any impact the respondent has on society, and items 1, 16, and 22 express a
belief in the respondents’ ability to work with the medium by which they impact
society and their work. However, item 2 requires the respondent to evaluate the
impact of said work.
Straka interpreted this factor as “self-awareness of one’s autonomy and self-

efficacy in conjunction with reading behavior” (1996). We reason that self-
awareness is not the most appropriate interpretation of self-reported measures
because it stipulates that respondents can adequately gauge their own
autonomy, something we have no way of knowing. We take it as a matter of fact
that what we measure are respondents’ perceptions, and thus reason that the
locus of control, the belief in whether or not one’s own actions are impactful in
terms of whether or not one achieves success, is a more appropriate
interpretation.
Factor 2:
12: I’m not comfortable with my performance on an assignment until my
supervisor, teacher, or colleague says it’s acceptable.
17: I find it difficult to judge if I’ve performed well or poorly on a task such as
giving a speech, writing a paper, or answering a test question.
20: When in school, I tend to have difficulty in estimating whether or not the
teacher is going to like my work.
24: Being afraid to take a chance has prevented me from doing something I have
wanted to do at some time in my life.
We interpret the second factor in our analysis as “the ability to be self-

regulating.” The factor is almost identical to a factor in the factor structures
identified by Oddi, Six, Straka, and Harvey et al., and our interpretation is thus
similar. All the mentioned analyses include a factor made up of these items—
Oddi’s without item 24 and Harvey’s including item 21. Mutual for all of these
factors is that they are made up exclusively of reverse-coded items and include
any and all of these in the factor structure, a fact we will remark upon further in
the discussion (Harvey et al., 2006; Oddi, 1984; Six, 1989; Straka, 1996).
361
Factor 3:
4: I make an effort to learn the meaning of new words I encounter.
6: I seek the views of others when I am curious about something.
7: I have a hobby (such as writing, painting, or making things) that provides me

with a means of self-expression.
10: I select serious literature (such as history, biographies, or “the classics”) for
my reading pleasure.
13: I have been an eager reader since childhood.
14: After I read a book or see a play or a film/series, I talk to others to see what
they think about it.
3: I seek involvement with others in school or work projects.
23: I make an effort to meet new people.
We interpret this factor as an “avidity for learning.” The factor is similar to

Straka’s third factor, which he interprets as “Reading avidity” and the “social
dimension of self-directed learning.” The exclusion of two items with no relation
to reading has reduced the complexity of the interpretation. In our factor
structure the two items that are theoretically most closely linked to the social
dimensions – item 3, “I seek involvement with others in school or work
projects,” and item 23, “I make an effort to meet new people,” – are, however,
removed from factor three. The title “reading avidity” is largely borrowed from
Oddi’s original validation, in which she called her third factor the “avidity for
reading” (Oddi, 1984, p. 169). We would contest that the factor should be
reinterpreted, because it also includes items that relate to inclinations toward
learning activities other than reading.
5. Discussion
Applying a confirmatory factor analysis, we identified a three-factor structure
including 16 items as the best model fit on the data, reaching the commonly
applied threshold for the chosen measures. We interpret these factors as
“internal locus of control,” “the ability to be self-regulating,” and “avidity for
learning.” Our analysis of the construct validity of the OCLI shows positive
correlations between the instrument and self-efficacy as measured by the GSE
and academic motivation, as measured by the AMS. Both correlations and their
directionality were as expected; they enforce the impression that the translation
has not made the OCLI behave radically differently and also speak to its
construct validity.
The close resemblance of our final factor structure to Straka’s makes sense, given
that the cultural backgrounds of the samples, German and Danish university
students, were expected to hold close resemblances. The factor structure we
suggest has a drawback in that it includes only 16, rather than 19, 22, or 24, items
out of a total 24, as in previously suggested structures. It has the advantage of
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living up to thresholds of commonly applied measures of model fit and of

mitigating some of the difficulties of interpretation that both Oddi, Six, and
Straka have highlighted. While Oddi’s and Six’s validations of the instrument
were statistically sound, there was one major issue with the interpretation,
namely the size of the first factor, which included almost two thirds of the items
in the instrument, making it difficult to interpret in any meaningful way—a fact
that Oddi herself remarked upon in her conclusions (Oddi, 1984). Straka’s factor
structure went some way toward solving the issue, reducing the number of
items in factor 1 by 5, largely because items concerning social aspects related to
SDL migrated to factor 3. Our analysis further reduces the number of items in
factor 1, which now appears to be theoretically very unidimensional.
Our analysis focuses heavily on statistical measures and heuristics as indicators

of quality, but another aspect of validation of statistical instruments is whether
their interpretation bears any relation to theoretical meaning. Wieland et al.
argue that theoretical criteria must complement the empirical when assessing
the quality of a scale:
, and to this end a noteworthy aspect of our study is that a confirmatory factor
analytical effort to provide the best model of fit on the data also produced an
factor structure that’s easier to interpret theoretically (Clausen, 2021; Wieland et
al., 2018).
While it naturally becomes increasingly easier to attain a theoretically

interpretable factor structure the fewer items you include, our results are an
indication that the OCLI does in fact measure stable underlying constructs and
also speaks to the merits of applying a similar methodology to validate
comparable statistical instruments. While a similar approach was once applied
to a validation of the OCLI, the results were not altogether similar. The
application of the OCLI in a South Korean context resulted in a three-factor 15-
item structure with eight items loading on factors similar to the ones presented
in our analysis (Han & Lee, 2009).
The factor structure identified in this article could be used to gain further
insights into students’ self-directed learning, although researchers in adult
education applying the OCLI should be wary not to overinterpret the results,
given the modest degree of explained variance and internal consistency. These
scores might, however, be mitigated by further addressing two potential issues
with the instrument.
An issue replicated in all the factor analysis is the pattern of the reverse-coded
items. There are five reverse-coded items in the OCLI, and all the factor analysis,
including ours, identified one factor made up of only reverse-coded items,
including all reverse coded items in the factor structure. This begs the question
as to whether or not this is an artifact of respondent questionnaire-answering
behavior or an actual analytical result (Weijters & Baumgartner, 2012).
Another issue that could be analyzed further is whether some of the items that
are excluded in our factor structure may have aged poorly for various reasons
and therefore may in the past have loaded significantly on underlying factors of
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SDL, but have now become poor indicators. If the instrument was revised today,
items like “I read an average of one or more national news magazines each
week” and “I regularly read professional journals” might be examples of this.
The general decline of news magazines, the increased exposure to international
rather than national news outlets, and the rise of the internet as the main
purveyor of news and disseminated research, such as professional journals,
might make these poorer indicators of the types of behaviors and attitudes that
they purport to measure. Another example is item 21: “I find it useful to think
about people (or refer to them) according to categories (such as by education,
occupation, or ethnic background).” It might be argued that the political and
cultural climate of present-day western Europe and USA is such that referring to
individuals according to their ethnic background, for example, would be
considered wholly problematic. Relevant for the answers received on the
questionnaire, answering such an item in a certain way might be perceived as
highly inappropriate, making social desirability play a larger factor in answering
the question.
The usefulness of the OCLI might be considered limited given its relatively low
amount of explained variance and internal consistency. This is however a
discussion and evaluation with many valid arguments in favor of or against the
OCLI, especially given the complex nature of self-directed learning and the
therefore tempered expectations one should have for the statistical properties of
any instrument attempting to measure it or its underlying dimensions. The
OCLI is the result of careful refinement and diligent work, but given the
evolving context between the period in which it was developed, the early 1980s,
and the early 2020s, subsequent refinement and revalidation could serve to
improve it. As with any statistical instrument, it can be applied to gain insights
into a given phenomenon as long as its statistical properties are kept in mind,
appropriate qualifications are taken, and overinterpretation is avoided. These
statistical properties are of great importance if quantitative studies are to
increase in prominence in adult educational research.
6. Conclusion
Our confirmatory factor analysis found that none of the previously identified
factor structures could meet the commonly suggested thresholds of the
measurements included, whereas a new structure, identified through
confirmatory factor analysis used in an exploratory fashion, could. Our structure
reduces the number of items included, and factor 1 appears far more
theoretically unidimensional than in previous structures. A positive point of
emphasis of our results is that while our approach takes its point of departure in
a rigorous application of statistics so as to attain a satisfactory model fit, it has
also identified a more easily interpretable structure. Our results also show that
the OCLI applied in a Danish context still performs as expected when
distributed alongside other statistical instruments measuring related concepts,
supporting the notion that it measures stable underlying constructs. Our results
support the notion that the OCLI can be used to gain insights into students’
attitudes and behaviors towards SDL, but also that conclusions drawn on the
basis of the results should be tempered by the modest degree of explained
364
variance and internal consistency. We suggest that addressing the issue of the
pattern of the reverse-coded items and updating the formulations of items that
have aged poorly would improve the OCLI.
An important motivation for our analysis besides analyzing the OCLI was to
gauge firstly whether the application of contemporarily common thresholds for
evaluation of scale quality could help enhance statistical instruments developed
before computation, and secondly if statistical advancements make these
procedures easily available. To this end, we have shown that older instruments
can be refined and purified by this type of analysis and approach and that such
instruments can still play a role in understanding today’s students.
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Vol. 21, No. 5, pp. 367-400, May 2022
Received Sep 1, 2021; Revised Jan 9, 2022; Accepted May 29, 2022
Application of Gamification Tools for

Identification of Neurocognitive and Social
Function in Distance Learning Education
Hera Antonopoulou , Constantinos Halkiopoulos ,
Evgenia Gkintoni and Athanasios Katsimpelis
Entrepreneurship and Digital Innovation Laboratory (EDILAB),
Department of Management Science and Technology,
University of Patras, Greece
Abstract. The present study investigates the role of synchronous and

asynchronous education techniques in the context of digital and game-
based learning materials through a collaborative study, conducted during
the Covid-19 pandemic (October 2020 – June 2021), in an online e-learning
environment. The study involved 35 last-year elementary school children,
in Western Greece, with learning and behavioral issues. The children
were given games with both practical and academic modules throughout
their online schooling. For example, a math game was played over WebEx
using Kahoot; a game for European institutions was created using the
learningapps.org software; and online games from the European Union's
"Learning Corner" as well as the game "Defeat the Virus" were used for
the Social and Political Education topic. The findings are based on data
collected through synchronous and asynchronous e-learning frameworks
(WebEx, e-Class), and were linked to both cognitive learning aspects and
school children active participation in online education using a
standardized psychometric scale called "Psychosocial Adaptation of
Primary School Children." The findings suggest that gamification might
be a beneficial tool for improving children' cognitive performance in
elementary school and generating a meaningful learning experience. The
educational intervention aided young people in the development of
assertiveness/leadership skills; interpersonal communication skills;
social competence; and self-perception. The benefits of the online
educational process include the enhancement of students' neurocognitive
processes, particularly their executive functions, as well as their social
competencies and interpersonal relationships.
Keywords: gamification; neurocognitive parameters; social function;

distance learning; school children
©Authors
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1. Introduction
Learning is a complex and necessary basic characteristic of evolved species. It is a
cognitive process that leads to a reasonably steady alteration in the activities of
the being. This shift is brought about by future neural system alterations that
occur because of experience accumulation, i.e., repetition and mental processing
of events. Game provides numerous chances for social and personal development.
It encourages newborns and toddlers to collaborate and socialize by putting their
physical and mental talents to the test. Games fosters social awareness and
consciousness and provides an opportunity to address issues such as justice and
equality. Additionally, a young child may gain confidence, the capacity for
observation, assistance, and assessment, as well as initiative. Further, a young
child develops organizational abilities and the capacity for both victory and
defeat. It encourages imagination and creativity, as well as flexibility to a range of
situations and active participation-based learning. Play is a permanent value of
infancy in all cultures, a means of normal psychosomatic and spiritual
development, and a prelude to later life. The process of learning may be explored
in a neurophysiological level, within the context of the brain's cognitive functions.
As a result, learning is conditional on the state of the nervous system. The nervous
system of an intelligent living being offers the biological substrate for the
development of internal states (mental structures) that serve as the foundation for
the being's future conduct.
The human nervous system is composed of numerous distinct components. The

central nervous system, for example, is comprised of the brain and spinal cord.
Generally (and in our approach to this journal article), we are interested in kinds
of learning that include the intellect's brain operations. However, learning in its
broadest sense is connected to the nervous system. The psychological dimension
examined through the administration of a psychometric tool is the method
through which learning as a psychological phenomenon is studied, i.e., at the level
of psychological mechanisms and functions, rather than at the neurophysiological
level of events. Learning is considered a complicated phenomenon that influences
the human being's total psychological dimension. It is the result of the cooperative
action of several psychological processes (e.g., attention, processing information
in working memory, coding knowledge and information, recalling them from
long-term memory, etc.). Cognitive psychology is a significant subfield of
psychology that focuses on the study of mental events associated with learning.
Playing is a pleasurable activity. That is why a growing number of modern experts

are exploring the educational consequences of its use. Nobody doubts video
games' educational benefits. They are drawing-educators, academics, and game
creators from all over the world (Clark, Tanner-Smith & Killingworth, 2016). Due to
their fascination with and comfort with technology, today's kids choose an
integrated learning experience through an electronic game. This is because
electronic games are designed with the "play and learn" philosophy in mind,
which adds to their educational value (Demetriadis, Tsiatsos & Karakostas, 2012).
Additionally, they are founded on modern theories of learning and models of
creative learning, including "discovery learning," "experiential learning," "group
learning," "learning-by-doing," and the "Theory of active learning." Electronic
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games, for example, can contribute to the development of cognitive processes and
abilities (Antonopoulou et al., 2020; Manin, George, & Prevot, 2006): reflex
development—visual-motor synchronization, parallel information processing,
concentration, observations, problem-solving ability, contact, imagination, and
activity.
The learning game (or educational/learning game) is an organized activity in the

form of a game that strives to mix fun and learning while also achieving specified
learning objectives. The term "digital learning games" refers to a type of digital
game that is specially developed to serve certain educational objectives (Michael
& Chen, 2006). Two critical variables contribute to the success of a digital learning
game (Hamalainen, 2011):
• The game's scenario: The game is centered on a basic scenario that
incorporates the student-player and serves as the psychological backdrop for
the gaming experience (interest, involvement, competition, etc.).
• The educational technique: The game's instructional technique. It is essentially
the mechanism that activates the cognitive processes of the student-cognitive
actor to process knowledge relevant to reaching the learning objectives.
It's worth noting that participating in digital learning games introduces players
(school children) to and educates them about modern digital tools, assists them in
developing cognitive and social skills, and prepares them to make the best use of
them throughout their first and second academic years of education. Digital
learning games provide students with the necessary skills to begin acquainting
themselves with digital technologies that will be used in the future and that they
might potentially use in an academic setting of digital leadership. It's worth
noting, as recent research (Antonopoulou et al., 2019; 2020) indicates, that the
greater one's knowledge and specialization in digital tools (social media), the
more capable one is of exercising effective digital leadership in a variety of
environments, including educational organizations (Antonopoulou et al., 2021a),
business organizations, and so on, throughout adult life. In summary, it is widely
accepted that the young generation must be educated in current digital settings
and acquire digital skills to function optimally on the social and professional
network in the upcoming years.
Game-Based learning (GBL), has as its overarching objective the creation of

educational settings that combine learning with the fun and joy provided by a
well-designed game. This is accomplished using a variety of cutting-edge
technologies, including mobile devices, Web 2.0 applications, 3D virtual worlds,
instructional robots, and physical user interfaces. The benefits of this approach are
projected to stem mostly from greater motivation for school children-players'
participation with the game. The learner will be reluctant to play the game in
order to feel the unique feelings elicited by this event. As a result, it must engage
the cognitive processes necessitated by the game's integrated learning system. As
a result of increased engagement and interaction (pupils with one another, with
the teacher, with the game and educational materials), it is expected that essential
learning objectives such as: - subject depth (acquisition of fundamental/advanced
370
knowledge, familiarity with many perspectives/interpretations, and connection

of knowledge to everyday life) would be achieved.
Nick Pelling coined the word "gamification" in 2004 (Marache-Francisco & Brangier,
2015). He attempted to utilize a game-like augmented interface to make electronic
transactions more interesting and engaging, such as utilizing an Automated Teller
Machine (A.T.M.) or in-flight entertainment. Pelling (1981-1999), who had a
background as a game designer, desired to make the transaction seem like playing
a game, with an element of enjoyment. Nowadays, gamification appears to have
an indirect effect on the motivation and engagement of younger students (school
children) in the classroom. This results in boredom and worry for these children,
as well as apathy toward schools, classes, and especially toward staff and teachers.
Simply incorporating technology into school has not resulted in the same positive
outcomes as games. As a result, games such as Angry Birds and World of
Warcraft, which are underpinned by sound service design, are capable of
instilling cognitive intrinsic incentives in players, such as emotions of mastery,
attractiveness, and flexibility.
Gamification is a design strategy aimed at providing users with game-like

experiences, typically with the goal of influencing users' behavior. Accordingly,
game mechanics are frequently associated with learning experiences, such as
assisting in the advancement of knowledge and developing collaborative abilities,
such as decision making and collaboration with peers (Nicholson, 2014). The
strengths of gamification are that it can plainly discern between purpose, errands,
and actions, and that it is rewarding when it is accomplished. This, it is said, will
encourage subjects to differentiate and address the issues they face in society;
where individuals live, and the components of fun, scores, level-ups, and ranking
rivalries are viewed as contributing to voluntary support by stimulating the
subjects' internal and external motivations. Earlier research (Lee & Hammer, 2011;
Hwang et al., 2013) suggested that video games aid in cognitive, social,
motivational, and emotional development.
This paper ascertains the amount to which distant gaming is included in

teaching—both contemporary and asynchronous teaching—via the use of
educational digital and play-centered learning objects, determines how mixed
class pupils' interest is produced, hence inspiring them to study, as indicated from
previous research (Popyk, 2020). Another scope of this study is to investigate the
role of gamification in amelioration of neurocognitive and social functions of
pupils in primary education and the extent to which the application of
gamification tools can promote motivation for educational process especially in
distance learning settings.
Definition of Gamification
Gamification was coined in the business world to refer to the incorporation of
game aspects into a user interface to boost electronic client transactions. Gambling
rapidly became a popular notion, supported by corporations, the private sector,
and education (Kücklich, 2008). In 2011, science endorsed Sebastian Deterding's
first widely acknowledged definition of gamification (Deterding et al., 2011).
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Gamification is the practice of incorporating game features or game mechanisms

into non-game environments. As a result, the notification box includes non-game
content (for example, an airline game on its website in which customers may win
free tickets depending on their flight history) (McShaffry, 2003). The basic
characteristics of gaming are points and ratings, which are critical for customers
and machine manufacturers alike (Hellersted & Mozelius, 2018; Juul, 2010). Each
time a user properly answers a question or successfully completes a test, he earns
points. The points are used to compensate him and to provide feedback.
Additionally, he may monitor his own achievement and progress, as well as that
of his colleagues. The levels track the user's progress and keep us informed of both
his own and his colleagues' achievements (Kirschner et al., 2006). The levels act as
a motivation for users and also act as a reference for the game's growth, since we
can monitor the player's progress toward game completion. Since the early 1990s,
scholars have claimed that electronic games can be employed in a variety of
methods and applications at all levels of education. The challenge for educators is
to leverage players' high level of engagement in the game and, in conjunction with
appropriate game situations, to design learning experiences that enable player-
users to acquire critical and transferable information and skills.
Gamification and Persuasive Technology

Gamification and persuasive technology have been heavily leveraged in recent
years for marketing, attitude modification, and motivational pull. Simultaneously,
games such as Angry Birds and World of Warcraft have demonstrated how games
may be extremely effective for invoking cognitive intrinsic motives such as
mastery of emotions. Additionally, social components are critical to conventional
gamification services: individuals collect badges, climb high-score lists, and
accumulate points for social reasons, such as recognition. Gamification is a term
that relates to service design that aims to provide customers with game-like
experiences, most often with the objective of influencing user behavior.
Gamification is distinct from other similar developments in several critical ways:
• Gamification is frequently used to create experiences evocative of games (e.g.,
flow, mastery, and autonomy).
• Unlike persuasive methods, gamification aims to influence motives rather than
attitude and/or behavior directly.
• Gamification refers to the process of infusing existing systems with
“gaminess”, rather than creating a totally new game, as is the case with “serious
games”.
On the other side, persuasive technologies relate to interactive computer systems

that are intended to alter the user's attitude and/or behavior. Clearly, gamification
and persuasive technology have some overlap. For instance, certain persuasive
techniques, such as feedback and prizes, can be compared to those used in
gamification. In general, most gamification services, games, social networking
services, and persuasive systems have features that enable both social and
gamification engagement. Depending on how we conceive different approaches to
persuasive design, gamification may be viewed as an overarching notion in the
sense that it can be used across several domains or as a subset of other methods to
persuasive design.
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2.1. Neurocognition in Learning Process

Definition of Neurocognition
The function of the brain, as part of the Central Nervous System (CNS), is to
regulate most functions of the body and mind. This includes everything from vital
physiological functions, such as breathing or heart rate, to more basic
physiological functions, such as sleep, hunger, or sexual instinct, to higher
functions, such as thinking, memory, or speech. The parts of the brain are
analyzed by how the most basic vital functions are measured by the older brain
structures, that is, those located in the rhomboid brain (medulla oblongata, bridge,
cerebellum) and the midbrain. In contrast, the higher brain functions such as
reasoning, memory, and attention are controlled by the cerebral hemispheres and
lobes that are part of the cortex and refer to neurocognition. Proper stimulation
can help improve the state of different cognitive abilities (Finisguerra et al., 2019).
Cognitive functions are the mental processes that allow us to receive, select, store,
mutate, develop, and retrieve environmental information. This allows people to
understand and relate to the world around them. Many times, when we talk about
higher cognitive functions, we are referring to cognitive skills we need to
understand and interact with the world. Although we sometimes study them as
separate entities, we must keep in mind that cognitive functions are interrelated
and often overlap. Some categories of higher cognitive functions are summarized
below and a brief description of each of them is given:
Attention
Attention is a very complicated mental activity that cannot be reduced to a simple
description, a single anatomical component, or assessed in a single test since it
includes several processes. Attention is the cognitive function that selects amongst
the stimuli that enter the brain simultaneously, both external (odors, sounds,
pictures) and interior (thoughts, feelings), that are helpful and appropriate for
performing a motor or spiritual action. In depth, it is a collection of processes of
varying complexity that enables us to perform other cognitive functions properly.
Executive functions
Executive functions are the most advanced cognitive abilities. Although executive
function has a variety of definitions, nearly all pertain to the management of
cognitive function and the regulation of ideas and behavior via a variety of linked
processes. It entails a variety of sophisticated abilities, including attention
management, planning, programming, and modifying and managing voluntary
behavior. They are found in the brain's frontal lobe (Gkintoni et al, 2017). Executive
functions are "a collection of processes concerned with the management of oneself,
and one's resources in order to accomplish a goal." It is a collective name for the
neurologically based abilities associated with mental control and self-regulation”
(Cooper-Kahn & Dietzel, 2017). Many students, who are diagnosed with a learning
impairment or attention, deficit hyperactivity disorder, or ADHD, have
difficulties performing their executive tasks effectively. Children with executive
functioning difficulties may struggle with routine chores. They may struggle with
planning and organizing. The signals may appear differently depending on the
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children's ages. For example, students in elementary school who exhibit

symptoms of EFD or executive functioning disorder will struggle to switch
between activities, will be unable to organize themselves, will become "stuck" on
an idea or topic, and/or will completely miss the point of a conversation, lesson,
or lecture.
Speech
Speech is a symbolic method of communication that presents itself via languages
in the case of humans. Speech is critical not just for interpersonal communication
but also for the internal structure of our thoughts. Different regions of the brain
are involved in speech processing, functioning in concert via a variety of
functional systems, the majority of which are located in the left hemisphere.
Visual-spatial functions
Visual-spatial functions are utilized to evaluate, comprehend, and regulate our
physical environment (either in two or three dimensions). Mental navigation,
distance and depth perception, visual-spatial creation, and mental rotation are all
examples of these functions. The occipital and parietal lobes are largely
responsible for spatial analysis, face identification, map and object processing,
music processing, body aesthetics, facial emotions and gestures, and motor tasks
that do not need verbal control.
2.2. Gamification and Neurocognition

Gamification and Executive Functions
Gamification is the process of transferring game-like features, such as point
scoring, rivalry with other players, and game rules, to other domains of activity.
Additionally, it is the idea of using game mechanics and game design methods to
engage and inspire others to accomplish their objectives. Gamification appeals to
the users' fundamental wants and demands, which are centered on the concept of
status and accomplishment. Whether you're playing a computer game or a board
game, executive functions are critical in a variety of situations. When someone
plays checkers or chess, the player must anticipate his or her opponent's next
move. A large part of gaming is planning and arranging ideas. Additionally, in
the case someone plays a video game, such as Call of Duty (which is very popular
among adolescents), always required to prepare and consider the next movement.
Characters may appear out of nowhere, and individuals must always be prepared
for the unexpected, which keeps one on its pace. While playing a game, someone
must be able to shift or move easily between situations and think flexibly to react
correctly. Additionally, emotional regulation is essential when playing a game; it
is described as the "capacity to modify emotional reactions by applying rational
thought to experiences" (Nouchi et al., 2012; Van Der et al., 2012). When objects are
being thrown from all directions, it is critical to be able to control the next move
and decide what to do next, even if it means losing points; someone does what is
best in the long run.
Gamification and Social Function

Although gamification is often associated with expertise, competence, flow, and
goal dedication (Hamari et al., 2014), it is self-evident that social aspects also play
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a significant role. As such, we sought to explore experimentally how social

variables such as social influence, recognition, and reciprocal rewards affect
attitudes and usage intentions toward gamification services. Gamification, in the
form of points and levels, therefore plays a role in facilitating this social process
within the group. Thus, maybe even simple "pontification" might become
"meaningful" when shared among a community of like-minded individuals
working toward common objectives.
Gaming and Social Function in Distance Learning Education

Because of its intrinsic and intangible nature, as well as the nature of gaming,
Distance Learning is well-suited for gaming applications. Electronic learning is
more visually appealing and engaging than traditional teaching. Thus,
playfulness may be used to boost motivation and compensate for certain basic
pedagogical faults inherent in e-learning systems, such as the absence of
emotional contact between the teacher and the student in traditional education.
Playfulness aids in the development and elaboration of this emotion (Vlachopoulos
et al., 2012). Thus, including gaming into remote education has several obvious
benefits. It enhances students' commitment, motivation, achievement, and
retention of the objective, as well as their personal learning and thinking talents.
It is capable of shaping collaborative teams and assisting them in achieving better
success through competition. Additionally, it enhances academic standards and
promote digital literacy. When it comes to emotions, video games may provoke a
broad variety of responses. When someone feels dissatisfied, the most fascinating
example of emotional change occurs. Players have the option of failing in a totally
enjoyable setting. When the differences between a two-week remote learning
game and a two-week regular distance learning course were compared, the two
groups that participated in the enjoyable learning utilizing fundamental gaming
principles show a statistically significant boost in cognitive performance
(Antonopoulou et al., 2021b). This difference is sometimes difficult to establish since
the addition of rules converts a gaming system into a game. Gaming and serious
games both make use of game elements for objectives unrelated to the primary
goal of games, which is generally to have fun. The goal is to not just make
previously dull activities more enjoyable, but to also increase user participation to
increase the engagement and interest of activities. According to Zicherman and
Cunningham (2011), gaming is the application of logic to games (game thinking)
to solve a problem and increase user engagement and interest. Additionally, the
game includes ranking tables that indicate the name of the gamer and the points
that have been won, allowing one gamer to be compared to others, which is a
requirement of the competition. Additionally, there are prizes or insignia that act
as "medals" that boost the user's confirmation and confidence while also
establishing prestige and respect for those who did not perform as well. Finally,
there are challenges, which are tests put on some players within the application
to accomplish a task that stimulates interest and competition.
Gamification and Neurocognitive Assessment

The term "neurocognitive assessment" refers to the process of evaluating an
individual's cognitive abilities (infant or adult) (e.g., working memory, attention,
and executive processes). Cognitive training is a phrase that refers to the practice
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of engaging in cognitive tasks to maintain or improve a certain aspect of cognitive

function. Cognitive exercises are important for evaluating and educating people
with cognitive impairments. Among the available solutions, gamification, defined
as the process of incorporating game elements (e.g., a scoring system, a
leaderboard, and a badge) into nongame contexts (e.g., education, business, and
cognitive tasks), is one of the most influential and promising approaches for
increasing motivation in repetitive tasks (Lumsden et al., 2016). A greater
understanding of human motivation allows users to maintain their motivation for
cognitive tasks throughout time (Gray et al., 2019). Motivation is complex and
ranges from internal to extrinsic to amotivation (lack of motivation) (Ryan & Deci,
2000). By mixing internal and extrinsic incentives, gamification may be utilized to
boost motivation and engagement (Vermeir et al., 2020). Extrinsic incentive is
generated in games via the use of elements such as badges, points, game levels, a
scoreboard, and avatars. These factors contribute to the collection of early user
motivation (Gray et al., 2019). Gamification may also assist people in increasing
their intrinsic drive by including components such as suitable challenges and
positive reinforcement—these elements satisfy human needs of competence. The
bulk of gamified cognitive tasks were created by cognitive psychologists, not
professional gamification designers, and scientists prioritize the clinical efficacy
of a gamified activity above the usage of effective and innovative gamification
designs (Baniqued et al., 2012).
In several research projects (Baniqued et al., 2012; Lumsden et al., 2016; Lumsden et
al., 2017; Dorrenbacher et al., 2014) various gamification techniques were applied to
cognitive tasks. In the present study a psychometric scale evaluating psychosocial
adaptation and social functions in general, in combination with gamified
cognitive tasks evaluating neurocognition and some categories of higher
neurocognitive functions (for instance attention and executive functions), is
proposed.
Neurocognitive Function and Videogames

Numerous studies (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Lumsden et al., 2016; Gray et al., 2019; Vermeir
et al., 2020) indicate that video games may improve neurocognitive abilities such
as attention and focus, as well as social functions such as assertiveness and
leadership ability. Since video game players have a greater capacity for attention
within the training zone, a test was undertaken to determine if this ability might
be enhanced outside the training zone. Additionally, it appears as though video
game players outperform non-players in all categories. This indicates that spatial
attention of video game players increased across the visual field, even in
untrained areas. The temporal features of visual attention were examined, as well
as whether the pressure to act rapidly on many visual stimuli, as seen in video
games, might affect the capacity to process items over time, notably the ability to
avoid impediment in focus. It was observed that video game players performed
better than non-gamers in detecting the stimuli of the game, resulting in a reduced
attentional blink. Video games, which may benefit from more attentional
resources, process several objects or actions concurrently. Certain video games
need players to discard unwanted objects that might benefit from a more
sophisticated selection process. Thus, when presented with distractors, video
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game players exhibited an improved ability for recognizing objects both inside
and outside their field of vision, as well as an accuracy advantage.
3. Research Design – Methods

3.1. Study objective
The aim of this study is to determine whether the playfulness of distance modern
and asynchronous teaching, as well as the use of educational digital and play-
centered learning objects, increases the interest and motivation of mixed-grade
pupils to learn. It investigates whether play-centered teaching engages school
children and motivates them to learn; the benefits of using play-based
applications in primary school children are evaluated; and in settings where
school children with special needs and abilities, learning difficulties, foreigners,
and Romani people (well recognized in English by the exonym Gypsies or
Gipsies), coexist, we explored what characteristics educational games should
have.
Although children are exposed to internet apps, smart gadgets, and electronic
games from an early age, e-learning has grown into a creative, interesting, and
effective style of instruction. As a result, the participant's cognitive mechanisms
connected with the learning process should be activated, as these mechanisms are
included into the game. The anticipated effect is increased learner engagement
and interaction with one another, the instructor, the game, and instructional
materials, resulting in the achievement of critical learning objectives such as
cognitive object depth (acquisition of fundamental/advanced information,
familiarity with diverse perspectives/interpretations, application of information
to everyday situations) and identification of cognitive and emotional parameters
promoted by gamification.
3.2. Study design

Given the significance of gamification in the learning process and in education in
general, the research topics investigated can be described as follows (Figure 1),
based on what has been published thus far and guided by the current literature:
Figure 1. Flowchart of Research Methodology
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– [RQ1] Does the playfulness of distance modern and asynchronous teaching,

as well as the use of educational digital and play-centered learning objects,
increase interest and motivation?
– [RQ2] What is the function of gamification in enhancement of interpersonal
communication?
– [RQ3] What is the contribution of gamification in improvement of emotional
management and self-control?
– [RQ4] How can gamification promote skills of assertiveness and leadership
skills?
– [RQ5] What is the influence of gamification in neurocognition (executive
functions, decision making, attention, concentration, organization/design)?
– [RQ6] What is the role of gamification in the improvement of social function?
3.3. Participants
The study surveyed 35 school children from a primary school in Western Greece
between March 2021 and June 2021. Seventeen children (56.7%) were boys and the
remaining (43.3%) were girls. The average age of the sample of students was 11.5
years (with a standard deviation (SD) of 0.8 years). It is worth noting that each
student is assigned a code in order to maintain their anonymity.
3.4. Data Collection

Description of Psychometric Scale
The Psychosocial Adaptation Test for Preschool and School-Age Children
(Psychosocial Adaptation Test) is an assessment instrument designed to evaluate
skills and deficits in social, emotional, and school adaptation, as well as
intrapersonal and interpersonal adjustment. The Psychosocial Adaptation Test is
composed of three scales; the first two are done by the teacher and pertain to
children in preschool (4-6 years) and elementary school (7-12 years), respectively,
while the third (self-report) is taken by 10-12-year school children (5th and 6th
school class). When administering the self-report scale, it is recommended to
conduct the comparable test to the teachers to allow for comparative evaluation
of the findings. Three subscales of psychosocial competence and one of behavioral
issues are included in the scale for preschool and elementary school students. In
addition to the four subscales mentioned above, the self-report exam includes a
fifth subscale, self-perception (Hatzichristou et al., 2011).
The Psychosocial Adaptation Test is a standardized instrument that evaluates the

multidimensional structure of a child's psychosocial adjustment by concentrating
on deficiencies while also including information from the instructor. The expert
can use the test to examine the psychosocial features linked with learning
impairments and to discover aspects of the psychosocial profile of children
identified with learning disabilities that may be predictive of issues in the child's
subsequent learning—course. Additionally, the test may be used to discover the
variables that contribute to the child's resilience in adapting to the school
environment. This is facilitated by assessing various aspects of the child's
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psychosocial competence (social competence, school competence, emotional

competence, self-perception). In preschool, for example, neuropsychological,
psychological, developmental, and other learning problems frequently arise, and
it is sometimes impossible to measure the child's cognitive functioning. This test
enables the assessment of children's behavior and thus enables timely
intervention. The test can be used in the classroom or in the school setting
(screening) to identify children who are at risk of having problems in the
aforementioned areas. Additionally, it may be used to assess the efficacy of
intervention programs performed on an individual or group basis in a regular or
integrated class.
The test is comparable to measures that are often utilized in several nations.
Individual scales are typically used to assess social skills (Gresham & Elliot, 1990),
executive functions and behaviors (Achenbach & Rescorla, 2014; Reynolds &
Kamphaus, 1992), emotional adequacy (Bar-On & Parker, 2000), and motivation and
self-perception. Only lately has the need for analyzing the potential and problems
associated with these theoretical approaches been emphasized (Merrell, 1998).
Psychometric tools for detecting psychosocial difficulties in preschool and
elementary school-aged children are widely used in other countries (e.g., the
United States of America and the United Kingdom) and are weighted in a general
population of children and clinical specimens of children with learning
disabilities, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, developmental disorders,
and other disorders. As a result, they have been included in a systematic effort to
thoroughly assess learning problems in preschool and school-aged children.
According to scientific evidence, the precise characteristics are associated with the
learning process, academic achievement, and, more broadly, the child's
adjustment to school and home. Numerous clinical trial data also support the
importance of concurrent assessment of cognitive functions (e.g., memory,
attention, executive functions) and dimensions of a child's psychosocial behavior
for the timely and valid identification of learning disabilities and factors
contributing to school failure (Lyon, Fletcher, and Barnes, 2003). Dimensions of
psychosocial behavior have been suggested should be included in the
classification of characteristics of kids with learning impairments since they are
regarded primary features. Additionally, when psychosocial factors are
examined, predictive validity for detecting learning impairments is found to be
excellent (Watkins, 1996).
The study was performed with the consent of the students' parents and guardians,
who signed a responsible declaration, and with the approval of the School's
Teachers' Association. School children were assigned both constructive and
theoretical modules in their games. Each school child is asked to carefully read
each of the 115 sentences of the questionnaire and to circle the number that
indicates how much this behavior suits him, that is, how much it represents him.
Students' answers were graded according to the Likert five-point scale (1 - 2 - 3 -

4 - 5) as follows: 1 = if this sentence does not apply, it does not suit you at all, 2 =
if it suits you well, 3 = if it suits you moderately, 4 = if it suits you very well, 5 = if
it suits you very well. The total score for each dimension of the questionnaire is a
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function of the number of sentences it contains (e.g., if a subscale has 7 sentences

the minimum score it can get is 7  1 = 7 and the maximum 7  5 = 35).
Respectively, the total score of each sub-scale is a function of the total scores of the
dimensions of which it consists of. Below are presented in detail the dimensions
(and the sentences from which they arise), as well as the subscales (and the
dimensions from which they arise). Proposals with an asterisk (*) are inverted
during the dimensional calculation process to indicate high values and a high
score.
Dimensions of the Psychometric Tool:

– Skills of Assertiveness/Leadership skills: 1, 11, 22*, 41, 63, 64 and 84 (7
sentences)
– Interpersonal Communication: 2, 17, 19, 31, 33*, 42, 62, 70, 88 and 109 (10
sentences)
– Collaboration with Peers: 4, 25, 26, 43, 46, 78, 90 and 114 (8 proposals)
– Motivation: 6*, 12, 14, 20, 27, 32, 34, 54, 55, 71, 81 and 104* (12 sentences)
– Organization/Design: 5, 15, 16*, 61, 68*, 83*, 99 and 100 (8 proposals)
– School Effectiveness: 24, 30, 53, 73, 95*, 98, 102*, 103, 108 and 113* (10
sentences)
– Self-Control: 51, 65, 67, 72 and 85* (5 sentences)
– Emotional Management: 8, 28, 37, 47, 48, 77, 89 and 107 (8 sentences)
– Empathy: 56, 76, 82, 96* and 105 (5 sentences)
– Intrapersonal Adaptation: 7, 10, 50, 74*, 75, 80, 87*, 110 and 112 (9 sentences)
– Hyperactivity/Difficulties in Concentration: 9, 13, 38, 44, 57, 59* and 86 (7
sentences)
– Language Proficiency: 23, 29, 45, 66*, 69 and 101* (6 sentences)
– Mathematics Capacity: 3*, 18, 60, 79 and 106 (5 sentences)
– Learning Capacity: 21, 36, 39, 40*, 94, 111 and 115 (7 sentences)
– General Self-Esteem: 35, 49, 52, 58, 91, 92, 93 and 97 (8 sentences)
Sub-scales of the Psychometric Tool:

– Social Adequacy
– School Adequacy
– Emotional Adequacy
– Behavioral Problems
– Self-Perception
Dimensions arise from the sum of the sentences of which they are composed. Then
the subscales result from the sum of the dimensions of which they are composed.
In order for the dimensions and subscales to be comparable (since they do not
consist of the same number of sentences), a process of converting the initial score
to standard scores is required. Thus, for each of the dimensions and subscales the
Initial Scores (IS) converted to equivalent Standard Scores (SS). The T-values are
used for this procedure, with an average of 50 and a standard deviation of 10. To
find the SS, the formula 𝑆𝑆 = 50 + 10 ∗ 𝑍 is applied, where Z is the standard
values. SS ranges from 20 to 80. A score close to the upper or lower limits of 20 to
80 means that the child has "marginally low" or "marginally high" performance,
respectively. It is noted that high values in the subscales "Social Adequacy",
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"School Adequacy", "Emotional Adequacy" and "Self-perception" indicate a good

adjustment (i.e., positive behaviors). In contrast, for the "Problem Behavior"
subscale, high SS indicates severe problems (i.e., negative behaviors). In general,
students with a SS below 30 belong to a "very low" grade, 30 to 40 belong to a
"low" grade, 40 to 60 belong to a "medium" grade, and 60 to 70 belong to a "high"
grade. category and SS higher than 70 belong to the "very high" rating category.
In addition, the individual details of the children (gender, year of birth, class, and
school) were recorded.
Kahoot Game
Figure 2: Kahoot Screenshot
Kahoot is a free application that enables us to create multiple-choice quizzes and

responses that students may play concurrently (in a computer lab or tablet with
an Internet connection). This becomes a game as students' scores are given
following each response depending on their accuracy and ease with which they
selected the correct answer. The teacher downloads all of the students' replies and
examine their mistakes and shortcomings at the end of the game/quiz. Thus, the
instructor exerts control over the choices and possible vulnerabilities for each
pupil.
In this paper, we used Kahoot to teach fractions in arithmetic (Equivalent Fraction

Game), which was done using the WebEx teleconferencing system (Figure 2).
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LearningApps.org Game
We developed a game for European institutions using application learning apps
such as the millionaire game (Figure 3) for Social and Political Education course.
Figure 3: Learning Apps Screenshot
Cyberkids Game
Games from Cyberkids is an initiative spearheaded by "Cybercrime Prosecution"
(Figure 4) with the aim of educating and raising awareness about internet
protection among children aged six to twelve and their parents.
Figure 4: Cyberkids Screenshot
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The Council of Europe's "Defeat the Virus" game (Figure 5), developed during a
pandemic, was critical in helping children understand the virus in a simple and
enjoyable way, which we found to be extremely useful.
Figure 5: Defeat the Virus Screenshot
The above-mentioned game was developed as part of the Council of Europe's

project on Digital Citizenship Education. Classes include students with ADHD,
autism, and Roma pupils. Due to the ban on in-person classes due to COVID-19,
the study focused on distant synchronous and asynchronous education. The
lecture was delivered through e-class and WebEx. Students were assigned games
that included both constructive and theoretical mathematics lectures about
fractions, as well as social and political education. To compare the dimensions and
subscales of the tool prior to and following the implementation of the games, we
utilized the questionnaire "Psychosocial adaptation of children 10-12 years old,"
which was provided to students prior to and during the lesson. The questionnaire
is self-administered and includes a list of explanations for several elements of this
age group's behavior.
4. Results
The descriptive statistics of the variables were examined and analyzed. Basic
location and dispersion measures, as well as frequencies and relative frequencies,
were used to describe demographic characteristics. To test the reliability of the
school children's answers (before and after the lesson) to the individual sentences
that compose the dimensions, the Cronbach's alpha reliability index was
calculated.
Following that, a psychosocial adjustment table is included for each student who
participated in the study, capturing their individual score on the dimensions and
subscales prior to and following the intervention. Thus, in addition to the overall
investigation, an assessment of each child's psychosocial adjustment was made.
Each dimension/subscale is scored using both "initial scores" (IS) and "standard
scores" (SS).
383
Factor analysis was performed to investigate the weight (i.e., the percentage of
variability that explains) each factor of the questionnaire in the composition of the
individual dimensions and subscales. For the correlation of the subscales
(standard variables were used) the Pearson r correlation coefficient was
calculated. To investigate the correlation of dimensions and subscales with the
demographics of students with gender, the t-test was used to compare two means
values for independent samples (paired t-test). To predict possible behavioral
problems from self-perception, emotional and social adequacy at the same time, a
multiple linear regression model was applied. The dependent variable was the
standard subscale "Behavioral Problems" and independent variables (possible
predictor variables) were the subscales of “Self-perception”, “Emotional
Adequacy” and “Social Adequacy”. Finally, a paired t-test was performed to
differentiate the dimensions and subscales of the tool before and after the
application of the toy(s).
Where values were missing, due to the non-response of some suggestions by

students, they were estimated by applying a regression model to calculate the
dimensions and subscales. The p-values reported are based on bilateral controls.
P-values below 0.05 were considered statistically significant. SPSS software (SPSS
Inc., 2003, Chicago, USA) was used to perform the statistical analysis.
Dimensions and Subscales

The following is the reliability index (Cronbach’s Alpha) for checking the
reliability of the various dimensions (before and after the lesson) that emerged as
described above. From Table 1 it appears that the reliability index for all
dimensions, both before and after the course, is over 50%. This indicates
satisfactory reliability, while for most dimensions it exceeds 70% (very good
reliability). The lower reliability of some dimensions may be due to the large
variation of students' responses to the corresponding sentences.
Investigation before and after the application of the games

The findings are presented in Table 1. Regarding the dimensions, it appears that
there is a statistically significant difference (p < 0.05) in the average value of the
dimensions "Skills of Assertiveness/Leadership Skills" and "Interpersonal
Communication" before and after the games are applied [RQ4]. More precisely,
the average score for the above dimensions is higher on average following the
intervention. Thus, the highest score (i.e., the most constructive behavior)
following the game's implementation suggests that the intervention was effective
in terms of assertiveness/leadership skills and interpersonal communication
[RQ2]. Additionally, the intervention seems to have led to an improvement in the
average score for the dimensions "Motivation," "Emotional Management,"
"Empathy," "Mathematics Capability," "Learning Capability," and "General Self-
Esteem." However, it did not seem as if these variations were statistically
important (Table 1) [RQ1, RQ2, RQ3, RQ5].
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Table 1. Psychosocial Adjustment of Pupils 10-12 Years Old

Cronbach’s Alpha Number of
Dimensions Questions
Pre Post
Skills of Assertiveness/Leadership skills 0.5 0.6 7
Interpersonal Communication 0.6 0.7 10
Collaboration with Peers 0.7 0.8 8
Motivation 0.8 0.8 12
Organization/Design 0.5 0.5 8
School Effectiveness 0.7 0.8 10
Self-Control 0.8 0.8 5
Emotional Management 0.7 0.7 8
Empathy 0.6 0.6 5
Intrapersonal Adaptation 0.8 0.9 9
Hyperactivity/Difficulties in 0.5 0.6 7
Concentration
Language Proficiency 0.8 0.8 6
Mathematics Capacity 0.8 0.7 5
Learning Capacity 0.7 0.7 7
General Self-Esteem 0.7 0.5 8
The following are the basic descriptive statistics of dimensions and subscales
before and after the course is applied (Table 2).
Table 2. Descriptive Statistics of Psychosocial adjustment of children 10-12 years.

Pre Post
Dimensions
Mean Min-Max Mean Min – Max
value (SD) value Value (SD) value
Skills of Assertiveness 21 (4) 12-29 22 (4) 14-29
/Leadership Skills
Interpersonal Communication 35 (5) 24-43 37 (4) 25-44
Collaboration with Peers 29 (6) 15-39 29 (5) 13-38
Motivation 39 (5) 29-47 40 (5) 24-47
Organization/Design 24 (4) 16-30 24 (3) 17-29
School Effectiveness 33 (3) 26-39 33 (4) 25-40
Self-Control 15 (2) 10-19 15 (2) 11-20
Emotional Management 26 (5) 15-37 27 (5) 19-37
Empathy 17 (3) 10-24 17 (2) 13-22
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Intrapersonal Adaptation 24 (5) 16-33 24 (5) 15-35

Hyperactivity/Difficulties in 23 (4) 14-29 23 (4) 13-29
Concentration
Language Capacity 18 (3) 12-23 18 (3) 13-23

Mathematics Capacity 18 (3) 12-21 18 (2) 11-22
Learning Capacity 21 (4) 15-29 21 (4) 14-30
General Self-Esteem 27 (4) 20-36 28 (4) 18-34
Subscales
Social Adequacy 85 (13) 54-109 88 (12) 54-103
School Adequacy 96 (7) 76-107 96 (8) 72-109
Emotional Adequacy 59 (7) 45-78 59 (7) 47-78
Behavioral Problems 65 (7) 47-79 65 (7) 46-79
Self-Esteem 66 (6) 53-81 67 (5) 56-84
Investigation of Dimensions and Subscales

Tables 3 to 7 present the results of the factor analysis to determine the gravity (i.e.,
the percentage of variability explained by each factor) of the dimensions and
subscales. The results are displayed in descending order, so the factor that appears
first is also the one that has the most weight.
Therefore, in terms of " Skills of Assertiveness/Leadership Skills", the factor "I

start a conversation/activity and ask for the participation of others" is more
important, in "Interpersonal Communication" the factor "I apologize when
needed" and in "Collaboration with Peers’ "factor" I like being with other people "
[RQ2, RQ4].
Table 3. Social Adequacy Factor Analysis

Dimensions Social Adequacy
Factor Weight Factor Weight
Skills of 11 23.5 17 8.9
Assertiveness/Leadership
skills
41 20.6 19 8.4
1 17.6 4 7.9
22 11.8 25 5.8
63 11.8 46 5.8
64 8.8 26 5.3
84 5.9 90 5.3
Interpersonal 17 22.4 11 4.2
Communication
19 21.1 42 4.2
42 10.5 43 4.2
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2 9.2 114 4.2

70 9.2 41 3.7
31 7.9 2 3.7
109 7.9 70 3.7
88 6.6 78 3.7
33 2.6 1 3.2
62 2.6 31 3.2
Collaboration with Peers 4 18.8 109 3.2
25 13.8 88 2.6
46 13.8 22 2.1
26 12.5 63 2.1
90 12.5 64 1.6
43 10.0 84 1.1
114 10.0 33 1.1
78 8.8 62 1.1
A correlation was found between the factors in the following three dimensions:
(1)”Motivation”, the factor “When I start something, I definitely want to finish it”,
with the dimension, (2)”Organization/Design” the factor “Usually I do not check
my work for any mistakes” and with the dimension and (3)”School Effectiveness
“the factor” I follow the rules of school and class “.
Table 4. School Adequacy Factor Analysis

Dimensions School Adequacy
Motivation 12 19.5 12 8.8
55 14.3 30 8.2
27 13.0 55 6.4
14 10.4 27 5.8
54 10.4 53 5.8
34 7.8 73 5.3
71 6.5 14 4.7
81 6.5 54 4.7
32 3.9 100 4.7
104 3.9 34 3.5
20 2.6 15 3.5
6 1.3 16 3.5
Organization/Design 100 20.5 83 3.5
15 15.4 71 2.9
16 15.4 81 2.9
83 15.4 99 2.9
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99 12.8 102 2.9

61 7.7 108 2.9
68 7.7 24 2.3
5 5.1 32 1.8
School Effectiveness 30 25.5 104 1.8
53 18.2 61 1.8
73 16.4 68 1.8
102 9.1 95 1.8
108 9.1 103 1.8
24 7.3 20 1.2
95 5.5 5 1.2
103 5.5 6 0.6
98 1.8 98 0.6
113 1.8 113 0.6
A correlation was found between the factors in the following three dimensions:
(1)"Self-Control", the factor "I react strongly when they argue with me", in
(2)"Emotional Management" the factor "I understand when people are upset, even
when they say nothing" and in (3)"Empathy" the factor "I can tell when one of my
friends is sad."
Table 5. Emotional Adequacy Factor Analysis

Dimensions Emotional Adequacy
Self-control 85 33.3 48 11.5
51 16.7 56 10.6
65 16.7 85 8.8
67 16.7 105 8.8
72 16.7 37 8.0
Emotional 48 29.5 76 7.1
management
37 20.5 82 6.2
77 11.4 51 4.4
107 11.4 65 4.4
47 9.1 67 4.4
8 6.8 72 4.4
89 6.8 77 4.4
28 4.5 107 4.4
Empathy 56 30.8 47 3.5
105 25.6 8 2.7
76 20.5 89 2.7
82 17.9 28 1.8
96 5.1 96 1.8
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Regarding the dimension "Intrapersonal Adjustment", the factor "I am worried

about what other children think of me" is more important, with the dimension
"Hyperactivity/Concentration Difficulties" the factor "I am easily distracted by
noises or activities" and with "Language Proficiency" the factor "I get good grades
in Language" [RQ5].
Table 6. Behavioral Problems Factor Analysis

Dimensions Behavioral Problems
Intrapersonal 74 17.4 9 7.6
adaptation
7 15.2 74 6.7
112 15.2 59 6.7
10 13.0 29 6.7
110 13.0 7 5.9
50 8.7 112 5.9
80 6.5 13 5.9
87 6.5 10 5.0
75 4.3 110 5.0
Hyperactivity/ 9 20.9 44 5.0
Difficulties in
Concentration
59 18.6 57 5.0
13 16.3 45 5.0
44 14.0 101 5.0
57 14.0 23 4.2
38 9.3 50 3.4
86 7.0 38 3.4
Language 29 26.7 80 2.5
Proficiency
45 20.0 87 2.5
101 20.0 86 2.5
23 16.7 69 2.5
69 10.0 75 1.7
66 6.7 66 1.7
Regarding the dimension "Capability in Mathematics", the factor "I get good
grades in mathematics" receives more weight, with the dimension "Capability to
Learn" the factor "I understand what I read" and with the "General Self-Esteem"
the factor "The "My parents know what I can and cannot do."
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Table 7. Self-perception Factor Analysis

Dimensions Self-perception
Mathematics 106 29.4 106 9.7
Capacity
79 21.6 92 9.1
60 19.6 115 7.8
18 15.7 79 7.1
3 13.7 60 6.5
Learning Capacity 115 31.6 49 6.5
36 23.7 52 6.5
21 13.2 36 5.8
111 13.2 93 5.8
39 7.9 18 5.2
40 7.9 3 4.5
94 2.6 35 4.5
General self- 92 21.5 91 3.9
esteem
49 15.4 97 3.9
52 15.4 21 3.2
93 13.8 111 3.2
35 10.8 39 1.9
91 9.2 40 1.9
97 9.2 58 1.9
58 4.6 94 0.6
Investigation of the correlation between the Sub-scales

Table 8 presents the results of the correlation of the sub-scales. It appears that
there is a statistically significant positive correlation between "Social Adequacy"
and "School Adequacy" (p<0.05). This means that as students' social competence
increases, so does their school competence. Similarly, there is a statistically
significant positive correlation between "Emotional Adequacy" and "School
Adequacy" (p<0.05). This means that as students' emotional well-being increases,
so does their schooling. Also, there is a statistically significant negative correlation
between "Self-perception" and "Behavioral Problems" (p<0.05). This means that
the greater the students' self-perception, the less the behavioral problems they
may exhibit. It is noted that there is no significant correlation between the
subscales of "Emotional Adequacy" and "Self-perception", as well as between the
subscales of "Emotional Adequacy" and "Behavioral Problems" [RQ6].
Table 8. Correlation Results of the Subscales

Subscales Correlation p-value
Social/School Adequacy 0,51 0,004*
Emotional/School Adequacy 0,51 0,004*
Self-perception/Emotional Adequacy 0,11 0,578
Emotional Adequacy/Behavioral Problems 0,17 0,363
Self-perception/Behavioral Problems -0,46 0,011*
*Statistically important result
390
Investigating the correlation of Dimensions with the gender of students

Table 9 presents the results of the investigation of the differentiation of the mean
standard value of dimensions and subscales, depending on the sex of the students.
Thus, it seems that boys compared to girls have on average a higher score in terms
of dimensions "Skills of Assertiveness/Leadership Skills", "Motivation",
"Emotional Management", "Mathematical Ability" and "General Self-Esteem". On
the other hand, girls have on average a higher score in the other dimensions, with
the largest average difference being observed in the dimension "Language
Proficiency" and "School Effectiveness". However, these differences are not
statistically significant (p>0.05). This probability is due to the relatively small
sample size and possibly with a larger sample being statistically significant.
Regarding the subscales, it appears that girls on average have higher school
performance compared to boys, but at the same time greater behavioral problems.
However, the differences do not appear to be statistically significant (p>0.05)
[RQ3, RQ4, RQ5].
Table 9. Gender Correlation

Sex
Dimensions
Mean value (SD) Male Female Mean p-value2
(n=17) (n=13) Difference1
Skills of Assertiveness / 53,6 (8,2) 50,6 (10,4) 3,1 0,371
Leadership Skills
Interpersonal 53,8 (8,3) 54,7 (10,2) -0,9 0,797

Communication
Collaboration with Peers 49,8 (10,9) 50,2 (8,3) -0,4 0,905
Motivation 52,0 (11,7) 51,6 (8,0) 0,4 0,920
Organization / Design 49,8 (10,9) 50,2 (8,3) -0,4 0,905
School Effectiveness 47,3 (11,5) 51,4 (11,7) -4,1 0,343
Self-control 47,1 (10,3) 48,2 (11,0) -1,1 0,781
Emotional Management 52,3 (7,1) 49,7 (11,6) 2,5 0,468
Empathy 48,2 (5,8) 52,3 (9,3) -4,1 0,165
Intrapersonal Adjustment 49,9 (10,0) 50,6 (10,3) -0,7 0,861
Hyperactivity/ Difficulties in 47,9 (11,0) 51,6 (9,2) -3,7 0,337
Concentration
Language Proficiency 47,9 (10,0) 52,7 (8,9) -4,8 0,186

Mathematics Capacity 52,4 (7,8) 50,2 (10,9) 2,2 0,526
Learning Capacity 49,9 (8,7) 51,9 (11,9) -2,0 0,591
General Self-Esteem 52,7 (10,9) 51,3 (8,5) 1,4 0,708
Subscales
Mean value (SD)
391
Social Adequacy 52,5 (9,3) 52,0 (9,4) 0,5 0,891

School Adequacy 49,6 (12,0) 52,1 (9,2) -2,5 0,540
Emotional Adequacy 49,9 (6,9) 50,2 (12,5) -0,3 0,929
Behavioral Problems 48,1 (11,1) 52,2 (9,0) -4,1 0,285
Self-perception 52,8 (9,1) 52,1 (9,9) 0,7 0,849
SD: Standard Deviation
1Mean difference = [Scoring Male - Scoring Female]
2T-test for independent samples
Predicting behavioral problems from self-perception, emotional, social adequacy
Table 10 gives the results from the application of the multiple linear regression
model to predict behavioral problems from self-perception, emotional, social
adequacy. It seems that self-perception has an important role in predicting
behavioral problems (p = 0.019). To increase the "Self-perception" sub-scale by one
unit, the behavioral problems are reduced by 0.5 units (95% confidence interval: -
0.9 to -0.1 units), keeping the other variables constant. In contrast, the "Emotional
Adequacy" and "Social Adequacy" subscales do not appear to be significant
assessors of behavioral problems (p>0.05) [RQ6].
Table 10. Multiple Linear Regression: Behavioral Problems - Dependent Variable

Independent Variables β 95% p-value
Social Adequacy 0.2 (-0.4 till 0.8) 0.459
Emotional Adequacy -0.1 (-0.6 till 0.5) 0.966
Self-perception -0.5 (-0.9 till -0.1) 0.019*
*Statistically important result
Differences in the dimensions and subscales before and after the application of the games
Table 11 presents the results of the investigation of the difference in the

dimensions and subscales of the tool before and after the educational intervention.
Regarding these dimensions, it appears that there is a statistically significant
difference before and after the application of the games in the average value of the
dimension "Skills of Assertiveness/Leadership Skills" and "Interpersonal
Communication" [RQ2, RQ4].
More specifically, the average score of the above dimensions is on average higher
after the intervention. Therefore, the higher score (i.e., higher positive behavior)
after the application of the game indicates the success of the intervention in terms
of assertiveness/leadership skills and interpersonal communication.
Also, the intervention seems to have contributed to the average increase in the
scores of the dimensions "Motivation", "Emotional Management", "Empathy",
"Mathematics Capacity", "Learning Capacity" and "General Self-Esteem".
However, these differences did not appear to be statistically significant.
392
Finally, it appears that there is a statistically significant difference before and after
the application of games in the average value of the sub-scale "Social Adequacy"
while there is evidence of a significant difference (p<0.10) before and after the
application of the games in the average value of the subscale "Self-perception"
[RQ6].
Table 11. Correlations before and after the application of games

Dimensions Intervention Mean p-value2
Mean (SD) Pre Post Difference1
(N=30) (N=30)
Skills of Assertiveness/ 50 (10.1) 52.4 (9.1) -2.4 0.043*
Leadership Skills
Interpersonal 50.1 (10.1) 54.1 (9.0) -4 0.007*
Communication
Collaboration with Peers 50.1 (10.0) 50.0 (9.7) 0.1 0.922
Motivation 49.9 (10.0) 51.9 (10.0) -2 0.154
Organization / Design 50 (10.0) 49.9 (9.2) 0.07 0.966
School Effectiveness 50.2 (9.9) 49.3 (11.5) 0.9 0.543
Self-control 50.0 (9.9) 47.4 (10.4) 2.6 0.213

Emotional Management 49.9 (10.0) 51.1 (9.3) -1.1 0.474
Empathy 50 (10.0) 50.1 (8.0) -0.1 0.958
Intrapersonal Adjustment 50 (10.1) 50.1 (10.0) -0.1 0.905
Hyperactivity/ Difficulties in 50 (10.0) 49.5 (10.2) 0.5 0.707
Concentration
Language Proficiency 50.1 (9.9) 50 (9.6) 0.1 0.974
Mathematics Capacity 50.2 (9.9) 51.4 (9.2) -1.3 0.340
Learning Capacity 49.9 (10.1) 50.7 (10.1) -0.7 0.561
General Self-Esteem 50 (10.1) 52.1 (9.8) -2.1 0.175
Finally, it appears that there is a statistically significant difference before and after
the application of games in the average value of the sub-scale "Social Adequacy"
while there is evidence of a significant difference (p < 0.10) before and after the
application of the games in the average value of the subscale "Self-perception".
Table 12. Correlation Effects before and after the application of games
Dimensions Intervention Mean p-value2
Mean (SD) Difference1
Subscales Pre Post
Mean (SD) (N=30) (N=30)
Social Efficacy 50.0 (10.0) 52.4 (9.2) -2.4 0.042*
School Efficacy 50 (9.9) 50.8 (10.8) -0.8 0.624
Emotional Efficacy 50 (10.0) 50 (9.5) 0.0 0.983
Behavioral problems 50 (10.0) 50 (10.2) 0.1 0.924
393
Self-perception 49.9 (10.0) 52.5 (9.4) -2.5 0.085
5. Discussion
This study validated the usefulness of an educational intervention applied to
learning environments in the development of psychosocial functions and in a
long-term level, the amelioration of neurocognition via gamification.
Undoubtedly, Covid-19 pandemic is a catalyst in shaping new working and
educational conditions in various professional environments. Traditional
education tends to be completely replaced by digital distance education. For this
reason, the application of innovative distance learning techniques that will
promote the motivation and the psycho-emotional and cognitive development of
students is considered an inescapable necessity.
Increased cognitive, social, and emotional competence translates into increased

academic competence. On the contrary, diminished self-perception has an effect
on cognitive function and results in an increase in behavioral difficulties. This
conclusion holds true even when cognitive social and emotional adequacy are
considered concurrently. Additionally, gender does not appear to be a significant
predictor of psychosocial adjustment in school children aged 10-12.
Finally, the educational intervention via gamification empowered cognition

significantly improved the assertiveness/leadership skills and interpersonal
communication of school children, as well as their social competence and self-
perception. Also, motivation seems to be increased with the integration of
playfulness in distant modern and asynchronous teaching.
Gamification is a reward system method that has been used in a variety of sectors,
including commerce, health, and education. However, a paradigm change in the
meaning of gamification has occurred, as evidenced by the literature study. To
add value to the gamification process, meticulous planning is required before
incorporating game elements into the system and its primary customer, the
students. One of the primary benefits of gamification is that it can be implemented
in both traditional and electronic learning environments. However, with careful
planning and integration of gamification into teaching and learning, such as a
user-centered top-down system approach, elements of fun that create a loop of
fun, and adequately supported challenges, a meaningful gamification system can
hopefully be created, thereby improving students' cognitive levels.
According to the literature, there are both positive and negative consequences on
the cognitive success of a gamified system. Even though the research enhanced
levels of involvement, Dominguez et al. (2013) found no difference in achievement
between students in the traditional classroom and those in the gamified
classroom. Thus, the gamified system may have lost its function, as users claimed
that certain activities were not interesting enough to drive them to compete. They,
too, suffered losses because of the leader board system. As a result, the flow has
been interrupted, impairing the important parts of gamification. Inability to see
the consumers' needs leads in the game parts being rejected (Gkintoni et al, 2015;
2021). When it came to cognitive achievement, Barata et al. (2013) had the same
394
difficulties. This was due to the undesirable job, which might divert attention
away from the basic aim of learning. Users discovered engagement aspects in
posting and contributing, but progressively lost interest when confronted with
unnecessary obstacles such as correcting spelling errors in course notes. This did
result in a sense of meaningless gamification, the opposite of meaningful mental
engagement, which resulted in users not delving deeply into the material they
were learning.
Meanwhile, Esper et al. (2013) have effectively incorporated gaming aspects. They
enhanced cognitive features by including the evaluation into the game and
emphasizing the importance of successfully completing it as part of the tale
developed by the game creators. This was shown to boost their cognition in
programming abilities and to keep them captivated in utilizing it more, resulting
in increased learning.
The results of the present study are combined with findings from other studies as
described below. The gamified approach transformed the tedious process of
learning to code and program into an entertaining activity. Green & Bavelier (2003)
examined the cognitive factors when examining the influence of games on
cognitive characteristics. It was discovered that gamers' attentional and blink
capabilities were much greater than those of non-gamers, and this effect was more
pronounced in action video gamers than in non-gamers. In a follow-up research,
Green & Bavelier (2006) examined gamers' attentional ability and discovered that
they could identify distractors faster and more accurately than non-gamers,
indicating a clear cognitive advantage over non-gamers. This compensates for the
research conducted by Tong & Chignell (2013) exploring the use of a simple game
to help the elderly enhance their cognition. The tapping mechanisms in these
games can aid improve coordination, which could have ramifications for assisting
the aged and infirm.
As a result of the debate, most gamification studies succeeded in engaging and

motivating users but fell short of developing cognitive abilities such as observing,
undertaking, retention, and problem solving (Dominguez et al., 2013; Barata et al.,
2013). Incorporating gamification into a system without considering the needs of
the users or the business results in meaningless gamification fails to increase the
user's accomplishment. Games that have a strong plot and make even the most
difficult activities attractive for new learners show significant increase in
accomplishment (Lee et al., 2013). Additionally, according to study by Green &
Bavelier (2003;2006), games can assist users enhance their attentional resources,
which was observed in gamified systems by (Tong & Chignell (2013); therefore,
improving the cognitive capabilities of older individuals. Though the method
utilized disabled individuals, it is on the proper track toward discovering a great
cognitive application in gamification. This is critical for gamifying education and
learning. These would enable the use of gamification to engage and motivate
students while also boosting their cognitive abilities when learning science and
mathematics.
This study demonstrated the critical role of playfulness in the cognitive and social
development of primary school students enrolled in distance learning. The
395
research questions that were addressed have been covered by the research
methodology and the findings. Gamification technologies in distant learning
appeared to increase students' interest and motivation. Thus, the pandemic's
learning process was effective because to the use of Information and
Communication Technologies (ICTs) (Antonopoulou et al., 2021a). Simultaneously,
when combined with the component of interpersonal communication,
gamification technologies appeared to substantially predict students'
assertiveness and leadership skills. Respectively, aspects such as emotion
regulation, empathy, cognitive skills, mathematical abilities, and general learning
capacity appeared to be suitably benefited.
6. Conclusion
The experience of schools being forced to close because of the Covid-19 pandemic
has prompted the entire educational community to seek new methods and
practices to ensure that distance learning does not lag in terms of cognitive
achievement and teacher contributions to improving the quality of
communication and interpersonal relationships.
The study revealed that the usage of gamification in distant education and
conventional games in lifelong learning functioned as a motivator for students,
improving the enjoyment and attractiveness of the lesson while also enhancing
cognitive functions such as executive function, attention, concentration, self-
control, empathy, and the student group's connections. Simultaneously, to
reinforce the findings of this study with qualitative data, we may say that all this
procedure via gamification assisted in the acceptance of pupils with inferior
performance, as they gained their classmates' appreciation through the game's
different stages. These students were able to experience achievement and
overcome prior academic failures in the regular classroom by participating in the
electronic game. This boosted their neurocognition, self-esteem and enthusiasm
for the topic, while also acknowledging their value in front of the whole class.
Finally, school children who previously demonstrated excellent performance

retained them while being more receptive and helpful to their less fortunate
classmates. From the teacher's perspective, we believe that initial tension was
replaced by a sense of fulfillment, as students' accomplishments, in addition to
maintaining the lesson's standard, strengthening interpersonal relationships
within the student group, and boosting the self-confidence of low-achieving
students, motivated them to continually develop and use new games and
incorporate them into his teaching.
Further research will be to demonstrate the value of gamification in cognition and

in psychosocial development in a larger sample of school children, in children
with special needs, via the use of several cognitive tasks and standardized
neuropsychological tools in combination with e-games and other psychometric
scales for social functions in various educational environments of all levels of
education.
396
Limitation and Recommendations

Other studies may use additional research instruments, such as surveys,
questionnaires, focus groups, and qualitative methods such us individual
interviews, to enhance learning materials and obtain a better understanding of the
study's findings.
Author Contributions
H.A., C. H., E.G. & A.K. contributed to the design and implementation of the
research, to the analysis of the results and to the writing of the manuscript. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding
author.
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or
publication of this article.
Ethical Approval
Participants with prior approval from their parents, gave their written consent to
use their anonymous data for statistical purposes.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication
of this manuscript. In addition, the ethical issues, including plagiarism, informed
consent, misconduct, data fabrication and/or falsification, double publication
and/or submission, and redundancies have been completely observed by the
authors.
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our gratitude to the children, their parents, and the
instructors who participated in this study.
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Vol. 21, No. 5, pp. 401-427, May 2022
University Academic Dishonesty and Graduate

Quality for National Development and Global
Competitiveness: Nigerian Universities in Perspective
Chris-Valentine Ogar Eneji*
Dept. of Environmental Education, University of Calabar, Nigeria
Janet Sunday Petters , Stella Bassey Esuabana

Dept. of Guidance and Counseling, Faculty of Education,
University of Calabar, Nigeria
Nkanu Usang Onnoghen , Bassey Obeten Udumo , Benjamin Ayua Ambe

Dept. of Environmental Education, Faculty of Education,
Ekpenyong Essien Essien , Fidelis Abunimye Unimna

Dept. of Social Science Education, Faculty of Arts and Social Science Education,
David Adie Alawa and Ajigo Ikutal

Dept. of Vocational Education, Faculty of Science and Vocational Education,
Abstract. This study was carried out to assess how academic dishonesty
in Nigerian universities influences university graduates’ quality and how
these graduates contribute to national development for global
competitiveness. The study area is Nigerian universities (private, state,
and federal owned). The inferential survey research design was adopted
for this study. A sample of 18 universities (12%) out of the 154 universities
in Nigeria was selected, 6 each from among private, state, and federal-
owned universities, 3 from each geopolitical zone of the country. From
these universities, 1440 respondents (academic staff and students) were
selected as sample. Two sets of structured questionnaires (open- and
closed-ended) were administered to the respondents between February
2019 and October 2019. Simple percentage, Pearson product-moment
correlation analysis, and chi square analysis were used for data analysis.
Respondents listed 14 causes of academic dishonesty. A significant
correlation was found between academic dishonesty and poor graduate
*
Corresponding author: Chris-Valentine Ogar Eneji; vcogareneji@gmail.com
©Authors
402
quality from Nigerian universities. In addition, the chi square analysis

showed a significant relationship between university academic
dishonesty, graduate quality, and contribution to national development
for global competitiveness. It was concluded that universities where
academic dishonesty is perpetrated usually produce low-quality
graduates who at best may contribute little to national development for
global competitiveness. One of the recommendations is that the
government should overhaul the curriculum content of the Nigerian
educational system to meet the development challenges of the Nigerian
state, while also improving funding for Nigerian public universities.
Keywords: academic dishonesty; dimensions of academic dishonesty;

global competitiveness; graduate quality; national development; school
facilities
1. Introduction
Training universities and other higher education institutions provide for the
training of highly qualified graduates who can be employed to fit into the
machinery of government. As such, the training they offer needs to be of a high
quality for the sustainable economic, social, technological, and scientific growth
of the country. This means that the future of every nation is dependent on the
quality of graduate training the universities and other higher education
institutions provide to their students during their formation (schooling) years. All
institutions of higher learning are expected to train their students according to
international best practices and standards set for that purpose, which should
greatly impact positively on the general population both on short- and long-term
basis. This type of training should be more centered on the developmental needs
of the society and country, and as such should be learner centered. The duty of
every higher education institution is to provide high-quality student-centered
learning with comparative study programs and lecturing methods and processes
to meet the different needs of the labor market economy in a global economic
perspective.
In recent times, the Nigerian education system has been under scrutiny due to the
quality of Nigerian university graduates. Most graduates employed or
completing their compulsory one-year national service are found wanting in
terms of writing or speaking the English language in their workplace. In addition,
most graduates serving heads of parastatals or agencies cannot even write a
simple memo. This situation is at best worrisome. It is not uncommon for a
graduate with a first- or second-class upper division to be employed in an office
and even having obtained a high graduation result to not be able to defend the
quality of the results they graduated with.
The term academic dishonesty can be synonymous with academic misconduct,

academic integrity, or academic malpractice. For the layman, academic
dishonesty can be seen as any unprofessional misconduct perpetrated or carried
out by lecturer and/or student during the discharge of their duties. For the
lecturer, this may take place in their testing of students to assess what they had
learnt during the course of an academic program. Bricault (2007, in Anzene, 2014)
403
explained that academic dishonesty includes a diverse range of unacceptable and

deliberate conducts and behaviors that some students and lecturers exhibit to
achieve an unfair advantage over their peers in term papers, theses, projects, tests,
assignments, or examinations which they ordinarily would not have been able to
achieve. Both students and their lecturers or other officers can commit one of
various offenses that goes against the ethical standards or expected norms of an
educational institution (be it school, university, or any other tertiary institution).
When the conduct of students or their lecturers goes against the expected
standard codes of conduct which are permissible by the law of the school, this is
referred to as academic dishonesty or academic misconduct.
It is heartbreaking to know that some students no longer see the value of hard
work in educational institutions and hence prefer to participate in all forms of
academic dishonesty to pass their examinations at all cost. They do this because
excelling in their examinations is a prerequisite for graduation leading to securing
a white-collar job. To these students, what they studied and learnt is not as
important as how they passed their examinations to graduate. When students are
not committed to hard work, they engage in all sorts of academic misconduct and
dishonesty, sometimes in collaboration with their willing lecturers, to earn marks
or grades they did not earn. This phenomenon has destroyed the Nigerian
educational system and further reduced the falling standard of education in the
country to an abysmal level (Asamoah, 2018; Eneji et al., 2017; Mbilinyi & Msuya,
2018).
Adebakin (2014) established that academic dishonesty is not only perpetuated by

students alone, but that even lecturers in tertiary institutions are culpable of this
crime. The grading of students’ scripts and assignments and their certification are
done by lecturers who are responsible for teaching, assessing, grading, and
certification of these students for graduation. Nonetheless, another dimension of
academic dishonesty in tertiary institutions is where lecturers and other staff
members turn their faces the other way to award arbitrary scores to students who
did not attend lectures or those who wrote their examinations and failed.
2.1 Dimensions of Academic Dishonesty
Arong and Ogbadu (2010), Asiyai (2013), Bamiro (2012), and Chirikov et al. (2019)
in their respective studies have shown that academic dishonesty or misconduct
has different dimensions in university systems. These include but are not limited
to what is discussed next.
Cheating during examination in the hall. This practice involves copying from
another student’s answer sheets or from extraneous prepared scripts. This
practice has also been referred to as “brain support”, “ekpo”, “micro chips”,
“expo”, “not allowed”, “exhibit”, and “copycat”. Students place these scripts in
their clothes, on handkerchiefs, or under their shoes; others write them on their
palms; while still others put them in their braziers or in their waist (Onyibe, et al.,
2015).
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Copying assignments from peers, or having peers do assignments for them.

Most students hardly attend lectures and hardly carry out their independent
practice assignments. Female students have been found to go from one city to
another flirting in the name of hustling, while some male students who are
working might stay away because of the location of their duty post or
commitment. These students hardly have time to attend classes and are then
compelled to get another student who is always regular in school to help them
out in doing assignments for them. In addition, lazy students prefer copying
assignments from peers who do their own assignments, regardless of whether it
is right or wrong (Arong & Ogbadu, 2010).
Committing plagiarism. This is a form of academic dishonesty where students

make verbatim copies of others’ work or projects and submit it as their own for
assessment. They thus represent someone else’s work or ideas as if they are the
original author. This may include copying a passage of paragraph directly from a
book, article, website, or any other source without quoting or properly citing the
source to acknowledge the original author. Plagiarism can also be committed by
academic staff, who use others’ work or term papers or even articles and publish
it in their name as if they are the original author of the work. Some lecturers have
also given students completed student projects for them to copy and submit for
graduation (Asiyai, 2013).
Paying for examination questions before examinations. Some students buy set
questions for their examinations either from the lecturer(s) involved directly or
from some supporting staff who have access to such questions before the actual
examination.
Sorting or gratification from students to lecturers to influence their

examination grades. This is a situation where students who hardly attend classes
or cannot do assessments will give gratification to lecturers through sex, gift
items, food, etc., or in cash to influence their examination grades. Studies have
shown that most often, this can be achieved through the cooperation of lecturers
who are willing tools in the hands of these students (Bamiro, 2012).
Multiple submission of written works. This involves the use of work that has
been previously submitted at a particular institution or level to meet the academic
requirements of a particular class or institution. An example is the submission of
another student’s previously completed thesis, project, or term paper. In some
cases, the content may be slightly altered.
Impersonation. This involves the use of electronic tools to allow an individual to

write examinations on behalf of someone else. Here, the hired individual uses the
identity and registration number of the actual student who is supposed to sit for
that examination and does the examination on their behalf.
False citation. Students and academic staff have been found to copy work from
specific sources and to then cite a different author/s for the work. This occurs
mostly with the writing of theses, dissertations, and articles. Most often, these
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false citations can be identified with sophisticated plagiarism software such as

iTenthicate, Turnitin, and other plagiarism checkers.
Falsification of data. This is where research data are cooked or fabricated and
where the researcher did not actually go to the field to collect such data. In
addition, this is where students falsify, fabricate, or alter data to deliberately
mislead people that the data were actually generated from the studied population
or sample from the field (Onyibe, et al., 2015).
Adding another researcher’s name/false co-authoring of articles for publication.

This is one of the most grievous forms of academic dishonesty committed by some
university lecturers. A popular dictum among academic staff in most tertiary
institutions is “publish or perish”, which implies that lecturers must publish in
order to be promoted (Bamiro, 2012). Some lecturers cannot publish, and hence
collaborate with their colleagues to add their names to their publications. These
lecturers share in the cost of publication but do not contribute any idea to form
the research outcome (Chirikov et al., 2019).
Other forms of academic dishonesty are cheating, misrepresentation, bribery,

collusion, and conspiracy.
2.2 Causes of Academic Dishonesty

Studies have shown that there are diverse causes of academic dishonesty, which
are usually personal to those who are involved in the dishonesty (Adebakin et al.,
2015; Imhonopi & Urim, 2009; Isah, 2010). Scholars such as Okebukola (2008),
Mimiko (2012), and Chirikov et al. (2019) found various major causes of academic
dishonesty. These include the inability to manage the pressure and demands of
student life on campus, peer influence, poor study habits, poor performance
anxiety, conditions permitting academic dishonesty, and unnecessary
excuse-making. It also includes irregular attendance of lectures, prompt and
correct doing of independent practice assignments, issues relating to student
program funding, and self-justifying habits. Furthermore, it includes poor
knowledge of what academic dishonesty actually is, and the poor understanding
of the consequences of academic dishonesty to the individual students and the
society as a whole (Pidlisnyuk, 2010; Pitan & Adedeji, 2012).
Scholars such as Timothy and Abubakar (2013), Phiri and Nakamba (2015), and
Hodges (2017) determined other causes of academic dishonesty. These include the
desire of some parents to have their children placed in lucrative jobs or to have
their children graduate towards a particular profession, such as medicine,
engineering, law, or nursing. These also include protecting the reputation of
teachers and the school status, laziness on the part of the students and their
teachers, and threats and intimidations from parents and the society. Some
parents want their children to go into a certain profession for pride and to satisfy
their own desire to be in that profession, even when the children are not intelligent
enough to meet the demands of such profession or course. Some researchers have
found that academic dishonesty could be committed by students with low self-
esteem, lazy students who are good at procrastinating in their studies or doing of
assignments, absent students, and students who see school as a paper to get a
406
meal ticket (Oke & Olowonefa, 2019). Lack of adequate preparedness on the part
of students, unrealistic expectations, and emphasis on success have also been
identified as some causes of academic dishonesty (Anzene, 2014; Eneji et al., 2017;
Freiburger et al., 2017; Israel, 2019).
2.3 Academic Dishonesty, Graduate Quality, and National Development

It is common knowledge in Nigeria that in most Nigerian universities, students
who cheat far outnumber those who do not engage in academic dishonesty. The
extent to which academic dishonesty has penetrated the Nigerian university
system is difficult to determine, but it has seriously affected the quality of
Nigerian university graduates. Bower (1964, in Oke & Olowonefa, 2019)
conducted an academic dishonesty survey and found that 75% of the 5000
students in higher education institutions who participated in the survey had
committed one or more form of academic dishonesty at one point or the other
(Owunwanne, 2010, in Oke & Olowonefa, 2019). In another survey on student
academic dishonesty or misconduct by Duke University’s Center for Academic
Integrity between 2002 and 2005, about 60 campuses in the US reported cheating
(Israel, 2019). Oke and Olowonefa (2019) investigated the management of
strategies for curbing examination malpractice in public secondary schools in
Abuja, Nigeria, using a descriptive survey. They found that the graduates
produced through academic dishonesty are deficient in quality in terms of
knowledge, entrepreneurship, leadership, innovation, and critical thinking.
Onyibe et al. (2015) posited that it is better to graduate with a third-class result
and to be able to defend it than to graduate with a first- or second-class upper
division without the commensurate knowledge and academic prowess to defend
such result. These authors went further to state that most students who engage in
academic dishonesty do so because they see the university degree as only a means
to an end, where they can obtain the degree and use it to secure a white-collar job.
This is exactly the bane of modern society, where the priority is to obtain a paper
qualification to earn a white-collar job rather than practical knowledge to apply
what has been learnt in school to solve societal problems. No nation can grow
without commensurate entrepreneurial skills and technological and scientific
knowledge to meet the yearnings and needs of the country (Onyibe et al., 2015).
Taking a closer look at the issue of graduate quality from a perspective of

academic dishonesty, Eneji et al. (2019) found a positive correlation between the
quality of university graduates and the curriculum content designed for Nigerian
education institutions from its colonial masters. These authors challenged the
curriculum content as provided for Nigerian tertiary institutions and challenged
the strength of the curriculum to solve the nation’s technological and scientific
development and national economic growth. They dismissed the current
curriculum as lacking in strength, luster, and creativity to provide the rudiments
for national development. This position adopted by Eneji et al. (2017) as well as
Israel (2019) was earlier deliberated by Anzene (2014), who challenged the
national curriculum planners of the Nigerian university education system to do a
thorough overhauling of university and other tertiary institution educational
curricular content to be in line with what developmental challenges Nigeria faces.
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Anzene highlighted that the world over, scientists and technologists are looking
at 5G networks, nanograms, robotics, bloodless surgery, nuclear technology,
space science, clean and renewable energy, etc. Contrariwise, the Nigerien school
curriculum prescribes drawing butterflies and labeling the parts, rehearsing the
periodic table, and drawing world maps and labelling them, among other topics.
The Nigerian educational system is backward because of the type and quality of
school curriculum passed on from the country’s colonial masters. This curriculum
was meant to teach middle-level clerks how to read and write and take stock of
the colonial masters’ business account and inventory, not for Nigerian self-
development and emancipation. Anzene (2014) charged the government and
curriculum planners to overhaul and revise the Nigerian school curriculum to be
in tandem with modern-day Nigerian development needs, with the type of
curriculum that is based on technological and scientific development for global
competitiveness.
Kyei (2014) found a positive correlation between academic dishonesty and poor
graduate quality from universities where academic dishonesty is committed.
Nnam and Inah (2015) also found a positive correlation between academic
dishonesty and low-quality university graduates, likening it to the popular
dictum by Prof. Bab Fafunwa, that “the standard of any nation’s educational
system cannot rise above the quality of its teachers and products” (Nnam & Inah,
2015, p.59). Therefore, where graduates work hard, they will be worth their salt,
and where they neglect to work hard, they will engage in all forms of academic
dishonesty.
Onuka and Durowoju (2013) posited that hard work, rigorous studying, carrying
out every assignment given, and preparing well for examinations guarantee
success, and those committed to hard work will never be found wanting in their
chosen career. Therefore, students who engage in academic dishonesty can never
do well. This is so because academics goes with practice of what is being taught
and not what students did to compromise integrity during their formative years.
Most countries in the world have developed ways to contribute to their growth
and development, making use of their scientists and technologists for this
purpose. Graduates are people with independent critical thinking skills. They are
innovative and sensible to environmental conditions and can meet the daunting
development challenges of a country.
Onyibe et al. (2015) found that high-quality graduates can influence a country’s
developmental needs by providing the needed workforce to fill technological and
scientific gaps, and design and implement programs that can ginger development
imperatives. In addition, they can contribute to the entrepreneurial development
of the country, thereby reducing dependency on government-paid jobs, making
them creators of jobs by engaging young scholars in innovation, and driving and
emancipating the country from poverty and social issues. For any nation to
become self-reliant, self-sufficient, and scientifically and technologically
developed, the works of their research institutions must tell on the products of
such institutions and what they can offer to the society to contribute to the
408
development initiatives of that country (Phiri & Nakamba, 2015; Tabsh et al., 2019;
Timothy & Abubakar, 2013).
The quality of any country’s university graduates is determined by the curriculum

implementation processes and how the students respond to such programs as
transmitted by the school. The educational standard of a country is normally
judged according to the quality of their graduates, whose quality can be used for
comparative analysis and juxtaposition between and among countries’
educational systems, structures, curriculum content, and equation. This
comparison can only be made when an objective assessment of student
performance can be measured. For this to happen, schools must be prepared to
employ the best assessment methods that are most suitable for judging student
performance based on merit and not on dishonesty. According to Sotiriadou et al.
(2019), attempting to promote academic integrity in school assessment has
become a case of continuous priority for all institutions of higher learning across
the globe (Nnam & Inah, 2015).
Studies have shown that providing authentic school assessment with the laying
of a sound academic foundation on the basis of academic integrity is necessary for
the skills development of graduates to advance their employability. This will also
put these graduates at par with their peers across the world. Attempting to
provide academic uprightness coupled with the fact that schools struggle to
uphold global best practices, it is necessary to provide an accurate and reliable
academic evaluation of students’ progress (Pittman, 2020; Sotiriadou et al., 2019;
Suwaldiman & Tyas, 2019). Through such foundation, higher education can meet
the global challenges facing mankind from different parts of the world. Promoting
academic honesty or integrity is important. It encourages students to practically
search for true knowledge, with the attendant skills, values, capacity, and
willingness to take up rigorous challenges to put to use the knowledge acquired
to finding solutions to the multitude societal problems.
To ascertain the authentic effectiveness of assessment of students, Sotiriadou et al.

(2019) carried out a survey using the scaffolder assessment task of interactive oral
examination that would prevent students from engaging in academic dishonesty
and help them to improve their academic skills and employability prospects.
These authors found that the scaffolder assessment task using an interactive oral
examination helps in the prevention of academic dishonesty. It was observed that
once assessments are made with regard to the true world situation, there is the
tendency for students to avoid misconduct. Above all, the interactive oral
examination allowed the students to develop their knowledge, skills, and values
in a professional manner. It did so while helping them to create their own
identities and awareness, including their leadership and communication skills,
thereby helping them to promote their employability anywhere in the world. In
this way, graduates of school systems where academic misconduct or dishonesty
is not practiced can obtain the requisite skills, knowledge, values, and capacities
to compete globally.
409
Scholars who support the fight against academic dishonesty have advanced
several reasons schools should promote academic honesty. Their postulation
holds that the education provided by the school to students is very important,
because it helps to build in the learners the skills to make them leaders of
tomorrow. This will encourage them to actively teach themselves and discover
new ideas and become innovative and productive (Pittman, 2020; Sotiriadou et
al., 2019; Suwaldiman & Tyas, 2019). These scholars further observed that students
can only develop academic honesty when the school and the drivers of the process
help them develop academic confidence by building their moral vocabulary. This
the school can do by responding appropriately to cheating and dishonest
tendencies among university students (Pittman, 2020; Sotiriadou et al., 2019;
Suwaldiman & Tyas, 2019).
The best way to achieve academic honesty among students is through the
development of necessary skills needed for a successful living with very strong
moral judgement. Authors such as McNair and Haynie (2017), Devine and Chin
(2017), and Abel et al. (2020) reported and insisted in their respective studies that
it is very important for schools to teach students sound moral judgement through
the basis of social behaviors as well as appropriate actions. These authors further
posited that for schools to improve integrity among their students, there is the
urgent need to build inner honesty, mutual respect, and courage. Students should
be able to build integrity from the classroom setting, as this will help them apply
these moral integrity principles to other aspects of their lives. When these are
acquired properly from the school setting, it helps them develop self-confidence
and enables them to compete with their peers anywhere in the world.
This can only be achieved if technocrats bring to bear what they have learnt at
school and carry out groundbreaking research. They should do this by
formulating hypotheses, based on feasible theories, testing them, and drawing
inferential results and making generalizations that can inform policy decisions for
the growth and development of their countries. It is doubtful whether this could
be said about graduates of Nigerian universities. It is therefore the intension of
this paper to examine how academic dishonesty in Nigerian universities
influences university graduate quality and how quality graduates can contribute
to national development for global competitiveness.
2.4 Variables and Parameters Used for Assessments

Academic dishonesty. This includes different types of behavior by both lecturers
and students to cut corners which are against the rules and regulations governing
the participation in examinations to give them an undue advantage to pass their
examinations.
Graduate quality. This is defined as the product that the university system
delivers after students have graduated from university. It includes what these
graduates have and what have they learnt to help solve societal problems.
Graduate quality and national development. This refers to what graduates can
contribute to national development, how creative and innovative they are, and
410
how dependent they are on their paper qualification to get white-collar jobs from
companies and government agencies.
Graduate quality and global competitiveness. This involves the extent to which
graduates can compete favorably with graduates of the same courses from other
universities across the globe in terms of innovation, creative thinking, discovery,
and becoming functional members of their community and country. This relates
to the quality of graduates produced from these universities; and how staff from
these universities are welcomed to foreign universities for postdoctoral programs,
collaboration and interlinkage programs, and also as visiting researchers. In
addition, it concerns, among other aspects, how many foreign students and staff
universities attract each year as students or employees, and the quality of research
outcomes from these universities.
3. Research Objectives and Hypotheses

The major objectives of this study therefore are to:
1. Examine the concept, causes, and dimensions of academic dishonesty in
Nigerian universities.
2. Ascertain the correlation between academic dishonesty and graduate
quality.
3. Investigate the relationship between academic dishonesty, graduate
quality, and national development.
4. Examine the association between academic dishonesty and graduate
quality for global competitiveness.
Based on the objectives of the study, the three following null hypotheses were
formulated:
1. There is no significant correlation between university academic dishonesty
and Nigerian university graduate quality.
2. There is no significant association between university academic
dishonesty, graduate quality, and contribution to national development
for global competitiveness.
3. There is no significant association between university academic
dishonesty, graduate quality, and global competitiveness.
4. Methodology
The research design adopted for this study is the survey research design. A
sample of 18 universities (12%) were selected from the pool of 154 Nigerian
universities, comprising 40 federal universities, 44 state universities, and 70
private universities. From each of the geopolitical zones of the country, three
universities each were selected from federal universities, state universities, and
private universities. The multistage random sampling technique was used at this
stage to select respondents. Purposeful sampling was used to select 30 academic
staff from the rank of lecturer 1 and above and 50 students from 300 level and
above from each university. This provided a total of 80 respondents from each
university, thus with 240 respondents from each geopolitical zone, and a total of
1440 respondents from the six geopolitical zones. Five departments were
randomly selected in each university, where six academic staff and 10 students
411
were then selected from each department. The choice of lecturer 1 and above was
to sample lecturers who are very knowledgeable about the causes, dimensions,
and implications of academic dishonesty on graduate quality and how they can
contribute to national development. Likewise, 300 level students and above were
chosen because they may have experienced or practiced one form of academic
dishonesty or the other.
The instruments for data collection were researcher-designed structured

open-ended and closed-ended questionnaire, respectively. The instrument was
designed with five parts. Part A elicited respondents’ sociodemographic
characteristics. Furthermore, Part B covered the causes of academic dishonesty,
Part C the relationship between academic dishonesty and graduate quality, and
Part D graduate quality and its contribution to national development. Part E
looked at the relationship between academic dishonesty and graduate quality and
how graduates can compete with their peers in other climes in terms of thinking
outside the box, and how they can improve their skills in innovation, creative
thinking, discovery, and application of knowledge acquired from the university
in solving societal problems.
The instrument was validated by three experts in test construction, measurement,

and evaluation from the Department of Educational Foundations, University of
Calabar, Nigeria. Using the table of specifications and Pearson’s product-moment
correlation, the instrument achieved a reliability coefficient of 0.89, implying that
the instrument is reliable. Both content and face validity were done by these same
experts. The table of specifications provided a clear indication of the instrument
as being valid to be used for data collection. Based on the experts’ report, we
concluded that the instrument was both valid and reliable for data collection for
this study.
The response option used for the closed-ended questionnaire was the modified
four-point Likert scale option of strongly agree, agree, disagree, and strongly
disagree. The instruments were administered to the research respondents at their
respective departments and universities. The instrument administration took
place between February 2019 and October 2019. Heads of departments and
student class representatives assisted us in the administration of the instruments.
A 100% return rate was recorded, meaning no single questionnaire was damaged
or wrongly completed. After collation and coding, data generated from the field
were analyzed using simple percentage, Pearson product-moment correlation
analysis and chi square analysis, while tables were used to present the analyzed
results.

Data analysis was done in accordance with the objectives and hypotheses
formulated to guide the study.
412
5.1 Concepts, Causes and Dimensions of Academic Dishonesty in Nigerian

Universities
Table 1 shows respondents’ opinions on some causes of academic dishonesty in
Nigerian universities. An open-ended questionnaire was administered to the
respondents on which they had to indicate the perceived causes of academic
dishonesty in Nigerian universities.
Table 1: Perceived causes of academic dishonesty in Nigerian universities

S/N Sampled Nigerian
dependence on paper
universities
Student home factors
Poor staff motivation

of labs, studios,
Incessant striking by
Lack of reagents and
Poor reading culture
Admin bottleneck
Cultism and peer
Lack of qualified
Lack of adequate
Total scores per

equipment for
School factors
Poor funding
Corrupt staff
qualification
and theaters
and welfare
university
academics
Too much
practicals
influence
facilities
Lack
staff
1 Afe Babalola 4 5 3 6 6 2 7 8 7 6 9 11 3 3 80
University
2 Madonna University 5 4 5 5 5 2 6 9 8 5 10 10 2 4 80
3 Igbinedion University 6 6 2 6 4 3 4 8 6 7 9 9 5 5 80
4 AAUN, Yola 5 3 4 2 6 6 8 7 6 5 11 10 4 3 80
5 Baze University 5 5 4 6 4 3 6 6 9 5 10 9 6 2 80
6 Ibrahim Babangida 4 5 6 3 4 4 7 7 8 7 7 9 5 4 80
university
7 CRUTECH, Calabar 3 7 6 2 3 9 6 7 5 5 5 8 9 5 80
8 Lagos State University 3 7 5 3 4 8 7 6 5 4 7 7 10 4 80
9 Odumegwu Ojukwu 4 6 6 4 4 6 7 7 5 5 6 6 8 6 80
University
10 Nasarawa State 5 5 5 7 6 7 6 2 3 9 3 9 8 5 80
University
11 Kaduna State 3 6 6 4 5 8 7 6 4 6 5 7 9 4 80
University
12 Taraba State 3 7 6 2 3 9 6 7 5 5 5 8 9 5 80
University
13 University of Nigeria, 5 9 9 2 5 6 4 4 7 4 5 7 6 7 80
Nsukka
14 University of Uyo 6 8 8 3 4 7 3 5 7 4 5 7 5 8 80
15 Obafemi Awolowo 4 6 6 4 4 6 7 7 5 5 6 6 8 6 80
University, Ife
16 Bayero University, 3 7 6 2 3 9 6 7 5 5 5 8 9 5 80
Kano
17 University of Jos 6 6 7 5 5 5 4 5 6 6 6 6 7 6 80
18 University of 80
6 7 8 3 4 7 3 5 8 4 5 7 5 8
Maiduguri
Total scores per cause 80 109 102 69 79 107 104 113 109 97 119 144 118 90 1440
Percentage scores 5.55 7.56 7.10 4.79 5.48 7.43 7.22 7.84 7.56 6.73 8.24 10.10 8.20 6.30 100%
Note: Total sample size = 1440
Source: Data collected from fieldwork, 2019–2020
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Eighty (80) respondents (5.55%) indicated school factors as a major cause of

academic dishonesty in Nigerian universities, 109 (7.56%) selected cultism and
peer influence, while 102 (7.10%) and 69 (4.79%) selected poor funding and
administrative bottleneck, respectively, as causes of academic dishonesty in
Nigerian universities. Seventy-nine (79) respondents (5.48%) indicated that lack
of qualified academics to teach and mentor students is a cause of academic
dishonesty, with 107 (7.43%) respondents indicating lack of adequate facilities for
teaching and learning as a major cause of academic dishonesty in Nigerian
universities. Another 104 respondents (7.22%) felt that poor reading culture on the
part of both academic staff and students is a major cause of academic dishonesty,
while 113 respondents (7.84%) indicated that too much dependence on paper
qualification is a major cause of academic dishonesty. Additionally, 109
respondents (7.56%) ticked lack of laboratories, studios, workshops, and theaters
as cause of academic dishonesty in Nigerian universities, while 97 (6.73%) felt that
student home factors also played a very significant role in academic dishonesty.
For lack of reagents and other equipment for students to carry out practical work
in the laboratory, 119 respondents (8.24%) indicated this as major factor
encouraging academic dishonesty in Nigerian universities. Then, 144 respondents
(10.10%) agreed that poor staff motivation and welfare is a major cause. Regarding
academics conniving with willing students to engage in academic dishonesty, 118
respondents (8.20%) ticked the cause on corrupt staff forcing or encouraging their
students to engage in academic dishonesty. Lastly, 90 respondents (6.30%)
selected that incessant striking and industrial actions by university staff (academic
and non-academic) is a major cause of academic dishonesty in Nigerian
universities.
Table 2 shows the marked similarity among the different types of universities,
private, state, and federal. The three sets of universities had similar results as the
scores were similar for the same causes of academic dishonesty. One would
expect to see a marked difference as to the causes of academic dishonesty, since it
is assumed that private universities are properly equipped and have better
staffing and remuneration than government-owned universities. Since there was
no significant difference in the scores for the causes of academic dishonesty
between private and state or federal-owned universities, a critical look was again
taken into the different sets of schools. It was discovered that in Nigeria, most
private universities have abused the standard of education by awarding first-class
degrees to most of their graduates as a marketing strategy to compel parents to
enroll their children in those universities with the belief that the teaching is better
in those universities.
It was found that it is true that most private universities have all the equipment,
but they hardly employ qualified lecturers to run the programs they advertise.
The same situation affecting most government-owned universities is also
happening in most private universities since their proprietors are profit oriented.
They therefore assign little for funding and for providing facilities for the
institutions while pursuing profits that the institutions were set to achieve in the
first place.
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Table 2: Perceived causes of academic dishonesty in Nigerian universities per type

of university
S/N Sampled Nigerian
Student home factors
Poor staff motivation

labs, studios,
Incessant striking by
Lack of reagents and
Poor reading culture
universities
qualification
Admin bottleneck
Cultism and peer
Lack of qualified
Lack of adequate
dependence on
equipment for
School factors
Poor funding
Corrupt staff
and theaters
and welfare
academics
Too much
practicals
influence
facilities
paperof
Lack
staff
PRIVATE
UNIVERSITIES
1 Afe Babalola 4 5 3 6 6 2 7 8 7 6 9 11 3 3
University
2 Madonna 5 4 5 5 5 2 6 9 8 5 10 10 2 4
University
3 Igbinedion 6 6 2 6 4 3 4 8 6 7 9 9 5 5
University
4 AAUN, Yola 5 3 4 2 6 6 8 7 6 5 11 10 4 3
5 Baze University 5 5 4 6 4 3 6 6 9 5 10 9 6 2
6 Ibrahim 4 5 6 3 4 4 7 7 8 7 7 9 5 4
Babangida
University
Total score 29 28 24 28 29 20 38 45 44 35 56 58 25 19
Percentage 6.0 5.8 5 5.8 6.0 4.2 7.9 9.4 9.2 7.2 11.8 12.1 5.2 4.4
STATE
UNIVERSITIES
7 CRUTECH, 3 7 6 2 3 9 6 7 5 5 5 8 9 5
Calabar
8 Lagos State 3 7 5 3 4 8 7 6 5 4 7 7 10 4
University
9 Odumegwu 4 6 6 4 4 6 7 7 5 5 6 6 8 6
Ojukwu
University
10 Nassarawa State 5 5 5 7 6 7 6 2 3 9 3 9 8 5
University
11 Kaduna State 3 6 6 4 5 8 7 6 4 6 5 7 9 4
University
12 Taraba State 3 7 6 2 3 9 6 7 5 5 5 8 9 5
University
Total score 21 38 34 22 25 47 39 35 27 34 31 45 53 29
Percentage 4.4 7.4 7.1 4.5 5.2 9.5 8.0 7.3 7.0 7.1 6.5 9.0 11.0 6.0
FEDERAL
UNIVERSITIES
13 University of 5 9 9 2 5 6 4 4 7 4 5 7 6 7
Nigeria, Nsukka
14 University of Uyo 6 8 8 3 4 7 3 5 7 4 5 7 5 8
15 Obafemi 4 6 6 4 4 6 7 7 5 5 6 6 8 6
Awolowo
University, Ife
16 Bayero University, 3 7 6 2 3 9 6 7 5 5 5 8 9 5
Kano
17 University of Jos 6 6 7 5 5 5 4 5 6 6 6 6 7 6
18 University of
6 7 8 3 4 7 3 5 8 4 5 7 5 8
Maiduguri
Total score 30 43 44 19 25 40 27 33 38 28 32 41 40 40
Percentage 6.25 8.95 9.17 3.90 8.33 6.20 6.77 7.82 5.83 6.57 8.34 8.33 8.33
Note: Total sample size 1440
Data collected from fieldwork, 2019–2020
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5.2 Correlation between academic dishonesty and graduate quality in Nigerian

universities
The data presented in Table 3 show the relative contribution of each factor of
academic dishonesty in Nigerian universities. A no-relationship hypothesis was
formulated thus: University academic dishonesty does not significantly influence
Nigerian university graduate quality.
Table 3: Percentage contribution of each factor of academic dishonesty in Nigerian

universities
Some causes of academic Private State Federal
dishonesty in Nigerian universities universities universities
universities
Score % Score % Score %
Lack of lecturers’
commitment to their jobs 374 26 576 40 490 34
Quality of lecturers/
professional qualification 619 43 490 34 331 23
Poor teaching and learning
environment 288 20 562 39 590 41
Poor study habits 518 36 432 30 490 34
Peer influence and social
distractions 475 33 418 29 547 38
Students’ home background 259 18 605 42 576 40
Students’ education funding 662 46 432 30 346 24
Lack of learning
facilities/classrooms/ offices 216 15 576 40 648 45
Lack of commitment to fund
and provide for universities 144 10 619 43 677 47
Corrupt nature of university
lecturers/management 158 11 562 39 720 50
Students’ anxiety to pass at
all cost 317 22 533 37 590 41
Poor sanitary nature of
students’ hostels 173 12 648 45 619 43
Near absence of modern
libraries and current
materials 302 21 576 40 562 39
Lecturers’ condition of
service and welfare 331 23 562 39 547 38
Other student- related factors 158 11 605 42 677 47
4994 347 8196 569 8410 584
332.9333 23.13333 546.4 37.93333 560.6667 38.93333
333 23.1 546 37.9 561 39
Table 4 shows the Pearson product-moment correlation analysis of the

relationship between academic dishonesty and Nigerian university graduate
quality.
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Table 4: Pearson product-moment correlation analysis of the relationship between

university academic dishonesty and Nigerian university graduate quality (N =
1440)
Variables ∑X ∑X2 ∑Y2 ∑XY r value
University academic dishonesty 12,988 2889

67,653 0.778
Quality of graduates from Nigerian 13,894 3458
universities
Note: Significant at 0.05 level, critical r = 0.177, df = 1438
The results of the Pearson product-moment correlation analysis in Table 4 show a

calculated r value of 0.778 at 0.05 significance level and 1438 degrees of freedom,
while the critical table value for r is 0.177. Using the rule of thumb, since the critical
r value is 0.177, which is lower than the calculated r value of 0.778, the null
hypothesis is rejected, while the alternate hypothesis is accepted. Therefore,
university academic dishonesty does significantly influence Nigerian university
graduate quality. The implication of this result is that academic dishonesty in
Nigerian universities has a very significant influence on the quality of graduates
these universities produce.
5.3 Relationship between academic dishonesty, graduate quality, and national

development
For this objective, the no-relationship hypothesis was formulated thus: There is
no significant association between university academic dishonesty, graduate
quality, and contribution to national development for global competitiveness.
Table 5 shows the chi square analysis of data generated to test this hypothesis.
Table 5: Summary of chi square analysis of the association between university

academic dishonesty, graduate quality, and national development for global
competitiveness
S/N University Variables Total N X2 Sig
type
develop-ment
dishonesty
Academic
Graduate
National
Quality
1 Private 113 75 122 310

2 State 180 167 158 505 1440 54.600a 0.05
3 Federal 203 199 223 625
496 441 503 1440
Note: *Significant at 0.05; df = 2; X2-critical = 5.991*
From the chi square analysis shown in Table 5, the calculated chi square value of
54.600 is higher than the critical table value of 5.991 at 0.05 significance level and
2 degrees of freedom. The null hypothesis is thus rejected, while the alternate
hypothesis is accepted. The implication of this result is that there is a significant
association between Nigerian university academic dishonesty, the quality of
417
graduates produced, and their contribution to national development for global

competitiveness.
5.4 Relationship between academic dishonesty, graduate quality, and global

competitiveness
The third null hypothesis generated for this study was: There is no significant
association between university academic dishonesty, graduate quality, and global
competitiveness. To test this hypothesis, another chi square test was conducted
(Table 6).
Table 6: Summary of chi square analysis of the association between university

academic dishonesty, graduate quality, and global competitiveness
S/N Universi- Variables Total N X2 Sig
ty type
competitiveness
dishonesty
Academic
Graduate
quality
Global
1 Private 99 145 133 377

2 State 199 201 163 563 1440 52.860a 0.0
5
3 Federal 176 188 136 500
474 534 432 1440
Note: *Significant at 0.05; df = 2; X critical = 5.991*
2-
The chi square results in Table 6 indicate that the calculated value of 52.860 is
higher than the critical table value of 5.991 at 0.05 significance level and 2 degrees
of freedom. This shows that there is a connection between university academic
dishonesty, quality of graduates produced, and how these graduates can compete
with their peers in other climes. Where university students engage in academic
dishonesty, the quality of their graduates is compromised and watered down.
This is because instead of using their productive time to study hard to pass and
be successful in their examinations, they cut all sorts of corners to make quick
successes. This type of conduct is detrimental to the quality of education any
university can offer to their graduates.
6. Discussion
The open-ended questionnaire as used requested respondents to willingly list the
possible or presumed causes of academic dishonesty in Nigerian universities.
Data analysis showed a list of 14 causes, although there could be more. These
were: school factors; cultism and peer influence; poor funding; administrative
bottleneck; lack of qualified academics; lack of adequate facilities; poor reading
culture; overdependence on paper qualification; lack of labs, studios, and theaters;
student home factors; lack of reagents and equipment; poor staff motivation and
welfare; corrupt staff; and incessant striking by staff. This confirms findings by
Phiri and Nakamba (2015), who found that most causes of examination
malpractice/academic dishonesty include poor student preparation, poor class
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and lecture attendance, teacher incompetence, and poor funding of students’

academic program.
Scholars such as Onuka and Durowoju (2013), Onyibe et al. (2015), and Nnam and
Inah (2015) found similar results to this current finding. These researchers
collectively found the following causes of academic dishonesty: poor funding for
tertiary institutions; lecturers’ lack of commitment to duty as a result of poor
remuneration and welfare and few incentives; near absence of reagents; poorly
equipped laboratories, studios, and theaters for students’ practical work and
learning; poorly stocked libraries; and poor resources for lecturers’ use during
teaching and learning. Other causes included poorly designed and congested
lecture rooms, inadequate lecturer offices, and the jungle-like nature of student
hostels.
Other scholars looked at factors such as school and student factors as major causes
of academic dishonesty. Among the school factors were poor lecturer motivation
and in-service training; provision of awards and prizes; sponsorship for
symposiums, workshops, seminars, and conferences; comfortable lecture
classrooms; lecturers’ office spaces; further studies and regular retraining; prompt
payment of honoraria; and lecturer entitlements, such as promotion arrears, leave
arrears, and internship. Other school factors included university administrative
bottleneck in terms of early promotion, fund disbursement, allocation of office
spaces, acquisition and provision of state of the art equipment and textbooks,
including virtual and hard copies, to enable lecturers to do research to teach
modern and up to date facts (Anzene, 2014; Kyei, 2014; Nnam & Inah, 2015;
Pittman, 2020; Sotiriadou et al., 2019; Suwaldiman & Tyas, 2019).
Student factors that cause examination malpractice or academic dishonesty

include students’ home environment; parents’ socioeconomic status, including
sources of income, income level, educational level, occupational status of parents,
family type and size, and parenting style; peer influence; students’ readiness to
study and their study habits; sponsorship; students’ reading culture (negative or
positive); and students’ understanding of their goal in life. Authors such as
Pidlisnyuk (2010), Pitan and Adedeji (2012), and Oke and Olowonefa (2019)
posited that cultism and peer influence are two inseparable factors that have
influenced academic dishonesty in most universities. These authors were
emphatic that students are influenced by their peers bullying and threatening
them to either join a cult group or be killed. Once they have joined and committed
criminal offenses, police or rival groups will come after them. They then begin to
skip classes or are always on the run for their lives, only going to school during
examinations to complete their studies. Most often, it is during this period that
most of these students who are cultists are killed.
Scholars such as Abel et al. (2020), Devine and Chin (2017), and McNair and
Haynie (2017) identified some major factors causing academic dishonesty in
Nigerian universities. These include poor funding; student factors; cultism; peer
influence; poor teacher welfare and near lack of incentives to university staff;
school factors; and funding of higher education. Added to these are absence or
419
near absence of modern learning facilities such as virtual libraries; poorly stocked
libraries; lack of equipment and reagents; lack of modern laboratories, studios,
and theaters for students’ learning; poorly furnished lecturer offices; and over-
congested lecture rooms. Other factors include employment of poorly qualified
lecturers to teach in the university system who do not have proper training or
pedagogical knowledge of the teaching profession and a firm grasp of the subject
matter that they are expected to teach students.
The results in Table 4 showed a significant relationship between university

academic dishonesty and university graduate quality (calculated r value = 0.778;
critical r value = 0.177; sig. 0.05; df = 1438). These results imply that there is a
significant correlation between university academic dishonesty and university
graduate quality. This finding is a confirmation of the study by Eneji, et al., (2017),
who compared the academic performance of Nigerian university graduates and
their quality in the labor market or real-life environment. The author berated most
Nigerian university graduates as having very good results yet which they can
hardly defend. This author chided graduates who had a first- and second-class
upper division yet were hardly able to write an official memo or identify solutions
to simple societal problems or problems in the office or wherever they are
engaged.
Eneji, et al., are not alone on this proposition. Authors such as Okebukola (2008),
Pidlisnyuk (2010), and Mimiko (2012) were unanimous in their assertion that the
quality of graduates produced from most Nigerian universities is alarming. These
authors requested for the urgent overhauling of the Nigerian educational system.
They blamed the poor quality of graduates of most Nigerian universities on the
incessant industrial action taken by lecturers, while also observing that the
government is also largely to blame. They further posited that most often when
industrial action is taken, university academic calendars are disrupted. Once the
lecturers’ demands are met, they will return to campus and do a crash course and
hurriedly administer examinations to students. More often than not, these
students are not even taught, while in some cases, course content that should take
12–14 weeks are condensed and taught to the students within 2–4 weeks to catch
up with the academic calendar which they had missed.
It has also been established by authors such as Imhonopi and Urim (2009), Isah
(2010), and Mimiko (2012) that some lecturers give examinations on topics they
do not teach just to make sure students fail and will then bribe them in some way
to pass their examinations. While some scholars were critical in their findings,
others have noted that some students hardly do their assignments or independent
practice problems; they copy from their peers and submit that to satisfy lecturers.
Sadly, some of these assignments or independent practice or homework are
hardly marked by lecturers to correct students’ errors (Adebakin et al., 2015).
Other scholars who found similar results blamed the failure of the school system
and poor graduate quality on universities, the government, and the students.
Studies have shown that government does not adequately fund education and
does not take lecturers’ welfare seriously. In addition, some parents push their
children to go to school just to acquire an education as a means to a meal ticket or
420
so that their children can be where they want them to be. Other parents even force
their children to study courses they are not interested in. On the students’ side,
some of them just want to graduate to secure a white-collar job or the paper
qualification to satisfy all righteousness (Arong & Ogbadu, 2010; Asamoah, 2018;
Asiyai, 2013; Hodges, 2017; Israel, 2019).
The results in Table 5 showed a calculated chi square value of 54.600 opposed to
the critical table value of 5.991 at 0.05 significance level and 2 degrees of freedom.
This shows that with a compromised standard at universities and other tertiary
institutions, there is bound to be a lacuna in the contribution graduates make to
national development. This validates Prof. Bab Fafunwa’s observation and strong
belief that the standard of any nation’s education system is determined by the
quality of its teachers. This is applicable to national development all over. A
country is developed when the graduates from its educational system are
interested in more than just obtaining a paper qualification to look for white-collar
jobs. Rather, if these graduates are creative, innovative, and daring, they can excel
technologically, scientifically, economically, and otherwise, thereby contributing
to national development. Scholars promoting education for national development
are of the view that the collapse of a country’s educational system can bring the
country to its knees in a very short time. One sure way of destroying a nation is
by destroying its educational system through all sorts of academic dishonesty
(Nnam & Inah, 2015; Onuka & Durowoju, 2013; Onyiobe et al., 2015).
Furthermore, the best way for any nation to achieve technological and national
development is to strengthen their academic institutions to improve the quality of
their graduates (Kyei, 2014; Sotiriadou et al., 2019). Other scholars also argued that
if graduates cannot contribute to the economy in terms of job creation, innovation,
discovery, and entrepreneurship, they will be unable to contribute to develop the
economy of their countries in terms of tax, employment, and income remittance,
among other things. In the developed world, it is the university graduates who
developed what these countries and other dependent countries are consuming
today. Onyibe et al. (2015) wondered if this low graduate quality is the reason
most African countries produce what they do not consume and consume what
they do not produce.
Some authors have also blamed the poor quality of graduates on the society as the
society attaches too much value to a university certificate, without giving
commensurate attention to entrepreneurial skills development. Scholars who have
carried out extensive research on university academic dishonesty and graduate
quality advocated for holiday work exposure for university undergraduates to
give them firsthand work experience (Adebakin, 2014; Eneji et al., 2017). These
scholars emphasized that there should be a compulsory internship program for all
university undergraduates. Scholars such as Adebakin (2014) and Eneji et al. (2017)
strongly believed that because of the near absence of holiday work experience for
undergraduates, university graduates lack the necessary experience in job
performance, are technologically backward, and scientifically cannot produce
innovative ideas to contribute to technological or scientific development, let alone
global competitiveness. Furthermore, because Nigerian universities are ill
equipped, most science and technology students in the country lag behind their
421
peers in developed countries, where universities are well equipped with the
necessary facilities (Adebakin, 2014; Eneji et al., 2017; Phiri & Nakamba, 2015).
In concurrence, Nnam and Inah (2015) posited that academic dishonesty is

sometimes committed through collaboration between student and lecturer. When
academic dishonesty is committed by both students and lecturers, the quality of
graduates produced by the process or system is reduced. In all climes of the world,
wherever academic dishonesty is fraught, there is a reduction in the quality of
graduates produced from such institutions. Based on the aforementioned
positions, university academic dishonesty does significantly influence the quality
of graduates produced from such universities.
From the chi square analysis results shown in Table 5, the calculated chi square
value of 54.600 is higher than the critical value of 5.991 at 0.05 significance level
and 2 degrees of freedom. This implies that there is a significant relationship
between university academic dishonesty, graduate quality, and national
development for global competitiveness. In simpler terms, when academic
dishonesty is practiced, the quality of graduates is reduced and this quality affects
graduates’ contribution to national development and global competitiveness. This
result is in line with the findings of Timothy and Abubakar (2013), Hodges (2017),
Asamoah (2018), and Israel (2019), who studied the impact of student
empowerment on service quality. They found that when students are empowered
to carry out groundbreaking research in the laboratory, studio, workshop, or
theater by themselves with the guidance and facilitation of lecturers, they become
used to working with those equipment or facilities. In their everyday lives, as they
use this equipment, they come up with new ideas that can contribute to national
discoveries and development. Contrarily, when academic dishonesty curtails
these processes, it affects not only the students but the entire rubric of the society
or nation.
Onuka and Durowoju (2013) were blunt in their discourse, positing that it is
shameful that most graduates of Nigerian universities can hardly contribute to
national development. Some of these graduates can hardly identify or recognize
chemical reagents. This is because they have only heard the names of most of the
chemicals, reagents, apparatuses, and items; they have not seen them physically,
not to mention used them. Onuka and Durowoju (2013) averred that because of
the near absence of these apparatuses and equipment, Nigerian graduates cannot
contribute to any meaningful discovery or make groundbreaking discoveries
within the country. The authors blamed the government and the proprietors of
university education for the decay in the university system by not meeting the
need in providing the necessary facilities and equipment for the universities
(Freiburger et al., 2017; Morse & Foster, 2014; Mbilinyi & Msuya, 2018; Phiri &
Nakamba, 2015; Tabsh et al., 2019).
Onyibe et al. (2015) concurred in their study on examination malpractice in

Nigeria and what the causes and effects were on national development. They
found that academic dishonesty is a major bane in society. It has permeated the
rubric of the system so much so that in some universities, it has become a norm,
422
where parents even encourage their children to engage in academic dishonesty to

produce the best result possible. Eneji et al. (2019) further observed that the case
is so bad that many parents even pay for their children to be admitted into certain
courses. Some will continue to pay their way through the university system to
produce graduates who can hardly defend the courses they studied or the
certificate they obtained from these universities.
The results in Table 6 indicated a calculated chi square value of 52.860 at 0.05
significance level and 2 degrees of freedom, against the critical table value of 5.991.
This result shows that there is a connection between university academic
dishonesty, quality of graduates produced, and how these graduates can compete
with their peers in other climes. Where a university’s students engage in academic
dishonesty, the quality of its graduates is compromised. The technological,
scientific, and economic developments enjoyed by the greatest part of the
developed world today are products of their universities and students. The
products of these universities learned to think outside the box to find solutions to
national development challenges. One may wonder how well Nigerian graduates
have fared over the years in finding dependable solutions to the country’s
multiple development challenges.
Development is a product of creative and innovative thinking and taking

courageous actions to turn abstract ideas into reality and material results. This can
only be achieved if university students are serious and occupy a central position
in the teaching and learning process. On this premise, teaching had to make a
transition from being teacher centered to learner centered, because the learner is
at the center of the educational process. This result supports the work of
Suwaldiman and Tyas (2019), who found that education is the bedrock of all
development endeavors, and that a country owes its citizens the best functional
education it can provide to guarantee the development and progress of the
country. Pittman (2020) explained that providing education alone is not sufficient
for the necessary changes. Providing students with equipment, facilities, studios,
functional classrooms, et cetera will amount to nothing if the students are not
properly trained on how to use these to design, innovate, and develop new
innovations. The students are thus at the epicenter of all the learning processes.
As such, they must actively participate and acquire the relevant knowledge to
enable them to compete and fit in well with their peers in other climes. By so
doing, they can compete globally and contribute to the national development of
their country.
Eneji et al. (2019) further posited that when academic dishonesty is perpetrated,
graduates are normally found wanting in the discharge of the duties assigned to
them. Normally, there are mismatches between graduates’ paper qualification
and what they can contribute to the society. With this quality of results and
graduates, there is a mismatch between what they can offer the nation and how
they can favorably compete globally with their peers in other climes. These
findings, and that by scholars, have shown that academic dishonesty is a canker
worm that has eaten deep into the fabrics of the university system in most parts
of the world. This has led to a reduced quality of graduates from such institutions
423
where academic dishonesty is perpetrated. These graduates can subsequently

hardly contribute to national development, never mind be globally competitive.
Scholars such as Kyei (2014), Anzene (2014), Phiri and Nakamba (2015), Oke and
Olowonefa (2019), and Chirikov et al. (2019) were unanimous in their assertion
that academic dishonesty destroys any country’s academic system. It reduces the
university graduate quality and disables such graduates from contributing to
national development and competing locally, not to mention globally. Therefore,
deliberate actions should be taken and policies formulated to curb academic
dishonesty at whatever stage in Nigeria’s educational system, from kindergarten
to tertiary education. Competitiveness in this regard refers not only to graduates
but also to the quality of teaching staff and what contributions they have made to
the global economy. Looking at the SCImago ranking of universities and the
ranking system developed by Morse and Foster (2014), one may wonder whether
Nigerian universities and their graduates fit well into these global schemes in
terms of ranking. It is our firm belief that when academic dishonesty is curbed,
graduate quality and staff productivity will improve and such universities will be
able to comfortably compete with universities in other climes.
7. Conclusion
Data analysis showed that there are about 14 causes of academic dishonesty in
Nigerian universities. Respondents from the different types of universities that
participated (private, state, and federal owned) agreed on the perceived causes of
academic dishonesty in Nigerian universities. The correlation analysis used for
testing hypothesis 1 showed a calculated r value of 0.778 against 0.177 at 1438
degrees of freedom and at 0.05 significance level. The chi square analysis used to
test hypotheses 2 and 3 yielded calculated r values of 54.600 and 52.860,
respectively, against a critical value of 5.199 and 2 degrees of freedom. The causes
listed include but are not limited to: school factors; cultism and peer influence;
poor funding; admin bottleneck; lack of qualified academics; lack of adequate
facilities; poor reading culture/student study habits; too much dependence on
paper qualification and anxiety to pass examinations at all cost; lack of
laboratories, studios, and theaters; student home factors; lack of reagents and
equipment for practicals; unsanitary hostels; poor staff motivation and welfare;
corrupt staff; and incessant striking by staff.
While academic dishonesty has been found to reduce the quality of graduates
produced by Nigerian and other universities, it is pertinent to state that academic
dishonesty encourages laziness and procrastination leading to poor studying
habits. Academic dishonesty impedes innovation, critical thinking, and learning
among students. Such students will only pursue the quest for a white paper
qualification without the commensurate skills, knowledge, capacity, values, and
integrity to discover or invent anything to solve societal problems. How can these
graduates compete with their peers from other climes who took their time to study
hard and are inventing and innovating things to change the development
narratives of their own countries?
424
It was also found that academic dishonesty reduces the quality of graduates from
universities where dishonesty is perpetrated. This, in turn, makes such graduates
unfit to make any meaningful contribution to national development. These
graduates will seldom contribute to national development, not to talk of
competing with their peers of the same courses, duration of studies, and the same
qualification from other parts of the globe. It is therefore concluded that academic
dishonesty diminishes the quality of university graduates and may at best hardly
contribute to national development or global competitiveness.
8. Recommendations for Policy Directions

Arising from the foregoing, the following recommendations have been made to
guide policy formulation and directions:
1. There should be an urgent curriculum overhauling. The curriculum content of
Nigerian and African educational systems should reflect the developmental
challenges of Nigeria and those of Africa, respectively. It should not depend
on the “education for clerks and secretary” curriculum handed over by the
colonial masters.
2. Government should as a matter of urgent public interest improve the funding
of education and improve their lukewarm attitude towards funding education
in Nigeria.
3. School administrators and government should design a reward system and
incentives to motivate lecturers to enjoy their jobs by improving their
conditions of services and their welfare.
4. University management should put stringent monitoring systems in place
with appropriate sanctions for erring students and lecturers who engage in
academic dishonesty.
5. University management and administration should partner with individuals
and corporate organizations in hostel development to provide
accommodation for students at a minimal cost. Universities should also
improve their supervision of the hostel porters to improve sanitation and
personal hygiene in the hostels.
6. Government and university administration should declare a state of
emergency in infrastructural development in universities, regarding office
spaces, staff quarters, lecture classrooms, and theaters.
7. Equipment, facilities, and reagents, including state of the art laboratories,
theaters, studios, workshops, and educational technology laboratories, should
be established for student learning.
8. In-service retraining programs should be organized regularly for lecturers to
enable them to use these state of the art facilities in their teaching and learning.
9. A new policy should be formulated where all children of public office
holders/their spouses must school and work in Nigeria. This will force those
charged with the responsibilities of funding and managing the country’s
school systems to do the necessary.
10. The Nigerian Government and university management should open up
collaboration channels with foreign universities for information and facility
sharing.
11. Universities and parents should go back to the traditional reward system,
where hard work is rewarded. Universities should identify students who are
425
naturally working very hard to pass their examinations honorably and reward
them even if they graduate with second-class lower division. Universities
should not reward and recognize dishonest students who graduate with first
class without the commensurate knowledge to defend their qualification.
12. Universities should introduce national ethics and values into the general
studies curriculum beyond citizenship education. Students should be
encouraged to study hard and pass their examinations and to not commit
bribery to pass examinations.
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Vol. 21, No. 5, pp. 428-445, May 2022
Life Satisfaction among Adolescents:

Comparison of Adolescents Attending Music
and Sports Programs and Those Who Do Not
Zrinka Šimunović*
Department of Social Sciences and Humanities, University of Slavonski Brod, Croatia
Diana Olčar
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Teacher Education, Croatia
Abstract. Life satisfaction is the self-evaluation of the individual’s quality

of life and the expectations they have of their life. Adolescence is a
sensitive period during which life satisfaction very often declines.
Previous research has confirmed the positive relationship between life
satisfaction and attendance of extracurricular activities. This paper
examines the differences in life satisfaction among adolescents who
attend music and sports programs and those who do not. Furthermore, it
examines the differences in life satisfaction as related to age and gender.
A sample comprising 460 Croatian adolescents (aged 15−19 years)
participated in the study. Respondents completed the Brief
Multidimensional Students’ Life Satisfaction Scale (BMSLSS), which
assesses life satisfaction in relation to five life domains. The results of a
three-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicated a significant
difference in the life satisfaction between respondents attending music
and sports programs and those who do not (F = 9.11; p < .001). A Scheffe
post-hoc test revealed that respondents attending both music and sports
programs had higher rates of life satisfaction than those who are not
enrolled in such extracurricular activities. Furthermore, younger and
older respondents did not show differences in life satisfaction, although
there was a difference between boys and girls in overall life
satisfaction (F = 5.035; p = .025), with boys having a higher rate of life
satisfaction than girls. This paper suggests the importance of encouraging
and promoting music and sports education among children and
adolescents.
Keywords: adolescence; BMSLSS; gender; life satisfaction; music; sports
*
Corresponding author: Zrinka Šimunović, zsimunovic@unisb.hr
©Authors
429
1. Introduction
We are living in an age of rapid changes caused by growing technological
development and unforeseen challenges, which greatly affect personal and social
life. Research has shown that life satisfaction decreases considerably during
adolescence (Daly, 2022; Goldbeck et al., 2007; Jebb et al., 2020). Casey et al. (2008)
defined adolescence as a “developmental period characterized by suboptimal
decisions and actions that are associated with an increased incidence of
unintentional injuries, violence, substance abuse, unintended pregnancy, and
sexually transmitted diseases” (p. 111). Others have referred to adolescence as
being a sensitive period for brain development (Blakemore & Mills, 2014;
Fuhrmann et al., 2015). Owing to this, it is important to discover and become
aware of what activities and environments are potentially positive reinforcements
for the physical and psychological health of adolescents.
1.1 Previous Research
Life satisfaction involves a cognitive assessment of an individual’s overall quality
of life (Diener & Tov, 2012) and is an indicator of an individual’s general
happiness and well-being (Chen et al., 2020). Diener and Ryan (2009) claimed that
life satisfaction can be viewed from two perspectives: the “bottom-up” or
ascending perspective and “top-down” or descending perspective. According to
the global or descending theory, individuals experience their own happiness and
life satisfaction by evaluating all areas of life that are important to them. However,
according to the ascending theory, the degree of happiness can be measured by
the sum of momentary joys and sorrows experienced. In the global or downward
approach, it has been shown that life satisfaction is not the arithmetic mean of
satisfaction with all areas of life, but that there are differences depending on which
area individuals attach more importance to. When assessing life satisfaction,
happy people will indicate areas with which they are satisfied, whereas unhappy
people will emphasize areas with which they are dissatisfied (Diener et al., 2002).
Similarly, current ratings of life satisfaction can be influenced by current
circumstances, such as the weather (Barrington-Leigh & Behzadnejad, 2017),
suggesting that the current timing can influence personal ratings of life
satisfaction. Although the timing and methods of assessment can sometimes
cause individuals to make errors, they generally use stable and important
information from which stable and meaningful assessments emerge (Diener et al.,
2003).
Life satisfaction research has largely focused on surveys involving adults and the
elderly. Still, adolescence is a sensitive period of life often characterized by
increased risk-taking, heightened sensitivity to peer influence (Andrews et al.,
2020), and brain development (Blakemore & Mills, 2014; Fuhrmann et al., 2015).
Therefore, it is an important period of life filled with many changes and
challenges. Through the study of psychological development during adolescence,
life satisfaction has been shown to be a relevant factor that follows adolescents’
psychological, biological, cognitive, and social changes and can be used as an
indicator of success in navigating these changes (Moksnes & Espnes, 2013).
Important research on life satisfaction among adolescents has shown that during
the period of adolescence there is a decline in life satisfaction (Chang et al., 2003;
Daly, 2022; Goldbeck et al., 2007; Jebb et al., 2020; Park, 2005; Soares et al., 2019;
430
Suldo & Huebner, 2004). Studies carried out on Croatian adolescents have
indicated the same pattern, that there is greater satisfaction during childhood life
as well as expected satisfaction for future life among younger adolescents
(Penezić, 2006).
Certain life domains correlate significantly with adolescents’ overall life

satisfaction. These include the quality of parental and peer relationships (Gilman
& Huebner, 2006; Lewis et al., 2011), the family and school atmosphere (Cavallo
et al., 2015), school experience (Danielsen et al., 2009; Gilman & Huebner, 2006),
the self (Moksnes & Espnes, 2013; Proctor et al., 2008; Suldo & Huebner, 2006),
and the living environment (Homel & Burns, 1989). An active and meaningful life,
full of goals that provide a sense of accomplishment and independence, has been
closely linked to the life satisfaction of adolescents (Brdar & Anić, 2010; Chinman
& Linney, 1998; Csikszentmihalyi & Hunter, 2003). Adolescents are happy when
they engage in chosen activities outside regular school that are well timed and
carefully scaffolded (McFerran et al., 2018) and give them a sense of self-control
(Laiho, 2004). In Gilman’s (2001) study, social interest and participation in
extracurricular activities were strongly related to life satisfaction among
adolescents.
Adolescence is a specific life period of intense physical and psychological changes

in which the differences between genders become increasingly pronounced.
Therefore, differences in the level of satisfaction with certain areas of life are
expected, as confirmed by some research (Aymerich et al., 2021; Bisegger et al.,
2005; Chen et al., 2020; Daly, 2022; Diener & Diener, 2009; Goldbeck et al., 2007;
Moksnes et al., 2012). Still, some studies have shown that there is no difference in
life satisfaction regarding gender (Garcia et al., 2017; Suldo et al., 2015).
One of the contributors to life satisfaction is the type of activities that a person
chooses to invest their time in. Musical activities are among the most prevalent
and important activities in the general population (Lamont et al., 2016). The music
we listen to and perform reveals who we are, identifies us, and distinguishes us
from others, becoming our identity card, a means of presentation, and ultimate
identity (Hargreaves et al., 2002). This connection is especially strong during a
psychologically sensitive period such as adolescence, because music can then
provide emotional stability and comfort (Miranda & Gaudreau, 2011), and
extracurricular musical activities can boost self-confidence and self-esteem
(Hallam, 2015).
Sports activity is most often an organized activity that adolescents engage in

(Mahoney et al., 2006; Markuš et al., 2008) and is related to adolescents’
psychosocial and educational development (Zaff et al., 2003). The results of
research by Csikszentmihalyi and Wong (1991) showed that adolescents are
happiest when they play sports and sports games. Physical activity leads not only
to better health but also to a happier life and fewer depressive symptoms (Gómez-
Baya et al., 2020). It has also been associated with socialization and development
of communication and collaboration skills that again lead to a more fulfilling life
(Huang & Humphreys, 2012). A number of studies have linked the lack of
431
physical activity to a reduced level of life satisfaction (Gómez-Baya et al., 2020;

Piko & Keresztes, 2006; Poulsen et al., 2006), while physical activity is related to
high life satisfaction and well-being (Gómez-Baya et al., 2018; Kleszczewska et al.,
2018).
1.2 Current Study
Most research on well-being has focused on the adult population, with only a
small number of studies covering the population of children and adolescents
(Marquez & Long, 2021). At the current time, special attention should be paid to
children and young people due to their sensitive life periods. They are even more
vulnerable to the negative consequences of changes brought about by technology
and the current Covid-19 pandemic. Research carried out by Cohen et al. (2021)
identified several factors that may play an important protective role in
adolescents’ lives during times of crisis, such as the pandemic. One of these factors
is involvement in positive activities. Focus should be placed on these activities,
becoming aware of their values and strengths to achieve self-satisfaction and life
satisfaction.
The aim of this study was to examine differences in life satisfaction between
adolescents who attend music and sports programs and those who do not, and
whether these differences might be related to age and gender. As such, the
following hypotheses were made:
H1: There is a statistically significant difference in life satisfaction between
adolescents who attend music and sports programs and those who do not, with
the assumption that those who attend music and sports programs have greater
life satisfaction than those who do not.

younger and older students, with the assumption that older students have greater
life satisfaction than younger students.

genders, with the assumption that male students have greater life satisfaction than
female students.
2. Methodology
2.1 Respondents
The respondents for this study were enrolled in secondary schools (Grades 9 to
12) in Croatia and were selected through their schools. The schools that were
included were grammar schools with a general program, a sports grammar school
which has a general program with emphasis placed on sports, and a music school
which students attend besides basic education. The sampling technique was
purposive sampling. The criterion for selecting schools was to reach students who
attend music and sports programs in addition to their general education, and to
obtain a control group comprising students who do not attend such programs.
We tried to include about one class (around 30 students) from each generation.
However, as secondary music schools (which students attend outside school
hours) have fewer students, we had to include three music schools in the sample
432
to get approximately the same sample as the number of students attending sports
programs.
In total, 496 questionnaires were distributed, out of which 460 were returned and
included in the study (response rate: 92.74%). The respondents were thus 460
students, comprising 167 boys and 293 girls aged 15 to 19 years. The mean age of
the respondents was 17.2 years (SD = 1.07). On the basis of how many hours
students spend in a study program, respondents were put in one of a few
categories. To be put in a category of music or sports program, respondents had
to be involved in that program for at least 10 hours per week. The final sample
thus consisted of 102 respondents (23%) enrolled in a music program (hereinafter:
musicians) and 178 (38%) enrolled in a sports program (hereinafter: athletes). Of
the remaining respondents, 147 (32%) attended neither music nor sports programs
(hereinafter: control group) and 33 (7%) attended both music and sports programs
(hereinafter: musicians-athletes). The sociodemographic data of the respondents
are presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Sociodemographic profile of the respondents
Sociodemographic variables n %
Age
15 years 55 12
16 years 106 23
17 years 175 38
18 years 101 22
19 years 23 5
Gender
Male 167 36.3
Female 293 63.7
Profile of respondents
Musicians 102 23
Athletes 178 38
Musicians-athletes 33 7
Control group 147 32
2.2 Research Procedure

This study was approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee of the Faculty of
Teacher Education in Zagreb, Croatia. After written permits for the
implementation of the research had been obtained from the principals of all
participating schools, parental consent was sought and received for students
under 16 years of age.
The survey was conducted during regular school classes (45 minutes).
Participation in the survey was voluntary and anonymous.
2.3 Research Instruments

In addition to collecting sociodemographic data about the study respondents, the
Brief Multidimensional Students’ Life Satisfaction Scale (BMSLSS) (Seligson et al.,
2003) was used (Appendix 1). The BMSLSS is a measure that assesses satisfaction
concerning each of the following five life domains: family life, friendships, school
433
experiences, self, and living environment. The average value is calculated for all
items and represents overall life satisfaction. Higher scores indicate greater life
satisfaction. This scale includes five items which students rate on a 7-point Likert
scale (ranging from very dissatisfied to very satisfied). The BMSLSS has previously
demonstrated strong psychometric properties on international samples (Huebner
et al., 2004). Furthermore, it has already been used on Croatian adolescents and
has shown adequate psychometric properties (Brdovčak et al., 2018; Merkaš &
Brajša-Žganec, 2011). The Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient for this study was
0.8.
2.4 Statistical Analysis
The research design of the study was cross-sectional correlational research. All
statistical analyses were carried out using IBM SPSS Statistics, version 20.0.
Descriptive statistics of frequencies, means, and standard deviations were
calculated. Subsequently, a three-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was
performed to examine if there are differences in life satisfaction related to age and
gender, respectively, and involvement in a music or sports program. This analysis
also sought to examine if there is interaction between age and gender,
respectively, and involvement in a music or sports program. The differences
between the mean values of the groups were compared using the Scheffe post-hoc
test.
3. Results
Based on the collected and processed data, Table 2 shows the descriptive values
of the life satisfaction variable. Higher scores indicate a higher level of life
satisfaction.
Table 2: Descriptive statistics for the variable life satisfaction across different groups
Max.
n M SD Range Skewness Kurtosis
range
Musicians 102 5.06 .86 3–7 1–7 -.27 -0.52
Athletes 178 5.35 .92 2.6–7 1–7 -.31 0.09
Control 147 1–7
Group 4.74 .84 2.4–7 -.26 0.08
group
Musicians- 1–7
33 5.30 .69 3.6–7 -.09 1.14
Athletes
Younger 300 5.04 .89 2.8–7 1–7 -.22 -0.44
Age
Older 160 5.11 .90 2.4–7 1–7 -.39 0.02
Boys 167 5.09 .82 2.4–7 1–7 -.49 0.90
Gender
Girls 293 4.81 .83 2.4–6.6 1–7 -.26 -0.37
As can be seen in Table 2, respondents were mildly to moderately satisfied with

their lives. Life satisfaction varied slightly between respondents who attended
music and sports programs and those who did not (e.g. control group – M = 4.74;
SD = .84; athletes – M = 5.35; SD = .92). In terms of age, there were no big
differences in life satisfaction (younger respondents – M = 5.04; SD = .89; older
respondents – M = 5.11; SD = .90). It can also be seen that the boys had a higher
level of life satisfaction than the girls (boys – M = 5.09; SD = .82; girls – M = 4.81;
SD = .83).
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To examine if there were differences in life satisfaction related to attending a

music or sports program and age and gender, a three-way ANOVA was
conducted. The results are presented in Table 3.
Table 3: Results of the three-way ANOVA

Mean
Sum of squares df F p
square
Corrected model 42.405 15 2.827 3.790 0
Intercept 6156.352 1 6156.352
8253.121 0
Group 20.375 3 6.792 9.105 0
Gender 3.756 1 3.756 5.035 .025
Age 0 1 0 0 .991
Group * Gender 0.791 3 0.264 0.353 .787
Group * Age 0.488 3 0.163 0.218 .884
Gender * Age 0.135 1 0.135 0.181 .671
Group * Gender * Age 2.036 3 0.679 0.910 .436
Error 329.706 442 0.746
Total 12227.640 458
Corrected total 372.112 457
R2 = .114
Note. Category “group” refers to whether the respondents attended music and sports
programs or not
As can be seen in Table 3, there was a significant difference between respondents

attending music and sports programs and those who do not (F = 9.11; p < .001).
Still, for hypothesis 1 to be supported or rejected, post-hoc tests need to be
performed to examine which groups differed significantly in life satisfaction. The
difference between the mean values of the groups was examined with the Scheffé
post hoc test (Table 4).
Table 4: Results of the Scheffé post-hoc test of multiple comparisons of arithmetic

means for the dependent variable life satisfaction
Dependent Mean Std.
variable Group (A) Group (B) difference error p
Athletes -.29 .11 .06
Control group .31* .11 .05*
Musicians
Musicians-
athletes -.24 .17 .57
Life
Control group .60* .1 0
satisfaction
Athletes Musicians-
athletes .05 .16 .99
Control Musicians-
group athletes -.56* .17 .01
Note. *p ˂ .05
The post-hoc testing revealed a statistically significant difference between the

control group and the three experimental groups (p = .05, .01, and .00,
respectively), which indicates a lower level of life satisfaction in the control group
(M = 4.74) compared to the athletes (M = 5.35), musicians (M = 5.06), and
435
musicians-athletes (M = 5.30). There was no statistically significant difference in

life satisfaction between the musicians-athletes, athletes, and musicians. It can
thus be concluded that students who are not enrolled in music and sports
programs have lower life satisfaction than those who are, and that there is no
difference in life satisfaction between students who are enrolled in a music or a
sports program or both. This means that hypothesis 1 is supported.
Next, for hypothesis 2, we assumed that the older respondents would have greater
life satisfaction than the younger respondents. As can be seen in Table 3, although
there were slight differences in life satisfaction related to age, life satisfaction did
not differ significantly between groups. In our study, younger respondents (15
and 16 years old) and older respondents (17–19 years old) did not show
differences in life satisfaction. From this we can conclude that hypothesis 2 is
rejected.
Finally, for hypothesis 3, it was assumed that male respondents would have
greater life satisfaction than female respondents. In Table 3 can be seen that life
satisfaction differed significantly in terms of gender (F = 5.035; p = 0.025), with
boys having a higher level of life satisfaction than girls (M = 5.09; SD = .82 and
M = 4.81; SD = .83, respectively). This means that hypothesis 3 is supported.
Furthermore, we examined if age and gender, respectively, significantly

correlated with involvement in a music or sports program. We found that
interaction between these variables was not statistically significant.
3. Discussion
The need for research in positive psychology on the topic of the promotion of
mental health is particularly relevant for the sensitive period of adolescence. As
one of the constructs of positive psychology, research has linked life satisfaction
with personal, behavioral, psychological, and social outcomes (Proctor et al.,
2008). Adolescents who lead meaningful and active lives filled with challenges
that require them to use and develop skills experience greater subjective
well-being and more positive emotions and are more satisfied with life and
generally happier (Brdar & Anić, 2010; Chinman & Linney, 1998;
Csikszentmihalyi & Hunter, 2003). This study examined the life satisfaction of
adolescents who are enrolled in music and sports programs and those who are
not, as well as the possible differences in the level of their life satisfaction in terms
of age and gender.
The results of the study confirmed the first hypothesis and the results of previous
research (Creech et al., 2014; Hargreaves et al., 2002), which assumed that there
are statistically significant differences in life satisfaction between adolescents who
attend music and sports programs and those who do not. These obtained results
were expected, given that the respondents of the musician and athlete groups
attended well-structured and content-rich music and sports programs where they
spend most of their free time. By expressing their personal talents and skills,
young people develop personal strengths and abilities and foster social
relationships. One of the positive consequences of this is the growth of general life
436
satisfaction (Gilman, 2001; Mahoney & Cairns, 1997; Ryan, 2000; Vecchio et al.,
2007). Studies have found a link between a meaningful and active life filled with
challenges that require adolescents to use and develop skills and higher levels of
subjective well-being, more positive emotions, and greater life satisfaction (Brdar
& Anić, 2010; Csikszentmihalyi & Hunter, 2003; Feraco et al., 2022). Athletes and
musicians constantly evaluate their skills and talents and check their progress
through various competitions (Gómez-Baya et al., 2018; Vidulin, 2020; Yilmaz et
al., 2018). Exposure to competitions in which their abilities and performance are
assessed, being involved in team sports in which team spirit is best expressed,
emotional balance that develops with the support of socially sensitive peers, and
achieving previously set goals certainly contribute to raising the level of life
satisfaction.
Respondents who participated in structured musical activities showed a higher

level of life satisfaction, which is in line with the results of the meta-analysis
carried out by Creech et al. (2014). The results were not surprising, considering
that music plays a significant role in human life, but especially at this
developmental stage. Adolescence is a time of increased physical, emotional,
psychosocial, and cognitive changes, and music can serve as a means by which
these changes are more easily experienced and carried through life (Blakemore &
Mills, 2014; Fuhrmann et al., 2015). The choice of music is related to identity and
connection with society and the environment as well as with oneself. Music helps
a young person actively engage in building emotional stability and in meeting
basic emotional needs (Miranda & Gaudreau, 2011). Structured musical activities
also provide a step beyond the emotional support that young people so
desperately need in their development. Purposeful activities with a clearly
defined schedule, program, and achievable goals of a young person’s choice
provide meaning, value, and a sense of accomplishment and success in life. Even
though these activities are related to music, as referred to in previous research
(McFerran et al., 2018), they can be expected to have an impact on psychological
well-being and therefore life satisfaction in young people (Hargreaves et al., 2002).
Physical activity influences well-being directly and leads to a healthier lifestyle,

but sport is also associated with socialization and the development of
communication and collaborative skills that again lead to a more fulfilling life
(Huang & Humphreys, 2012). Participation in sports activities is related to higher
levels of life satisfaction (Gómez-Baya et al., 2018; Vilhjalmsson & Thorlindsson,
1998), lower levels of depression and suicidal behavior (Barber et al., 2001;
Gómez-Baya et al., 2020), and higher self-esteem (Kleszczewska et al., 2018), along
with other positive outcomes. Therefore, it is critical to include adolescents in
activities which lead to a healthy body and mind, as adolescence is a period
characterized by risky behavior (Blakemore & Mills, 2014; Fuhrmann et al., 2015)
and “suboptimal decisions and actions” (Casey et al., 2008, p. 111).
The second hypothesis states that older students have greater life satisfaction than
younger students. This was, however, not confirmed by our results. Previous
studies have shown that adolescence is a period of life in which life satisfaction
declines (Hutchinson et al., 2004; Jebb et al., 2020). This decline is greatest in early
437
adolescence (Orben et al., 2020), which can be related to the specifics of this period
of life. This includes social reorientation (Majorano et al., 2015), the transition to a
new educational level and a new school, as well as the major psychological and
physical changes that adolescence brings about (Fuhrmann et al., 2015). Still, our
results are consistent with those of the study Huebner et al. (2004) carried out on
adolescents. They conducted a large-scale survey and did not find any differences
in life satisfaction among students aged 14 to 18 years either. The study by
Willroth et al. (2021), which examined life satisfaction among adolescents aged 14
to 17 years, found that the level of life satisfaction did not change significantly
during this period. It is possible that these results are due to a specific sample. In
our sample, the ages ranged between 15 and 19 years, which is a smaller range
than in studies which prove the difference in the level of life satisfaction between
younger and older adolescents (Chang et al., 2003; Goldbeck et al., 2007; Park,
2005; Penezić, 2006; Soares et al., 2019; Suldo & Huebner, 2004). In the period of
central adolescence (14–18 years of age), one can notice the stabilization of social
relations, the course of education, and developmental changes, which in some
way justifies the results obtained in this study.
The results of the present study support the third hypothesis, which states that
there are differences in the life satisfaction of adolescents regarding gender, with
boys scoring higher than girls. These results are in line with previous studies
(Bisegger et al., 2005; Chen et al., 2020; Diener & Diener, 2009; Goldbeck et al.,
2007; Moksnes et al., 2012). These differences can be explained by earlier and more
pronounced psychological and biological hormonal changes in girls than in
adolescent boys, and girls’ increased self-criticism of physical appearance and
socially imposed notions of feminine beauty. It has been suggested that girls’
reduced self-satisfaction results from the high expectations adolescents have of
themselves in terms of appearance and social relationships (Chen et al., 2020;
Goldbeck et al., 2007). Also, it is important to point out that girls show greater
emotional sensitivity than boys, and they express emotional distress more often
than boys during adolescence (Aymerich et al., 2021). Some studies have
attributed this to the menstrual cycle as a common cause of anxiety and lower
levels of life satisfaction (Griffiths et al., 2017).
4. Limitations and Directions for Future Research

A limitation of this study was the representativeness of the sample. A larger
number of respondents, which would include both younger and older
adolescents, could have implications for statistically significant outcomes in terms
of age. This is because previous studies have shown that the difference in life
satisfaction among adolescents is visible only in a larger age range of participants.
The possibility of comparing the enrolment in music and sports education in
primary school, high school, and college would provide new results on the
relationship between age, music and sports education, and life satisfaction. A
broader longitudinal study could provide a broader picture of the variables
involved in measuring life satisfaction among adolescents attending music and
sports programs. It is possible to assume that other extracurricular activities that
students spend most of their free time on would also be positively associated with
438
life satisfaction. Therefore, it would be good to include these activities in future

research.
Furthermore, some of the groups of respondents in this study were not completely
equal in terms of gender and study field. The sample consisted of a larger number
of female respondents (64%) compared to male respondents (36%) and a larger
number of athletes compared to musicians and the control group. There is a
possibility that harmonization of these quotas might affect the findings.
5. Conclusion
Adolescence is a very sensitive period during which young people experience
many changes. Not only do their bodies change, but there are also many
psychological changes. Previous studies have shown that all these changes and
turmoil lead to lower self-esteem (Gardner & Lambert, 2019), which can lead to
proneness to depression (Zhou et al., 2020). Therefore, it is important to do
research about adolescents’ life satisfaction and factors that can contribute to it.
The findings of the study suggest greater life satisfaction among adolescents who
are enrolled in sports and music activities. We suppose this is because these
activities are not focused solely on traditionally academic activities, but they also
develop broader skills and competencies. Through these activities, adolescents
can fulfil their talents, make new friendships, and learn new things. These all lead
to living a more fulfilling and meaningful life, filled with flow experiences
(Csikszentmihalyi & Hunter, 2003).
Furthermore, our results showed no difference in life satisfaction between

younger and older respondents. However, there was a difference in life
satisfaction between the participating adolescent girls and boys, with the boys
exhibiting a higher level of life satisfaction than the girls.
Although this research has its limitations and needs to be confirmed on a larger
sample of respondents, it contains some implications for those concerned with
young people’s health and well-being. Structured and planned activities related
to music and sports, which are important for emotional and spiritual
development during adolescence, can contribute to life satisfaction, school
performance, and the self. This consequently affects both the individual
development of the young person and the development of society as a whole.
Awareness of and attaching importance to well-spent and organized free time is
regulated by the family, school, local community, and the media. These
stakeholders are also responsible for the development of interest, motivation, and
the creation of favorable conditions for the realization of extracurricular activities.
Given the changes in the educational system in terms of relieving students of
workload and attaching importance to interesting work programs, we can expect
an increase in the amount of free time among the school population. Therefore, as
a society, we are responsible for carrying out activities to popularize quality music
and sports programs, so that our young people can acquire healthy habits that
they can use as lifelong learning.
439
6. Compliance with Ethical Standards

Funding
The study received financial support for publication from the University of
Slavonski Brod and the University of Zagreb.
Conflict of Interest
On behalf of all the authors, the corresponding author states that there is no
conflict of interest.
Data Availability
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the
corresponding author on request.
Ethical Approval
All procedures performed were in accordance with the ethical standards of the
institutional and/or national research committees and with the 1964 Declaration
of Helsinki and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from all individual respondents included in the
study.
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Appendix 1
Brief Multidimensional Students’ Life Satisfaction Scale (BMSLSS) (Seligson

et al., 2003)
1. I would describe my satisfaction with my family life as:

2. I would describe my satisfaction with my friendships as:
3. I would describe my satisfaction with my school experience as:
4. I would describe my satisfaction with myself as:
5. I would describe my satisfaction with where I live as:
Note: Response options are a 7-point scale: Terrible, Unhappy, Mostly

Dissatisfied, Mixed (more or less equally satisfied and dissatisfied),
Mostly Satisfied, Pleased, Delighted
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Vol. 21, No. 5, pp. 446-462, May 2022
Physical Science Teachers’ Understanding of

Strategies for Teaching Critical Thinking in
Mpumalanga Province
Poncian Obert Tagutanazvo
University of Eswatini, Eswatini
Ritu Bhagwandeen
Central University of Technology, Free State, South Africa
Abstract. This study aims to examine the Physical Science teachers’

understanding of the concept of critical thinking and the strategies they
employ in teaching learners to develop the competency of critical
thinking in Physical Science. A purposive sample of 12 Grade 10 public
school Physical Sciences teachers participated in the study. An
exploratory qualitative study was conducted among these teachers who
were teaching Physical Sciences in Mashishila circuit, Mpumalanga
Province at the time of the study. Data was collected through a naïve
sketch which comprised of open-ended questions. Analysis of the data
using the content analysis revealed that the teachers understood critical
thinking as a way of observing, analysing, and assessing any situation
before them in order to solve it. However, the participants left out the fact
that critical thinking is self-corrective and that the learners need evidence
to support their decisions to arrive at solutions for each problem
statement. Although the participants showed an understanding of critical
thinking, they reported teaching strategies that did not show a
relationship with the development of critical thinking. There is a need for
professional workshops to train the teachers on the strategies to teach
critical thinking. This paper forms the basis of an ongoing study that will
develop strategies for teaching critical thinking to Physical Science
learners.
Keywords: understanding; critical thinking; instructional strategies;

qualitative study; physical sciences
1. Introduction
Educational scholars have over the years shown growing interest in
conceptualising, defining, and making assessments on skills competencies
necessary for excellence as an outcome of a student’s learning (Alazzi, 2008). By
the same token, the education system has always aimed to produce a person who
©Authors
447
will be able to fit into society. This is based on the understanding that one’s quality
of life depends largely on the quality of the way one thinks (Paul & Elder, 2020).
As a result, the general concern of education has been to produce educated
citizens with the ability to think critically (Alazzi, 2008). This is consistent with the
views of Burke (2010) who reported that the course work done in science by
college students required them to use critical thinking on a daily basis in the
laboratory or through problem-solving. As a result of such findings, the Jordanian
National Education Conference identified a need to increase the number of high
school graduates that could think critically, communicate effectively, and solve
problems (Alazzi, 2008). Fundamental to educating the subject of science, from
processes to general content, amongst others, is equipping learners to be
adaptable, agile, and to think out of the box. Learners need to be taught creative
ways to engage collaboratively with others by accepting and tolerating the
diversity of people’s thoughts together with their own way of thinking. Learners
are thereby being equipped to respond to uncertainties and the ever-changing
landscape of the digital world (Aktamis & Yenice, 2010). Central to modern-day
technological advancements, the balance of facts through in-depth analysis or
evaluation is one of the significant developments of the mind of individuals to
engage positively in the activities of the world (Bag & Gursoy, 2021). This is
consistent with the views of Burter et al. (2017) who reported that students who
have developed a critical thinking ability are likely to have fewer challenges in the
future than those without.
In South Africa, one of the aims of the curriculum is to produce learners who can
apply critical and creative thinking in decision making (Department of Basic
Education [DBE], Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement [CAPS], 2011).
This is in line with what has been the major concern of the 21 st century, namely
that critical thinking is one of the pre-requisite characteristics every student
should have (Prayogi et al., 2018). Consistent with today’s major expectations of
employers, critical thinking helps the learners to sustain global welfare and
remain relevant as well as transformational in today’s organisations where they
will be required to undertake business judgment where little or no clarity often
exists (Mok & Yuen, 2000; Nold, 2017).
In science education, critical thinking is being emphasised for scientific

development and also for developing democratic behaviours in the personal,
political and cultural sphere (Yacoubian, 2015). The ability to think critically refers
to the process of identifying the areas of an individual’s problematic thinking, and
working on them in order to change the thinking for one to be able to reason in a
more rational and logical manner, thereby justifying one’s thought processes
(Paul & Elder, 2020).]. As such, critical thinking is essential to the individual’s
success and also helps people to defend themselves to a world that has so much
information and too many people trying to convince them (Taimur & Satter, 2020).
For example, in the era of the 4th industrial revolution, drastic changes emanating
from aggressive technological advancements tend to impact the outcomes of
student learning (Burtler-Adam, 2018), especially if teachers continue to rely on
traditional teaching methods for science subjects (Oke & Fernandes, 2020).
Accordingly, critical thinking is an essential tool that students, workers, and
citizens can use to perform competently in such a rapidly changing world.
448
Despite South Africa’s having such an intended curriculum, the level or standard
of its education, especially from grade 10 upwards, could not go without scrutiny.
Notably, some industry bodies or institutions in South Africa such as the South
African Institute of Physics [SAIP] (2013) have suggested that the science
education of these grades was of a very low standard; this hindered the students’
eventual entry into tertiary institutions such as universities. This observation only
confirmed what had been revealed by a study by Lombard (2008) that was carried
out at one of the South African universities. The study was aimed at determining
the coherent transmission of the educator’s understanding of the notion of
thinking critically to the learner. The findings revealed that most of the secondary
and high school education students did not excel in the tasks that assessed critical
thinking competency. The lack of critical thinking in these students is attributed
to the traditional teacher-centred teaching and learning methods which mainly
prevail in the South African school classrooms. DiCamillo (2010) suggested that
the teacher-centred approach deprived learners of critical and creative thinking.
In a study on the preparedness of teachers to teach critical thinking, Lombard
(2008) found that the large numbers of students’ intakes at the institutions
constrained the nurturing of critical thinking in students. The Department of Basic
Education, South Africa’s National Education Evaluation Development Unit
(NEEDU) (2013), reported that there was a correlation between the challenges or
gaps identified in the learners at tertiary education vis-à-vis their inability to think
innovatively and the absence of innovative teaching competencies in the
educators’ teaching methods. Furthermore, Peterson and De Beer (2012) also
suggested that the weak performance of the learners was also attributed to many
teachers who did not have the required pedagogical content knowledge and skills
regarding the curriculum which has undergone frequent changes. According to
Yuan and Stapleton (2019), if the teachers’ conceptual understanding is
questionable, then they lack the competence to develop the learners’ critical skill.
The teachers’ conceptual understanding of critical thinking influences the
behaviour in the classroom (Choy & Cheah, 2009).
This research aims to determine the practising teachers’ understanding of critical

thinking in the Mashishila circuit in the Mpumalanga province, with a particular
focus on Grade 10 Physical Science learners. The findings of this study add to
highlighting the inadequacies of the teacher training institutions of South Africa
in order to improve on the quality of teachers trained. The findings also help the
practising teachers with the strategies that can be used for teaching critical
thinking within the limits of inadequate resources which is a common occurrence
in our South African public schools. In order to fulfil the aim of this study, the
following guiding questions were utilised:
i. What is the Physical Sciences teachers’ understanding of the term
‘critical thinking?
ii. Which strategies do the Physical Sciences teachers use in teaching
critical thinking skills to Grade 10 learners?
449
2.1 Physical Sciences Curriculum in South Africa
It has become an entrenched submission that in the Physical Sciences spectrum
critical thinking is regarded as one of the core aspects of teaching the subject
(CAPS, 2011). The South Africa education and training sector introduced the
notion of critical outcomes towards an outcome-based approach to education; the
result is the competency of having an effective solution-driven thought process in
a dynamic society coupled with aggressive technology (Lombard, 2008). With the
revision of the outcome-based curriculum the same concept of critical outcomes
was carried through to the new curriculum known as the National Curriculum
Statement (NCS) (DBE, 2011). In the same document, one of the aims of education
was to promote individuals who can come up with decisions that resolve
challenges using critical and creative thinking. According to the National
Curriculum Statement of the Republic of South Africa - Further Education and
Training Phase (FET), Physical Sciences Grade 10-12 aim to produce learners that
can:
• identify and solve problems and make decisions using critical and creative learning;
• collect analyse, organise and critically evaluate information;
• use science and technology effectively and critically showing responsibility towards
the environment and the health of others; and
• demonstrate an understanding of the world as a set of related systems by recognising
that problem-solving contexts do not exist in isolation (DBE, 2011, p5).
2.2 Defining Critical Thinking

In this section, the relationship of critical thinking with practical thinking and
logical thinking is described. Many scholars define critical thinking as being
composed of skills or abilities and dispositions (Ennis, 2016; Mason, 2008). The
difference in the scholars’ views is the way they present the various skills and
dispositions which nevertheless represent similar meanings. Othman and Al-
Hileh (2022) described critical thinking as being concerned with the learners’
being able to give explanations that are closer to the truth about the topics being
discussed. This ability reduces errors in misinterpreting the meaning of the
content. The definition echoes the examples given by Norris and Ennis (1989)
which implied the need for clear thinking involving interrogation inferences in
order to come up with a concrete basis for the inferences, while also following the
logical processes of critical thinking. Othman and Al-Hileh (2022) proceeded to
outline the skills learners have to acquire to develop critical thinking such as the
ability to solve problems and to make logical judgement based on the evaluation
of phenomena and information gained through research. This is to be achieved
through acquiring skills such as analysis, inference, induction and evaluation. On
the other hand, Moon (2008) suggested pointing out, making assumptions,
clarifying ideas, and ascertaining the credibility of judgments of any claims as
being related to critical thinking. Before one can be regarded as a critical thinker,
one needs to possess certain dispositions which act as pre-requisites to critical
thinking. The dispositions are, amongst others, that the critical thinker should be
able to accept other people’s views, not be quick to jump to conclusions, and lastly,
the critical thinker should have bases for their actions and beliefs (Norris & Ennis,
1989). Mason (2008) gave examples of the ways in which learners need to be
450
engaged for them to develop critical thinking: learners should have an attitude
that is critical, a mind that can accommodate different ways of thinking.
Paul and Elder (2013) considered “critical thinking” to be some in-depth inquiry
into a particular idea with a focus on ensuring continuous improvement to the
thought process giving rise to that idea. Similarly, critical thinking is methodical
in that it requires diligently diagnosing the problem statement, systematically
gathering information, organising and evaluating data for relevance based on
trials and tests as well as mirroring to formulate scientific conviction (Scriven &
Paul, 2007; Lipman, 1988). Emanating from these determinations, thinking
critically as a line of thought is metacognitive, and is based on a myriad of
measures and competencies which, over the years, have been established in the
education discipline through study and research.
The idea of self-reflection means that one should vigorously review one’s
thoughts in terms of which the advantages and disadvantages of one’s thoughts
or actions are thoroughly examined before acknowledging that thought or action
as an authority on the subject matter in question (Lipman, 1988). Self-reflection by
the teacher will by implication be transmitted as the learners would be prompted
to interrogate their teachers or fellow students on their beliefs, understanding, and
the learners’ proposed solutions to the subject matter in question, thereby
correcting their weaknesses and faulty thinking.
A separate section follows that outlines definitive parameters under which the
notion of thinking critically should be pursued.
2.2.1 Standards as a Basis to Judge Critical Thinking

The Merriam-Webster Dictionary online defined standards as a set of desirable
activities, skills, actions, or performance that are set as a measure of evaluation.
The above discussions have shown that the progression of abstract thought as a
competency is centred on the continuous improvement of the requisite prowess
and characteristics. Being able to perform any given task with adroitness requires
a clearly defined measurement criterion. Lipman (1988) says that a skill cannot be
defined without a set criterion. Against the above background, in order to arrive
at a certain scientific conclusion, there should be concrete guidelines or defined
measurement criteria upon which one’s contentions are based. As a result, a
number of scholars have undertaken detailed reviews of the varying degrees of
abstract thinking credentials in physical science literature.
Lipman (1988) submitted that making a determination is a process in terms of

which one takes into account defined principles, prescriptions, and regulations
which are applicable to that subject matter. Some of the prescriptions identified
are lucidity, validity/reliability as well as profoundness (Paul & Elder, 2013).
These standards are necessary for one to develop an intellect that will enable one
to live a rational life. If, for example, one is given a clear statement, they will be
able to determine whether it is accurate or relevant to what is being addressed at
that moment. Therefore, suitable strategies are needed for the development of a
critical mind. One can only check for the accuracy of the statement if it represents
things as they are. The standards lead to the development of suitable strategies
451
necessary in the progression of free-thinking in teachers imparting skills in

Physical Science education to students in South Africa.
2.2.2 The Role of Critical Thinking.

The ever-changing world requires people e with critical-thinking skills for solving
problems easily and making decisions quickly (Facione, 2015). Critical thinking
allows individuals to interrogate unfamiliar situations, ask questions, solve
problems and make decisions in a well-organised and rational way of thinking
(Zoller et al., 2000). Similarly, Simister (2004) expressed the view that critical
thinking helps learners to reach their full academic potential through a deep
understanding of their surroundings, making wise decisions in their lives while
respecting those around them, as well as being innovative in solving problems. It
has also been found that learning critical thinking skills help an individual to be
an effective reflective thinker (Higgins, 2015). Critical thinking is needed in many
different situations in life for one to be successful in the academic world, in the
world of work, and also for professional development. It enables individuals to
acquire new information and interrogate events so that they have a more
comprehensive and accurate understanding of events (Nosich, 2012).
In any work situation, learners need critical thinking skills for them to evaluate
policies, people, and their institution as well as for them to be able to solve social
problems (Hatcher, 2006). Evidently, there is the contention that skills
development in critical thinking is necessary for academic outcomes of
individuals as it enhances reasoning and problem-solving skills, thereby
contributing significantly to an individual’s success in life (Jamil & Muhammad,
2019) by making reasonable judgments in those situations. The successful
development of critical thinking depends on teachers who have creative and
critical skills based on a scientific perspective for them to be able to pass these on
to their learners (Demir, 2015). These teachers will be able to use different
strategies to reduce rote learning among learners. Rote learning, which is
memorisation, has been considered one of the major challenges in/to? the
development of critical thinking skills (Jamil & Muhammad, 2019). The following
strategies from the literature have been suggested for the critical thinking skills’
development of learners: active participation such as answering questions in
groups, taking part in discussions, debating, problem-solving, and inquiry-based
learning (Duran & Dokme, 2016). Demir (2015) mentioned engaging students,
asking them questions, having discussions, participating in group activities,
collaborating and self-evaluating.
Critical thinking as a process is also enriched by other methods of thinking as

presented below.
2.2.3 Critical Thinking vs Practical Thinking

The role of critical thinking has been discussed in the previous section. In contrast
to critical thinking, practical thinking occurs when individuals consider ways to
adapt to their environment, or change their environment to suit them so that they
would be able to pursue a specific goal (Practical Thinking: Definition and
Examples, 2016). The main aim of practical thinking is to solve a problem using
the knowledge a person has already acquired without necessarily gathering any
new knowledge. This is opposed to critical thinking where one identifies and goes
452
through processes as outlined before to search for the root of the issue that causes
the problem. The aim of the search would be to fix it so that it will not arise again
or that it would open up other areas of investigation. An example when teaching
Physics can be the various experiments that students conduct in the laboratory.
2.2.4 Critical Thinking vs Logical Thinking

Logical thinking uses reasoning in a way that assists individuals to come up with
informed solutions. This is possible through a critical analysis of the situations,
grouping similar information so as to produce solutions to the problems at hand.
On the other hand, critical thinking uses logic to distinguish and evaluate accurate
from inaccurate beliefs. Therefore, the experiments in Physical Sciences will teach
the students scientific thinking. Scientific thinking follows a logical thought
process based on hypothesis-making data.
2.2.5 Studies related to Teachers’ Understanding of Critical Thinking
Studies have been carried out on the perception of teachers on critical thinking
and the implications it has for the teaching of critical thinking. Alwadai (2014)
conducted a study on the perception of 192 male teachers who taught elementary
school. The study revealed that the majority of the teachers lacked the basic
knowledge of critical thinking. As a result, these teachers did not value or practise
critical thinking. A similar study was carried out by Al Ramis (2018) which
examined five female Saudi Arabia university instructors’ attitudes and
perceptions towards critical thinking. The instructors had a low to no level of
awareness of what critical thinking was all about. This became an obstacle to the
teaching of critical thinking to the learners. Similarly, Zhang et al. (2020)
conducted a study on the perceptions teachers of English as a foreign language in
China. Although the teachers agreed that critical thinking was to be included in
their curriculum, they lacked the professional knowledge of critical thinking and
how to implement it in their classrooms. The teachers even indicated through
questionnaires and interviews that they were teaching critical thinking; however,
this was not evident in their teaching practice. All this indicates that although
governments may declare critical thinking as a necessary skill in their policies of
education, the implementation of the policy depends on the teachers’ perception
or understanding of critical thinking. As long as the teachers do not have the
knowledge relating to critical thinking, the above studies revealed that it will not
be taught.
3. Theoretical Framework
The research is anchored on the belief that critical thinking skills can be taught
through appropriate teaching approaches (Zabit, 2010). Specific teaching
strategies need to be employed in order to develop critical thinking skills (Snyder
& Snyder, 2008). Critical thinking skills need teachers to create an enabling
environment that supports the thinking activities (Rajendran, 2010; Mason et al.,
2010). The thinking skills will be explicitly taught to the learners within the context
of Physical Sciences. Central to this paper is a discussion on the processing of
information, be it content analysis or structuring of exercises in class discussions
by teachers in Mpumalanga Province. These signify their appreciation of the
subject matter in Physical Sciences and the methods (transmission) they use to
ensure competency of learners in absorbing the intellectual skill of “critical
thinking”.
453
4. Methodology
A qualitative approach using questionnaires and interviews has been used to
answer the research questions in this study. The researchers’ main aim was to
establish the Grade 10 Physical Science teachers’ understanding of critical
thinking and the strategies they used to teach critical thinking. The approach was
used to understand the teachers’ perception and their methods of developing
critical thinking in the secondary school learners they taught.
Ten (10) public schools, were selected as research sites from the Mashishila circuit
in the Mpumalanga Province. These were, at the time of this research, fully funded
in their day-to-day running by the South African government, through the
Mpumalanga Provincial Department, the circuit schools are from the same
geographical area. Mashishila circuit was sampled selectively for it was easily
accessible.
Data was collected through self-administered open-ended questionnaires that

were distributed to 12 teachers to explore their understanding of critical thinking
and the methods they used to teach critical thinking among their secondary school
learners. The questionnaires were open-ended to afford the participants an
opportunity to express their views fully and to give an in-depth account of their
understanding of critical thinking as well as reporting and relating their practices
freely. The questionnaires included data on the teachers’ qualifications, teaching
experience in teaching Grade 10 Physical Science, and the different/various?
approaches they used in teaching critical thinking. Since this study was part of an
ongoing study, it sought to give the necessary qualifications needed for the
teachers who eventually formed part of the main study. Each teacher was given
adequate time to complete the questionnaire while the researcher waited to take
them along with him. It was only in two schools where the researcher had to leave
the questionnaires for the teachers to complete and then returned later in the day
for collection. Permission to conduct the study was sought from the Mpumalanga
Provincial Department of Education, and the Mashishila circuit offices before
approaching the school principals. The principal at each school granted
permission based on the documentation from both the Provincial Department and
the Mashishila circuit offices.
The data referred to was processed immediately on the day it was collated. In
evaluating the information gathered, the data was reviewed and patterns from
that information identified at the same time. It was classified into the different
interpretations of the teachers’ understanding of critical thinking and also into the
different strategies suggested by the teachers. The analysed data was verified by
two colleagues who checked on the accuracy of the captured information. Only
two teachers were interviewed to verify the accuracy of some information they
had provided on their questionnaires.
5. Results
Data from this study were presented in tables. Table 1 shows the analysis of
teacher qualification while Tables 2 and 3 show the qualitative data on the
teachers’ understanding of critical thinking and the strategies used to teach critical
thinking respectively.
454
5.1 Teacher Qualification
Table 1: Analysis of teacher qualification

Teaching Status
Qualification Subjects experience of
(years) teacher
B Ed Biology 24 NQ
B.Ed. Hons, FET Physical Science 3-10 Q
Physics &
BSc & B.Ed. 3-5 Q
Chemistry
BSc & PGCE Physics & Maths 2 Q
Physics/
BSc 0 NQ
Chemistry/Bio
Pure & Applied
BSc 3 NQ
Chemistry
Physics &
MSc, BSc & Bed 7 Q
Chemistry
M Comm, IT Maths & Physics 4 NQ
Key: Q means Qualified to teach Grade 10; NQ means Not Qualified to teach Grade 10
Table 1 shows the qualifications of the 12 teachers who were teaching Physical
Sciences in the schools in the Mashishila Circuit. Owing to the lack of qualified
physical science teachers in the Mpumalanga province, those with academic
degrees related to science, even if they were not trained as teachers, were also
engaged to teach Physical Sciences. These untrained teachers, however,
underwent some inductive workshops within-subject panels for them to teach
Physical Sciences. This enabled them to provide information in relation to their
understanding of critical thinking. From Table I, seven teachers had the relevant
qualifications to teach Physical Sciences. However, for this study, only six teachers
could qualify to participate in the study since only teachers who had three or more
years of teaching in Grade 10 Physical Sciences could be included. These six
teachers were trained to teach Physical Sciences and were deemed to have an
adequate understanding of the expectations of the Physical Sciences curriculum.
5.2 Teachers and Critical Thinking
Table 2: Teachers’ understanding of the term “critical thinking”

Teachers’ explanation
T1.When observing phenomena, one should ask why it has
happened and try to find the answer for it
T2.Think broadly with regards to a given phenomena
T3.Thinking in depth involves and promotes understanding,
analysis, and evaluations
T4. Way of thinking about any subject or content in order to
improve the quality of one’s thinking through skilfully
analysing assessing and reconstructing it
T5. Problem-solving
T6. Logical understanding of the connections between ideas
and be able to solve different problems
T7. Creative thinking alone, to think yourself anything and
be able to create something on your own
455
Table 2 shows that the teachers understood critical thinking as a way of

“observing phenomena and ask[ing] why it has happened and then try[ing] to
find the answer” (T1) and “to think broadly, in-depth or out of the box” (T2). This
process involves “analysis and evaluation” (T3), and promotes understanding
through incorporating real-life situations. Participants also indicated that critical
thinking was a “way of thinking about any subject or content in order to improve
the quality of one’s thoughts through skilfully assessing, analysing and
reconstructing it” (T4). The other frequently stated understanding was that critical
thinking was the “ability to reason and then apply the thinking to problem-
solving” (T5). Critical thinking was also expressed as the “logical understanding
of the connections between ideas and being able to solve different problems” (T6).
Another explained critical thinking as “creative thinking alone to think to yourself
in order to create something on your own” (T7). This statement was a direct
translation from vernacular which referred to an individual who would think of
some idea and then create something new from that idea. This shows that those
teachers equated creative thinking to critical thinking; although the concepts are
related, they are different. Before discussing the teachers’ understanding of
critical thinking, the different strategies the teachers gave for developing critical
thinking are examined.
5.3 Teaching Strategies
Table 3: Strategies for teaching critical thinking

Strategies
Use of questions – higher order
Experiments: Demonstrations on how to solve problems,
Laboratory methods
Investigative type problems/ Research work
Group work- discussion, debates
Tests: long questions, use of previous question papers
Media: overhead projector, Internet, textbooks
Expose learners to the practical world of science
Lecture/Demonstration
To develop creativity, encourage to categorize, classify,
compare
Develop classroom assessment tools
Table 3 shows the different activities that were suggested as the strategies by the
participants for teaching critical thinking. The majority of the teachers proposed
the use of questions. These included four who posed higher-order questions and
two who asked investigative questions. Four teachers showed that they used
experiments through laboratory work although they did not specify what
experiments they would be doing to teach critical thinking. Seven teachers also
indicated that group work was another strategy used for teaching critical thinking
through discussions and debates. Tests were also used whereby the teachers set
long questions for learners to explain using their own words. The other common
strategies included lectures, demonstrations, the use of media such as overhead
projectors and the Internet, and textbooks.
456
6. Discussion
It is significant to indicate that the definition of critical thinking has been debated
for a long time in different education forums (Evans, 2020). Notwithstanding the
above submission, many philosophers in education have expressed that critical
thinking is of paramount importance to every person in society as it contributes
to one’s ability to make informed judgments on public matters (Pradanaet al.,
2020).
Critical thinking involves the ability to produce knowledge and formulate a

viewpoint, to evaluate, classify, analyse, draw relationships and make conclusions
(Devi et al., 2015). Paul and Elder (2013) and Liu et al. (2014) go further by
describing analysis as an effort to improve one’s way of thinking, including
making effective decisions. The findings in this study show that the teachers
defined critical thinking as activities or skills to be acquired by learners. This is
illustrated by one of the participants who defined critical thinking as “a way of
thinking in order to improve one’s thinking through skilfully analysing, assessing,
and reconstructing” (Table 2). The participant showed some understanding of
critical thinking by explaining that “this can be achieved through making
connections to real-life situations”. What this implies is that critical thinking is a
process that takes place in the mind. The mind examines all that the individual
encounters daily and tries to understand this in relation to one’s experiences with
the world and the people with whom in one is in contact (Demir, 2015). The
participants also explained the notion of abstract thought as the aptitude to
organise a person’s life of reasoning rationally and find solutions to problems.
Critical thinking in science, of which physical sciences is one field, is associated
with the practice of science and education. It plays a role in helping an individual
to use critical thinking responsibly in developing science and technology for the
benefit of society.
Inamullah et al. (2016) point out that critical thinking in the context of science
education and education in general is essential for it promotes science to be part
of the peoples’ daily lives by examining their cultural and political contexts. This
helps the people to understand democratic societies and promote an
understanding of the scientific content, for example, the subject of climate change.
It is from these scientific developments that social problems emanate, such as the
threats from nuclear war. These social ills then form a crucial role in educational
institutions through moral and ethical values, and the promotion of critical
thinking to solve these issues. This is also in line with the view of one of the
participants, who explained critical thinking “as the understanding of logical
connections between ideas and being able to solve different problems’’ (Table 2).
Lau and Chan (2015) echoed the participant’s explanation of critical thinking by
defining it as the ability to think rationally about what to do or what to believe in
order to promote problem-solving skills in the learners. As suggested by the
participant, one can ask the learners to work on a project such as water
purification whereby the learners have to find out how this is done and then
present this to their class. This then needs teachers who can see events from
different scientific perspectives for them to help learners to think critically.
However, this calls for tertiary institutions to train such a cadre of teachers who
can think critically. Realising that there are already practising teachers who have
457
not been trained to teach critical thinking, this calls for the Provincial Education
Department to organise training workshops for the teachers. In these workshops,
they will discuss with the teachers the ‘working definitions’ which will be used as
the basis for the teaching strategies for critical thinking.
Other teachers referred to critical thinking as “creative thinking alone about a

subject” and “to think for yourself and be able to create something on your own”.
At this point, there is a need to point out that critical thinking and creative
thinking are not the same but that one needs to think critically in order to be
creative. There are also teachers who defined critical thinking as “thinking in
depth which involves and promotes understanding” (Table 2). This
understanding of critical thinking is similar to the explanation given by Pakistan
teachers in a study by Jamil et al. (2021). The teachers defined critical thinking as
“knowledge with deep thinking…reasoning behind knowledge.” The above
discussion revealed that the participants in the current study had an
understanding of critical thinking.
When asked what strategies they used to teach critical thinking, the participants
listed “use of questions, use of higher-order questions in experiments, and also
investigative questions”. These strategies are relevant for promoting critical
thinking with the teachers using a variety of questions for the promotion of critical
thinking in the classroom. However, most of the participants did not explain how
the strategies given promoted critical thinking except for one participant who
explained his views as follows:
I try the strategies given by being as practical as possible where applicable and I
use real-life examples when explaining. I try to look for a question or discussion
that promotes critical thinking and would normally have a discussion with peers.
I look for a project such as how to purify water or recycling of paper and hence
learners have higher-order questions they are given to answer.
This is in agreement with the idea that critical thinking in science is the practice
of evaluating, careful, rigorous testing, problem solving and finding appropriate
solutions to problems, thereby linking critical thinking and science (Inamullah et
al. 2016). Furthermore, higher-order questions and multiple questions in the
classroom promote critical thinking.
Group work was another strategy that was used in conjunction with the
questioning strategy as is illustrated by one of the participants. The participant
illustrated how the strategy was going to be followed as follows:
Give learners questions that will require them to use their own words to explain
what certain laws really mean and how they are used on an everyday basis.
Dallimore et al. (2008), in support of the above strategy, found in their study that
group work facilitated effective class participation, resulting in deep learning and
development of critical thinking.
Testing was another strategy that was stated where two types of tests were
administered. The learners could be given class tests where long questions were
set and another where the learners had to answer questions from as many past
458
question papers as possible. The long questions would enable the learners to
express themselves. However, it is not clear whether these questions could either
be testing understanding of the taught concepts or whether they could help to
develop critical thinking. The general observation is that most of the past
examination questions test mainly factual information. In this study, the
participants did not elaborate on how they were to use these past question papers
for the development of critical thinking. No clear-cut explanation was given as to
which of the questions they emphasised. Only one participant gave an
explanation of the purpose of the test as follows:
I basically set a class test that consists of long questions that require critical
thinking.
This finding is consistent with the views of Duran and Dokme (2016)) who assert
that groups working on the changes to improve science, including physical
sciences learning, have recommended the teaching of science through inquiry and
implementing a science curriculum that develops critical thinking in students.
Such recommendations are what compelled the implementation of the new
curriculum for countries such as England and Wales, the United States, and South
Africa.
7. Conclusion
The study results revealed that the participants understood the concept of critical
thinking. They described critical thinking as a way of observing, analysing, and
assessing the situation before them in order to solve it. In addition, the
participants defined critical thinking as a thought process that results in
examining, weighing up, and relating the knowledge gained to find a solution to
the question at hand. However, the teachers did not emphasise that critical
thinking is self-corrective or that the learners needed to provide evidence in
support of their decisions to arrive at solutions for each problem statement.
The study also highlighted the strategies put forward by the participants that
included reliance on combined effort, printed documentation, practical
experiments, brainstorming or sharing ideas, and literature. These findings
indicate that critical thinking can be taught but only by a teacher who has been
trained to think critically. However, the strategies put forward by the teachers for
developing critical thinking skills did not clearly demonstrate the relationship
between the identified strategy and the development of critical thinking skills as
a resultant effect of such a strategy. For example, strategies for concept formation
and inquiries into the existence of a factual understanding of physical sciences by
learners were suggested by the teachers without any articulation of how these
strategies furthered critical thinking skills. The literature points to the fact when
students learn Physics, it gives them tools to investigate nature and be able to
analyse and make sense of the environment surrounding them (Mitrevski, 2019).
This author further pointed out that Physical Science provides a foundation for
students to acquire logic, critical thinking, and problem-solving and decision-
making skills using the acquired principles and concepts to explain the different
phenomena they encounter in their life.
459
The current study has also managed to show that there is a gap between the
teachers’ understanding of critical thinking in teaching Science and the
implementation of the strategies that can develop critical thinking in the learners.
However, given that this paper is an outline of an ongoing study, the strategies
for teaching and imparting critical thinking skills will be discussed in detail as the
research of the ongoing study progresses.
8. Recommendations and Further Research

Based on the presentation of the discussion and findings of this study:
i) the Provincial Education Department should present workshops that
discuss critical thinking and how it can be taught in Physical Sciences to
cater for those who were not trained, and
ii) the ongoing study should be able to assess the effectiveness of the strategy
used in teaching critical thinking.
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Appendix 1
Questionnaire for Physical Science teachers

Dear Colleague
Instructions:
Please write the responses to the questions on the spaces provided.
Gender…Male/Female
Indicate your qualifications …………………………………………………………….
Major subject ………………………………… Subject(s) taught ……....................
What class are you currently teaching?........................................................................
State the number of years you have taught Grade 10 Physical Science………….
1. With the Physical Science curriculum being taught, what do you regard
as the major skills the students will have at the end of the
year?......................
………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………….
2. What does the Physical Science curriculum expect the student to be able
to do? ……………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………….
3. What do you understand by the term “critical thinking?”…………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………….
4. What strategies do you use to teach Physical Science? …………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
5. What methods do you specifically use to teach critical thinking?
……………………………………………………………………………………
6. What other strategies would you recommend for teaching critical
thinking to Physical Science learners in Grade 10?........................................
……………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………….. .
7. What more information might you add to the teaching of critical thinking
in Physical Sciences? ……………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………..
Thank you.
463

Vol. 21, No. 5, pp. 463-477, May 2022
Teacher Pedagogical Beliefs and Resistance to the

Effective Implementation of Video-Based
Multimedia in the Physics Classroom
Gabriel Janvier Tugirinshuti and Leon Rugema Mugabo
University of Rwanda, College of Education
African Centre of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics
and Science (ACEITLMS)
Alexis Banuza
Université de Burundi, Institut de Pedagogie Appliquée, Departement de
Physique-Technologie
Centre de Recherche en Didactique des Disciplines et de Diffusion des Sciences (CRDS)
Abstract. This research aimed at investigating the influence of teachers’

beliefs and the reasons behind their resistance to the effective integration
of video-based multimedia (VBM) in physics classrooms. An explanatory
research design following a pragmatic worldview was used in this study
to investigate teachers’ pedagogical beliefs and to examine the causes of
their resistance to integrating VBM in the physics classroom. A purposive
sampling method was used to select 47 physics teachers. Participants in
this study were aged between 26 and 56 years old with an average
teaching experience of 8.1 years. A questionnaire (Cronbach alpha = 0.85)
was distributed to participants, followed by one-to-one interviews with
randomly selected senior five physics teachers. Participants witnessed the
effectiveness of using VBM in teaching physics. However, they still
resisted incorporating it into teaching. Results revealed that the link
between teachers’ beliefs and their resistance to incorporating VBM in the
teaching and learning of physics is quite strong. An investigation of how
to address the factors that impede the effective incorporation of VBM in
teaching and learning is highly recommended.
Keywords: physics education; teacher beliefs; teacher resistance; video-

based multimedia
1. Introduction
Modern education is aimed at preparing competent and competitive citizens
(Lewin, 2015). In the 21st century, it seems that information and communication
technology (ICT) is an asset to be used to achieve this objective in a world that
increasingly demands technological skills (Berrett et al., 2012). Integration of ICT
©Authors
464
in education refers to the incorporation of digital technological equipment that

can serve as educational tools, such as computers, digital video cameras,
projectors, CD-ROM drives, DVD players, software, etc. (Borko et al., 2008; Inan
& Lowther, 2010; Kay, 2012). Integration of ICT in education means the
harmonious cohesion between ICT and pedagogical teaching methodology to
improve the relevance and quality of education (Tondeur et al., 2016). In this
regard, many African countries have responded positively to the incorporation of
ICT in teaching (Mukhwana et al., 2020). The increase of ICT tools in schools has
allowed the spread of ICT multimedia into many schools, in that way increasing
video-based multimedia (VBM) use in the classroom (Kettle, 2020).
In the Rwandan context, researchers have witnessed the usefulness of VBM in

teaching sciences such as physics (Ndihokubwayo et al., 2020). In addition, the
issue of inaccessibility to ICT tools in Rwandan secondary schools has been
alleviated because the Government of Rwanda initiated a project to distribute
more than 100 laptops per school countrywide (Rwanda. Ministry of Education
[MINEDUC], 2016). Similarly, the new curriculum for secondary schools in
Rwanda advocates for the use of technology in science education which can be
concretized by the utilization of animations and simulations (Rwanda Education
Board [REB], 2015). Moreover, the effect of the Covid-19 pandemic has stressed
the need for integrating multimedia such as VBM in education.
In December 2019, the first case of Covid-19 was signaled in China, later escalating
rapidly all over the world and resulting in a pandemic (World Health
Organization [WHO], 2020). Many countries set procedures in place to fight
against the spread of Covid-19 (UNESCO, 2020; WHO, 2021). Measures to control
Covid-19 transmission resulted in school closure in many countries worldwide
(Mugiraneza, 2021). The decision to close schools affected students in more than
186 countries worldwide (UNICEF, 2020). After schools reopened, great measures
for remedial education systems were necessary. For instance, in Rwanda,
education policymakers launched the Education Covid-19 Response Plan
(Mugiraneza, 2021; Rwanda. MINEDUC, 2020). The objectives of the plan
included, among other objectives, developing the use of ICT and enhancing the
way multimedia is used in education (Mugiraneza, 2021; Rwanda. MINEDUC,
2020). Other priorities emphasized by the plan are virtual learning, the use of
multimedia and digital tools, teacher training, and online assessment approaches
(Mugiraneza, 2021; Rwanda. MINEDUC, 2020).
Conversely, teachers still resist integrating technology-related methodology in

science education, and in certain schools, usage of multimedia for pedagogical
teaching in physics classrooms is poor or even nonexistent (Rwanda. MINEDUC,
2020). This provides evidence for the need to examine physics teachers’
pedagogical beliefs about teaching and learning using multimedia and to
investigate the reasons behind their resistance to incorporating it into teaching.
Consequently, this research sought to investigate issues related to the effective
integration of VBM through the lens of teachers as the agents of change in the
education setting and the reasons for teachers’ resistance to incorporating VBM in
teaching and learning.
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In order to synthesize the literature within the field of VBM in education with a
focus on teachers’ pedagogical beliefs, we grouped our literature into three main
parts. We first discuss the literature that explores VBM and subsequently the
literature that looks at teachers’ educational beliefs about teaching using VBM and
their resistance towards integration of VBM, respectively.
2.1 Video-Based Multimedia in Teaching and Learning Science
Technology has become one of the fundamental elements of modern society.
Many countries consider the integration of ICT in science education to enhance
education and research (Berrett et al., 2012). The effective utilization of ICT in
science education is no longer limited to administration issues only but also to
teaching and learning (Becta, 2004). Researchers have reported that in teaching
and learning science using ICTs, ICT-based multimedia is the effective
methodology (Kay, 2012). Ndihokubwayo et al. (2020) reported that among the
ICT-based multimedia, videos are effective and cheaper in teaching sciences such
as physics which require laboratory observation. Video refers to moving pictures
accompanied by sound and digital videos, providing a lot of information in a
short period of time and showing real-life objects (Hu, 2016). In science education,
videos are used to support verbal explanations of concepts to engage students in
knowledge construction and meaningful learning (Kay, 2012).
The use of VBM in science education has been found to hold several advantages.
These include solutions to mechanical work of rewriting, modern and innovative
teaching methods, saving time, student motivation, class management, and
raising academic achievement and retention (Antoiniette & Giorgetti, 2006; Kay,
2012; Kettle, 2020). Moreover, researchers have reported the effectiveness of VBM
in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education (Kunnath
& Kriet, 2018).
2.2 Teachers’ Pedagogical Beliefs about Video-Based Multimedia in Science
Education
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2019) defined belief as psychological
understanding, attitude that something is the case, or that some proposition about
the world is true. Pedagogical belief refers to the understanding, shreds of
evidence, or schemes about teaching that teachers believe are supposed to be real.
Teachers’ educational beliefs act like a filter through which new information is
screened for relevance and meaning (Ertmer, 2005). Teachers’ beliefs have been
categorized into two main groups: teacher-centered and learner-centered beliefs
(Deng et al., 2014). Teachers may, however, have and adhere to both teacher- and
learner-centered pedagogical beliefs (Lim & Chan, 2007; Tondeur et al., 2016).
In the teacher-centered view, the teacher acts as a specialist, managing the

teaching-learning activities and serving as an educational expert. Conversely, in
the learner-centered view, the teacher works as a guide, with learners cooperating
and getting involved with knowledge construction (Davidson & Major, 2014;
Deng et al., 2014). The learner-centered belief stems from the theory of
constructivism, where learners actively get involved with knowledge
construction and the teacher acts as facilitator (Teo et al., 2008). Researchers have
466
revealed that to ensure that learners better navigate the global environment in
which they now live and must work in tomorrow, the learner-centered method is
the effective approach (Antoiniette & Giorgetti, 2006). Moreover, studies have
revealed that to better prepare the 21st century learners, who are digital natives,
incorporating technology in education could be an effective answer (Becta, 2004).
Teaching and learning using VBM have been suggested as an active and learner-
centered methodology where students can choose words and images, bring them
together into the logical verbal and visual model, and integrate them into whole
conceptual structures (Borko et al., 2008; Mayer, 2005). Such methodology can
positively reshape teaching practices, create and maintain a positive teaching and
learning climate, and improve students’ learning when suitable measures are
taken into account (Kunnath & Kriet, 2018).
2.3 Teachers’ Resistance to Integrating Video-Based Multimedia in Teaching
Teachers as agents of change in education play a crucial role in their educational
choices concerning when and how to integrate a new approach such as VBM
within their classroom activities (Kim et al., 2013). Previous studies have revealed
that incorporating a new approach such as VBM into teaching and learning
requires changes and that teachers manage changes in different ways (Tondeur et
al., 2016). Howard and Mozejko (2015) explained that resistance to change is the
foremost factor in the successful incorporation of ICT in teaching. Understanding
how ICT-based technology will enhance teaching was reported as the major factor
behind teachers’ resistance to integrating ICT in education (Oriji, 2016). Tondeur
et al. (2016) revealed that teachers’ willingness and attitude to change is a
significant factor to consider when introducing ICT-based methodology in
education. Teachers’ classroom activities depend on their pedagogical beliefs
about the effectiveness of the teaching strategies (Tondeur et al., 2016), while some
studies have suggested that multimedia can be completely agreed upon as a
successful teaching strategy concerning teachers’ pedagogical beliefs (Lajoie,
2014; Ndihokubwayo et al., 2020; Odcházelová, 2015; Sarowardy & Halder, 2019).
3. Research Problem
Teachers’ pedagogical beliefs and their resistance have been recognized as issues
that could have a direct or indirect influence on their ability to teach a given
subject (Mukuka et al., 2019) and to explore the pedagogical benefits that
multimedia is likely to bring to science education (Loper et al., 2019). The present
research recognizes the gaps in recent studies that have concentrated on the
effectiveness of and barriers to multimedia integration in education or teachers’
beliefs about multimedia integration in science education. Nevertheless, limited
studies have looked at the correlation between teachers’ educational beliefs about
learning using multimedia and their resistance to incorporating multimedia in the
teaching and learning of physics. Therefore, this research seeks to investigate the
link between physics teachers’ pedagogical beliefs about using VBM in teaching
and the reasons behind their resistance to integrating VBM in the physics
classroom. We focus on teachers’ beliefs in terms of their understanding of how
VBM will enhance their teaching practices and motivate student learning. Hence,
based on the research problem highlighted above, this research seeks to answer
the following research questions:
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• Research question 1: What are the prevailing teaching practices in selected

schools’ physics classrooms?
• Research question 2: What are teachers’ views about the effectiveness of
VBM in enhancing the teaching and learning of physics?
• Research question 3: What are teachers’ views about the difficulties
associated with VBM implementation in physics?
4. Methodology
This section gives an account of the procedures that were employed in addressing
the stated research questions. The target population, data analysis techniques, and
ethical issues are also highlighted in this section.
4.1 Research Design
An explanatory research design was employed in this research. The research
followed a pragmatic worldview (Creswell, 2014). Sequential mixed methods
research combining both qualitative and quantitative approaches was used to
develop a better understanding of the research problem and to offer concrete
solutions for the research problem.
4.2 Sampling and Research Participants
We purposively selected 24 public secondary schools that have smart classrooms
(also called computer laboratories) and physics as major subject taught in those
schools. The schools were from the Rutsiro (rural) and Rubavu (urban) districts
of the Western province in Rwanda. All physics teachers at the selected schools
were invited to participate in the study. Forty-seven (35 male and 12 female) of
these teachers agreed to participate in the research.
4.3 Research Instruments and Validation Procedures
A questionnaire, interviews, and classroom observation were used to collect data.
The questionnaire was developed based on preceding studies on personal
educational beliefs, opportunities, challenges, and benefits of using VBM in
classrooms. The questionnaire was subjected to a pilot study to check its reliability
before distributing it. SPSS Version 21 was used to analyze the pilot study results.
The internal consistency analysis of questionnaire items yielded a Cronbach alpha
of 0.85, which exceeds the recommended value of 0.7 (Taber, 2017). The pairs’
inter-item correlations were more than 0.80, which means that there was no
multicollinearity, so all items were independent. Furthermore, a systematic
interview associated with discussion to gain a deeper comprehension of
participants’ responses about VBM use in teaching was employed to collect
qualitative data until data saturation was reached. The instruments were checked
by experts in science education and ICT education for validation.
4.4 Data Collection Procedure
To collect quantitative data, questionnaires were distributed to 47 participating
physics teachers in Rutsiro and Rubavu districts in the Western province,
Rwanda. After one week, the completed questionnaires were collected with a
return rate of 100%. To collect qualitative data, two weeks after completion of the
questionnaires, two schools were randomly selected in each district, and all senior
five physics teachers at the schools were requested to participate in a one-to-one
468
interview. Interviews started with structured questions, but participants were

allowed time to explain their responses. The purpose with the one-to-one
interviews was to obtain deeper insight into the participants’ questionnaire
responses and to gain more insight into the reasons behind teachers’ resistance to
integrating VBM in physics teaching and learning. Interviews lasted roughly 50
minutes each and were audio-recorded.
4.5 Data Analysis
To summarize data from the questionnaire, descriptive statistics were used to
calculate percentages, standard deviations, standard errors, and means. A paired
sample t test was also conducted to determine the prevailing teaching practices
between usual teaching practices and multimedia-based instruction. Cohen’s d
was also calculated to communicate the magnitude of the experimental effect.
Analysis of qualitative data was done by coding. In this case, three themes
emerged: physics teaching practices in the selected schools; teacher beliefs about
using VBM in teaching and learning; and difficulties associated with VBM
implementation in the physics classroom. We assigned as analytically and
carefully as possible to each segment recorded (e.g. a sentence) the semantic
category to which it refers following the recommendation of Fielding (2012).
4.6 Ethical Considerations
Ethical issues were maintained at all stages of data collection. Ethical approval
was obtained from the College of Education, University of Rwanda before starting
this study. Authorization to collect data from the selected schools was granted by
Rutsiro and Rubavu district leaders and principals in the selected schools.
Furthermore, all participants signed a consent form.
5. Results
This section is concerned with the data analysis. It communicates the findings of
the research by examining and analyzing the data in detail and interpreting the
results from the analysis.
5.1 Personal and Professional Information of Participants
Table 1 presents the demographic information of the participants.
Table 1: Demographic information of participants
Variable Category Frequency %

Urban (Rubavu district) 26 55.3
Geographic
Rural (Rutsiro district) 21 44.7
location
Total 47 100
Male 35 74.5
Gender Female 12 25.5
Total 47 100
Less than 3 years 4 8.5
Experience in Between 4 and 6 years 12 25.6
teaching Between 7 and 9 years 21 44.7
physics 10 years and above 10 21.2
Total 47 100
Age Less than 30 years old 5 10.6
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Between 31 to 35 years old 22 46.9

Between 36 and 40 years old 13 27.7
40 years old and above 7 14.8
Total 47 100
Source: Primary data
For this study, 47 physics teachers from 24 public secondary schools located in
two districts, Rubavu (urban) and Rutsiro (rural), participated willingly. Of the
sample, 26 (55.3%) participants were from Rubavu district and 21 (44.7%) from
Rutsiro district. Regarding gender, 35 (74.4%) participants were male and 12
(25.6%) female. The average age of participants was 34.6 years, and their average
teaching experience 8.1 years. Note that selection of participants was done
randomly; this can clarify and explain the differences in their personal and
professional information and the ratio of male to female participants.
5.2 Physics Teaching Practices in the Selected Schools
Participants’ responses to the questionnaire section on teaching practices were
aggregated and the standard deviation (SD), standard error (SE), and mean (M)
calculated (Table 2). To establish the difference between the two teaching
practices, usual teaching practices and multimedia-based instruction, a paired
sample t test was conducted (Table 3).
Table 2: Descriptive statistics on teaching practices
Teaching practice N M SD SE
Usual teaching practices 47 4.11 0.57 0.08
Multimedia-based instruction 47 3.19 0.57 0.08
Table 3: Results of the paired sample t test for usual teaching practices and
multimedia-based instruction
Paired differences 95% CI of difference
M SD SE Lower Upper t df p
UTP-MBI* 0.92 0.51 0.08 0.80 1.07 16.14 57 0.001
Note. CI = confidence interval; UTP = usual teaching practices; MBI = multimedia-based
instruction
The results in Table 2 revealed that usual teaching practices (M = 4.11; SD = 0.57)
were more dominant among participants than multimedia-based instruction (M
M dif
= 3.19; SD = 0.57). Cohen’s d was also calculated using the formula d = (Mdif
SDdif
= mean difference and SDdif = standard deviation of difference), yielding a d value
of 1.80. According to the standards for effect size, the calculated d value (1.80)
represents an acceptable and large effect size since it is greater than the threshold
of 0.8 for a large effect. For the paired sample t test (Table 3), the difference of 0.92
(95% CI [0.80, 1.07]) was significant (t = 16.14; p = 0.001 [< 0.05]). Besides being
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statistically significant, the effect size (d = 1.80) was large enough to communicate
that usual teaching practices were significantly more dominant than multimedia-
based instruction in the selected schools.
5.3 Teacher Beliefs About Using Video-Based Multimedia in Teaching and

Learning
Table 4 shows the level to which the participants used certain physics teaching
practices in their classrooms. They could choose from the following scales: 1 =
never, 2 = seldom, 3 = sometimes, 4 = often, and 5 = always.
The results presented in Table 4 point out that 25.5% of the participants never
used multimedia and a significant number (51.1%) seldom used multimedia in
their classroom. Only 6.4% of the participants often or always used multimedia in
their physics classroom. Results also revealed that the majority of participants
performed the following teaching practices: traditional teaching methods (93.6%),
expository teaching (70.2), differentiated instruction (68.1%), project-based or
problem-based approach (59.6%), and teaching with experience (53.2%). Other
teaching methods that were used but not frequently were peer education, reverse
class, and personalized learning, with 48.9%, 38.3%, and 36.3%, respectively.
Table 4: Teaching practices of the participants
Rating (%)
No. Teaching practice
Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always
1 ICT multimedia- 25.5 51.1 17.0 4.3 2.1
based instruction
2 Traditional 0 0 6.4 29.8 63.8
teaching
3 Differentiated 0 0 31.9 6.1 62
instruction
4 Teaching with 0 21.3 25.5 53.2 0
experiences
5 Project-based or 0 2.1 38.3 59.6 0
problem-based
approach
6 Expository 0 2.1 27.7 38.3 31.9
teaching
7 Peer education 0 36.2 14.9 46.8 2.1
8 Reverse class 0 23.4 38.3 38.3 0
9 Personalized 4.3 48.9 10.6 36.2 0
learning
Even though the responses from the questionnaire showed that participants had
been using multimedia in their classroom, we observed through checking their
pedagogical documents that few participants had used ICT multimedia in the four
weeks prior. During lesson observation, we also noticed that participants did not
understand what constitutes effective VBM incorporation in teaching and
learning. For instance, there was a case where a participant sent students to the
smart classroom to research YouTube videos without giving them clear guidance
471
or guidelines and keywords about the research activity. As a result, the majority
of the students were on social media (Facebook) instead of using the computers
and internet for pedagogical purposes.
Responses from participants revealed that their pedagogical beliefs fell under
learner-centered methods and that most of them believed positively that ICT
multimedia is a tool to enhance the quality and relevance of teaching physics in
this era of technology. Participants’ views about the usefulness of VBM and how
this approach benefits themselves, their learners, and the school are reported in
Table 5.
Table 5: Participants’ views about integrating multimedia (and ICT in general) in

physics education
Frequency
Category Statement
(%)
VBM provides access to the online information, where
95.7
the information can be accessible beyond the textbook
VBM decreases the time for mechanical activities such
93.6
as rewriting
VBM builds and maintains personal and professional
93.6
relationships
Teachers VBM helps to be familiar with smart technology 91.4
VBM increases the scope of searching, supports
72.3
communication, and enhances creativity
VBM helps to achieve the latest knowledge, to find
and organize information, and to share information 70.2
effectively and easily
VBM is attractive and arouses students’ curiosity 100
VBM moderates time spent taking notes 93.6
VBM develops self-efficacy and confidence 91.4
Students VBM prepares students for the 21st century, amplifies
learners’ engagement and motivation, and increases 91.4
learners’ conceptual understanding and retention
VBM increases learners’ critical thinking 72.3
VBM provides access to online content and
91.4
information
School VBM helps to be familiar with smart technology 91.4
VBM upgrades the scope of the research 72.3
5.4 Difficulties Associated with Video-Based Multimedia Implementation

Participants were interviewed individually and in a focus group discussion about
their perceptions of the challenges to the effective incorporation of VBM. The
following question was asked: As a teacher in a school that has ICT equipment,
highlight at least four personal perceptions (in line with pedagogical issues)
regarding the challenges to the effective incorporation of VBM in teaching and
learning. Responses were assigned to themes that recorded the semantic category
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to which it refers, and themes are listed in Table 6. Themes are recorded in order
of most to least recorded.
Table 6: Participants’ perceptions regarding barriers to effective multimedia

integration
Theme %
1 Confidence and self-efficacy to use technological tools 87.04
2 Competence in using ICT tools such as a computer, projector, … 78.57
3 Preparation time versus high teaching loads 75.91
4 Difficulties in assessing and monitoring learners’ progress 72.89
5 Poor training and lack of orientation workshops 54.64
Apart from the challenges reported in Table 6 which are directly related to
teachers, participants in the focus group discussion mentioned other challenges
that are linked to schools or students. These included the average number of
students per class, eagerness to prepare students for tests and examinations,
willingness to complete the syllabus on time, and difficulties to monitor students
in a smart classroom.
6. Discussion
This section is dedicated to the discussion of the results presented in the previous
section. Findings revealed that participants witnessed the effectiveness of VBM in
enhancing teaching and learning. Participants from the selected schools believed
that VBM could enhance the relevance and quality of physics teaching and
learning. Moreover, participating teachers believed that ICT multimedia such as
VBM could be the best answer for the current generation of learners who are
digital natives. Participants also revealed that VBM is in line with learner-centered
methods where learners actively participate in knowledge construction. Recent
studies echo similar findings, that ICT multimedia such as VBM are better
strategies to prepare students to navigate in this world where they live now and
must work in tomorrow (Antoiniette & Giorgetti, 2006; Kay, 2012). Furthermore,
VBM responds to the constructivism theory, which upholds that learners should
cooperate and become involved in knowledge construction, while the teacher acts
as facilitator (Sorden, 2013).
Moreover, the findings reported in this study revealed that VBM, once effectively
integrated into teaching and learning, holds several benefits. It provides an active
teaching-learning environment, improves professional development, increases
the scope of research, reduces the time spent on some activities (such as
rewriting), and facilitates class management. Researchers have echoed similar
findings, that multimedia in education is an effective tool to broaden, soften, and
improve the relevance and quality of physics teaching and learning (Antoiniette
& Giorgetti, 2006). Moreover, VBM has been used successfully in several branches
of physics, such as optics (Ndihokubwayo et al., 2020), photoelectric effect
(Kunnath & Kriet, 2018), and electromagnetism (Kotoka & Kriek, 2014).
473
Concerning how and to what extent VBM could be integrated, participants in this
study showed that VBM should be integrated to support other teaching methods
but not to replace them, and should be used depending on the topic and not be
limited to a set time. This correlates with previous findings, that multimedia
should be used but not so that it monopolizes the classroom (Winner, 1986). In
general, participants in the selected schools believed positively in the use of ICT
multimedia as a strategy to enhance physics teaching and learning. However,
results from both the questionnaire and interviews revealed that to a great extent
participants resisted integrating it in their classroom.
Furthermore, it seems that resistance to VBM integration was not the major
problem, but instead the reasons why participants resisted integrating
multimedia. Although participating teachers and educational literature have
revealed the potential of using VBM to enhance the learning of physics and STEM
concepts, some participants resisted integrating it in teaching activities. This was
due to various factors.
Firstly, participants cited a lack of confidence as one of the crucial factors that
impede teachers from integrating VBM (and technology in general) in the
classroom. This was indicated by the majority of the participants as impeding
factor. Participants revealed that some teachers are technologically handicapped
and their fear of failure makes them feel nervous about using technology in
teaching. Therefore, they are not confident to use VBM in teaching and learning.
Becta (2004) argued that little experience and lack of confidence in the use of ICT
in everyday life negatively influence teachers’ motivation to use technology in
education. There is a need to understand that teachers who have confidence and
self-efficacy in using technology in everyday activities appreciate the effectiveness
of VBM in their teaching and other personal work.
Secondly, lack of competence, which is in one way or another related to teacher

confidence in using ICT, and poor training in the incorporation of technology in
education were reported as hindrance to VBM implementation in physics
teaching and learning. Participants revealed that teachers’ lack of competence to
use computers in everyday life and lack of enthusiasm about bringing computers
into their daily lives caused a hindrance to the use of technology. Hence, this
caused resistance to integrating VBM in physics teaching and learning. Another
study found similar challenges, that many teachers who are not competent in
using technology feel worried about using it in front of a class of learners who
perhaps knows more than they do (Becta, 2004).
The third factor highlighted was lack of time. Participants revealed that
integrating VBM in education is time consuming. They believed that even though
teachers may be competent, confident, and self-efficient in using technology, lack
of time inhibits them to incorporate technology use in the classroom. Participants
revealed that pressure to prepare students for examinations and pressure to
complete the syllabus on time, coupled with large size classes, were factors
hindering them from using VBM. Although it has been shown that small classes
are more advantageous to both teachers and learners (Nye et al., 2000), research
474
has revealed that teachers’ beliefs about how a given methodology will enhance
their teaching practices and their students’ learning were more important than
class size (Becta, 2004). There is a need to understand that VBM could be an
effective way of controlling time-related issues and large classes. This is because
the teacher’s role in a learner-centered approach such as VBM is more that of a
guide than a teacher who might be regarded as a master of everything in the
classroom.
The forth factor reported by participants in this study regarding hindrances to

VMB integration was that assessing and monitoring learners’ progress is
challenging in a VBM class setting. Horner et al. (2018) also cited similar
difficulties that may lead to teachers’ resistance to ICT integration in their
classrooms. As reported in Tables 1, 2, and 3, participants in this study preferred
to use teaching methods that are considered a simple way to assess and monitor
learners’ performance. These include traditional teaching methods, characterized
by chalk and talk, and expository teaching methods, characterized by questions
and answers. However, this is at variance with the ICT policy in Rwandan
education that advocates for the transformation of teaching and learning and
improvement of education quality across all levels of education in Rwanda
(Rwanda. MINEDUC, 2018).
7. Conclusion, Recommendations, and Limitations

In this study, we examined VBM in physics classrooms through the lens of
teachers as agents of change. The study focused on the link between teachers’
pedagogical beliefs and their resistance to integrating VBM in physics teaching
and learning. The findings of this study showed that the resistance itself seems
not to be a problem; instead, the reasons why teachers resist integrating VBM are
the pillars of this relationship. Therefore, we conclude that teachers’ pedagogical
beliefs and their resistance to integrating VBM in teaching and learning physics
are linked by the struggles they experience and the hindrance they face in the
incorporation of this teaching practice. We thus conclude that the relationship
between teachers’ beliefs about using VBM and their resistance to integrating
VBM is quite strong.
Even though the findings of this study do not significantly contrast what has been
reported in literature recently, this is one of few studies conducted in Rwanda and
possibly Eastern Africa in which physics teachers revealed why they resist
incorporating VBM into teaching activities. This study contributes to the existing
literature about the challenges associated with the effective integration of ICT
multimedia in physics classrooms and the reasons why some teachers resist
integrating it in teaching physics. This study is novel in that identifying the
reasons for teachers’ resistance to incorporating VBM in physics teaching and
learning will help create a picture of what is happening in Rwandan secondary
schools. Thus, this study provides a baseline for the effective integration of VBM.
This seems to be the right way for informing teacher development officers,
curriculum developers, and policymakers about homegrown initiatives and
solutions rather than only depending on what has been done in other countries.
To this, an investigation of the most significant causes of teacher resistance to
475
integrating VBM in teaching and how the identified factors could be addressed to
ensure that VBM is effectively integrated into teaching and learning is highly
recommended. Future researchers could also examine the effect of different
multimedia to find the most suitable ones for different didactic settings
worldwide.
This study had two major limitations. First, participants of the present study were
limited to physics teachers in public schools. Second, the research focused on only
2 out of the 30 districts in Rwanda.
8. Acknowledgments
This research was financially supported by the African Center of Excellence for
Innovative Teaching and Learning of Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS) of
the University of Rwanda – College of Education.
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Vol. 21, No. 5, pp. 478-491, May 2022
Using Digital Comics for Enhancing EFL

Vocabulary Learning during the COVID-19
Pandemic
Luz Castillo-Cuesta
Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja, Loja, Ecuador
Ana Quinonez-Beltran
Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja, Loja, Ecuador
Abstract. The aim of this quantitative study is to determine the impact of

using digital comics to strengthen English as a Foreign Language (EFL)
vocabulary knowledge during the COVID-19 pandemic. The approach
was quasi-experimental with 262 public high school students from three
of the four regions of Ecuador. The students’ ages ranged from 12 to 14
years and their proficiency level was A1 in accordance with the Common
European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). They were
divided into control and experimental groups. The participants in both
groups received explicit vocabulary instruction through workshops, but
the experimental group had the opportunity to practise EFL vocabulary
using digital comics while the control group used supplementary
resources and the textbook established by the Ecuadorian Ministry of
Education. The data were collected using pre-tests, post-tests, and a
perception survey. Based on the statistical analysis, the results showed a
significant improvement in vocabulary acquisition in the experimental
group. This group also demonstrated a positive perception of the use of
digital comics for enhancing EFL vocabulary knowledge because comics
allowed students to create original digital stories and customise them
according to their preferences. Further research might consider the use of
comics for teaching specific linguistic skills in on-site learning
environments.
Keywords: vocabulary; digital comics; learning; public high schools
1. Introduction
Vocabulary is an essential component of learning English as a Foreign Language;
different researchers have highlighted its importance for developing all the
linguistic skills. Because languages are founded on words, vocabulary is a key
component of language (Thornbury, 2002; Cahyono & Widiati, 2008; Bancha &
Tongtep, 2021). For Lewis (2005), “Lexis is the core or heart of language” (p. 89).
©Authors
479
In the same way, Nation (2012) acknowledges that there is a complementary

connection between vocabulary mastery and language use, and Schmitt (2010,
p.4) states, “learners carry around dictionaries and not grammar books” to
demonstrate the significance of vocabulary for language learning; this author
claims that vocabulary knowledge is indispensable for successful language use.
Certainly, students need to acquire a lexicon to build the blocks of language
learning and communication (Richards & Rodgers, 2001). As Wong and Yunus
(2020) affirm, the correlation between vocabulary size and language competence
is appreciable.
Vocabulary learning for EFL demands practice and face-to-face interaction with
teachers and peers. However, the COVID-19 pandemic and the confinement
situation affected education since both students and teachers were forced to
transition from traditional classroom teaching to online instruction (Dhawan,
2020; Rajab et al., 2020). Teachers and learners had to use technological resources
in virtual learning environments to enhance vocabulary and other linguistic skills.
In this context, EFL vocabulary was taught using technological resources such as
different applications and platforms (Odinokaya et al., 2021; Castillo-Cuesta,
2022). Alsied and Pathan (2013) acknowledge that technological tools are effective
for learning new words; these authors assert that students learn vocabulary
significantly faster when using technology. One of the technological tools for
learning vocabulary is ToonDoo, which is an online resource that enables learners
to design digital comics, foster their e-collaborative learning, and share their ideas
online without stress since it permits them to convey what they think easily and
confidently (Robles 2017). As Fatimah et al. (2019) assert, ToonDoo is an appealing
web-based application that can be used by teachers as an instructional tool to
create online comics through a user-friendly interface for teaching.
Several studies have analysed the use of digital comics for EFL learning. Ayar and
Kiziltan (2020) conducted a study to determine the influence of cartoons on
vocabulary learning strategies of Turkish EFL learners. Their findings revealed
that the most common vocabulary learning strategies were determination and
metacognitive strategies. Fatimah et al. (2019) explored the use of ToonDoo and
its benefits in teaching English short stories; they evidenced that this tool allowed
instructors to produce cartoon strips efficiently and share them with learners.
Cabrera et al. (2018) aimed at examining the use of Pixton for teaching grammar
and vocabulary and demonstrated that Pixton is a powerful instruction resource
that encourages students to enhance grammar and vocabulary in an entertaining
mode. Ahmadi et al. (2017) explored the impact of children’s comic strip stories
on incidental vocabulary learning. Their results revealed that listening to comic
strip stories had statistically meaningful effects on students’ vocabulary learning.
The purpose of research conducted by Robles (2017) was to assess the
implementation of ToonDoo as a resource for collaborative e-learning and
evidenced that the learners’ attitudes to the use of digital comics were positive.
Though prior research has explored both the use of comics for language learning
and their use for practising some skills, none of the research has engaged in the
use of digital comics for enhancing EFL vocabulary during the COVID-19
480
pandemic. The significance of the present study is to offer insights into this field,
which might be beneficial for learners who have not had the chance to acquire
new vocabulary in an innovative form through implementing activities using
technological tools. Therefore, the following research questions were considered:
1. What is the impact of using digital comics on EFL students’ vocabulary
learning?
2. What are the students´ perceptions of using digital comics to learn EFL
vocabulary?
2.1 EFL Vocabulary Learning
Vocabulary has been defined as the lexis or the words of a particular language
(Wehmeier et al., 2005). In language learning, the significance of vocabulary is
evident since word knowledge is essential to develop the students’ competencies
as well as their comprehension and production; certainly, the four language skills
are all based upon the learners’ vocabulary acquisition (Bai, 2018). As Dakhi and
Fitria (2019) affirm, vocabulary is the heart of linguistic skills because it
contributes to the development of receptive and productive skills. Therefore,
“lexical knowledge is central to communicative competence and the acquisition
of a second and foreign language, and a lack of vocabulary knowledge is an
obstacle to learning” (Alqahtani, 2015, p.31). Since vocabulary is a foundation and
a key element of language acquisition (Bancha & Tongtep, 2021), deficient
vocabulary creates learning difficulties and poor English proficiency (Ocampo &
McNeill, 2019).
Vocabulary learning for EFL involves great skill on the part of an individual for
processing words of a language (Rivers, 1989); knowing words is essential for EFL
students. In this respect, Nation (2012) emphasises that the knowledge of a term
involves recognising the form, meaning, and use of the term. The form is related
to spoken form, written form, and word parts; meaning entails concepts, referents,
and associations; finally, use includes structural functions, collocations, register,
and frequency. Pignot-Shahov (2012) acknowledges the importance of receptive
and productive knowledge for language learners; this author states that,
“receptive knowledge is being able to understand a word in its spoken or written
form, and productive knowledge means to be able to use a word correctly in a
written work or a speech” (p. 43). In the same way, Pignot-Shahov (2012) affirms
that learning a word productively involves teaching it productively, and the same
goes for receptive vocabulary knowledge.
Learning EFL vocabulary is certainly challenging. Susanto (2017) states that,

“learning vocabulary items is not such a simple matter of committing them to
memory, but how to use them in appropriate situations as well as how to expand
the knowledge of one’s vocabulary is also crucial” (p.189). Vocabulary acquisition
involves more than just memorising the spelling and pronunciation of a word; it
includes other dimensions such as pronunciation, meaning, word formation,
collocations, etc. Thus, students need to use strategies for learning vocabulary;
these strategies depend on their level, age, and needs (Susanto, 2017). As Putra
(2016) asserts, the more successful teaching strategies the instructor applies in the
481
EFL class, the better the learners’ linguistic skills become. Teachers should,
therefore, consider the aspects and train their students to use effective strategies
and resources for successfully learning the new words of the target language.
2.2 Technology for EFL Vocabulary Learning

Technology has offered very important tools to support education (Seliaman &
Al-Turki, 2012). Language learning is not an exception, which is why Sa'd (2014)
asserts that electronic devices and their resultant usage have a noteworthy place
in linguistic instruction. Alsied and Pathan (2013) affirm that technology has
become a very important part of our lives for all the activities people do in the
world; certainly, foreign language instruction is one of the fields that has
experienced a great impact in this digital era. Saleh and Pretorius (2006) had
already acknowledged the importance of the role of technology, computers, and
the Internet in language teaching and specifically in the context of English
teaching and learning. In fact, technology offers some advantages for EFL
students; Alsied and Pathan (2013) emphasise that there are many benefits
derived by implementing Information and Communication Technology (ICT) to
teach, learn, practise, and assess a foreign language, especially in the EFL contexts
in which students do not have enough opportunities to practise the target
language.
Many resources and applications are available for enhancing the different
language skills and sub-skills. In the case of the listening skill, technological tools
allow EFL learners to use authentic video and audio resources; moreover, many
useful websites offer numerous listening exercises and testing materials for free
(Alsied & Pathan, 2013). Concerning speaking, technology offers students the
possibility of learning, improving, practising, and assessing their speaking skills;
they can use the internet on computers, tablets, and smartphones to chat and talk
with native speakers in a friendlier foreign language environment. Social
networking sites such as Skype, Nimbuzz, Yahoo, and Facebook permit audio and
video talk; the activities using online tools for speaking are very useful for
improving fluency and pronunciation (Payne & Whitney, 2002). With regard to
reading and writing skills, technological resources provide a variety of current
and authentic reading materials and writing tools that are very effective for
developing these skills.
Vocabulary, which is essential for listening, speaking, reading, and writing can
also be enhanced through technological tools; in this respect, Alsied and Pathan
(2013) acknowledge that computer assisted language learning (CALL)
programmes are effective for learning new words; in addition, these authors
affirm that the use of technological resources can effectively help students learn
vocabulary significantly faster than through traditional resources. Similarly,
Jariah et al. (2019) assert that the use of ICT allows learners to acquire vocabulary
efficiently, which has an overall effect on mastering EFL skills. Certainly, learning
new words through implementing activities by means of web-based applications
has a positive effect on students’ vocabulary improvement across ages and
contexts (Yang et al., 2021). One of the advantages of learning the target language
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vocabulary through different technological tools is related to the improvement of

the learners’ long-term retention of new words (Hao et al., 2021).
2.3 Comics for Vocabulary Learning

Learning vocabulary is an essential part of language and a process in which
learners use different strategies and resources. In this context, comics are one of
the didactic resources that play an important role in learning vocabulary since the
combination of their elements (images and text) helps learners memorise and
remember a word, expression, or concept more easily (Csabay, 2006). Comics are
stories in which pictures and several words are included (Marianthi et al.,2016).
The use of pictures allows students to create a story by generating ideas without
difficulty and in chronological order (Darsalina et al., 2016). Comics are thus a
great form of visual communication that helps students enhance their vocabulary
more easily. Fatimah et al. (2019) confirm that comics combine pictures, text, and
other visual information components that permit learners to receive information
as well as express ideas.
The two elements of comics, the written words and visual concepts together, as
well as other characteristics, help students to easily remember the words they
studied in class. In this regard, Tiemensma (2009) points out that the language in
comics, which is usually brief and much simpler than it is in other types of texts,
contributes to recalling the vocabulary that students have learned. All these
elements promote students’ engagement and motivation to learn vocabulary.
Furthermore, Wright (2003) asserts that the use of comics has many advantages,
such as improving students’ learning, enhancing students’ communicative and
competencies, increasing learners’ attention and students’ engagement, among
others.
ToonDoo was one of the free and fully online comic creators that allowed learners
to improve their vocabulary because of its characteristics. It has many functions
for creating and personalising comics (Figure 1). These benefits make students feel
more confident and more motivated to use comics for their vocabulary learning.
Kirchoff and Cook (2015), describe ToonDoo as an easy, powerful, free, and
engaging web-based application for creating comics in a user-friendly interface.
The application provides the option of showing the characters' emotions such as
happiness, anger, sadness, or disappointment (Fatimah et al., 2019).
Figure 1: ToonDoo Features (ColaborAulaTIC, 2022)
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2.4 Previous Studies on the Use of Comics in EFL Learning

A number of studies have been conducted on using comics to enhance English
vocabulary. Ayar and Kiziltan (2020) carried out quasi-experimental research to
examine the effect of cartoons on vocabulary acquisition strategies of Turkish EFL
learners who worked with three English literature classics, Treasure Island, Great
Expectations, and Romeo & Juliet. A vocabulary learning strategy test was
administered to reveal students’ preferred strategies. The control group consisted
of 20 participants who were randomly selected and who worked on excerpts in
plain text without any cartoons, while 47 students in the experimental group had
the opportunity to work with cartoons. The findings revealed that the most
frequent vocabulary learning strategies used by the experimental group were
determination and metacognitive strategies, while the control group mostly used
memory, social and metacognitive strategies. The results demonstrated different
gender strategies: girls practised determination and memory strategies, whereas
boys preferred social, metacognitive, and cognitive strategies.
Fatimah et al. (2019) carried out a study on the use of ToonDoo for teaching
English short stories, and the advantages of this resource in EFL instruction. The
participant was a pre-service teacher, who created a reflection journal at three
points: after ToonDoo was introduced; after he created ToonDoo cartoons; and
after he taught, using ToonDoo for teaching short stories. The researcher created
a reflection template for writing the journal and the participant was interviewed
to analyse the process of making cartoons and the process of instruction using
ToonDoo. The results showed that this web-based resource enabled instructors to
design comic strips easily and share them with learners. This resource can be
useful in improving learners’ speaking skills. ToonDoo can be effectively applied
to engage learners’ imagination and increase their ability to express their thoughts
in the target language, thus creating a meaningful learning experience and a
confident classroom environment.
Calisto-Miranda et al. (2018) conducted research in Chile, the purpose of which

was to investigate the participants’ performance before and after a comic-based
instructional sequence for teaching EFL vocabulary. Seventeen and ten students
from two educational institutions participated in the study which involved
intervention sessions (called Vocabulary Through Comics) for teaching new
words. The participants had the opportunity to receive comic-based training,
including classroom activities for producing comics based on the words learned
in the lesson. Pre- and post-tests were administered before and after the
implementation process. The findings revealed that there was a statistically
substantial difference between the pre- and post-test scores. The researchers
concluded that using comics as a teaching approach was successful because the
participants demonstrated that they had improved their knowledge of new words
in the target language.
The quasi-experimental study conducted by Cabrera et al. (2018) aimed at

examining the impact of using the technological tool, Pixton, to improve
grammatical and lexical instruction. The sample comprised 163 junior high school
students. They were organised into a control group of 78 participants and an
484
experimental group of 85 learners. The students in the control group received

their regular instruction without the use of Pixton resources, whereas the
participants in the experimental group used supplementary materials designed
with Pixton. The data were collected through surveys, observations, and pre- and
post-tests. After quantitative and qualitative data analysis, findings showed that
the use of Pixton had a significant influence on the participants’ grammar and
vocabulary knowledge; in addition, participants considered that using this tool
was motivating and beneficial for their learning.
Ahmadi et al. (2017) explored the influence of children's comic strip stories on
incidental vocabulary learning. The participants were 40 Iranian beginner learners
who were organized into an experimental group (20 learners) and a control group
(20 learners) on the basis of their shared similar linguistic and background
knowledge. All participants’ knowledge was measured through a pre-test, a post-
test, and a scale of vocabulary knowledge (VKS). The participants in the
experimental group had the opportunity to listen to the comics and work with
them. The results show that listening to comic strip stories had a statistically
meaningful effect on both groups of students' vocabulary learning. The findings
revealed a substantial difference in the vocabulary score between learners in the
experimental group and those in the control group.
The purpose of the research conducted by Robles (2017) was to evaluate the
implementation of ToonDoo as a resource for collaborative e-learning and to
identify its impact on the learners' performance. The participants included 44
purposely selected third-year students at Mindanao State University, General
Santos City. The researcher used a mixed-method approach which involved
observations, experiences, and the participation of designated key respondents in
focus group exchanges. The aforementioned activities were cross-validated with
accessible secondary information and other associated registers. Findings
revealed that the learners had positive responses regarding the implementation
of digital comics. The results demonstrated that the use of this tool positively
affected the participants’ learning.
3. Method
3.1 Research Design, Setting, and Participants
A quasi-experimental design was used in this study. This approach involved
participants who were not randomly assigned to a group but were already part of
a group established before the intervention (Fernández, et.al, 2014). The present
research was conducted in three of the four regions of Ecuador. The participants
were 262 public high school students (156 female and 106 male) whose ages
ranged from 12 to 14 years. They were divided into control (128) and experimental
(134) groups. The participants were enrolled in the eighth and ninth years of
Educación General Básica Superior. These EFL learners belong to the A1 level of
proficiency of the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001) and the regulations by the
Ecuadorian Ministry of Education (2016).
485
3.2 Research Instruments
Table 1: Research instruments

Instrument Purpose Number of items
Online Used to assess the participants’ 20 multiple-choice items
pre-test vocabulary knowledge. according to the students’
proficiency level.
Online post- Administered to determine if there 20 multiple-choice items
test were substantial differences between according to the students’
the scores of the control and proficiency level.
experimental groups in vocabulary
learning. It included the same
components as the pre-test.
Perception Applied to understand the students’ Eight items for eliciting
questionnaire opinions of the use of digital comics answers on a Likert scale.
during the workshops as a resource
for improving vocabulary learning.
The instruments were pilot-tested with 45 EFL learners; using Cronbach’s alpha,
the instruments obtained a reliability score of 0.75.
3.3 Procedure
This study was carried out for three months during which time students received
explicit vocabulary instruction. Before the implementation, all participants
completed a pre-test. Based on the pre-test results, six workshops were planned
and carried out via the Zoom platform because of the COVID 19 pandemic. The
one-hour workshops were offered twice a month. Although both groups
participated in the workshops, the experimental group had to complete activities
to learn and practise vocabulary using digital comics, whereas the learners in the
control group used supplementary resources and the textbook developed by the
Ecuadorian Ministry of Education. Initial training for using digital comics was
offered for the students in the experimental group as well as continuous guidance
for solving any difficulties participants faced during the workshops.
After the intervention, students took a post-test that allowed the researchers to
determine whether the results of the students in both groups exhibited any
differences in vocabulary acquisition. In addition, the students’ perceptions
regarding the use of digital comics during the workshops were investigated by a
questionnaire that was given to the participants in the experimental group. All the
gathered data were analysed quantitatively using a t-test to determine whether
there was a significant difference in the student’s pre-test and post-test scores
within and between groups. The analysis of the results allowed the researchers to
answer the research questions and draw conclusions.

4.1. Impact of Using Digital Comics on EFL Students’ Vocabulary Learning
Statistical analysis showed that the students’ vocabulary performance differed
significantly in favour of the experimental group who were exposed to using
digital comics. The pre-test and post-test scores displayed statistical differences
486
which indicated that using digital comics enhanced students’ vocabulary,

particularly during the pandemic. The pre-test results evidenced a slight
difference (0.22) between the control (5.62 out of 10) and the experimental (5.84)
groups. However, the post-test scores (Table 2) demonstrated a significant
improvement (2.81 points of difference) for the experimental group (8.88 out of
10) compared to the control group (6.06). These results show that using digital
comics had a positive impact on EFL the vocabulary learning of the students in
the experimental group. These findings align to those of Calisto-Miranda et al.
(2018) in which pre- and post-test scores demonstrated that comic-based
instruction was effective in learning vocabulary. Likewise, Erina et al. (2017)
proved that teaching new words by using comics improved the learners’
vocabulary acquisition and created a good learning atmosphere.
Table 2: Post-test results
Post-test
Group Experimental Control
Mean 8.8880 6.0667
SD 9.4245 1.6283
P-value = 0.0434
4.2. Student Perceptions of the Use of Digital Comics to Learn EFL Vocabulary
Table 3 provides analysis of the data gathered in the perception questionnaire
concerning the second research question related to the students’ opinions of the
use of digital comics for improving EFL vocabulary learning.
The majority (78%) of the participants strongly agreed that digital comics were
useful for learning EFL vocabulary. Certainly, digital comics helped students
remember new words easily and enhanced their creative skills (Wilujeng & Lan,
2015). Likewise, 82% of the students perceived digital comics as an original
resource that allowed them to acquire new EFL vocabulary. With regard to
motivation, most of the students (68%) found that this resource motivated them
to learn new words in the target language. This finding corroborates Velandia
(2016) who found that using digital comics was strongly motivating for students
because it allowed them to learn the target language in an enjoyable way. Fatimah
et al. (2019), too, acknowledge that digital comics promote the students’ intrinsic
motivation to learn and benefit from this technological resource.
In terms of the quality and image resolution of digital comics, the participants
strongly agreed (78%) that these characteristics were engaging aspects when
learning vocabulary. These findings align with those of Puspasari (2019) which
evidenced that the use of digital comics motivated learners, fostered their interest,
and facilitated EFL learning in a confident atmosphere. In addition, Wilujeng and
Lan (2015) affirm that digital comics make a course more entertaining and
facilitate language learning.
487
Most of the learners (66%) confirmed that they had the opportunity to learn
vocabulary in context using digital comics. As for the creation of personalised
characters, 68% of the participants strongly agreed that this aspect of digital
comics allowed them to create their cartoons by using the components of web-
based application tools such as the selection of characters, props, clip art, and text
bubbles (Tahsaldar & Semaan, 2018; Fatimah et al., 2019).
Concerning the design of scenes in digital comics, 71% of the students strongly
agreed with the benefits of this characteristic. The opportunity to create different
settings for their comics increased their motivation to study (Fatimah et al., 2019;
Wilujeng & Lan, 2015). Velandia (2016) has also shown that digital comics are
beneficial because they allow students to clarify an idea from verbal or textual
display to visual display, and then create their unique representation of an idea.
Most participants (63%) expressed their willingness to continue learning EFL
vocabulary using digital comics. This implies that the use of digital comics
increased the participants’ motivation to enhance their vocabulary learning and
linguistic competence.
Table 3: Students’ perceptions of the use of digital comics

Neutral Disagree Strongly
Items Strongly Agree disagree
agree
Digital comics were useful for 78% 12% 7% 3% 0%

learning EFL vocabulary.
82% 10% 7% 1% 0%
Digital comics were an original
resource for learning EFL vocabulary.
68% 24% 5% 2% 1%
I felt motivated when using digital
comics.
78% 12% 7% 2% 1%
I liked the quality and image
resolution of digital comics.
I could learn EFL vocabulary in 66% 10% 18% 5% 1%

context through the use of digital
comics.
I could create personalised characters 68% 13% 12% 5% 2%
through the use of digital comics.
I could design scenes using digital 71% 15% 10% 3% 1%

comics.
I would like to continue learning EFL 63% 19% 15% 3% 0%
vocabulary by using digital comics.
488
5. Conclusions
Digital comics have a positive impact on EFL vocabulary learning. The results of
the post-test provide remarkable evidence that the use of digital comics enhanced
the vocabulary performance of the experimental group, particularly during the
COVID-19 pandemic when an innovative strategy for EFL vocabulary acquisition
was necessary to enhance students’ learning.
Students considered that the use of digital comics was an original, useful, and
motivating way to enhance vocabulary knowledge, implying that when selecting
tools for creating digital comics to learn EFL vocabulary, these characteristics
should be considered for successful implementation.
The quality and image resolution, the option to create personalised characters as
well as the design of settings were some of the advantages participants regarded
as valuable when using digital comics for learning EFL vocabulary in context. This
implies that students enjoy using tools that allow them to customise their own
digital stories and use recently learned vocabulary.
Learners’ insights regarding the use of digital comics to improve EFL vocabulary
acquisition were predominantly positive, and they are likely to continue using it
for improving their linguistic skills.
Since this study was conducted under the COVID-19 pandemic conditions in
which the workshops were developed through Zoom meetings, the main
limitation was access to good-quality internet connections. Further research might
consider the use of digital comics for teaching specific linguistic skills in on-site
learning environments.
6. Acknowledgment
The authors of this work wish to acknowledge the financial support of
Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja for promoting research and technological
innovation through the EFL Learning, Teaching, and Technology Research
Group.
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IJLTER.

Society for Research and Knowledge Management

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational

Aims and Objectives

The main objective of this journal is to provide a platform for educators,

Indexing and Abstracting

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational

We are very happy to publish this issue of the International Journal of

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational

We are grateful to the editor-in-chief, members of the Editorial Board

The Editorial Board is composed of renowned people from across the

We will endeavour to ensure the reputation and quality of this journal

Editors of the May 2022 Issue

Promoting Self-Regulated Learning among First-Year Accounting-Student Teachers: A Student-Empowerment

Revitalizing the Oddi Continuing Learning Inventory ................................................................................................. 351

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

Exploring the Need for Using Digital

Abstract. The current study aims to investigate teachers’ perceptions

Keywords: digital repositories; learning objects; teachers’ perceptions

In the field of pre-university education, the “Wathiq” portal is a private repository

However, the decision to deploy technology in the classroom is frequently

2.1 DR concept and advantages

In the context of education, a DR is defined as a database that collects and stores

and reuse LOs in educational situations.

2.2 Learning objects repositories

2.3 Teachers’ perceptions of DRs

Teachers' perceptions can be defined as their ideas or mental images regarding

The knowledge of teachers' views on the important aspects in repositories are

Further, Tang et al., (2020) attempted to gain a thorough knowledge of teachers’

3.1 Research Design

3.3 Research Methods

3.3.2 Semi-structured interviews

4.1 Quantitative analysis

Participants were asked to respond to 18 statements represented in a 5-point

4.1.1 Perceptions about using DRs to support teachers

Table 1. Perceptions about using DRs to support teachers

Table 2. Total perceptions about using DRs to support teachers

4.1.2 Perceptions about using DRs to support students’ learning

Table 3. Perceptions about using DRs to support students’ learning

Table 4. Total perceptions about using DRs to support students’ learning

4.1.3 Perceptions about using DRs to enhance curriculum

Table 5. Perceptions about using DRs to enhance curriculum

Table 6. Total perceptions about using DRs to enhance curriculum

4.2 Qualitative analysis

Main Theme Main Theme

Figure 1. Interview Themes

4.2.2 Emergent themes

Figure 2. Interview emergent issues

“We suffer of the lake of Arabic e-content addressing the schoolbook”

They assured the importance of providing a user-friendly interface and accessible

“Allowing students to communicate with each other, rate the learning

The same argument can be extended to students themselves, where creating a

Omani Educational Context (School subjects)

Teachers’ Community Friendly-User Students’ Community

Download View Online

Figure 3. Dynamic Digital Repository for Omani schools

6. Conclusion and future work

based recommendation framework for digital repository systems. In IEEE

Educ Inf Technol, 22:1737–1755. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-016-9511-z

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

A Gender-Based Analysis of Classroom

Abstract. The need to optimize student interactions in universities for

Keywords: classroom environment; gender; gender equity; higher