Vol 21 No 6 June 2022

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Vol.21 No.6
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VOLUME 21 NUMBER 6 June 2022
Table of Contents
Effectiveness of Virtual Laboratories in Teaching and Learning Biology: A Review of Literature ............................. 1
Celine Byukusenge, Florien Nsanganwimana, Albert Paulo Tarmo
Mindset and Levels of Conceptual Understanding in the Problem-Solving of Preservice Mathematics Teachers in
an Online Learning Environment ....................................................................................................................................... 18
Ma Luisa Mariano-Dolesh, Leila M. Collantes, Edwin D. Ibanez, Jupeth T. Pentang
Exploring the Teacher Professional Development Activities: Perspectives of Nigerian High School Teachers ...... 34
Oluwatoyin Ayodele Ajani
Mental Health and Wellbeing of Secondary School Teachers in Malaysia ................................................................... 50

Kee Pau, Aslina Binti Ahmad, Hsin-Ya Tang, Ahmad Jazimin Bin Jusoh, Asma Perveen, Kong Kwoi Tat
Structure, Activities and Teacher Development in the Philippine Science Teachers’ Community of Practice ........ 71
Rhea F. Confesor, Rosario M. Belmi
Physics Course Content of University Physics Education Programme as Reference to Content Distribution of
JUPEB and WAEC Syllabi.................................................................................................................................................... 90
Olalekan T. Badmus, Abiodun A. Bada, Loyiso C. Jita
Rasch Validation of Instrument Measuring Gen-Z Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM)
Application in Teaching during the Pandemic ............................................................................................................... 104
Hilman Qudratuddarsi, Riyan Hidayat, Raja Lailatul Zuraida binti Raja Maamor Shah, Nurihan Nasir, Muh Khairul
Wajedi Imami, Rusdi bin Mat Nor
The Level of Sports Participation and Academic Success among Malaysian Student-Athletes ............................... 122
Jorrye Jakiwa, Siti Azilah Atan, Mohd Syrinaz Azli, Shahrulfadly Rustam, Norhafizah Hamzah, Aizuddin Amri Zainuddin
‘Publish or Perish’: a Transformation of Professional Value in Creating Literate Academics in the 21st Century 138
Asep Kurnia Jayadinata, Kama Abdul Hakam, Tatang Muhtar, Tedi Supriyadi, J. Julia
E-learning Outcomes during the COVID-19 Pandemic ................................................................................................. 160

Sang Tang My, Hung Nguyen Tien, Ha Tang My, Thang Le Quoc
Saudi Teachers’ Attitudes towards using Online Learning for Young Children during the Covid-19 Pandemic 178
Ahlam A. Alghamdi
A Survey of Teachers’ Perceptions of a Learning Portfolio in Lesotho Classrooms .................................................. 194

Julia Mathabo Chere-Masopha
Purposeful Collaboration through Professional Learning Communities: Teacher Educators’ Challenges ............ 210
Carolina Botha, Carisma Nel
Trends of Educational Technology (EdTech): Students’ Perceptions of Technology to Improve the Quality of
Islamic Higher Education in Indonesia ............................................................................................................................ 226
Susanto ., Evi Muafiah, Ayu Desrani, Apri Wardana Ritonga, Arif Rahman Hakim
High School Students’ Mathematics Anxiety: Discouragement, Abuse, Fear, and Dilemma Induced through
Adults’ Verbal Behaviour .................................................................................................................................................. 247
Boj Bahadur Budhathoki, Bed Raj Acharya, Shashidhar Belbase, Mukunda Prakash Kshetree, Bishnu Khanal, Ram Krishna
Panthi
Entrepreneurship Education in Ghana: A Case Study of Teachers’ Experiences ....................................................... 270

R J (Nico) Botha, M Obeng-Koranteng
Enhancing Students’ Attitudes in Learning 3-Dimension Geometry using GeoGebra ............................................. 286
Marie Sagesse Uwurukundo, Jean Francois Maniraho, Michael Tusiime
Pre-Service Teachers' Perspectives towards the Use of GammaTutor in Teaching Physical Sciences in South
African Secondary Schools ................................................................................................................................................ 304
Sakyiwaa Boateng, Jogymol Kalariparampil Alex, Folake Modupe Adelabu, Thamsanqa Sihele, Vuyokazi Momoti
Continuing Professional Development of the Teacher Education Faculty among Philippine State Universities and
Colleges ................................................................................................................................................................................ 324
Ninez B. Tulo, Jiyoung Lee
1

Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 1-17, June 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.6.1
Received Mar 3, 2022; Revised May 22, 2022; Accepted Jun 22, 2022
Effectiveness of Virtual Laboratories in Teaching

and Learning Biology: A Review of Literature
Céline Byukusenge
African Centre of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics
and Science (ACEITLMS), University of Rwanda College of Education (URCE),
Kayonza, Rwamagana, Rwanda
Florien Nsanganwimana
University of Rwanda College of Education (URCE), Kayonza,
Rwamagana, Rwanda
Albert Paulo Tarmo

Educational Psychology and Curriculum Studies, School of Education,
University of Dar es Salaam, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
Abstract. Scholars have debated whether virtual laboratories are

educationally effective tools and if they should be continuously
developed. In this paper, we comprehensively review literature about the
effectiveness of virtual labs in teaching and learning biology to identify
the topics often taught and the linked learning outcomes. We used Google
Scholar, ERIC, and Web of Science electronic databases to access journal
articles and conference proceeding papers. Through a systematic
analysis, we obtained 26 articles solely related to virtual lab use in biology
education. The overall findings from the reviewed literature indicated
that virtual laboratories are often used on topics that seem abstract. These
include cell and molecular biology topics, followed by microbiology,
genetics, and other practical topics such as dissection and biotechnology.
This review study revealed that virtual labs are effective as they improve
students’ conceptual understanding, laboratory or practical skills, and
motivation and attitudes towards biology. We recommend the use of
virtual labs in teaching as a means of actively involving students in safer
and more cost-effective scientific inquiry.
Keywords: Biology topics; computer simulations; learning outcomes;

virtual laboratories/labs
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
2
1. Introduction
1.1 Background
Information and communication technology is increasingly penetrating almost all
domains of human life, including education. In addition, with the current global
trend of achieving twenty-first century learning skills, where digital literacy is one
of the core goals, there is an increasing, understandable desire to bring more
educational technologies into the classroom (Dakhi et al., 2020; Smetana & Bell,
2012; Tarbutton, 2018). Globally, researchers and practitioners agree that
educational technology can transform the learning process by providing teachers
and students with access to relevant resources when integrated into teaching.
However, to be successful, educational technology should enhance the
achievement of learning objectives (Griffin, 2003), because effective technology
should enable students to achieve critical thinking by creating a shift from
memorizing factual knowledge to understanding principles and applications.
Like any other science subject, the teaching of biology inevitably requires
laboratory exercises as a part of the practical skills acquisition process (Borgerding
et al., 2013). Indeed, most biology topics heavily rely on practical activities,
especially in laboratories (Cavanagh et al., 2005; Çimer, 2012; Vijapurkar et al.,
2014). In addition, research has shown that laboratory activities can potentially
develop students’ intellectual abilities, such as critical thinking, scientific inquiry,
and practical skills. For instance, Hofstein and Mamlok-Naaman (2007) revealed
that science cannot be significant to students without practical experiences in the
school laboratory. When students have no access to laboratory activities and
experiences, they often meet with difficulties in the learning of biology, especially
in molecular biology topics (Boulay et al., 2010; Öztap et al., 2003; Sammet &
Dreesmann, 2017; Tibell & Rundgren, 2009).
Literature has shown that technology can provide students with laboratory
experience and enhance learning (Keller & Keller, 2005). However, the question
to be asked is which kind of technology can provide students with authentic
scientific practice and help them move from memorization to a deeper
understanding of concepts and applications. Research has shown that using
inquiry-based and learner-centered technologies that allow students to
manipulate and observe scientific phenomena (Flick & Bell, 2000; Sivin et al., 2000)
bring about a deeper understanding of concepts and applications. Virtual
laboratories, commonly called virtual labs, meet the criteria in this context.
Virtual lab technologies were proposed by the National Science Foundation’s

(NSF) task force to upgrade the state of STEM education as a dynamic response
to the sustainable preparation of the population for complex global challenges in
the twenty-first century (Borgman et al., 2008). Researchers have shown that
virtual labs could help make science concepts in general and biology in particular
more concrete (Olympiou et al., 2013) and meaningful for students without
requiring complex and costly equipment (Elangovan & Ismail, 2014; Makransky
et al., 2019; Marbach-Ad et al., 2008).
http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter
3
Several pedagogical advantages have been highlighted regarding virtual lab use
in education. For instance, by using virtual labs, teachers can easily explain
complex theoretical concepts through a visual and immersive experience that can
make it simpler for students to understand the subject (Smetana & Bell, 2012).
With virtual labs, students try various experiments in risk–free environments
without fear of damaging equipment. In addition, students can conduct the same
experiment multiple times to ensure an understanding of the concept. Virtual labs
allow teachers to capture students’ attention and ensure their engagement and
motivation (Babateen, 2011). Furthermore, virtual labs help students to learn at
their own pace as they can prepare and perform laboratory experiments at any
time and place. With virtual lab technology, teachers and students can explore
topics that would otherwise be unworkable in conventional classes (Smetana &
Bell, 2012).
Radhamani et al. (2014) and Pearson and Kudzai (2015) emphasized the need for
virtual labs in teaching biology, especially in developing countries. They argued
that, generally, science education in developing countries faces many limitations.
These include shortage of laboratory equipment and reagents, space and time
constraints, insufficient laboratory protocol, inadequate technical support, and
safety, among other limitations. According to Radhamani et al. (2014), virtual labs
are asset tools to mitigate the challenges of insufficient laboratory equipment
needed in teaching biology topics such as biotechnology. This is despite some
drawbacks of virtual labs, such as students not being able to feel, smell, or touch
as in a physical laboratory.
While physical laboratories are absent or not fully equipped in many schools due
to the high costs of their equipment and maintenance, virtual labs have been
affirmed to lessen financial constraints related to laboratory equipment, space,
and maintenance (Fisher et al., 2012). These potential advantages have triggered
research interest, and a good number of empirical studies have been conducted
about the effectiveness of virtual laboratories (Breakey et al., 2008; Dyrberg et al.,
2017; Muhamad et al., 2010, 2012; Pope et al., 2017; Radhamani et al., 2014; Ray et
al., 2012; Triola & Holloway, 2011).
Along this vein, several review studies on the effect of virtual laboratories in
teaching sciences have been carried out (Brinson, 2015; De Jong et al., 2013; Ma &
Nickerson, 2006; Smetana & Bell, 2012; Udin et al., 2020). However, most reviews
only included laboratory practices of many other disciplines, such as physics,
chemistry, and engineering, with few review studies about the effectiveness of
virtual laboratories in teaching and learning biology (Udin et al., 2020). There is a
need to know for which topics of biology virtual labs are more useful and what
outcomes are brought about by virtual labs in the teaching and learning of
biology. Therefore, we assume that this study will shed light on the effectiveness
of virtual labs and in which preferred topics teachers are called to use the virtual
labs. This relates especially to those biology topics which seem difficult to be
taught by teachers and those which are too hard to understand for students
because they are too abstract. The following specific questions guide this literature
review:
4
1. In which topics of biology are virtual laboratories the most useful?

2. What learning outcomes are best achieved using virtual laboratories in
biology?
1.2 Theoretical Context

The use of virtual laboratories in teaching and learning is based on David Kolb’s
(1984) experiential learning theory, which is rooted in the constructivist approach
and John Dewey’s work (Ouyang & Stanley, 2014). Around 1938, Dewey showed
that no learning happens without practice and the active involvement of students.
Kolb advocated and applied Dewey’s concept of “learning by doing”, believing
that learning occurs through cognitive and experiential learning (Kolb & Kolb,
2005). The core of experiential learning theory is the individual learner’s
participation and experiences (Ouyang & Stanley, 2014). The application of virtual
labs in teaching ensures students’ active learning (Evans et al., 2004). The use of
virtual labs allows learners to experiment with immediate feedback and
interactivity (Dyrberg et al., 2017; Tan & Waugh, 2013). Thus, virtual labs help
students to learn by doing and to become more engaged in their studies
(Gallagher et al., 2005; Marchevsky et al., 2003).
2. Methodology
We applied preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses
(PRISMA) principles and guidelines in our review (Moher et al., 2009). PRISMA
guidelines assist researchers in conducting transparent and comprehensive
systematic review reporting. These guidelines help researchers define research
strategies, eligibility criteria, the selection process, and the data collection process.
2.1. Literature Search

We used an open federated search in this review study to find relevant articles
from trusted databases. This type of search involves searching various electronic
databases for information relevant to the review study. We used certain keywords
to search and retrieve articles related to our study. These included “biology
laboratory”, “virtual laboratory in teaching biology”, “virtual labs and biology
topics”, “biology education and virtual laboratory”, “virtual and physical
laboratory”, “virtual lab and real lab”, and “effectiveness of virtual labs in biology
education”. We used trusted electronic databases such as Google Scholar, ERIC,
and Web of Science to access reliable articles and conference proceedings.
2.2 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

Using a systematic selection process and the elimination of duplicates, the first
stage of searching yielded 161 papers. Manual filtering was applied based on how
an article is relevant to our study. In selecting the relevant articles for inclusion in
the review, we screened the titles and abstracts of all recorded articles. We used
several inclusion and exclusion criteria to filter irrelevant articles (Table 1).
5
Table 1: Inclusion and exclusion criteria used to select relevant studies

Inclusion criteria Exclusion criteria
Empirical studies in peer-reviewed Reviews in non-peer-reviewed journals
journals, and conference proceedings
Virtual labs used for biology education - Virtual lab development procedures,
design, or architecture
- Virtual labs used for medical biology
Articles published in English Articles that are not in English
The screening of titles and abstracts yielded 38 publications. The publications

were further subjected to screening by checking their full-text content. The articles
that focused only on biology virtual lab development procedures, design, or
architecture without any relation to teaching biology were excluded. In this
regard, 12 publications were filtered out. Eventually, we gathered 26 studies
relevant to our review study, and each study was recorded to categorize
information for further analysis (see Table 2 and Figure 1). The PRISMA diagram
in Figure 1 shows the selection process. The obtained articles are dated from 2002
to 2019
Figure 1: PRISMA diagram of the selection process of the reviewed studies
6
3. Results and Discussion

3.1. The Use of Virtual Laboratories in Teaching Biology Topics
In response to the first research question, we present in Table 2 the biology topics
in which virtual laboratories are most commonly used for effective teaching. We
also present the related learning outcomes that are most commonly enhanced by
the use of virtual labs.
Table 2. Biology topics in which virtual labs are used and related learning outcomes
SN Study Biology topic Measured learning outcome
1 Akhigbe and Genetics Student attitudes and academic
Ogufere (2019) achievement in genetics
2 Akpan and Frog dissection Actual dissection practices and
Strayer (2010) attitudes towards dissection
3 Breakey et al. Genetics Understanding of experimental
(2008) genetics procedures
4 Collier et al. Histology Content mastery and time
(2012) management
5 Diwakar et al. Biotechnology (No learning outcomes were
(2011) identified)
6 Dyrberg et al. Microbiology and Enhanced student positive attitudes,
(2017) pharmaceutical motivation, and self-efficacy
toxicology
7 Elangovan and Cell division Student conceptual understanding
Ismail (2014) of cell division
8 Flowers (2011) Various topics, most Student perceptions of biology
of which are related to
cell and molecular
biology (DNA, cell
structure, enzyme-
controlled reaction,
cell reproduction)
9 Havlícková et Dissection Student motivation
al. (2018)
10 Huppert et al. Microbiology Student science process skills and
(2002) academic achievement
11 Ismail et al. Microbiology Enhancing student scientific literacy
(2016) (dissolving pathogenic
bacteria)
12 Kiboss et al. Cell division Conceptual understanding and
(2006) perceptions
13 Makransky et Microbiology Knowledge transfer and practical
al. (2016) skills
14 Makransky et Microbiology Student knowledge, motivation, and
al. (2019) self-efficacy in microbiology
15 Marbach et al. Molecular biology Enhanced student achievement
(2008)
16 Meir et al. Introductory biology Student understanding of how these
(2005) (osmosis and processes work at a molecular level
diffusion)
7
17 Muhamad et al. Cell division Student understanding of cell

(2012) division, specifically applications of
mitosis in cloning
18 Oser and Fraser Genetics Student perception of the learning
(2015) environment, attitudes towards the
topic, and achievement
19 Pope et al. Evolution Student understanding of natural
(2017) selection concepts
20 Radhamani et Biotechnology Enhanced student achievement
al. (2014)
21 Shelden et al. Cell division Understanding of cell division
(2019) phases
22 Stuckey-Mickell Introductory biology Enhanced student perceptions
and Stuckey-
Danner (2007)
23 Tan and Waugh Molecular biology Student conceptual understanding
(2013) and attitudes in molecular biology
24 Toth et al. DNA and gel Student understanding and
(2009) electrophoresis laboratory skills
25 White et al. Genetics Conceptual understanding
(2007)
26 Whitworth et Enzyme kinetics Conceptual understanding
al. (2018)
Table 2 displays the topics in which virtual labs were used and the learning
outcomes that were attained as a result of their use. The reviewed articles are
dated from 2002 to 2019. We did not find literature for the years 2020 to 2022. In
the reviewed studies, virtual labs were used to teach genetics, dissection,
microbiology, cell division, osmosis, DNA and gel electrophoresis, enzyme
kinetics, biotechnology, evolution, histology, and introduction to biology. Virtual
labs were used most frequently in teaching microbiology and cell division.
Moreover, some of the learning outcomes that were attained using virtual labs
included conceptual understanding, knowledge transfer, practical skills
acquisition, and enhanced positive attitudes, motivation, and self-efficacy among
students. The topics and learning outcomes are further described in the following
sections, respectively.
3.2. Topics in Which Virtual Labs are the Most Useful

We analyzed the reviewed studies to identify which biology topics were most
taught using virtual labs. Figure 2 shows the different topics that were facilitated
using virtual labs.
8
Number of studies
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Figure 2. Biology topics in which virtual labs were used as per the reviewed studies
It is not by coincidence that the identified topics in Figure 2 employ virtual

laboratories. The listed topics are perceived by both teachers and students to be
difficult, abstract, and daunting due to their complexity, difficulty to visualize,
and not being practicable in normal physical school laboratories. For instance,
before conducting their study on developing and implementing a scenario-based
biology virtual lab, Muhamad et al. (2012) carried out a preliminary investigation
of a survey type involving 72 students and 10 high school teachers. Their
investigation aimed to identify the biology topic that was most difficult to teach
and learn and to focus on developing a virtual lab for it. Their preliminary study
findings indicated cell division as the most difficult topic for both teachers and
students (Muhamad et al., 2010).
Tan and Waugh (2013) undertook research employing virtual reality simulations
in teaching and learning molecular biology in Singapore high schools. Teachers
claimed that the topic of molecular biology was challenging and difficult to teach.
They also indicated different complaints by students about teaching materials
used by their teachers, such as diagrams and 2D presentations, which do not
enable them to see DNA and protein molecules. Tan and Waugh (2013) argued
that before studying molecular biology by use of virtual reality simulations, it was
difficult for students to relate the structure and molecular interactions for cell
functioning. Radhamani et al. (2014) reported that after virtual lab classes, 44% of
the students who participated in their study scored 90%, with an average class
score of about 70% in the post-test evaluation. In the pre-test evaluation, the
majority of the students (88%) had scored below 70%.
Indeed, the topic to be taught with the use of virtual labs depends on the nature
of the experiment. For instance, considering the topic of dissection, this topic
raises many debates and disagreements regarding ethical issues among
researchers, educators, and animal rights activists. Virtual laboratories that dissect
animal specimens provide a viable alternative to real dissections and relieve
9
ethics-related issues. Studies comparing the value of virtual frog dissections with
traditional dissections using real specimens have revealed mixed results,
however. Some supported that real dissections in the physical laboratory are
effective (Cross & Cross, 2004), while others agreed that the simulated dissections
are effective for improving students’ performance in the virtual laboratories
(Akpan & Strayer, 2010).
3.3. Learning Outcomes Enhanced by the Use of Virtual Laboratories

The learning outcomes identified in the reviewed studies were grouped into three
categories (Figure 3). These are: 1) knowledge and conceptual understanding;
2) laboratory skills, knowledge transfer, and self-efficacy in laboratory activities;
and 3) students’ motivation, perceptions, and attitudes towards biology and the
learning environment. Some of the reviewed studies assessed more than one of
the above learning outcomes. The total number of studies indicated in Figure 3
therefore exceed the number of reviewed studies. The overall findings indicated
that the learning outcomes varied, but in most studies, knowledge and conceptual
understanding were frequently assessed.
Lea rning o ut co me Numbe r o f rev iew ed studies
Motivation, perceptions, and attitudes 5
Laboratory skills, knowledge transfer, and self

8
efficacy
Knowledge/ conceptual understanding 21
0 5 10 15 20 25
Figure 3: Learning outcomes identified in the reviewed studies
3.3.1 Knowledge and conceptual understanding

From our analysis, 21 out of the 26 reviewed studies reported that the use of
virtual labs enhances students’ conceptual understanding (Figure 3). Indeed,
virtual lab exercises have been proven essential for students to understand
biology concepts. Virtual labs present multiple opportunities for students to gain
access to learning resources easily, and to get enough time to do and repeat
activities, thereby nurturing deeper learning (Muhamad et al., 2012).
Furthermore, biology is a molecular science; most of its topics require

visualizations, videos, and illustrations for students to understand how processes
work at the molecular level (Evans et al., 2004; Muhamad et al., 2012). Many
studies have shown that virtual laboratories are effective, low-cost tools to
enhance students’ understanding of biology concepts. This is because they
provide students with visualizations of abstract concepts through animations,
simulations, and virtual practices of simulated laboratory experiments for some
10
topics, which could not be done even in normal classes (Akhigbe & Ogufere, 2019;
Collier et al., 2012; Makransky et al., 2016; Oser & Fraser, 2015; Špernjak & Šorgo,
2018; Tan & Waugh, 2013).
In the study conducted by Tan and Waugh (2013), students admitted that before
exposure to visualization exercises, molecular biology was a dry topic, too
abstract and daunting for them. This resulted in some of them giving up biology
altogether. Nonetheless, Tan and Waugh confirmed that after viewing the
animations and participating in the visualization exercises, the students
demonstrated increased interest, understanding, and engagement in the subject.
Whitworth et al. (2018) reported a varied use of simulations in laboratory activities
after seeing a significant increase in post-test scores of the experimental group of
students over the control group of students. The experimental group was taught
using standard lab instruction coupled with simulated lab instruction, while the
control group was taught with only standard lab instruction. The increased
post-test scores of the experimental group had an average standard deviation of
1.59. Based on their study results, Whitworth et al. (2018) concluded that
computer simulations improve students’ conceptual understanding of enzyme
kinetics.
Moreover, various studies have shown that virtual labs are adequate for
improving understanding of biology topics that are difficult to observe directly in
the classroom context (Collier et al., 2012; Pope et al., 2017; Radhamani et al., 2014).
For example, evolution by natural selection has been shown to be notoriously
difficult for students to understand, and its processes have been described as not
directly observable (Krist & Showsh, 2007; Nehm & Schonfeld, 2008; Plunkett &
Yampolsky, 2010). However, Pope et al. (2017) clearly showed that simulations of
natural phenomena are effective tools that support an active teaching approach to
help students overcome natural selection misconceptions.
3.3.2 Laboratory skills, knowledge transfer, and self-efficacy in laboratory activities

Eight out of the twenty-six reviewed studies indicated that virtual laboratories
enhance students’ laboratory skills, knowledge transfer, and self-efficacy
(Figure 3). These studies suggested that virtual laboratories are effective tools for
pre-lab preparation and transferring knowledge and skills from an idealized
environment into physical reality (Makransky et al., 2016). Research has affirmed
that for meaningful laboratory learning to occur, students should be prepared
before performing the required laboratory tasks (Jones & Edwards, 2010).
According to O’Brien and Cameron (2008), laboratory practices help students to
move from abstract to concrete settings. However, if students are not prepared,
they could experience stress and confusion during laboratory activities instead of
expected manipulative and process skills. The students become overloaded with
too much information about the assigned task and may become overwhelmed as
they try to handle new manipulative tasks as well as master new concepts
(Pogačnik & Cigić, 2006).
Virtual labs are crucial for the preparation of students before embarking on a
physical experiment. Researchers have affirmed that to perform the required
11
practical tasks, science classes should blend real and virtual experiments so that
students acquire the skills necessary. Several of the reviewed studies suggested
the desirability of integrating hands-on laboratories with virtual ones and the
effectiveness of engaging in virtual experiences before the real, hands-on
investigation (Akpan & Strayer, 2010; Toth et al., 2009). In addition, other
researchers have indicated that students prepared using virtual labs do not waste
time on how to handle apparatus in organizing the experiment; rather, they focus
on testing hypotheses through practicing and making important observations
(Johnstone & Al-Shuaili, 2001). Prepared students begin the procedures faster and
ask questions on a higher level than those who are less or not prepared (Dyrberg
et al., 2017).
In their post-test, Akpan and Strayer (2010) discovered that students who engaged
first in simulated dissection outperformed their peers who only performed
conventional dissection. Similarly, Maldarelli et al. (2009) found that visual
demonstration of laboratory techniques via instructional videos before the actual
physical laboratory activity was sufficient to mediate significant increases in
knowledge, self-efficacy, and experience in basic biology laboratory procedures.
However, not surprisingly, some studies found that students believed that
traditional labs offer more effective pedagogical techniques in teaching them how
to use biology laboratory equipment than virtual labs (Flowers, 2011). Researchers
have also criticized virtual labs, claiming that they have limited potential for
teaching students how to handle specimens and perform techniques such as
fixing, staining, and thin sectioning (Scheckler, 2003). However, other scholars
have indicated that with simulations, students have opportunities to repeatedly
learn all steps of an experiment, enabling them to transfer knowledge and skills
gained from virtual learning to physical applications (Makransky et al., 2016).
3.3.3 Students’ motivation, perceptions, and attitudes towards biology and the learning
environment
In this study, 5 out of the 26 reviewed studies reported about virtual laboratories
as related to students’ motivation, perceptions, and attitudes towards biology and
the learning environment (Figure 3). According to these studies, virtual labs are
important for enhancing students’ attitudes, stimulating interest and enjoyment,
and motivating them to learn biology, improving their performance. Toth et al.
(2009) performed a study about myDNA by using virtual labs to show the
separation of DNA fragments. They found that students were happy to learn and
efficiently repeated experiments and studied the effects of the variables. In a
recent study, Akhigbe and Ogufere (2019) assessed the effect of computer
simulations on students’ attitudes towards biology, finding that computer
simulations improve students’ attitudes towards genetics. A significant
improvement in performance was seen with the students who were exposed to
the computer simulation instructional strategy over their counterparts who were
taught using traditional methodologies.
The majority of the reviewed studies revealed that students have positive
perceptions towards virtual labs. Stuckey-Mickell and Stuckey-Danner (2007)
made a contrary finding in their qualitative study analyzing open-ended
qualitative responses by students after completion of several virtual lab sessions
12
in human biology. This allowed them to investigate how students perceive virtual
labs as compared to hands-on laboratory activities. They found that with virtual
labs, students lacked the enjoyment of student-teacher interaction and the ability
to ask questions and receive direct feedback from the instructor.
4. Conclusion and Recommendation

Based on the study’s findings, we conclude that virtual laboratories are commonly
effective in teaching difficult and abstract biology topics related to cell and
molecular biology. Furthermore, conceptual understanding is the learning
outcome most enhanced when using virtual labs. Studies have further affirmed
that virtual labs improve students’ motivation, self-efficacy, and attitudes towards
learning biology topics. Virtual laboratories deserve the attention of researchers,
teachers, and instructional designers due to their appealing nature as a means of
actively involving students in safer and more cost-effective scientific inquiry. We
suggest that future research assesses teachers’ preparedness to use virtual labs in
teaching and learning processes. The effectiveness of virtual labs, like any other
instructional tool, may be greatly influenced by how they are used in the
classroom. This study did not address the limitations of the virtual laboratory in
teaching and learning biology. Thus, we recommend further research into the
negative effects of using virtual laboratories in teaching and learning.
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18

Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 18-33, June 2022
Mindset and Levels of Conceptual Understanding in

the Problem-Solving of Preservice Mathematics
Teachers in an Online Learning
Environment
Ma Luisa Mariano-Dolesh
Distance, Open and Transnational University, Central Luzon State University
Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija, Philippines
Leila M. Collantes
College of Education, Central Luzon State University
Edwin D. Ibañez
College of Science, Central Luzon State University
Jupeth T. Pentang*
College of Education, Western Philippines University
Puerto Princesa City, Philippines
Abstract. Mindset plays a vital role in tackling the barriers to improving

the preservice mathematics teachers’ (PMTs) conceptual understanding
of problem-solving. As the COVID-19 pandemic has continued to pose a
challenge, online learning has been adopted. This led this study to
determining the PMTs’ mindset and level of conceptual understanding in
problem-solving in an online learning environment utilising Google
Classroom and the Khan Academy. A quantitative research design was
employed specifically utilising a descriptive, comparative, and
correlational design. Forty-five PMTs were chosen through simple
random sampling and willingly took part in this study. The data was
gathered using validated and reliable questionnaires and problem-
solving tests. The data gathered was analysed using descriptive statistics,
analysis of variance, and simple linear regression. The results revealed
that the college admission test, specifically numerical proficiency,
influences a strong mindset and a higher level of conceptual
understanding in problem-solving. Additionally, this study shows that
mindset predicts the levels of conceptual understanding in problem-
*
Corresponding author: Jupeth T. Pentang, jupeth.pentang@wpu.edu.ph
©Authors
19
solving in an online environment where PMTs with a growth mindset

have the potential to solve math problems. The use of Google Classroom
and the Khan Academy to aid online instruction is useful in the
preparation of PMTs as future mathematics teachers and problem-
solvers. Further studies may be conducted to validate these reports and
to address the limitations of this study.
Keywords: conceptual understanding; growth mindset; mathematics

education; online learning; preservice teachers
1. Introduction
Future math teachers must be equipped with the right mindset and a full
understanding of problem-solving. Mindset and conceptual understanding have
a crucial role in the preparation of preservice mathematics teachers (PMTs). The
academic mindset is critical in deeper learning (Farrington, 2013) where
understanding the mindset of preservice teachers improves their morale as future
educators (Yazon et al., 2021). Sadly, preservice teachers have a mindset that they
cannot do mathematics (Cutler, 2020). Considering that a positive mindset is a
gateway to mathematical achievement (Sun, 2018) and problem-solving
performance (Pentang et al., 2021), an exploration of this matter is necessary to
guide the teacher educators in empowering the PMTs. Poor conceptual
understanding may also be a product of a negative mindset. Ibañez and Pentang
(2021) have reported this among preservice teachers in the Philippines.
Discovering ways to develop a strong mindset and conceptual understanding
among PMTs was disrupted by the occurrence of the novel coronavirus disease in
2019 (COVID-19). Nevertheless, it opened up opportunities for teacher education
institutions (TEIs) to explore alternative teaching and learning modalities.
TEIs in the locality suspended face-to-face classes and limited academic

exchanges to mitigate the public health effects of COVID-19 (Tan et al., 2021).
Institutions adopted a purely online modality while some blended it with self-
learning modules to aid the instructions which may have affected the mindset and
level of conceptual understanding among PMTs. Although online learning has
been configured under a wide variety of different formats over half a century, one
could say that COVID-19 has made educational institutions aware of the new
normal way of academic exchange. Given the challenges due to the pandemic’s
impact, experts in educational institutions have been forced to adopt remote
teaching strategies maximising online resources as a teaching-learning tool. As
online classrooms promote a healthy mindset and encourage learning motivation
(Bacsal et al., 2022; De Souza et al., 2021), TEIs have begun to adopt online
technology methods for disseminating the teaching-learning processes such as
Google Classroom and the Khan Academy.
On the other hand, educators who wish to improve their learning outcomes must
consider approaches to establish a growth mindset (Dimitriadis, 2015). A person
with a strong mindset shows grit, hard work, and perseverance. Embedded in
each of these beliefs, or mindsets, are networks of beliefs and assumptions that
shape how people approach learning (Tabrizi, 2020). In contrast, those who
20
believe that intelligence is fixed tend to focus on judgment. They are more
concerned with proving that they are intelligent or concealing that they are not,
which means that they avoid circumstances in which they might fail or have to
work hard (Dweck, 2016). The faculty and staff require more than just
technological knowledge; they must also be fully prepared to apply instructional
approaches that improve the students’ online experiences (DeBrock et al., 2020;
De Souza et al., 2021). Thus, there is a need for teachers, including those in the
preservice, to assess their beliefs about intelligence. Their mindset will drive how
they teach and facilitate learning in the mathematics classroom.
Studies about mindset have not yet been fully explored, especially in the field of
mathematics education. It is noticeable that growth mindset research emerged
recently, less than ten years ago. Likewise, the conceptual understanding of
problem-solving in an online environment has not yet been examined. It will be
interesting to find out whether mindset has a connection with the level of
conceptual understanding in an online setup. Moreover, the research will likely
be compelling if the study is done in a group of preservice teachers who are taking
mathematics majors. Considering that these future teachers will probably teach
mathematics in the K-12 program in a few years (Bacsal et al., 2022; Domingo et
al., 2021; Ibañez & Pentang, 2021; Pentang et al., 2021), it would bring in great
benefits to the students, parents, and administrators if their mindset and levels of
conceptual understanding are found to be related.
As an academic institution that trains and prepares preservice teachers, Central

Luzon State University (CLSU) has been dramatically affected by the pandemic
due to the lockdown and school closures that started in March 2020. Online
resources are needed to address the unprecedented pandemic issues in the
teaching-learning process (Manca & Meluzzi, 2020; Pentang, 2021b). Given the
uncertainty of how long the pandemic lasts, online learning plays a vital role in
the continuity of teaching and learning (Bacsal et al., 2022). Google Classroom and
the Khan Academy was used to facilitate continuous learning despite the ongoing
closure and lockdown in schools, colleges, and universities. These scenarios have
compelling reasons to study the mindset and levels of conceptual understanding
in problem-solving in an online learning environment using readily free available
tools like Google Classroom and the Khan Academy in a mathematics classroom
at CLSU, specific to PMTs, who are deemed to be able to recuperate the status of
Philippine mathematics education.
Research Questions
1. What is the PMTs’ mindset when problem-solving in terms of growth and a
fixed mindset?
2. What is the PMTs’ levels of conceptual understanding when problem-solving
regarding best, partial, complete/incomplete, functional, and no
understanding?
3. Is there a significant difference in the PMTs’ mindset when problem-solving
when grouped according to socio-demographic characteristics?
21
4. Is there a significant difference in the PMTs’ levels of conceptual

understanding of problem-solving when grouped according to socio-
demographic characteristics?
5. Do the PMTs’ mindsets significantly predict their conceptual understanding
of problem-solving?
2. Conceptual Framework
The inequalities in the Filipino students’ mathematical literacy can be attributed
to their unawareness of a growth mindset and lack of conceptual understanding,
both of which are linked to their teachers’ means of imparting knowledge and
skills in mathematics. With the unprecedented move to online learning brought
about by the pandemic, mathematics educators have been obligated to employ
online learning management systems such as Google Classroom with the Khan
Academy to train and prepare future maths teachers who are deemed able to
address the mathematics illiteracy among young Filipinos. It is an opportunity to
assess the growth mindset and conceptual understanding of problem-solving of
the preservice mathematics teachers (PMTs). The Khan Academy existed prior to
the pandemic but was not commonly used in formal mathematics instruction.
The PMTs’ mindsets can be influenced by what they believe about their academic
ability. Intelligence may be strengthened by a growth mindset (Dweck, 2016). A
person with a growth mindset knows that intelligence may be attained through
hard work and the assistance of others (Romero, 2015). Knowing a student’s
mindset will assist a teacher in developing techniques to promote learning
(Tabrizi, 2020). Growth mindset techniques enable the students to engage in risk-
taking activities (Hennessey, 2019). Thus, it is vital to consider the right mindset
when pursuing academic success in mathematics, especially in relation to
problem-solving. The PMTs’ mindset may be found to be helpful in problem-
solving activities with the aid of the Khan Academy.
PMT's conceptual understanding of problem-solving also has implications for

mathematics education. Conceptual understanding denotes a comprehensive and
functional knowledge of mathematical notions (National Research Council, 2001).
Conceptual understanding is critical to solving a problem and understanding why
the algorithms and approaches used work. Conceptual understanding, in which
learners grasp ideas in a transferable manner, enables them to apply what they
learn in class across domains (Moser & Chen, 2016). Problem-solving and deep
conceptual understanding is demonstrated when a student decides how to solve
a problem (Ibañez & Pentang, 2021; Pentang et al., 2021). The PMTs should be able
to monitor their process and judge whether the procedure is the right method to
answer the question or if a new way is needed (Pentang, 2021a; Schoenfeld, 1989).
Through the Khan Academy, it is deemed that the PMTs’ conceptual
understanding will be estimated.
The socio-demographic characteristics such as sex, number of siblings, birth order,

family monthly income, father’s and mother’s educational attainment, and CAT
Numerical Proficiency, are essential factors to consider when determining the
PMTs’ mindset and level of conceptual understanding. Considering that both
22
mindset and conceptual understanding are essential in mathematics education,

this study resolves the gap in the literature where no exploration has established
the influence of socio-demographic characteristics in relation to the PMTs mindset
and conceptual understanding of problem-solving as well as to establish whether
mindset is a predictor of the PMT’s conceptual understanding. The study also
conceptualised the vital role of online learning in problem-solving through the
use of Google Classroom and the Khan Academy (Figure 1).
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework of the Study
3. Methodology
3.1. Research Design
This study employed a quantitative research design combining descriptive,
comparative, and regression methods to address the research questions and
conceptual framework of the study (Magulod et al., 2021). The descriptive
analysis addressed the first two research questions which described the
participants’ mindset and their level of conceptual understanding of problem-
solving in an online learning environment. Additionally, the comparative analysis
answered the third and fourth research questions which distinguished between
the socio-demographic characteristic differences in the participants’ mindset and
level of conceptual understanding, respectively. Moreover, the regression
23
analysis answered the fifth question which showed whether the PMT’s mindset
predicts their conceptual understanding of problem-solving.
3.2. Participants and Sampling Procedure

The participants of the study were preservice mathematics teachers (third-year
Bachelor of Secondary Education major in Mathematics students) from Central
Luzon State University. The study targeted respondents who had taken
mathematics college courses and who were currently enrolled in Problem-solving,
Mathematical Investigation, and Modelling in their first semester of the school
year 2020-2021. The simple random sampling employed drew 45 participants
(Table 1).
Table 1: Participants’ socio-demographic characteristics (n = 45)

Socio-Demographic Characteristics Frequency Percentage
Male 14 31.11
Sex
Female 31 68.89
0-2 10 22.22
Number of Siblings 3-5 31 68.89
6 and above 4 8.89
Last-born (Youngest) 12 26.67
Birth Order Middle-born 21 46.67
First-born (Eldest) 12 26.67
Less than ₱11,690 34 75.56
Family Monthly Income Between ₱11,690 to ₱23,380 9 20.00
Between ₱23,381 to ₱46,761 2 4.44
Did not finish Elementary 7 15.56
Father’s Educational Elementary Graduate 7 15.56
Attainment High School Graduate 26 57.78
College Graduate 5 11.11
Elementary Undergraduate 2 4.44
Mother’s Educational Elementary Graduate 6 13.33
Attainment High School Graduate 30 66.67
College Graduate 7 15.56
Below Average 8 17.78
CAT Numerical
Average 24 53.33
Proficiency
Above Average 13 28.89
3.3. Research Instrument

The instrument utilised in this study was a survey questionnaire (for Part I and
Part II) and a problem-solving test (for Part III). Part I determined the socio-
demographic characteristics of the participants. Part II focused on the
participants’ mindset following the example of Dweck (2016). It consisted of two
subscales: Entity Self Beliefs (items number 1 to 4) and Incremental Self Beliefs
(items number 5 to 8). The entity or fixed mindset items were reverse coded so
then the students who answered strongly disagree for these items showed
agreement with the growth mindset. Higher scores for this subscale showed
agreement with the incremental or growth mindset items. Part III was aimed at
the participants’ levels of conceptual understanding of problem-solving in terms
of their best understanding, partial understanding, incomplete understanding,
24
functional misconception, and no understanding. The levels were determined

based on Jensen and Finley’s (1995) theory. The problems provided focused on
the following topics: expressions in multiple variables, systems of equations,
graph labels and scales, quadratics, and exponential graphs. These problems were
among the difficult items included in the work of Bacsal et al. (2022), Domingo et
al. (2021), Ibañez and Pentang (2021), and Pentang et al. (2021) in their studies on
mathematics problems concerning elementary preservice teachers in the same
institution. The research instrument was pilot tested which demonstrated a high
internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.891).
3.4. Data Gathering Procedures

The researchers secured approval and consent from the institution and the
participants, respectively. Upon approval, the course professor assisted the
researchers in gathering the data. At the start of the class, the participants
familiarised themselves with the course expectations of the online learning
environment. The participants completed an online survey about their socio-
demographic characteristics and mindset towards problem-solving. In the
following meetings in the first week, the course professor facilitated discussions
on mathematical investigation, developing critical thinking and problem-solving
skills, as well as math problem-solving techniques and strategies. Examples of
how to solve different mathematics problems were presented which served as a
review of the PMTs’ prior knowledge regarding their mathematics courses.
The researchers oriented the participants of the Khan Academy online resource in
the first meeting of the second week of class. Given how the participants have
prior knowledge of the mathematics concepts from previous years, the Khan
Academy platform offered them an opportunity to practice mathematical skills
repeatedly to master the concepts. It also allowed them to track their progress as
it provided instant feedback. Thus, the participants could fill in the gaps in their
understanding by watching the related videos and getting hints or moving ahead.
During the two weeks of the class meetings, the students independently practiced
their problem-solving skills. The PMTs continued to do the practice exercises and
watch videos, if necessary. In the next two weeks of the classes, the students
answered the problem-solving questions in Google Classroom through Google
Forms. Each problem set had four multiple-choice questions. The students wrote
the solutions and explanations to their chosen answers in the multiple-choice area
for each item question. After a month of online learning, the researchers gathered
the data on the number of times each participant tried to answer the given five
sets of problems to achieve mastery learning using the Khan Academy.
3.5. Data Analysis

Descriptive statistics such as the mean and standard deviation were utilised to
determine the PMTs’ mindset regarding the presence of a growth mindset or
absence of a growth mindset, equivalently a fixed mindset, whereas frequency
count and percentage were used to describe the PMTs’ level of conceptual
understanding of problem-solving in an online environment. Besides this, a series
of Analysis of Variance tests were employed to distinguish between the significant
differences in the PMTs’ (a) mindset and (b) conceptual understanding in
25
problem-solving when grouped according to their socio-demographic

characteristics. Follow-up post hoc analysis was conducted using the Scheffe test.
Furthermore, simple linear regression was utilised to find out whether the PMTs’
mindset was able to predict their level of conceptual understanding of problem-
solving in an online environment.

4.1. PMTs’ Mindset
The study found alarming results where the PMTs recorded a weak growth
mindset (Mean = 3.98, SD = 0.16). The PMTs have limited their perspective
regarding their intelligence and ability to do problem-solving. Still, the Khan
Academy online intervention showed that the PMTs performed the exercises
several times to reach the mastery level. As Table 2 reflects, the PMTs have a
strong growth mindset regarding the time and effort needed to improve
themselves. This demonstrates the PMTs' readiness to maximise their resources,
learn from their mistakes, and accept challenges, as they consider failure as a
chance to learn (Boaler, 2022; Dweck, 2016). Also, the PMTs seemed determined
and persevering when it came to accomplishing whatever they set their minds to.
Hence, the PMTs showed that they are most likely to demonstrate the
characteristics of people with a growth mindset, such as hard work, perseverance,
seeking help from others, and learning from feedback (Boaler, 2022; Dweck, 2016;
Wilkins, 2014).
There is still a need to cultivate a growth mindset among the PMTs. The PMTs’
growth mindset will be vital when addressing the poor status of mathematics
education in the Philippines. Several online resources relevant to mathematics
instructions may be adopted to fully prepare prospective math teachers. With “the
teacher’s crucial role in facilitating and monitoring the student’s development”
(Agayon et al., 2022), this weak growth mindset may be replicated in the PMTs’
students. Thus, the institution may provide ample training and activities to
strengthen the PMTs’ growth mindset. In line with De Souza et al. (2021) and
Pentang (2021b), the course professors concerned may further utilise several
online teaching-learning tools and integrate available technology to communicate
effective instructions.
Table 2: PMTs’ mindset

Parameters Mean SD Description
*1. I don’t think I can do much to increase my intelligence. 3.84 1.26 WGM
*2. I can learn new things but I can’t change my basic
3.76 1.28 WGM
intelligence.
*3. My intelligence is something about me that I can’t
3.98 1.29 WGM
change very much.
*4. To be honest, I don’t think I can change how intelligent
3.93 1.25 WGM
I am.
5. With enough time and effort, I think I could
5.24 0.98 SGM
significantly improve my intelligence level.
6. I believe I can always substantially improve my
4.89 0.71 AGM
intelligence.
26
7. Regardless of my current intelligence level, I think I can

4.80 0.50 AGM
change it quite a bit.
8. I believe I can change my basic intelligence level
4.87 0.69 AGM
considerably over time.
Pooled Mean 3.98 0.16 WGM
Note: 5.16–6.00 = Strong Growth Mindset (SGM) *Reversely Coded
4.33–5.15 = Average Growth Mindset (AGM)
3.50–4.32 = Weak Growth Mindset (WGM)
2.67–3.49 = Weak Fixed Mindset (WFM)
1.84–2.66 = Average Fixed Mindset (AFM)
1.00–1.83 = Strong Fixed Mindset (SFM)
4.2. PMTs’ Level of Conceptual Understanding

Most (40 out of 45) PMTs recorded their best conceptual understanding in
problem-solving (Table 3). This shows that the PMTs have prior knowledge of the
concepts and mastered the skills needed in problem-solving, which opposes the
work of Ibañez and Pentang (2021) and Pentang et al. (2021) who revealed that
the majority of the preservice teachers have functional misconceptions and an
incomplete understanding of problem-solving. This result approves the effective
use of Google Classroom with the Khan Academy as employed by the PMTs’
professors where the institution they belong to has led to the standard of being
one of the best universities in Asia. The PMTs have shown their ability to impart
knowledge and skills in mathematical problem-solving to their future students.
Meanwhile, five PMTs had an incomplete to partial understanding, which can be

attributed to a lack of contextual comprehension of the mathematical topics
(Domingo et al., 2021; Pentang, 2021a; Pentang et al., 2021). This unwanted result
may infer that the PMTs are not yet ready for the challenge to empower young
Filipinos in their mathematics courses. Since partial understanding hampers the
students’ understanding of the subsequent mathematical knowledge (Shockey &
Pindiprolu, 2015), there is a need for an intervention to facilitate the preparation
of the PMTs as math teachers. Other online-based platforms and resources may
be utilised in the teaching-learning process to improve the PMTs’ conceptual
understanding as well as to effectively strengthen their growth mindset in
mathematics.
Table 3: PMTs’ level of conceptual understanding

Levels Frequency (n = 45) Percentage
Best Understanding 40 88.89
Partial Understanding 4 8.89
Incomplete Understanding 1 2.22
Functional Misconception 0 0
No Understanding 0 0
4.3. Mindset in Problem-Solving When Grouped According to Socio-

Demographic Characteristics
ANOVA found there to be a significant difference in the PMTs’ mindset in terms
of the CAT numerical proficiency of the PMTs, F(2,42) = 1.002, p < 0.05 (Table 4).
PMTs with an above-average CAT numerical proficiency (Mean = 4.430, SD =
27
0.139) tended to have a stronger growth mindset in relation to problem-solving

compared to the PMTs with an average (Mean = 3.973, SD = 0.155) and below-
average (Mean = 3.937, SD = 0.197) CAT numerical proficiency. This means that
numerical proficiency can influence mindset in relation to problem-solving.
Overall, the study results suggested that there is no statistical evidence to say that
there is a significant difference between the PMTs’ mindsets when grouped
according to their socio-demographic characteristics except for their CAT
Numerical Proficiency.
The results can be related to the work of Boaler (2022) and Bower (2017) where
people who have a growth mindset directly impact how they face academic
challenges, including college examinations. However, this finding contradicts Li
and Bates (2020) where admission test scores throughout the transition from high
school to college were not found to be connected to a growth mindset. When
establishing the PMTs' mindset, it would be beneficial to focus more on their
academic profile, such as college admission test scores. The PMTs’ high school
background may be included, and a stringent retention policy in the mathematics
teacher education program may be implemented.
Table 4: Socio-demographic characteristic differences in relation to the PMTs’

mindset towards problem-solving
Socio-Demographic Characteristics Mean SD df F p
Sex
Male 3.946 0.137
1,43 -1.044 0.302
Female 4.000 0.168
Number of Siblings
0-2 4.000 0.150
3-5 3.989 0.162 2,42 0.496 0.613
6 and above 3.916 0.176
Birth Order
Youngest 3.923 0.148
Middle 4.015 0.153 2,42 1.297 0.284
Eldest 3.983 0.178
Monthly Family Income
Less than ₱11,690 3.890 0.152
Between ₱11,690 to ₱23,380 3.972 0.186 2,42 0.409 0.667
Between ₱23,381 to ₱46,761 4.083 0.235
Father’s Educational Attainment
Did not finish Elementary 4.023 0.133
Elementary Graduate 3.964 0.249
3,41 0.537 0.219
High School Graduate 4.003 0.127
College Graduate 3.850 0.170
Mother’s Educational Attainment
3,41 0.058 0.981
CAT Numerical Proficiency
Below Average 3.609b 0.197 2,42 1.002 0.037
28
Average 3.903b 0.155

Above Average 4.430a 0.137
Note: Means with the same subscript do not differ using Scheffe post hoc analysis.
4.4. Socio-Demographic Differences in the PMTs’ Conceptual Understanding

of Problem-Solving
ANOVA found there to be a significant difference in the PMTs’ conceptual
understanding of problem-solving when grouped according to CAT Numerical
Proficiency, F(2,42) = 3.464, p < 0.05 (Table 5). The post hoc analysis using Scheffe
showed that PMTs with an above-average CAT Numerical Proficiency (Mean =
3.792, SD = 0.238) tended to have higher conceptual understanding of problem-
solving compared to the PMTs with an average (Mean = 3.644, SD = 0.423) and
below-average (Mean = 3.306, SD = 0.545) CAT numerical proficiency. This
suggests that there is no significant difference between the PMTs’ conceptual
understanding of problem-solving in an online environment when grouped
according to the socio-demographic characteristics, except according to their CAT
Numerical Proficiency.
College admissions tests have a long track record of bringing value to higher
education institutions by giving a predictive value of student success in entry-
level college courses. This conforms to the work of Allen and Bond (2001),
Mengash (2020), Montalbo et al. (2018), and Tesema (2014) but opposes Laus
(2021). The college admission test is indeed a good measure for admitting
potential preservice teachers. However, the institution may opt to accept those
with a higher numerical proficiency to ensure that the PMTs are ready not only in
their college preparation but also for the board exam and their anticipated
teaching career. A strict admission policy may be implemented considering other
backgrounds such as their high school grade point average and national
achievement test results.
Table 5: Socio-demographic characteristic differences in relation to the PMTs’

conceptual understanding of problem-solving
Socio-Demographic Characteristics Mean SD df F p
Sex
Male 3.739 0.208
1,43 1.490 0.229
Female 3.571 0.494
Number of Siblings
0-2 3.783 0.130
3-5 3.565 0.503 2,42 0.989 0.380
6 and above 3.700 0.127
Birth Order
Youngest 3.691 0.270
Middle 3.478 0.554 2,42 2.115 0.133
Eldest 3.800 0.126
Monthly Family Income
Less than ₱11,690 3.576 0.475
Between ₱11,690 to ₱23,380 3.750 0.208
2,42 0.862 0.429
Between ₱23,381 to ₱46,761
3.850 0.212
29
Father’s Educational Attainment

3,41 0.237 0.870
Mother’s Educational Attainment
3,41 0.258 0.855
CAT Numerical Proficiency
Below Average 3.306b 0.545
Average 3.444b 0.423 2,42 3.464 0.041
Above Average 3.792a 0.238
Note: Means with the same subscript do not differ using the Scheffe post hoc analysis.
4.5. Mindset as a Predictor of the PMTs’ Conceptual Understanding of Problem-

solving
A simple linear regression analysis was performed to determine whether the
PMTs’ mindset predicts their conceptual understanding of problem-solving in an
online learning environment. Table 6 shows that the model is significant, R2 =
0.515, Adjusted R2 = 0.407, F(1,43) = 4.781, p < 0.05, indicating that PMTs who have
a growth mindset tend to have higher conceptual understanding of problem-
solving. The coefficient of determination (R2) means that about 51.5% of the
variance in the PMTs’ levels of conceptual understanding in problem-solving in
an online learning environment is explained or accounted for by their mindset.
Similar to Hennessey (2019), the results show that a growth mindset is associated
with better educational outcomes. The study also agrees that an individual with a
growth mindset is inspired by mastery goals, finds inspiration in others’ success,
and learns from feedback (Wilkins, 2014). This inspiration and reflection is
cultivated in an online learning environment. Thus, the growth mindset must be
instilled among PMTs while they are in their formative years in the teacher
education program. This measure will be helpful as part of encouraging a full
understanding of problem-solving.
The results further prove that people who have a growth mindset accomplish
much (Boaler, 2022) as the PMTs pursue becoming excellent math teachers.
However, this study is contrary to the research conducted at the same institution
concerning elementary preservice teachers. Although the preservice teachers try
to develop a positive disposition, they find it hard to learn mathematics (Ibañez
& Pentang, 2021). Even preservice teachers who have a growth mindset toward
mathematics do not show a full conceptual understanding when solving problems
(Pentang et al., 2021). The study still needs validation due to the limited sample
size.
30
Table 6: Simple linear regression analysis of the PMTs’ conceptual understanding in

problem-solving as the criterion with mindset as the predictor
Unstandardised Standardised
Model Coefficients Coefficients t-value p-value
B Std. Error Beta
Constant 2.365 1.729 -1.983 0.055
Mindset 0.273 0.420 0.558 4.490 0.049
Note: R2 = 0.515, Adjusted R2 = 0.407, F(1,43) = 4.781, p < 0.05
5. Conclusion and Recommendations

The PMTs have to develop a strong growth mindset which is necessary for them
as future teachers. The PMTs’ preparedness to teach mathematics to young
Filipinos cannot be assured with a fixed mindset. To foster a growth mindset
among the PMTs, this may be integrated into the Psychology Course that the
preservice teachers are taking. The PMTs with a growth mindset are more likely
to know that academic success is no accident – it is related to learning, studying,
hard work, perseverance, sacrifice, and love of what you are doing or learning to
do. Additionally, the inclusion of growth mindset activities in the Mathematics
Education Courses would be beneficial to the PMTs. This may result in more
awareness that intelligence can be developed. This may lead to a stronger growth
mindset among the PMTs who will shape the younger generation’s minds in the
upcoming K-12 program.
The PMTs attained the expected level of conceptual understanding in problem-

solving. The PMTs showed a mastery of skills in mathematical problem-solving
due to their strong academic background combined with the online intervention
via the Khan Academy activities. Nevertheless, it is noteworthy that there are still
a handful of them who have gaps in their conceptual understanding of problem-
solving. It is good to advocate the use of an open-source platform like the Khan
Academy to enhance the PMTs’ conceptual understanding. They are likely to be
motivated to have mastery skills through independent learning. It is also a useful
intervention for those who exhibit a partial or incomplete understanding of the
mathematics concepts.
Since the PMTs with a higher CAT Numerical Proficiency tend to have a stronger
growth mindset and higher conceptual understanding of problem-solving, it is
proposed that the college admission test is used in the admission of potential PMT
applicants. Besides this, mindset predicts the level of conceptual understanding
in problem-solving in an online environment. With the use of online resources
through Google Classroom and the Khan Academy, it is profitable to develop and
implement online mathematics lessons that incorporate a growth mindset and
conceptual understanding.
The continuous use of online resources (e.g., lesson videos and practice exercises)
via the Khan Academy even in the post-pandemic time is highly recommended
even after limited face-to-face classes are implemented. Online resources are
beneficial for the PMTs’ growth mindset and conceptual understanding of
mathematical problem-solving. This may also help the PMTs to prepare for the
board examinations and their future teaching career. With the limitations posed
31
by the current study, further research on online learning may be looked to,
considering a larger sample size and the adoption of similar variables and
methods to validate this report. Other online learning tools such as maths
applications and software as well as academic and non-academic factors that
possibly influence the mindset and conceptual understanding may also be
considered.
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34

Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 34-49, June 2022
Exploring the Teacher Professional Development

Activities: Perspectives of Nigerian High School
Teachers
Oluwatoyin Ayodele Ajani
Edu-HRight Research Unit
North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
Abstract. The quality of education is central to the Sustainable National

Development that can be attained by any country. Hence, the professional
development of teachers is critical to classroom practices in the education
system. Teachers attend various professional development activities
every year to improve their classroom practices. The aim of the study was
to establish teachers’ perspectives on professional development activities.
The study adopted an interpretive qualitative approach to explore
teachers' views on the phenomenon. The study engaged three heads of
departments in semi-structured interviews and five teachers in a focus
group interview to explore teachers’ lived experiences of professional
development. The study employed andragogy as the theoretical
framework to understand teachers' views on workshops, subject
association meetings, conferences and other professional development
activities they attended. Thematic analysis of the data was carried out
systematically to generate themes from the findings. Teachers did not
regularly attend annual professional development activities. The contents
of the professional development activities did not adequately address
teachers’ needs for dynamics in the classroom. It is therefore
recommended that teachers’ classroom practices be assessed by their
heads of departments, vice principals/principals or subject specialists to
determine how their classroom practices could be enhanced. The
frequency of professional development activities for teachers should be
increased every year, to improve their classroom practices.
Keywords: classroom practices; content-based frequency; professional

development; perspectives
1. Introduction
Quality education remains the priority of the Nigerian education system to
promote sustainable national development ( cf. United Nations, 2015), and
teachers are momentously significant in the attainment of quality education in any
country. The quality of teachers is exhibited in their classroom practices, as
teaching and learning are designed, planned and facilitated by teachers (Ajani,
©Authors
35
2018). Various professional approaches have been designed for teachers to

improve their classroom practices. The professional development programmes
designed to improve teaching and learning are critical for sustainable
development in education (Ajani 2020). In-service professional development
programmes provide opportunities for teachers to reflect on their classroom
practices, to improve their teaching approaches, and enhance learners' academic
performance (Lessing & De Witt, 2007). Research has established that cluster
systems, workshops, conferences, and other development opportunities succeed
in their goal, as approaches to professionally develop teachers for effective and
enhanced classroom practices (Jita & Ndlalane, 2009; TRCN, 2010; Jita & Mokhele,
2014; Ravhuhali, Mashau, Kutame & Mutshaeni, 2015; Ajani, 2021).
This study was aimed at exploring the perspectives of teachers and heads of
department (HoDs) on the existing professional development activities, and how
these activities impact classroom teaching and learning in Nigerian high schools.
The main objective of the education system is to provide students with learning
experiences that will make them responsive to contributing their share to national
growth and development.
2. Literature Review
The professional development of teachers is critical to quality education and is
capable of driving Sustainable National Development in Africa. Several
approaches have been adopted to enhance teachers’ classroom practices;
however, these activities have been identified as ineffective in some cases
(Metcalf, 2011; Ajani, 2019). Teachers deserve regular and quality professional
development training that is constant and consistent, aimed at enhanced
classroom practices (Ryan, 2007). In other words, teachers, who are facilitators of
learning, need adequate professional development that will assist them in
effective curriculum delivery (National Policy Framework for Teacher Education,
2007; McMillan Education South Africa, 2017). From the state of basic education
in Nigeria, it can be deduced that many teachers are confronted with how best to
facilitate learning and reduce learners’ challenges in their academic performance
(Steyn, 2008; Fareo, 2013; Akpan & Ita, 2015; Ajani, 2021). Steyn (2008) further
states that classroom practices of teachers need to be improved to support and
improve learners' problem-solving skills in the classroom. Similarly, teachers
need to be responsible for how they can individually and collectively improve
their classroom teaching to enhance their learners’ performance.
To ensure the effectiveness of professional development, the Teacher Registration

Council is responsible for the continuous design of varieties of professional
development activities for teachers, taking cognisance of the effectiveness of such
activities aimed at teaching improvement (TRCN, 2010). The ’one-size-fits-all’ or
cascade model of professional development activities usually are ineffective in
improving the classroom performance of the teachers and needs to be improved.
Govender and Ajani (2021) argue that one-size-fits-all professional development
activities do not address the professional needs of individual teachers. This
approach brings together teachers with different subject backgrounds and tends
to present common knowledge and skills to them in the same approach, while
cascading expects of teachers who attend professional activities to transfer
knowledge gained during professional development activities to their colleagues
36
upon return to their schools (Ejima & Okutachi, 2012). Fiske and Ladd (2004) agree
that teachers in the cascade approach may not be able to deliver as much
knowledge and skills as they have received in their professional development to
colleagues. Hence, other teachers cannot benefit from the cascade model.
In the same vein, Ryan (2007) disagrees with the use of professional development
activities to introduce teachers to and familiarize them with new curriculum
policies. According to him, much emphasis rather should be placed on teachers’
subject pedagogy and classroom practices which can improve the curriculum
delivery and learners' performance. Bowman, Donovan and Burns (2001) also
reported that African teachers' professional development activities were found to
be irregular and inconsistent, and did not adequately address the teachers'
professional needs. Various challenges of in-service professional development
activities of the teachers can be traced to disjointed professional development
structures, absence of teacher assessment to establish their professional needs,
lack of classroom feedback on professional development (PD) activities, and many
more that have hindered the efficiency of in-service training (Archibald,
Coggshall, Croft & Goe, 2011).
Based on various challenges identified, Egbo (2011) concurs with Elmore (2002) to
emphasise the need to develop teachers regularly (for example, every year) to
ensure they perform efficiently in their professional duties. They need to be
updated and have to keep abreast of the trends in their classroom practices via in-
service professional development activities. Education is dynamic and requires
teachers to be professionally developed to satisfy learners’ yearning for learning.
This is necessary because learners believe that teachers are encyclopaedias of
knowledge who can provide learners with appropriate knowledge, skills,
attitudes and values. Murphy (2002), and Rivero (2006) emphasise that classroom
responsibilities are critical and require lifelong training that is content-focused
and beneficial to support teaching and learning. Reeves (2005) maintains that the
development of any nation depends on educational change and reforms. Hence,
teachers must access continuous professional development activities frequently.
Education is the vehicle to the national development of any nation, and no nation
can be greater than the quality of the teachers in the education system (Ajani,
2018).
3. Theoretical Framework
To understand the impact of teacher professional development activities on
classroom effectiveness, a need exists to explore theories of learning to view the
efficacy of the activities. Therefore, andragogy theory was adopted to view how
adults can learn meaningfully to impact their classroom practices. This theory
describes the acquisition of or yearning for new knowledge as the basis for adult
learning in professional development (PD) activities. For learning to occur
according to this theoretical perspective, teachers must be seen as adult learners
who are mature and understand why they need to learn to improve their practices
(Knowles, 1984). Knowles (1980 in Ajani, 2018) highlights four appropriate
assumptions about teachers as adult learners:
(i) Teachers as adult learners clearly understand the need to acquire new
knowledge that can improve their classroom practices. As adult
37
learners, teachers give attention to learning experiences that can

influence their learners’ academic performance. Appropriateness of
professional development to teachers’ classroom needs inform their
attendance at various PD programmes.
(ii) Attainment of learning by adult learners is driven by their learning
experiences. Teachers find it easier as adult learners to acquire
knowledge and skills through their engagements in various
professional development activities. They share experiences with
colleagues to develop various approaches to teaching and learning,
thus gaining first-hand learning experiences that are practically related
to their classroom practices.
(iii) Adult learners engage in learning for problem-solving. Teachers
willingly participate in various activities that are provided to them
during professional development activities to explore problem-solving
skills. The problem-solving skills are adopted into their classroom
practices to empower learners as well.
(iv) Adult learners recognize the benefits of attending professional
development activities. Hence, the significance of their participation
anchors what they can derive or adopt to improve their classroom
practices. Hence, teachers should not attend a workshop if it will not
add value to their professional practice.
4. Research Methodology
This study adopted a qualitative research approach. The interpretive paradigm
provided the study with the lens to explore lived experiences of teachers in
various professional development programmes they had attended (De Vos et al.,
2005). Economics subject teachers and economics teaching heads of departments
from high schools in Lagos, Nigeria were the population for this study. Purposive
sampling was used to select five economics teachers for the focus group interview
that lasted 62 minutes (Appendix B), while three economics teaching heads of
departments were further engaged in 40–45-minute semi-structured interviews
(Appendix A). These teachers were selected from eight different high schools. The
interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed for qualitative analysis.
Interviews were conducted at the selected schools of the participants for their
convenience. Participants were required to verify their information on the
transcripts to ensure the trustworthiness of the information. All ethical
considerations were strictly adhered to. The participants were duly informed, and
their participation was voluntary after consent forms had been endorsed. Ideas on
the transcripts were coded and categorized to generate themes for the
presentation and discussion of findings. The demographic information of the
participants is summarized in Table 1:
Table 1. Demographic information of the participants

Research Code for the Gender Experience Highest
Participant Participants (years) Qualification
No
1 TR1 Male 23 M.Ed.
2 TR2 Female 3 PGCE
38
Research Code for the Gender Experience Highest

Participant Participants (years) Qualification
No
3 TR3 Female 7 PGCE
4 TR4 Male 10 B.Ed.
5 TR5 Female 12 B.Ed.
6 HoD1 Female 22 Honours
7 HoD2 Male 17 M.Ed.
8 HoD3 Male 12 Honours
5. Findings
Data collected through semi-structured interviews in one-on-one interviews with
the three economics teaching heads of departments and five economics teachers
in focus group interviews were thematically analysed. The following themes were
generated as findings of the study:
Existence of various activities for teacher professional development

Findings revealed that teachers attended different professional development
activities to improve their classroom teaching. Teachers classified these activities
as on-site based and off-site based professional development. Off-site based
activities refer to professional development activities attended outside teachers’
school premises, and usually are organized by the Ministry of Education, while
the on-site based professional development activities take place on the school
premises and are usually organised by the schools. Participant TR3 maintained
that he had attended various in-service professional development activities over
the past four years:
They are many in the last four years, maybe three. One within the school,
the two were off-site (TR3).
Participant TR5 explained that teachers’ in-service professional development
activities were school-based and off-site based for teachers’ classroom
improvement:
Yes, I have attended some in the last four years. Two were within the
school organized by the School Management Team (SMT) while the other
two were by the Department (TR5).
Participant HoD2 provided more explanation of the programme for teachers’
professional development for the year:
I will start with outside the school, normally in the year, we have two
workshops which are organized by the district and in the school, and we
have got two, which are subject meetings, during which our department
plans. This means four in all (HoD2).
Participant HoD3 also substantiated the on-site and off-site based forms of
teachers’ professional development for Nigerian teachers:
Yes, we indeed attend workshops and other forms of professional development
training. Some are being organized by the school principal and the Heads of
Departments, these trainings take place in our school during the school calendar
while the district through our subject inspectors also organizes workshops for us,
usually, outside the school (HoD3).
39
Irregular Frequency in Existing PD

It was established that Nigerian teachers could select from various workshops and
other professional development activities that prepared them for better classroom
practices. However, the question is: How frequently do teachers attend
professional development activities every year? Participants responded as follows
on the frequency of their PD opportunities every year.
Participant TR5 complained that the frequency of their PD activities was irregular:
We indeed attend in-service training every year, but we only attend once or
twice a year, this is not enough for us. As teachers, we need more workshops
on what to teach every term. (TR5)
Participant TR2 had a different view, and according to him he had attended three
within a year:
There are many, maybe three. One within the school, the two were off-site
(TR2).
Meanwhile, a call for an increase in the frequency of teachers’ professional
development activities was made by participant TR3 who explained that:
I think we should have more than what we have now. Sometimes it is just
once we have in the school and once by the Department (TR3).
It further could be explained that teachers need more participation in teacher
professional development activities, year in and year out to improve their
classroom practices. Participant HoD2, therefore, suggested an increase in
teachers' PD activities by relevant stakeholders:
Presently, the numbers of workshops available to teachers every year are not
many. There is a need for the school to organize training or workshops for
teachers, departments by departments by the School Management Teams
every term, so also the subject advisors are to organize for teachers once every
term to promote classroom practices of teachers at least every term! (HoD2)
Another participant, HoD1, also corroborated that the frequent attendance of
teachers at PD activities will boost their classroom teaching:
If the subject advisors can be organizing it often, it will make it easy for us
to understand the topics and make learners understand the contents as well
(HoD1).
Focus or Contents of PD activities

Teachers' views on the contents or focus of the available in-service professional
activities were sought during the interviews. Participants maintained that the
contents did not satisfy them. Some comments are are cited:
According to participant TR2, existing PD activities cover numerous topics:

Lots of things are included in the PD, they tell us what to do. For instance,
in the chapters we are going to teach, we got experienced teachers who will
tell us what to do and then an analysis of the results will also be there (TR2).
Participant TR1 mentioned that some contents of PD activities are not useful to
the teachers, as what they need most is the PD on what they teach:
We normally start with the analysis of the results, which I think is not
relevant, it is not helping, and we use the whole day to analyse the results.
What we really need is the content of what we teach. How they can focus on
these topics with lesson study on how to teach the topic (TR1).
40
Some topics are found to be difficult for teachers teaching Grade 12. These topics,
in participant HoD1’s view, should be addressed by experienced teachers through
a lesson study for other teachers to learn how to teach successfully:
Most times, especially teachers teaching grade 12, are faced with some
difficult topics like multiplier, national income, public sector, etc. so they
expect to be supported with lectures on these topics in the workshops, but
are often disappointed with other things addressed in the workshops
(HoD1).
According to another viewpoint, in-service professional development aimed at
teaching activities should address classroom practices of teachers to improve their
performance. Participant HoD2 purported teachers needed professional
development, aimed at addressing their professional needs:
Professional development should indeed support and improve classroom
teaching, but if the contents are not appropriate to the teachers or do not meet
the individual needs of the teachers, it becomes a problem. For example, a
general workshop for teachers may not address their individual subject needs
(HoD2).
Lack of Adequate Support or Follow- up on Teachers’ Professional Development

A need exists for teachers to be supported and motivated with adequate follow-
up. Teachers want school management teams to support their teaching and
learning activities. There should be follow-up on teaching and learning activities.
Their responses are cited below.
Participant HoD2 decried the inability of the Ministry of Education/SMT to

adequately support teachers in attending PD activities:
It is so bad that not all teachers attending are being supported with the funds
for transport, some of us with cars are giving money for petrol while others
who need to go by public taxi are left to sort out themselves (HoD2).
To participant HoD1, the lack of follow-up on teachers who attended PD activities
by the District Officials on a regular visit constitutes an inadequacy:
Yes, the District Official follows up to check if those things mentioned in the
workshops have been implemented. They come to schools to check but not
regularly, at least once a term to check curriculum coverage, learners’ notes,
other files and records (HoD1).
Participant HoD3 agreed that the subject advisor did visit for follow-ups, but the
visits did not occur regularly.
Yes, the subject advisors come to school to check. They do follow up; they check
the documents, learners' materials and others, but follow up on PD activities
is not regular (HoD3).
Enhanced Classroom Practices through PD Activities

It is globally believed that the essence of professional development in any
profession is to improve the professional responsibilities of the members of such
a profession. Hence, the main focus of teacher professional development will be
to improve classroom practices of teachers as well as to improve learners’
performance. Based on that, the participants affirmed that professional
development activities have improved their classroom practices.
41
The data showed that participant TR1 was excited to express that PD activities
had improved his classroom practices and he had benefited a lot:
Yes, they have improved my teaching a lot. Like in the past, I was a teacher
who was not unpacking learning but now I unpack learning for my teachings
for learners to learn deeply, in our PD they emphasized that we must always
unpack learning to our learners. Also, before I could not teach graphs very
well, I realized after the PD that the way I was teaching it, was to blame, but
now I can teach graphs very well after attending PD. Now I can say that my
learners understand graphs very well. I have been assisted in the way I relate
to learners in teaching. I changed the way of explaining the graph (TR1).
Another participant, TR2, concurred that PD activities had improved his
confidence as a teacher and that he could now teach with confidence:
I can now teach Economics with confidence and also my learners are happy
now, they can now relate what they learn in their books to the real world
around them. So, it has helped (T2).
Similarly, participant TR3 believed that various PD activities had contributed to
his classroom performance:
I have gained a lot of experience and I have gained a lot of information through
this PD. I have an understanding of Economics now and relate to what is
happening now (TR3).
Wrong Timing of Professional Development Programmes

Professional development activities are planned for teachers at different times of
the year without considering teachers' classroom engagements. The majority of
the participants disapproved of the inability of the organisers to consult teachers
in determining convenient times or periods within the school year for workshops
or other forms of training. Participant TR2, according to the data gathered,
expressed dissatisfaction with the wrong timing of PD activities. That means that
some teachers had to be absent from school and abandon their learners to attend:
Sometimes they call us during very busy times when we are supposed to revise
with the learners. They will tell us that we need to attend this PD and it’s
very difficult to leave the learners in the school and attend this PD, so I wish
they can help to attend this PD, by arranging it for the beginning or the end
of the term (TR2).
To participant TR3, attending PD many times could be inconvenient for teachers
during the busy school hours:
The other challenge we are facing is that sometimes they call us during school
hours and the principals may not allow you to leave the school, so you find out
that the attendance is poor just because teachers are not attending. (TR3)
Inadequate Duration of most Professional Development Activities

Teacher professional development is a life-long career development process,
which should offer diverse activities of a short or longer duration to enable
comprehensive learning, educative interactions, mentoring, and other supportive
approaches that will promote teachers' classroom efficiency. The participants
expressed their concern about PD activities which mostly are concluded within a
day, especially when the activities obviously require a longer duration.
Participant TR3 expressed a need for teachers' professional development activities
of a longer duration :
42
I think it must be done at the beginning of the term and the closing of the term.
And it must not be only one day; I think two days will be fine to cover
everything that will be taught in that term (TR3).
Participant TR4 also supported subject-based PD of a longer duration:
Teachers' professional development activities should be more than one day
workshop, especially the ones that teachers need to be taught difficult topics
we struggle to teach. We need more time to observe lesson study from other
experienced teachers who will assist us in those difficult areas. You see we
need time if we are to observe many lessons during the PD activities (TR4).
Development of teaching and learning materials through PD activities

Teacher professional development activities present ideal opportunities to
design and develop materials to be used to facilitate learning. Thus, teachers can
improvise and become creative in designing teaching and learning support
materials (TLSM) to suit individual learner differences, and the diverse situations
of subjects and schools. The participants indicated that PD had successfully
assisted them in producing, or trained them how to create TLSM for their
classroom practices. According to Participant TR 2:
Yes, at the workshops some materials are shared freely with us, while at a big
teachers' meeting, you see some teaching and learning materials that some
publishers put up for sale, so if you have the money, you buy (TR2).
Another participant, TR4, also responded that PD activities promoted creativity
in TLSM designs for schools:
In our cluster meeting, we try to design or brainstorm on what materials and
how to teach each topic to the benefit of learners. With this knowledge, I have
learned to be creative in designing teaching and learning materials for my
learners. We can also ask for assistance on any aspect of the subject there
(TR4).
The use of varied teaching and learning materials in classroom practices had been
pinpointed as a practice that helped both the teachers in facilitating learning and
the learners in quick comprehension of the learning experience. Participant TR5
corroborated the idea:
Honestly, I have attended PD activities where I was trained on how materials
can actually help me in teaching some difficult topics, were shared with us,
those we couldn't get, and we were taught how we can improvise the
materials, using the learners to produce these materials; thereby the classes
became so interesting, and learning was overwhelmingly achieved in my
learners (TR5).
Lack of Learners’ Learning Materials

Learners' use of recommended materials, such as textbooks, writing materials and
other learning materials, mirrors the effectiveness of PD activities in classroom
practices. Teachers' views on the adequate use of these materials by the learners
revealed that most learners could not afford or provide materials that could assist
them in learning. Participant HoD1 identified learners’ inadequate resources as a
challenge for the effectiveness of PD in schools:
43
Sometimes we need resources like books for learners and other resources which
are expensive; we compile notes for them, and make copies for them, in short,
no adequate resources (HoD1).
Participant HoD2 also confirmed that the lack of adequate resources for learners
remained a serious challenge to teachers’ readiness to explore new skills mastered
during PD:
The resources - resources are scarce, not adequate and that slows down our
work. It is a serious challenge. It doesn't make our work go as planned; most
learners can't afford the necessary materials (HoD2).
6. Discussion
According to the findings, based on responses of the participants various
professional development activities existed for teachers. These activities are
stipulated by the Teacher Registration Council (TRCN) (2010), a professional body
that regulates the teaching profession and specifies professional development
activities required for professional points for career progression. The Teacher
Registration Council also recommends that teachers should engage in
professional development activities annually to enhance learners' performance in
schools.
According to the participants, PD activities available to teachers are grossly

inadequate. Moreso, teachers do not participate in these activities frequently.
Teachers, therefore, need regular activities to achieve and sustain quality
education; a need exists for them to improve their skills and knowledge in their
disciplines (Ajani, 2018). According to Fareo (2013), classroom practices of
teachers can be enhanced by appropriate activities that address their professional
needs frequently and adequately. These activities should be attended at least
annually. Findings confirmed the need for an increase in the number of existing
activities to ensure better teacher participation. Furthermore, Hassler et al. (2021)
encourage teachers to take advantage of the variety of professional development
activities that may assist them to stay abreast of their professional responsibilities
in the dynamic education system.
While the majority of the participants agreed that the contents of the activities
with which teachers are provided in professional development programmes can
influence their classroom practices if well designed. McNaught and Gravett (2021)
argue that the focus of any professional development programme for teachers
should be enhancement of their classroom practice. The participants affirmed that
existing teachers' PD activities cover different things for the teachers, some of
which are results analysis, teaching methods, topics and chapters of different
school subjects, and other activities. However, teachers suggested that the
contents of the PD activities should focus mostly on what they were teaching in
the classrooms, topics that were challenging to them, and what the learners should
expect from matric examinations. According to Archibald et al. (2011), the
effectiveness of PD starts with appropriate content for the teachers, that is, content
that can benefit the teaching and learning in the school system. This view is in
accordance with Ajani’s (2018) opinion that the needs of the teachers should be
the basis of the content that PD activities should cover. Ravhuhali, Kutame and
44
Mutshaeni (2015) further posit that teacher evaluations should be used to establish
the nature and content of PD activities designed for them.
Some participants further contended that teachers were not regularly visited to
follow on their attendance of PD activities to ensure the necessary changes in their
classroom practices. Birman, Desimone, Porter and Garet (2000) agree that
professional development for teachers can effectively transform and improve the
quality of teaching and learning if teachers are monitored and followed up on
every professional development training they attend. This is to ensure the
implementation of what they have learnt or acquired from such training.
Monitoring or following up on them enables the teachers to be assessed and
recommended for other supportive professional needs whenever necessary
(Wittmann & Olivier 2021).
Findings, therefore, revealed that participation of teachers in various PD activities

may improve their classroom practices if the contents of the in-service training are
beneficial to the teachers; teachers may acquire necessary skills and improve their
subject knowledge for better classroom practices. Ajani (2021) calls for regular
and appropriate workshops for teachers that can add value to their classroom
practices. Teachers’ participation in various PD activities regularly every year
enables the teachers to meet with other experienced teachers; they share
experiences and also brainstorm on solutions to common issues.
Similarly, most of the participants explained that the timing for their in-service
professional development activities should be convenient for them. PD activities
should not be arranged to take place during school hours, resulting in learners
being abandoned. It is thereby observed that teachers preferred professional
development activities to be conducted during their holidays to avoid disruption
of their teaching schedules. Hassler et al. (2021) agree that teachers should be
consulted to determine the convenient times for their workshops or training, so
as not to pull them out of classrooms during school hours.
Conversely, most of the participants contended that some aspects of the teachers'
PD activities require more than a one-day workshop or meeting. McNaught and
Gravett (2021) are of the opinion that a need exists for understanding why teachers
need to learn and how teachers need to learn what will benefit their learners.
Teachers, therefore, request PD activities of a longer duration to promote the
acquisition of necessary knowledge and skills. Ajani (2018) also purports that
adequate time should be allocated to teachers' PD activities to allow teachers'
understanding of and participation in the training.
Participants further responded that professional development activities had been

immensely beneficial to them, as teachers had opportunities to improvise on
teaching and learning materials to better suit their subject teaching through their
networking and sharing of ideas with their colleagues. Egbo (2011) avows that
teaching and learning materials are critical to the classroom practices of teachers.
Wittmann and Olivier (2021) further agree that learning materials do not only
make teaching less stressful to the teachers, but also promote fast learning and
make the classes interesting and interactive. However, findings also indicated that
teachers were not provided with enough resources to promote their classroom
45
practices. Teachers need to be supported with adequate teaching materials, while

learners also require appropriate and adequate learning materials to make
teaching and learning easy for both teachers and learners.
7. Conclusion
Professional development is critical to teachers’ classroom practices in the 21st
century. The education system is dynamic and requires teachers who can respond
to learners’ quest for knowledge and skills. This study explored perspectives of
high school teachers on various professional development activities available to
them. Five teachers and three HoDs were engaged in semi-structured interviews
to gather their lived experiences. The findings of this study in Nigerian high
schools reveal that teachers have various perspectives on the existing PD activities
available to them. Teachers indicated that the existing PD activities were not
frequently assessed by HoDs; they also advised that these activities should be
offered every term to address topics or chapters to be taught. PD activities have
been of significant benefit to classroom practices due to the improvement of
teaching skills and methods (Ajani, 2018). However, the teachers believed that PD
activities should be offered during the school holidays so as not to disrupt their
classroom teaching during school hours. The teachers were also dissatisfied with
the existing follow-up on the PD activities. Therefore, they wanted more support
to motivate the implementation of PD knowledge and skills in classroom
practices. The HoDs called for more support for teachers' classroom practices.
According to the HoDs, teachers require relevant and adequate teaching resources
that can enhance teaching and learning, while adequate and regular professional
development activities should be designed for them. According to them, they
agreed with Ajani (2021) that teachers should be viewed as adult learners when
designing the contents of any professional development programme. Hence, the
contents of the professional development should adequately address their
classroom needs.
This study recommends that the Education Districts and other concerned
stakeholders should restructure the existing in-service professional development
activities. The PD activities should also focus more on subject contents teachers
are to teach every grade/class each term. It is also recommended that teachers
should be assessed to determine their classroom needs; follow up should be
consistent on teachers after attendance of PD activities. Teaching and learning
materials should be provided to teachers to enhance classroom practices, and all
teachers should be funded by the SMT to attend PD activities frequently. The
study also recommends an increase in the frequency of teachers' participation in
professional development activities every term and year. Parents are also to be
encouraged to provide learning materials to further support the learners at school
and at home.
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APPENDIX A
INTERVIEW GUIDE
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS (Teachers)

1. Did you participate in any form of in-service professional development
activities related to Economics? How often did you participate?
2. How often would you prefer to participate in IPD?
3. What activities have been included for the IPD activities that you have
attended?
48
4. How would you prefer the IPD to be structured? How would a near
perfect IPD look like for you, in terms of intervals, focus, continuity,
convenience and accessibility?
5. For the in-service professional development activities in which you
participated, who has been financially liable?
6. After each IPD activity, do you implement what was learnt? Please, tell me
more about your experience.
7. Do you believe the in-service professional development activities have
improved you as an Economics teacher? Please, tell me more about how
IPD activities have improved your teaching.
8. What do think are the challenges experienced regarding in-service

professional development for Economics teachers? Explain.
ADDITIONAL COMMENTS
APPENDIX B
INTERVIEW SCHEDULE: HoDs
SECTION A BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION
1. Highest qualification
2. Years of management experience
3. No. of years taught subject
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
1. How many on-school and off-site based in-service professional

development training programmes have your Economics teachers
attended? Explain.
2. Who organized these on-school and off-site based in-service professional
development trainings for the Economics teachers?
3. What was the main focus of these in-service professional development

training that your Economics teachers attended?
4. Do you feel the material obtained from these in-service professional

development training was suitable for classroom practice? Explain
49
5. Did the facilitators or trainers make any follow-up visits to your school to
check how you and your teachers are implementing what you have
learned from these in-service professional development training
activities? Explain
6. As the HoD, what challenges do you face with regard to in-service

professional development training? Explain
7. As an HoD, how do you monitor and support Economics teachers who

have attended these in-service professional development training
programmes in your school?
8. As the Head of Department, what type of in-service professional

development would you suggest and why?
50

Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 50-70, June 2022
Received Feb 13, 2022; Revised May 28, 2022; Accepted Jun 10, 2022
Mental Health and Wellbeing of Secondary

School Teachers in Malaysia
Kee Pau*
Sultan Idris Education University, Perak, Malaysia
Aslina Binti Ahmad

Hsin-Ya Tang
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA
Ahmad Jazimin Bin Jusoh

Asma Perveen
Kong Kwoi Tat

Abstract. The teaching profession has been consistently ranked as the

most stressful job in the world today. Teachers who experience prolonged
exposure to high levels of work-related stress can find there to be a
detrimental effect on their physical health, mental health, social life, and
work performance. This study aims to characterise the mental health and
wellbeing of secondary school teachers in Malaysia according to gender
and age group. We examined burnout levels among 776 secondary school
teachers who were measured across three dimensions (i.e.,
depersonalisation, emotional exhaustion, and personal accomplishment),
as well as their sources of stress, manifestations of stress, and
psychological symptoms. The quantitative data analysis revealed that
most of the teachers had experienced burnout in terms of their personal
accomplishments, work-related stressors, and time management, and
that it mostly manifested as fatigue. Overall, the sample of secondary
school teachers in Malaysia indicates a risk of poor mental health. Further
psychological interventions and self-care programs are suggested to help
secondary school teachers cope with the early signs of burnout.
Keywords: mental health; wellbeing; secondary school teachers; Malaysia
*
Corresponding Author: Kee Pau, pau_kee@fpm.upsi.edu.my
©Authors
51
1. Introduction
Teaching ranks among the world’s most stressful professions which affect mental
health and wellbeing. The environment in which teachers work is extremely
stress-provoking (Sveinsdottir et al., 2007), and teachers have been shown to
experience greater stress than other white-collar professionals (Munir et al., 2014).
The teaching profession has also been identified as involving nearly twice the
level of cynicism, professional strain, and sadness as other professions (Baig et al.,
2016). Such a high level of stress could be attributed not only to the teachers’
increased exposure to a toxic working environment but also to the higher
demands of their job and the frequent need to work overtime (Rusli et al., 2006).
As a consequence, adverse mental health conditions among teachers have become

increasingly common and, as such, increasingly problematic (Bauer et al., 2007;
Weber et al., 2005). If not handled effectively,the stress and mental pressure on
teachers is bound to affect their mental health and impact their wellbeing. In the
previous research, teachers who attributed their stress to internal factors reported
higher levels of depersonalisation and emotional exhaustion as among the
dimensions of burnout, as well as a higher intention to quit and more symptoms
of illness, than the teachers who exhibited a lower score for stress who reported
more personal accomplishments (Teles, et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2015). Among
teachers, mental health deficiencies may not only cause them problems but also
negatively impact their students as well. In fact, the teachers’ mental health and
wellbeing has been shown to affect their students’ psychological wellbeing and
their depressive symptoms were found to be associated with their students’
mental health and wellbeing as well (Harding et al., 2019). In particular,
depressive symptoms among teachers can also lower the quality of the classroom
learning environment and the students’ academic achievements (McLean &
Connor, 2015). Among the other downsides, poor mental health among teachers
can adversely impact their physical health—and even cause lower back pain—
and in a vicious cycle, weakened physical health can intensify their anxiety and
depression (Zamri et al., 2017). Over and above all of those trends, workload has
been found to significantly affect the mental health status of teachers (Samad et
al., 2010), and especially high workloads can raise the risk of burnout in the form
of emotional exhaustion (Jimenez & Dunkl, 2017).
The results of the present study will be able to address several gaps from previous
research. Most of the previous studies related to burnout amongst Malaysian
teachers were conducted within a limited geographical scope and did not examine
its distinction between or its prevalence among different age groups (Amzat, 2021;
Mousavy & Nimehchisalem, 2014; Mukundan & Ahour, 2011; Roslan et al., 2015;
Thomas et al., 2012). Similar previous studies on the teachers’ stress level also
cover either a single state in Malaysia or a limited geographical range (Hadi et al.,
2009; Ismail et al., 2019; Othman & Sivasubramaniam, 2019; Samad et al., 2010;
Shen et al., 2018). While there have been studies which include a wider geographic
demographic when it comes to research on Malaysian teacher burnout (Yusof,
2012) and stress (Yahaya et al., 2010), there are no recent studies which provides
the same wide coverage and overview. This shows that there is a need for an
update regarding the burnout and stress amongst Malaysian school teachers on a
52
wider scale. The present study will include a larger number of participants to
increase its generalisability to better reflect the overall population, especially after
the effects of the pandemic. The present study has also attempted to identify the
teachers’ mental health symptoms according to various dimensions through self-
reported questionnaires, which has been rarely addressed in previous studies.
1.1 Burnout
In any human undertaking that involves working with other people, burnout can
be defined as a syndrome with three dimensions: a reduced sense of personal
accomplishment, depersonalisation, and emotional exhaustion (Maslach, 2003).
According to Mukundan and Ahour (2011), a reduced sense of personal
accomplishment among teachers could mean that they no longer feel capable of
teaching students or helping them to grow. In contrast, depersonalisation among
teachers experiencing burnout suggests a lack of sense of having a positive effect
on the students. Last, emotional exhaustion among teachers is marked by fatigue
and a feeling of being emotionally drained (Mukundan & Ahour, 2011).
Multiple studies have pinpointed depersonalisation and emotional exhaustion as

the central elements of burnout (Schaufeli & Salanova, 2007; Skaalvik & Skaalvik,
2010; Panari & Simbula, 2016). In one such study conducted by El Helou et al.
(2016), elements in the school environment found to cause burnout among
teachers included their relationships with administrators, their relationships with
other teachers, the school’s rules, and among new teachers without sufficient
preparation, a sense of disillusionment. More recently, Khan et al., (2019) found
that sources of burnout included environmental demands related to the teacher’s
role, the demands of the job, pressure in terms of time management, and a lack of
resources, as well as personal demands imposed by their family and their
personal perceptions, attitudes, beliefs, and involvement towards work.
In terms of the demographic factors, women in the profession were found to be

more susceptible to emotional exhaustion and reduced personal accomplishment
than men were (Mukundan & Khandehroo, 2009). Along similar lines, Mukundan
and Ahour (2011) found that women teachers had moderate levels of emotional
exhaustion and high levels of reduced personal accomplishment, while younger
teachers had higher levels of burnout. However, several studies have also shown
that demographic factors such as age and gender do not have any effect on the
level of burnout among teachers (Smith & Leng, 2003; Yildirim, 2008). Beyond
that, Gavrilovici (2009) discovered that teachers with more teaching experience
had higher levels of emotional exhaustion.
In sum, burnout has been identified as a risk factor not only for poor physical
health but also for poor mental wellbeing (Salvagioni et al., 2017), including
heightened depressive symptoms (Hakanen & Shaufeli, 2012). Among teachers in
particular, burnout is likely to increase the intention to leave the profession (Hong,
2012).
1.2 Stress among Teachers

Being a teacher is undoubtedly a stressful job, and stress among teachers is a
phenomenon known to occur around the world (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2016).
53
Among researchers who have sought to define stress, Abebe and HaileMariam
(2011) have posited that stress is due to either internal or external factors that
increase the difficulty adapting, and they urge individuals experiencing it to
intensify their efforts to maintain the equilibrium between themselves and their
external environment. Jiang et al. (2017) added that stress occurs when a teacher’s
expectations differ from reality, and other researchers have agreed that stress
results from an incongruence between a person’s coping strategies and the
demands of their situation (Okeke et al., 2014; Okeke et al., 2015). Among teachers,
stress has more specifically been described as negative emotions experienced due
to aspects of the profession (Kyriacou, 2010) and what teachers feel due to their
failure to effectively cope with challenges in the workplace.
As for its negative effects among teachers, stress has been shown to accelerate
career attrition (Lindqvist et al., 2014), manifest behaviourally in physical
aggression and increased hostility (Kanchika et al., 2015), and be associated with
job dissatisfaction and level of burnout. In contrast, teachers who reported feeling
in control of their stressors had higher levels of job satisfaction and lower levels
of emotional exhaustion (Wang et al., 2015). In research on sources of stress among
teachers, Kourmousi and Alexopoulos (2016) found that longer distances between
the teachers’ home and workplace can heighten discipline- and motivation-
related stressors, that a longer work experience lowers levels of professional
distress and stress, and that female teachers perceive themselves to have more
stress and work-related stressors than male teachers. The authors also found that
younger teachers had higher levels of perceived stress than the older ones. Stress
among new teachers can be derived from their relationships with other teachers,
their relationships with their mentors, poor feedback, and poor classroom
management (Paker, 2011; Mahmoudi & Özkan, 2016). Adding to that, Yusof
(2011) found that the teachers’ stress can be affected by the leadership style of the
school administrator, while others have revealed that the teachers’ stress stems
from the pressure that they feel when it comes to being held accountable for test-
based evaluations (Ryan et al., 2017; Saeki et al., 2018).
Against that background, we aimed to evaluate the mental health and wellbeing
of secondary school teachers in Malaysia by identifying their level of burnout,
sources of stress, manifestations of stress, and experiences with the symptoms of
mental health conditions. We also aimed to identify any differences in the mental
health and wellbeing of said teachers according to their gender and age group.
The results are expected to clarify the mental health and wellbeing of teachers in
Malaysia in general and to aid in identifying their sources of stress. With the
findings, Malaysia’s Ministry of Education and other policymaking bodies can
formulate targeted intervention plans to help teachers effectively manage their
stress and maintain positive mental health.
2. Methods
The present study aimed to provide an overview of Malaysian secondary school
teachers’ mental health and wellbeing. Therefore, the objective of the present
study was to examine the (1) burnout, (2) stress, and (3) psychological symptoms
of the secondary school teachers from the different regions of Peninsular
54
Malaysia. The study hypothesised that the Malaysian secondary school teachers
are experiencing (1) burnout (2) stress, and (3) psychological symptoms.
2.1 Research Design

The present study used the quantitative research methodology. The data required
in this study was collected using a self-reported questionnaire scored using a
Likert scale. The present study also used a cross-sectional design for the data
collection whereby all data required was collected once from the participants
during a single time frame.
2.2 Participants
The Ethics Committee of the Sultan Idris Education University in Perak granted
permission for the conducting of this research (2019-00-18-01). Permission was
also obtained from the Educational Research Planning and Policy Division of the
Ministry of Education Malaysia (KPM.600-3/2/3-eras (3468) for collecting data at
the selected schools. The study consisted of two stages for the sampling selection.
The first stage of the study involved the selection of schools based on their
location. The research team categorised the schools according to the four regions
of Peninsular Malaysia, namely the Northern Region (Kedah, Penang, Perak), the
Central Region (Selangor, Federal Territories of Kuala Lumpur), the Southern
Region (Negeri Sembilan, Malacca, Johor), and the Eastern Region (Kelantan). A
list of schools located in each region was obtained, and the research team
employed purposive random sampling to select the 27 schools to make up the
targeted sample for study. The research team then contacted the principals of the
27 schools to inform them about the aim of the study. Upon the granting of
permission to conducting the research, the school counsellors were handed the
questionnaires. The study was conducted by the means of the traditional paper-
and-pencil method. Each participant that agreed to participate in the study was
asked to fill in an informed consent sheet, three questionnaires, and to provide
their sociodemographic information. In total, 1000 questionnaire sets were
handed out, and 854 sets were returned (85.4%), out of which 78 (9.1%) were
excluded due to incomplete data. The final data analysis involved 776 secondary
school teachers, consisting of 167 men (21.5%) and 609 women (78.5%).
2.3 Measures
2.3.1 Burnout
Maslach et al.’s (1996) Maslach Burnout Inventory - Educators Survey is a
modified version of the Maslach Burnout Inventory designed to gauge burnout
among educators in three dimensions (depersonalisation, emotional exhaustion,
and personal accomplishment). It was used to measure burnout among the
teachers of the sample. The scale consisted of 22 items—seven on the
Depersonalisation subscale, seven on the Emotional Exhaustion subscale, and
eight on the Personal Accomplishment subscale—all rated on a 7-point Likert
scale ranging from 0 (never) to 6 (always). Higher scores for each subscale indicate
a higher burnout level in that dimension, whereas the overall scale has no
composite score. The Cronbach’s alpha scores were .842 for the Depersonalisation
subscale, .778 for the Emotional Exhaustion subscale, .848 for the Personal
Accomplishment subscale, and .777 for the overall scale.
55
2.3.2 Teachers’ Sources and Manifestations of Stress

The teachers’ sources and manifestations of stress were identified using Fimian’s
(1984) Teacher Stress Inventory containing 49 items measured on a 5-point Likert
scale ranging from 1 (no strength, not noticeable) to 5 (major strength, extremely
noticeable) such that higher scores indicate a stronger source of stress or a more
frequent manifestation of stress. The sources of stress included time management
(eight items), work-related stressors (six items), professional distress (five items)
discipline and motivation (six items), and professional investments (four items),
whereas the manifestations of stress included emotional manifestations (five
items), fatigue (five items), cardiovascular manifestations (three items),
gastronomical manifestations (three items), and behavioural manifestations (four
items). The Cronbach’s alpha scores were .715 for time management, .813 for
work-related stressors, .834 for professional distress, .865 for discipline and
motivation, .861 for professional investments; .953 for emotional manifestations,
.904 for fatigue, .918 for cardiovascular manifestations, .942 for gastronomical
manifestations, and .864 for behavioural manifestations; and .924 for all sources
of stress, .948 for all manifestations of stress, and .956 for the Teacher Stress
Inventory overall.
2.3.3 Mental Health Symptoms

Derogatis’ (1975) Brief Symptom Inventory was used to identify psychological
symptoms relevant to teaching, as self-reported by the teachers. The instrument
consists of 53 items scored on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (not at all) to 4
(extremely) in nine dimensions: somatisation (seven items), obsession–
compulsion (i.e., six items), interpersonal sensitivity (i.e., four items), depression
(six items), anxiety (six items), hostility (five items), phobic anxiety (five items),
paranoid ideation (five items), and psychoticism (five items). Four items that did
not factor into any dimension were nevertheless included in the instrument due
to their clinical importance. The raw scores were converted and compared with
the T scores to identify the participants experiencing psychological symptoms.
The Cronbach’s alpha scores were .901 for somatisation, .890 for obsession–
compulsion, .811 for interpersonal sensitivity, .869 for depression, .902 for anxiety,
.825 for hostility, .866 for phobic anxiety, .845 for paranoid ideation, .832 for
psychoticism, and .981 for the Brief Symptom Inventory overall.
2.3.4 Translation and Validation of Instruments

All of the instruments employed in the present study were translated to and
adapted from the original English language version to Bahasa Malaysia (Malay
Language) (see Appendix). This was to facilitate the teachers’ understanding of
the questions presented in the questionnaires within the Malaysia context. The
translated instruments were validated by six experts in the field who were fluent
in both the Malay and English languages. The experts were asked to rate the
translated items on a scale of 1 to 4, with a higher number representing the better
suitability of the translations. They were also asked to provide comments and
suggestions to improve the suitability of the translated items if they saw fit to do
so. The scores given by the experts for each translated items were added together
and divided by the highest possible score to calculate the scale content validity
index. The average scale content validity index (S-CVI/AVE) in the present study
56
has a value of 0.945. S-CVI/AVE values of above 0.9 can be considered excellent
(Shi et al., 2012).
2.4 Procedure
We sampled data from the four regions of West Malaysia: the northern region (the
states of Perlis, Kedah, Pulau Pinang, and Perak), the central region (the states of
Selangor, Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur, and Wilayah Persekutuan
Putrajaya), the southern region (the states of Negeri Sembilan, Melaka, and Johor),
and the eastern region (the states of Kelantan, Terengganu, and Pahang). Schools
within each cluster were randomly selected before being contacted for permission
to visit and distribute questionnaires to the teachers. Before the questionnaires
were distributed, the teachers were briefed about the purpose of the study and
given an informed consent form to be sign. The teachers were also informed that
they could withdraw from the study at any time without any consequences and
that their data would remain anonymous and not be disclosed to any third parties
without first obtaining their consent.
2.5 Data Analysis

The collected data was analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences (version 23). The participants’ demographic statistics were analysed to
compare the differences according to gender and across the age groups (i.e., 22–
29 years old, 30–39 years old, 40–49 years old, and 50–59 years old). For the
Maslach Burnout Inventory’s Depersonalisation subscale, scores that were less
than 6 indicated “Low burnout,” scores of 6–11 indicated “Moderate burnout,”
and scores greater than 11 indicated “High burnout.” For the Emotional
Exhaustion subscale, scores that were less than 6 indicated “Low burnout,” scores
of 18–29 indicated “Moderate burnout,” and scores greater than 29 indicated
“High burnout.” For the Personal Accomplishment subscale, scores that were less
than 39 indicated “Low burnout,” scores of 34–39 indicated “Moderate burnout,”
and scores greater than indicated “High burnout.” For the Teacher Stress
Inventory, an average score between 0 and 1 indicated “No strength,” an average
score between 1 and 2 indicated “Mild strength,” an average score between 2 and
3 indicated “Moderate strength,” an average score between 3 and 4 indicated
“Great strength,” and an average score between 4 and 5 indicated “Extreme
strength.” Last, following the Manual for the Brief Symptom Inventory, we
considered scores of at least 63 on the Global Severity Index and scores from two
dimensions totalling at least 63 to indicate a positive result for the corresponding
psychological symptom and categorised individuals earning those scores as
having self-reported said symptoms.
3. Results
Based on the descriptive demographic analysis, 776 secondary school teachers in
Peninsular Malaysia completed the questionnaires. Out of the total, 29.4% were
from the Northern Region (N=228), 25.4% from the Central Region (N=197), 32.2%
from the Southern Region (N=250), and 13.0% from the Eastern Region
(N=13.0%). The teachers were aged between 22 and 59 years old (M=42 years),
and there were 167 male teachers and 609 female teachers.
57
3.1 Burnout
The Maslach Burnout Inventory - Educators Survey was used to identify burnout
among the participating secondary school teachers in Malaysia. As presented in
Table 1, most participants (50.5%) reported a higher level of burnout in the
dimension of personal accomplishment than in the dimensions of
depersonalisation (33.4%) and emotional exhaustion (2.3%). Generally, teachers
were less likely to experience emotional exhaustion than the other two
dimensions, as 72.6% of them reported a low level of burnout for that dimension
specifically.
Table 1
Burnout among the Secondary School Teachers in Malaysia Overall
Personal
Dimension of burnout/ Depersonalisation Emotional exhaustion
accomplishment
Level of burnout
F % F % F %
Low burnout 256 33.0 563 72.6 146 18.8
Moderate burnout 261 33.6 195 25.1 238 30.7
High burnout 259 33.4 18 2.3 392 50.5
Total 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0
# F: Frequency
%: Percent
In terms of gender, both men and women reported a higher level of burnout in
the dimension of personal accomplishment than emotional exhaustion and
depersonalisation (refer to Table 2). However, the results also included that
women (52.4%) were more likely to experience burnout in the dimension of
personal accomplishment than men (43.7%), who themselves were more likely to
experience burnout in the dimension of depersonalisation than women.
Specifically, 34.7% of men reported moderate burnout compared with 33.3% of
women, and 35.9% of men reported high burnout compared with 32.7% of
women. Teachers of both genders were the least likely to experience burnout in
the dimension of emotional exhaustion, which 74.3% of men and 72.1% of women
reported experiencing at a low level.
Table 2
Burnout among the Secondary School Teachers in Malaysia Based on Gender
Dimension of Personal
Depersonalisation Emotional exhaustion
burnout/Level of accomplishment
burnout F % F % F %
Low Men 49 29.3 124 74.3 41 24.6
Burnout Women 207 34.0 439 72.1 105 17.2
Moderate Men 58 34.7 40 24.0 53 31.7
Burnout Women 203 33.3 155 25.5 185 30.4
High Men 60 35.9 3 1.8 73 43.7
Burnout Women 199 32.7 15 2.5 319 52.4
Total 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0
# F: Frequency
%: Percent
58
In terms of age among the domains of depersonalisation, emotional exhaustion,

and personal accomplishment in Table 3 respectively, the younger teachers were
more likely to experience burnout in the dimension of personal accomplishment.
Table 3
Burnout among Secondary School Teachers in Malaysia Based on Age
Dimension of Personal
Depersonalisation Emotional exhaustion
Burnout/ Level of accomplishment
burnout F % F % F %
22-29 18 36.0 36 72.0 3 6.0
Low 30-39 85 32.3 118 71.5 38 14.4
Burnout 40-49 86 32.3 199 74.8 57 21.4
50-59 67 34.0 140 71.1 48 24.4
22-29 15 30 13 26.0 18 36.0
Moderate 30-39 81 30.8 69 26.2 69 26.2
Burnout 40-49 99 37.2 62 23.3 79 29.7
50-59 66 33.5 51 25.9 72 36.5
22-29 17 34.0 1 2.0 29 58.0
High 30-39 97 36.9 6 2.3 156 59.3
Burnout 40-49 81 30.5 5 1.9 130 48.9
50-59 64 32.5 6 3.0 77 39.1
Total 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0
# F: Frequency
%: Percent
Teachers between the age of 30 and 39 years old (59.3%) reported a high level of
burnout in that dimension, followed by teachers aged 22 to 29 years (58.0%),
teachers aged 40 to 49 years (48.9%), and teachers aged 50 to 59 years old (39.1%).
Similarly, teachers aged 30–39 years (36.9%) were slightly more likely to
experience a high-level burnout in the dimension of depersonalisation, followed
by teachers aged 22 to 29 years (34.0%), teachers aged 50–59 years (32.5%), and
teachers aged 40–49 years old (30.5). Teachers across all age groups were least
affected by emotional exhaustion; 72.0% of teachers in their 20s, 71.5% of teachers
in their 30s, 74.8% of teachers in their 40s, and 71.1% of teachers in their 50s
reported a low level of burnout in that dimension.
3.2 Teachers’ Sources of Stress

The Teacher Stress Inventory was used to identify the teachers’ sources of stress.
Generally, based on Table 4, the teachers reported that their top stressors were
work-related stressors—7.5% reported those stressors as having “Extreme
strength,” while 37.1% reported them as having “Great strength”—followed by
time management, 2.4% of which reported as having “Extreme strength” and
41.2% as having “Great strength.” The next strongest stressor for the teachers was
discipline and motivation, 4.4% of whom reported as having “Extreme strength”
and 27.8% as having “Great strength.” After that was professional distress, which
2.2% of teachers reported as having “Extreme strength” and 16.8% for “Great
strength”. The weakest source of stress experienced by the teachers was
professional investment, with 1.3% of whom reported it as having “Extreme
strength” and 13.1% as having “Great strength.”
59
Table 4
Sources of Stress among the Teachers in Malaysia Overall
Type of Time Work-related Professional Discipline and Professional
stressor/ Level management stressors distress motivation investment
of strength
F % F % F % F % F %
No strength 2 0.3 3 0.4 44 5.7 43 5.5 79 10.2

Mild strength 30 3.9 64 8.2 215 27.7 128 16.5 212 27.3
Moderate
405 52.2 363 46.8 370 47.7 355 45.7 373 48.1
strength
Great strength 320 41.2 288 37.1 130 16.8 216 27.8 102 13.1
Extreme
19 2.4 58 7.5 17 2.2 34 4.4 10 1.3
strength
Total 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0
# F: Frequency
%: Percent
According to the sources of stress by gender as presented in Table 5, men were

more likely to experience stress in the form of professional distress than women;
2.4% reported it as having “Extreme strength” and 25.1% as having “Great
strength” compared with only 2.1% and 14.4% of women, respectively. In
contrast, women experienced slightly higher stress than men in discipline and
motivation; 4.4% reported it as having “Extreme strength” and 28.2% as having
“Great strength” compared with only 4.2% and 26.3% of men, also respectively.
Women also reported being less affected by stress due to professional investment
than men did; 11.3% of women reported it as having “Extreme strength” relative
to only 6.0% of men. In terms of age, the sources of stressor presented in Table 6
indicate that the younger teachers experienced higher levels of stress due to time
management; 10.0% of teachers in their 20s reported it as having “Extreme
strength” compared with only 2.7% of teachers in their 30s, 1.5% of teachers in
their 40s, and 1.5% of teachers in their 50s.
Table 5
Sources of Stress among the Teachers in Malaysia Based on Gender
Time Work-related Professional Discipline Professional
Type of stressor/ management stressors distress and investment
Level of strength motivation
F % F % F % F % F %
No Men 1 0.6 2 1.2 9 5.4 6 3.6 10 6.0
strength Women 1 0.2 1 0.2 35 5.7 37 6.1 69 11.3
Mild Men 6 3.6 15 9.0 39 23.4 34 20.4 52 31.1
strength Women 24 3.9 49 8.0 176 28.9 94 15.4 160 26.3
Moderate Men 87 52.1 72 43.1 73 43.7 76 45.5 72 43.1
strength Women 318 52.2 291 47.8 297 48.8 279 45.8 301 49.4
Great Men 69 41.3 69 41.3 42 25.1 44 26.3 32 19.2
strength Women 251 41.2 219 36.0 88 14.4 172 28.2 70 11.5
Extreme Men 4 2.4 9 5.4 4 2.4 7 4.2 1 0.6
strength Women 15 2.5 29 8.0 13 2.1 27 4.4 9 1.5
Total 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0
# F: Frequency %: Percent
60
Table 6:
Burnout among the Secondary School Teachers in Malaysia Based on Age
Types of Time Work-related Professional Discipline and Professional

management stressors distress motivation investment
stressor/ Level
of stress F % F % F % F % F %
20-29 0 0.0 0 0.0 5 10.0 1 2.0 6 12.0
No 30-39 0 0.0 1 0.4 15 5.7 15 5.7 21 8.0
strength 40-49 1 0.4 1 0.4 8 3.0 16 6.0 31 11.7
50-59 1 0.5 1 0.5 16 8.1 11 5.6 21 10.7
20-29 1 2.0 3 6.0 15 30.0 7 14.0 15 30.0
Mild 30-39 14 5.3 22 8.4 72 27.4 41 15.6 62 23.6
strength 40-49 9 3.4 19 7.1 73 27.4 48 18.0 84 31.6
50-59 6 3.0 20 10.2 55 27.9 32 16.2 51 25.9
20-29 25 50.0 25 50 22 44.0 24 48.0 17 34.0
Moderate 30-39 137 52.1 110 41.8 122 46.4 111 42.2 135 51.3
strength 40-49 145 54.5 131 49.2 134 50.4 126 47.4 121 45.5
50-59 98 49.7 97 49.2 92 46.7 94 47.7 100 50.8
20-29 19 38.9 21 42.0 7 14.0 16 32.0 2 4.0
Great 30-39 105 39.9 102 38.8 45 17.1 78 29.7 39 14.8
strength 40-49 107 40.2 95 35.7 47 17.7 70 26.3 29 10.9
50-59 89 45.2 70 35.5 31 15.7 52 26.4 23 11.7
20-29 5 10.0 1 2.0 1 2.0 11 22.0 1 2.0
Extreme 30-39 7 2.7 28 10.6 9 3.4 18 6.8 6 2.3
strength 40-49 4 1.5 20 7.5 4 1.5 6 2.3 1 0.4
50-59 3 1.5 9 4.6 3 1.5 8 4.1 2 1.0
Total 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0
# F: Frequency
%: Percent
Teachers in their 20s were also more likely to experience stress from time
management than from other forms of stressors, including work-related stressors,
discipline and motivation, professional investment, and professional distress.
Teachers in their 30s experienced higher levels of work-related stressors than
other age groups; 10.6% of them reported the stressors as causing extreme stress,
followed by 7.5% of teachers in their 40s, 4.6% of teachers in their 50s, and 2.0% of
teachers in their 20s. Teachers in their 30s, 40s, and 50s primarily experienced
stress due to work-related stressors, followed by discipline and motivation, time
management, professional distress, and professional investment. However,
teachers in their 50s experienced less stress overall than teachers in their 30s and
40s.
3.3 Teachers’ Manifestations of Stress

The Teacher Stress Inventory was also used to identify the teachers’
manifestations of stress. Generally, based on Table 7, the teachers primarily
experienced stress manifesting as fatigue, 4.1% of whom reported its “Extreme
strength” and 18.9% its “Great strength.” Second were cardiovascular
manifestations, which 3.1% of teachers reported as having “Extreme strength”
compared with 16.5% who reported its “Great strength,” followed by emotional
61
manifestations, which only 1.4% of teachers reported as having “Extreme

strength” and 10.7% as having “Great strength.” The teachers were less affected
by the gastronomical and behavioural manifestations of stress, which 45.9% and
53.4% of teachers reported as having “No strength,” respectively.
Table 7
Manifestations of Stress among the Secondary School Teachers in Malaysia Overall
Gastronomical Behavioral
Manifestations Emotional Cardiovascular
Fatigue manifestations manifestations
of stress/ Level manifestation manifestations
of strength
F % F % F % F % F %
No strength 164 21.1 63 8.1 135 17.4 356 45.9 414 53.4
Mild strength 247 31.8 193 24.9 231 29.8 201 25.9 199 25.6
Moderate 271 34.9 341 43.9 258 33.2 157 20.2 134 17.3
strength
Great strength 83 10.7 147 18.9 128 16.5 53 6.8 24 3.111
Extreme 11 1.4 32 4.1 24 3.1 9 1.2 5 0.6
strength
Total 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0
# F: Frequency
%: Percent
By gender, Table 8 shows that men reported stronger gastronomical

manifestations than women, with 1.8% of men reporting as having “Extreme
strength and 9.6% as having “Great strength” compared with 1.0% and 6.1% of
women, respectively. Men were also more likely to experience behavioural
manifestations of stress, which 1.2% of men reported as having “Extreme
strength” and 6.6% as having “Great strength” compared with 0.5% and 2.1% of
women. In contrast, 56.2% of women also reported behavioural manifestations as
having “No strength,” the rate was 43.1% among men. Teachers of both genders
responded similarly when it came to emotional manifestations, fatigue, and
cardiovascular manifestations.
Table 8
Manifestations of Stress among the Secondary School Teachers in Malaysia Based on Gender
Manifestations of Emotional Cardiovascular Gastronomical Behavioral
Fatigue
stress/ Level of manifestation manifestations manifestations manifestations
strength F % F % F % F % F %
No strength Men 36 21.6 13 7.8 22 13.2 71 42.5 72 43.1
Mild strength Women 128 21.0 50 8.2 113 18.6 285 46.8 342 56.2
Moderate Men 49 29.3 41 24.6 41 24.6 44 26.3 47 28.1
strength
Great strength Women 198 32.5 152 25.0 190 31.2 157 25.8 152 25.0
Extreme Men 56 33.5 74 44.3 62 37.1 33 19.8 35 21.0
strength
No strength Women 215 35.3 267 43.8 196 32.2 124 20.4 99 16.3
Mild strength Men 24 14.4 32 19.2 40 24.0 16 9.6 11 6.6
Moderate
strength Women 59 9.7 25 4.1 22 3.6 6 1.0 3 0.5
Men 2 1.2 7 4.2 2 1.2 3 1.8 2 1.2
Great strength
Women 9 1.5 25 4.1 22 3.6 6 1.0 3 0.5
Total 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0
# F: Frequency %: Percent
62
In terms of age, Table 9 indicates younger teachers had higher levels of fatigue;
10.0% of teachers in their 20s reported their manifestations of fatigue as having
“Extreme strength,” followed by 6.8% of teachers in their 30s, 2.6% in their 40s,
and 1.0% in their 50s. Teachers in their 30s also reported experiencing a higher
rate of cardiovascular manifestations than the other age groups, which only 4.2%
of teachers in their 20s reported as having “Extreme strength,” followed by 3.0%
in their 50s, 2.3% in their 40s, and 2.0% in their 20s. The strongest manifestation of
stress for teachers in their 20s, 30s, and 40s was fatigue, followed by
cardiovascular manifestations, while 3.0% of teachers in their 50s reported
cardiovascular manifestations of “Extreme strength,” which was greater than all
other manifestations of stress, and 17.2% reported it as having “Great Strength.”
Table 9
Manifestations of Stress among the Secondary School Teachers in Malaysia Based on Age
Emotional Cardiovascular Gastronomical Behavioral
Manifestations Fatigue
manifestation manifestations manifestations manifestations
of stress/ Level
of strength F % F % F % F % F %
20-29 7 14.0 2 4.0 7 14.0 22 44.0 25 50.0
No 30-39 53 20.2 23 8.7 52 19.8 121 46.0 147 55.95
strength
40-49 62 23.3 23 8.6 43 16.2 125 47.0 140 52.6
50-59 42 21.3 15 7.6 33 16.8 88 44.7 102 51.8
20-29 16 32.0 8 16.0 17 34.0 12 24.0 19 38.0
Mild 30-39 74 28.1 56 21.3 71 27.0 67 25.5 56 21.3
strength
40-49 92 34.6 73 27.4 88 33.1 66 24.8 72 27.1
50-59 65 33.0 56 28.4 55 27.9 56 28.4 52 26.4
20-29 19 38.0 21 42.0 17 34.0 11 22.0 4 8.0
Moderate 30-39 91 34.6 105 39.9 83 31.6 55 20.0 49 18.6
strength
40-49 91 34.2 127 47.7 89 33.5 54 20.3 44 16.5
50-59 70 35.5 88 44.7 69 35.0 37 18.8 37 18.8
20-29 7 14.0 14 28.0 8 16.0 4 8.0 1 2.0
Great 30-39 39 14.8 61 23.2 46 17.5 18 6.8 10 3.8
strength 40-49 20 7.5 36 13.5 40 15.0 17 6.4 7 2.6
50-59 17 8.6 36 18.3 34 17.3 14 7.1 6 3.0
20-29 1 2.0 5 10.0 1 2.0 1 2.0 1 2.0
Extreme 30-39 6 2.3 18 6.8 11 4.2 1 0.8 1 0.4
strength 40-49 1 0.4 7 2.6 6 2.3 4 1.5 3 1.1
50-59 3 1.5 2 1.0 6 3.0 2 1.0 0 0.0
Total 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0
# F: Frequency
%: Percent
3.4 Brief Symptom Inventory

The Brief Symptom Inventory was used to identify the teachers’ self-reported
psychological symptoms. Table 10 shows that 55.0% of teachers reported
psychological symptoms. The psychological symptom with the highest rate of
response (i.e., T ≥ 63) was psychoticism (51.8%), followed by interpersonal
sensitivity (47.9%), phobic anxiety (41.0%), obsession–compulsion (39.9%),
paranoid ideation (38.8%), somatisation (31.4%), anxiety (28.9%), depression
63
(27.3%), and hostility (24.1%). By gender, more men (70.1%) reported

psychological symptoms than women (50.9%), and they scored higher than
women in all dimensions of psychological symptoms except for paranoid
ideation, for which 36.5% of women reported a T score exceeding 63 compared
with 17.3% of men. Among men, phobic anxiety (62.9%) was the most reported
symptom, followed by interpersonal sensitivity (61.1%), whereas for women it
was psychoticism (50.6%), followed by interpersonal sensitivity (44.3%). By age,
teachers in their 20s (70.0%) reported more psychological symptoms than teachers
in other age groups, followed by teachers in their 40s (56.0%), teachers in their 50s
(54.8%), and teachers in their 30s (51.3%). In general, a larger percentage of
teachers in their 20s scored T > 63 in most dimensions except hostility. The
majority of teachers in their 30s, 40s, and 50s scored T > 63 for psychoticism,
followed by interpersonal sensitivity.
Table 10
Psychological Symptoms among the Secondary School Teachers in Malaysia
Self-reported frequency of cases (Percentage relative to non-cases)
30–39- 40–49-
20–29-
General Men year- year- 50–59-
Dimensions Women year-
(N = (n = olds olds year-olds
(n = 609) olds
776) 167) (n = (n = (n = 197)
(n = 50)
263) 266)
TGSI ≥ T63 / 427 117 310 35 135 149 108
T2Dimensions ≥ T63 (55.0%) (70.1%) (50.9%) (70.0%) (51.3%) (56.0%) (54.8%)
Somatisation 244 72 172 22 72 86 64
(31.4%) (43.1%) (28.2%) (44.0%) (27.4%) (32.3%) (32.5%)
Obsession– 310 87 223 26 98 108 78
compulsion (39.9%) (52.1%) (36.6%) (52.0%) (37.3%) (40.6%) (39.6%)
Interpersonal 372 102 270 32 115 133 92
sensitivity (47.9%) (61.1%) (44.3%) (64.0%) (43.7%) (50.0%) (46.7%)
Depression 212 88 124 20 68 74 50
(27.3%) (52.7%) (20.4%) (40.0%) (25.9%) (27.8%) (25.4%)
Anxiety 224 73 151 18 73 79 54
(28.9%) (43.7%) (24.8%) (36.0%) (27.8%) (29.7%) (27.4%)
Hostility 187 47 140 12 67 68 40
(24.1%) (28.1%) (23.0%) (24.0%) (25.5%) (25.6%) (20.3%)
Phobic anxiety 318 105 213 24 88 123 83
(41.0%) (62.9%) (35.0%) (48.0%) (33.5%) (46.2%) (42.1%)
Paranoid 301 79 222 28 97 109 67
ideation (38.8%) (17.3%) (36.5%) (56.0%) (36.9%) (41.0%) (34.0%)
Psychoticism 402 94 308 36 128 144 94

(51.8%) (56.3%) (50.6%) (72.0%) (48.7%) (54.1%) (47.7%)
# F: Frequency
%: Percent
4. Discussion
Overall, the results indicate that teachers in Malaysia are generally more likely to
experience burnout in the form of having a low sense of personal accomplishment.
The reason for the findings may be that as technology becomes more accessible
and as today’s students can thus access and learn a great of information without
needing a teacher, teachers may feel that the importance of their role when
64
teaching students has diminished. Among the teachers in our sample, women
indicated a greater burnout in the dimension of personal accomplishment than
men. Likewise, Mukundan and Khandehroo (2009) found that, among teachers,
women reported higher levels of burnout in the form of lessened personal
accomplishment and emotional exhaustion. This could be a result of Malaysia
mainly being a patriarchal society that emphasises the contributions of men more
than women. Mukundan and Ahour (2011) found that women reported only a
moderate level of burnout in the dimension of emotional exhaustion, however.
While the women in our study did report experiencing slightly more burnout in
terms of emotional exhaustion than men, the majority of both genders reported
low burnout in that dimension. This could indicate that the current teachers in
Malaysia are still emotionally satisfied with their jobs and possibly find it
rewarding. Men also indicated having slightly more burnout in terms of
depersonalisation than women. This could be due to men usually being expected
to keep their problems to themselves which leads to a higher possibility of them
experiencing depersonalisation than women.
Younger teachers also reported experiencing higher levels of burnout in the

dimension of personal accomplishment. Young teachers may lack the life
experience needed to deal with others, including students, parents, and their
fellow teachers, which may render them more likely to experience burnout than
their older counterparts (Luk et al., 2010). However, younger teachers stand a
greater chance of accumulating the skills and experience necessary to help them
teach students more effectively than older teachers do. At the same time, a
previous study found that older teachers are less susceptible to depersonalisation
than younger teachers (Mukundan & Ahour, 2011). This finding was not
replicated in our study because no noticeable pattern in the development of
depersonalisation across the age groups emerged. This could indicate that
teachers now are clearer about who they are and feel more grounded compared
to teachers of the past.
In our sample, the teachers’ stress stemmed mostly from work-related sources,
followed by time management. The findings point to the teachers’ being stressed
due to having too many job responsibilities to complete in a limited amount of
time. Indeed, teachers in Malaysia today are tasked with a multitude of
responsibilities, including co-curricular activities, dealing with parents, and
administrative duties, in addition to their classroom responsibilities (Othman &
Sivasubramanian, 2019). In the past, other researchers have ranked classroom
management as among the chief sources of stress for new teachers in particular
(Paker, 2011; Mahmoudi & Özkan, 2016). However, time management seems to
be a main source of stress for younger teachers as well, possibly because they face
new responsibilities when entering the profession without having acquired the
proficiency to effectively organise their completion beforehand. In general, the
older teachers in our study had less stress which corroborates the previous
findings that seniority and age are negatively correlated with the teachers’ level
of stress (Kourmousi & Alexopoulos, 2016). This is potentially because older
teachers are more proficient at their jobs and closer to retirement, both of which
give them a sense of relief.
65
Above all, the teachers’ stress in our study manifested as fatigue, which may be
attributed to the high and easily tiring workload that they face. The second-most
common form of stress manifestation, in comparison, was cardiovascular
manifestations. Burnout is a risk factor for poor physical health (Salvagioni et al.,
2017), due to which the teachers may incur increased blood pressure, a higher
heart rate, and rapid, shallow breathing. Teachers in their 50s reported
experiencing cardiovascular manifestations more commonly than the other
manifestations of stress which may be because older people have deteriorated
bodily functions. However, in that case, it is surprising that a higher percentage
of teachers in their 30s reported cardiovascular manifestations than teachers in
their 50s. This results signal that the teachers in their 30s were given more of a
burden than their younger and older colleagues due to having more experience
than the younger teachers and less seniority than the older teachers.
A higher percentage of secondary school teachers from Malaysia in our sample

(55%) reported psychological symptoms. Although the self-reported symptoms
were not clinically verified, their responses do suggest that a large percentage of
secondary school teachers in Malaysia feel that they are at risk of having poor
mental health and wellbeing. A higher percentage of men versus women in our
study reported experiencing psychological symptoms, which counters a previous
finding that women have higher levels of mental health problems than men (Chen
& Lucock, 2022; Yang et al., 2009). However, another study on teachers has shown
that women generally have normal levels of stress, anxiety, and depression,
although some reported severe or extremely severe mental health problems (Lee
& Lai, 2020). In our study, teachers in their 20s were also found to have poorer
mental health than their counterparts in other age groups. However, that outcome
can be explained by the idea that older teachers generally have higher resilience.
Because resilience may not be an innate characteristic but one that is taught or
influenced by various factors (Gu & Day, 2007; Pearce & Morrison, 2011;
Mansfield et al., 2012), older teachers may have developed their resilience over
time as a protective factor against poor psychological symptoms. Nevertheless,
the high rate of self-reported psychological symptoms is an indicator of perceived
poor or at risk-mental health for Malaysian teachers which warrants more in-
depth research in this regard.
5. Conclusion
Our findings indicate that secondary school teachers in Malaysia are generally at
risk of having poor mental health and wellbeing. The findings shed light on the
sources of stress among teachers in Malaysia and may help to guide future studies
focused on developing intervention plans to help teachers to maintain or improve
their mental health and wellbeing. Another implication which can be derived
from the findings is the urgent need for a closer examination of the Malaysian
teachers’ mental health status based on the self-reporting of psychological
symptoms as recorded in the present study.
However, several limitations of our study warrant mention. One was the
imbalance between the number of men and women in our sample. Although the
66
proportions may accurately represent the demographic distribution of teachers in

Malaysia, the low number of men may not accurately represent the overall status
of male teachers in Malaysia. We also collected data primarily from public
secondary schools in West Malaysia. Thus, future studies could recruit teachers
from different types of schools as well as recruiting more participants in general,
including those from East Malaysia, to provide a more accurate representation of
secondary school teachers in Malaysia. Future research could also look into the
use of a qualitative research design to gain a deeper understanding of the mental
health and wellbeing of secondary school teachers in Malaysia.
Acknowledgement
This paper is based on the research project entitled “Transforming Teachers
Mental Health through a Mental Health Capacity Building Framework to
Enhance the Teachers’ Wellbeing. The authors would like to extend their gratitude
to the Ministry of Higher Education for awarding them access to the Fundamental
Research Grant Scheme (FRGS/1/2018/UPSI/02/5/2) that helped to fund the
research.
6. References
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service teachers’ and cooperating teachers’ perspectives. Eastern Education
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Amzat, I. H., Kaur, A., Al-Ani, W., Mun, S. P., & Ahmadu, T. S. (2021). Teacher Burnout
and Coping Strategies to Remain in Teaching Job in Malaysia: An Interpretative
Phenomenological Analysis. European Journal of Educational Research, 10(3), 1075-
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Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 71-89, June 2022
Received Feb 15, 2022; Revised Jun 1, 2022; Accepted Jun 17, 2022
Structure, Activities and Teacher Development in

the Philippine Science Teachers’ Community of
Practice
Rhea F. Confesor
Mindanao State University-Iligan Institute of Technology, Iligan City,
Philippines
Rosario M. Belmi
Philippine Normal University, Manila, Philippines
Abstract. Effective Science instruction necessitates sustained professional

learning, such as through Community of Practice (CoP). Reports about
COP in the Philippines indicate varying processes. These are limited to
school-based or regional implementation indicating a lack of common
CoP understanding. This paper thus intends to describe the structures,
activities, and teacher development of CoPs of secondary Science
teachers. The study utilized a descriptive embedded multiple-case study
design on four exemplary schools nominated by the DepEd Regional
offices from the National Capital Region (NCR), Luzon, Visayas, and
Mindanao using qualitative data sources. Cross-Case analyses of the
interview and focus group discussions revealed that successful
implementation of Science CoP requires vital elements of community
structure that include visible and active leadership, committed
membership, and opportunities for interaction through various forms of
collaborative activities. Science teachers’ involvement in the CoP leads
them to collaborate effectively and professionally, become optimistic and
adaptable person, and innovative and goal-oriented facilitators of Science
learning. In addition, members of the CoP have effectively fostered
camaraderie and built effective working relationships making them more
confident, flexible, and motivated individuals, thus aiding their social and
personal development.
Keywords: Community of Practice; Professional Learning Communities;

Teacher Collaboration
1. Background
The importance of having well-trained and effective Science teachers cannot be
disputed in any educational system. This is because Science teachers are at the
forefront of nurturing and developing the next generation of innovators and
©Authors
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scientists important in any economy. Training teachers to be effective according

to Darling-Hammond et al. (2017) requires features that include “content-focus,
incorporation of active learning, support for collaboration, utilization of effective
models of practice, coaching, expert support, feedback and reflection, and is of
sustained duration. The mentioned features indicate the conduct of professional
learning through a community of practice (CoP).
The CoP is based on the idea that learning is done through a social process
whereby knowledge is co-constructed in a specific context and embedded within
a particular social and physical environment, such as schools (Lave & Wenger,
1991). The concept originated from the study of apprenticeship by Jean Lave and
Etienne Wenger in their book Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral
Participation (1991), where they introduced the situated learning theory.
According to this theory, "participation in social practice is the fundamental form
of learning" and, as such, viewed learning as "increasing participation in
communities of practice." In this theory, learning can happen in formal or informal
settings among colleagues in a workplace scenario.
There are three structural characteristics for a community, group, or organization

to be called a CoP (Wenger & Trayner, n.d.). First is the notion of a domain of
knowledge or general area of interest that provides meaning to the actions of the
community. In schools, this may refer to the commitment of teachers towards
their interests, discipline, or goals that allows teachers to have content focus,
collective participation, and coherence. Second is the notion of community which
refers to the group fostering interaction, collaboration, and sharing of ideas for
learning towards the domain. When Science teachers collaborate and regularly
discuss with a sense of community, they can foster relationships, have collective
responsibility, and a sense of belonging that is rooted in trust and respect (Hallam
et al., 2015; Gray et al., 2017) and can therefore work towards their domain. The
third is a practice that refers to the product of collective learning or the specific
knowledge the community develops, shares, and maintains due to their
interaction with the domain (Wenger, 1998; Wenger et al., 2002). Practice can be
explicit or tacit in forms. Most studies about CoPs had been about developing and
implementing tangible practices such as instructional plans and assessment
strategies (Lohwasser, 2013; Southerland et al., 2016). Lesser reported are tacit
practices such as becoming reform-oriented (Fulton et al., 2011) or the personal,
social, and professional development by Bell and Gilbert (1994) based on their
three-year study of following CoPs of Science teachers in New Zealand.
CoPs are regarded as valuable for creating social capital (Duguid, 2005) and
knowledge management (Aljuwaiber, 2016). In education, CoPs have positively
affected teaching practices and student achievement (Dogan & Adams, 2018). It
reduces teachers’ feeling of isolation, increases sharing of information and
resources, promotion of learning and collaboration within organizations by
establishing networks and professional alliances (Cardona & Lugo, 2012),
promotion of new practices that improve academic rigor, creation of
opportunities for instructional leadership (Gerdeman et al., 2018), greater self-
efficacy, reduced feelings of isolation, and most importantly the co-construction
73
of knowledge concerning the teacher’s professional practice (Curry, 2010;

Woodland et al., 2013) and teachers pedagogical content knowledge (PCK),
particularly in STEM (Fulton & Britton, 2011). CoP increased the use of active
learning practices of STEM teachers, thereby enhancing STEM learning (Fulton &
Britton, 2011; Tomkin et al., 2019). It also has positive implications for instructional
resilience, such as during shocks and duress such as COVID 19 pandemic, for it
increases social capital, mainly through sharing and co-construction of
instructional resources among STEM teachers (Grunspan et al., 2021). It should be
noted that there is a direct impact of teacher PCK on student achievement (Kunter
et al., 2017; Kleickmann et al., 2013; Gess-Newsome et al., 2017).
CoPs have been used widely as means for the professional development of
teachers in many educational systems all over the world to address curricular
reforms. In the Philippines, CoP was institutionalized in 2016 and referred to it as
Learning Action Cells (LACs). LACs, according to the Department of Education
(DepEd) Memorandum, "will become the school-based communities of practice
that are positive, caring, and safe spaces” (Department of Education [DepEd],
2016). DepEd described a LAC as "a group of teachers who engage in collaborative
learning sessions to solve shared challenges encountered in the school, facilitated
by the school head or a designated LAC Leader." The features of LAC are aligned
with the framework of CoP. The agenda speaks of the domain of knowledge.
Interaction and composition showcase the community, and the learning outputs
and activities indicate the practice. The implementing policy of LAC recognizes
the value of bottom-up professional learning methods. It ensures that these
continuing professional development programs be integrated with government
schools' school-based management and school improvement plan.
The implementation of LAC as a CoP came after four years the country shifted
from ten years to twelve years of basic education (Enhanced Basic Education Act
of 2013). This paradigm utilized the Spiral Progression Approach that requires
most teachers to teach at each grade level four main topics -Earth Science, Biology,
Chemistry, and Physics. The approach was reported problematic as most schools
in the country practice assigning for each class for the entire school year one
Science teacher who would teach all four disciplines (Orbe et al., 2018). Teachers,
in this case, are struggling to teach content areas outside of their specialization
because of the school structure that cannot accommodate four teachers at each
grade level in the Junior High School. The findings, for example, of Resurrection
and Adanza (2015) revealed that teachers need more time and training to master
all the four science content areas, find it challenging to teach without mastery, and
do not feel prepared to teach content, pedagogy, and practical activities (Attia,
2017). These, therefore, present a challenge to Science teachers’ PCK, which was
supposed to be addressed by CoPs through LACs.
However, the USA’s Teacher’s Know Best report in 2014 provided caution to
educational institutions and organizations on implementing CoPs. Their findings
showed a higher percentage of negative satisfaction ratings among teachers on
CoPs as a form of professional development, with teachers even reporting CoPs
as wasted time. The report showcased a need for a better understanding of CoP
74
structure and implementation strategies as those who indicated negative ratings

have also reported poor collaboration in their schools, and those who indicated
positive ratings rated their schools to have good collaboration. The contradictory
result here may also be pointed to paucity in CoP investigations that explore
teachers’ natural or spontaneous experiences as they go through CoP. Most
investigations have been from studies from a research project or as a school-based
intervention (Fulton & Britton, 2011; Abigail, 2016). These studies can only report
the contrived experiences of teachers. This is also true in the Philippines, where
studies about CoPs are also limited to assessing school-based CoP
implementations (Chiao, 2014; Cabral, 2019; Bajar et al., 2021) or regional
implementation (Vega, 2020) that provide information on the varying
implementation processes, benefits, and challenges of CoPs in the specific locale.
Therefore, there is a need to have a common understanding of what CoPs are and
how CoPs contribute to Science teacher development at the national level. Thus,
in this paper, we intend to describe the Science CoPs in Philippine schools in terms
of (a) structure, (b) activities, (c) factors in its formation and maintenance, and (c)
contributions of CoPs to teacher development. It is hoped that the information
provided in this article, mainly the key lessons learned, will be valuable for
cultivating CoPs in schools.
2. Methodology
This study utilized a descriptive embedded multiple case study approach to
describe CoP in the Philippine setting and its contributions to teacher
development. In this approach, structures, and composition, aside from the nature
of each case, can be given attention (Yin, 2018). Each case is considered a unit of
study with subunits of analyses and provides literal replication, thus addressing
external validity through direct replication logic. The study mainly employed
qualitative data through interviews and focus group discussions. Supporting data
comes from a self-answer sheet or questionnaire, particularly in describing the
factors in the maintenance and formation of CoPs. Questions however in this self-
answer sheet called for in-depth answers and were not necessarily scalable.
Having multiple sources of data from multiple cases ensures reliability which
allows for checking whether findings are consistent with every case.
The first task in data gathering for this study was the selection of cases done
through nomination by the DepEd regional offices where educational supervisors
identify schools on mature stages of CoP based on a rubric on CoP Stages of
Implementation modified from the Wenger et al. (2002). The school heads from
these schools were then contacted to seek permission to conduct the study and to
schedule interviews and focus group discussions (FGD) with teachers and the
school head.
Only five of the seventeen regional offices in the Philippines participated in the
nomination of school cases. There was a total of 6 participating cases. One school
was used as a pilot case or case E. Another case (case F) was not considered for
not meeting the criterion of the maturing stage of COP based on results from
teachers’ self-rating and responses from the FGD and interview. Thus, only Cases
75
A, B, C, and D are reported in this paper, and Cases E and F are not reported.
Ratings from the regional supervisors and the teachers of the four cases were
consistent on their CoP stage. The ratings indicated that they are committed to
achieve common goals and know about each other’s approaches. They have a
learning agenda and standards for recurring problems, and have developed,
organized, shared, and utilized explicit knowledge products based on their
agenda.
The four cases are representative of the national capital region and the three main
island groups of the Philippines – Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. During the time
of the conduct of the study, Case A has 14,000 students with 70 Science teachers,
Case B has 5,000 students with 32 Science teachers, Case C has 1000 students with
3 Science teachers, and Case D has 4084 students with 27 Science teachers. All
schools excel in their respective divisions in terms of student competitions. Case
A, B, and Case C had won international student science research competitions.
Participants per case include their principal or school head and teachers. There
were 9, 13, 3, and 11 participants in Case A, B, C, and D respectively. The Science
specializations of teachers are relatively well distributed in all four participating
schools. In terms of average years of stay with the school, Case B teachers have
been the longest, with a mean of 12.5 years, followed by Case D with 7.4 years,
Case A with a mean of 3.75 years, and Case C with 2.25 years.
Interviews and FGD in the four schools were done face to face, while in one school,
it was made through video conferencing due to COVID-19 restrictions.
Participants of the study were informed about – the purpose and background of
the study, that their participation is voluntary, they can withdraw anytime, the
risks and benefits from participation, and the roles of the researcher and
participants. Participants who were willing were requested to sign the letter of
consent. The participants were then asked to answer a survey that included how
they maintain their COPs and rate their CoP stage of development. Lastly,
participants who were administrators were interviewed, and Science teachers or
members of the CoPs were asked to participate in an FGD. Questions asked to
them include: (1) How has pursuing interests, goals, and projects together helped
you become better as a science teacher? (2) Do your interests and goals as a
community or group change How? (3) Have your interactions and engagements
with co-teachers changed over time? How? And (4) What do you think in general
are the contributions of CoP to being a science teacher?
The interview and FGD were audio and video recorded, transcribed verbatim,
and translated into English. Both verbatim and translated transcripts were sent to
participants prior to analysis for checking. Audio transcripts were analyzed using
Braun and Clarke's six-step thematic analysis method (2006). Responses were
coded and organized into themes and meaning units per case and cross-cases.
Case reports were then prepared for each case indicating qualitative themes and
were sent to participants for checking once again. Cross case report is then
followed by synthesizing data from cross-reports. The report incorporated the
responses of respondents on a self-answer sheet questionnaire which were ranked
to emphasize the prioritization of CoP maintenance activities.
76

This section shall describe the structure, composition, and CoP activities across
four nominated cases.
3.1 CoP Structure & Composition

Interview and FGD data from all four cases indicated that Science teachers
worked as a CoP much earlier than the establishment of LAC in 2016. The formal
structure, however, started with LAC establishment. Table 1 presents the cross-
case report of the typical structure and composition of Science CoPs with
corresponding roles of members reported by participants of the study.
Table 1: Composition of Science CoP

Personnel General Responsibilities
Principal Formulates Vision
Provides funding for CoP
Support CoP undertaking through attendance
Department Head Supervises schedule of teachers for instruction
Directs teachers to implement CoP activities
Provide resources for research
Supervises classroom observation
Directs the implementation of annual Science activities
Supports fellowships
Science Program Supervise all activities under his or her care both in
Coordinators instruction and learning
Remind all Science teachers of documents for submission
Master Teachers Serve as content-specialists for mentoring or coaching
Plan and coordinate monthly LAC sessions
Plan and coordinate in-service trainings
Prepare report for CoP activities
Proficient Teachers Participate actively in all Science activities
Meet with master teachers to discuss difficult competencies
and sharing of techniques.
The Science CoP structure conforms with the formal organizational structure of
schools in the Philippines. This includes the principals as the head and the
department heads who supervise the school science teachers together with
coordinators. Those having ranks of Master teacher and higher mentor the newly
hired or lower-ranked Proficient Teachers. The formal structuring of CoP among
the cases indicates the importance of the leadership of the principal and the
department head in establishing the agenda and direction of a CoP.
3.2. CoP Activities and Factors in CoP Formation

The identities of the four CoP cases were established through their interactions
and engagements, particularly through their participation in the regular activities
that they established. Teachers reported that these activities were collaborative
and provided means for them to share and develop their practice. These activities
vary for each school as presented in Table 2. It should be noted that the table only
includes activities set up by Science teachers’ CoP and tasks that are intended for
the school-wide teaching force are excluded in Table 2.
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Table 2: CoP Activities Across Cases

Area Case A Case B Case C Case D
Agenda Least mastered Least mastered Least mastered Topic: Science
competencies, science learning Science content content, sharing
pedagogy, self- content, and coordination of best practices,
development, pedagogy, and of activities strategies,
stress ICT integration. instructional
management, materials
and assessment.
Activities 1. Grade level 1. Science Grade 1. Coaching, 1. Science
seminar- Level seminar- informal Grade Level
workshop workshop discussion, seminar-
sessions (Monthly LAC and workshop
(Weekly LAC session) coordination (Quarterly
session) 2. Teacher of schedule LAC session)
2. Weekly initiated and activities 2. Facebook
mentoring mentoring over lunch group chat
session (1 3. Facebook (Daily 3. Action
Master group chat informal LAC research
teacher messaging session) groups
assigned to 2. Team teaching 4. Teacher
mentor 3-4 3. Facebook initiated
grade level group chat meetups
teachers for messaging
learning
content).
3. Monthly
Lesson Study
4. Facebook
group chat
messaging
5. Research
groups
It can be seen from the table that Case A has the most structured approaches
among the four cases, which is commendable for a population of 70 Science
teachers. Their LAC sessions are done weekly and by grade level, where teachers
take turns being resource speakers based on their agreed agenda. Their weekly
mentoring sessions are targeted to improve science instruction. Master teachers
who specialize in the content area of a given grading period in a particular grade
level are assigned to three to four teachers to mentor them. Case A is the only case
among the four that conducts lesson study. They said that teachers develop
together a lesson plan that they are to implement within a school year in their
monthly lesson study. Case A also has developed groupings meant to coach
students for Science fair competitions. In addition, they communicate via group
chat and meet daily in their shared offices.
For Case B, formal LAC sessions are done monthly, by grade level, and organized
by the master teachers. The science teachers also initiated mentoring sessions to
help each other on Science content topics they are not confident in teaching.
Proficient teachers organized their schedules with their master teachers for these
sessions at their learning centers. Their group chat was beneficial for them to
communicate with each other easily because they are in separate buildings and
have no shared office.
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In Case C, LAC sessions were informal and were done every lunchtime according
to the teachers. They were only three Science teachers in their school, so it was
very easy to coordinate with each other on activities and mentor each other. It
was also easy for them to set up team teaching. They can arrange their schedules
so that for grading periods with Science topics outside of their specialization,
either they swap with another teacher or seek help to co-teach with another
teacher. This is due to difficulty teaching Science content topics expected to their
current context and structure.
In Case M, formal LAC sessions are done quarterly, arranged by the master
teachers with topics prepared and selected prior to the start of the school year.
According to teachers, their LAC session is output-based. The Science teachers
also had action research groups where teachers would implement proposed
learning strategies in their classes. They also reported having meetups or
discussions about work over coffee. They also said that they do mentoring during
these sessions.
It can therefore be said that the Science teachers from four CoP cases are highly
engaged with each other on activities that are mandated by the DepEd and on
activities that they themselves organize. Attendance to LAC sessions and
mentorship of Master Teachers have mandated programs. For example, these are
included in the assessment for teachers’ performance rating that prompted
teachers to participate. Group chats, research groupings, and other group-
initiated activities, on the other hand, are non-mandated with no equivalent
ratings but are still well participated, which indicates the desire to build
relationships and foster learning in their respective schools.
Information presented about CoP activities was supported by a survey about how
CoPs were maintained. Results are shown in Table 3 with the corresponding rank
average per school and across cases. The following discussion incorporates the
responses from FGD and interviews of teachers and school administrators.
Table 3: Comparison of CoP Maintenance Activities Across Cases

CoP Maintenance Features Rank average per item Overall SD
Case Case Case Case Rank
A B C D Equivalent
Attend meetings of the group and 1 3.5 4 1 1 1.60
participate actively during the
discussion
Designate committee heads or 3.5 6.5 1.5 4 2 2.06
coordinators for tasks that are
complex such as school science
programs
Initiate or propose activities for the 3.5 8 1.5 4 3 2.72
group that is worth undertaking.
There is a leader who facilitates the 7 3.5 4 4 4 1.60
formulation of vision, goals, and
strategies that sets the direction for
science learning and instruction
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CoP Maintenance Features Rank average per item Overall SD

Case Case Case Case Rank
A B C D Equivalent
There is a leader who programs class 3.5 1 6.5 9 5 3.49
schedules to ensure time for each
other for meetings.
There is a leader who addresses 8.5 6.5 4 2 6 2.84
teachers’ needs, such as rooms,
equipment, and other tools that
teachers need during meetings,
trainings, workshops, and research
activities.
Being responsible for producing 3.5 3.5 9 6.5 7 2.66
outputs required, such as learning
resources for the group on time
Refer to minutes of meetings and 6 3.5 8 8 8 2.14
other documents when planning for
science activities in the school.
Utilize data as basis for reviewing 8.5 9 6.5 6.5 9 1.31
and planning instruction.
The four cases consistently prioritize their attendance at meetings and actively
participate in them. In Case A, for example, teachers said that they respect their
leaders and coordinators, so they make sure they attend whenever there are
meetings. In Case B, they attend informal meetings most of the time. According
to their principal, for Case C, the teachers meet every lunchtime and are very
cooperative. However, for Case D, the teachers attend meetings because
according to them they are obedient and have no choice. This shows that despite
being compelled, teachers are committed to their goals. According to Hord (2009)
and Tam (2015), this sense of membership is essential in CoP as this leads to the
commitment of teachers to a learning community.
The four CoP cases also have consistently placed designating committee heads or
coordinators as one of the top activities in maintaining their CoPs. All four cases
have designated coordinators, specifically for their LAC sessions and other tasks.
Cases A, B, and D have grade-level coordinators for the LAC sessions, while Case
A has specific subject specialist master teachers for mentoring sessions. Case C
LAC involves all the three teachers to discuss informally, but they each agree on
particular assignments to coordinate tasks such as the areas of student research.
One teacher is assigned for robotics, another for life sciences, and another for
physical sciences. This indicates that in the CoP cases, there was an observed
distributed leadership that, according to Leclerc et al. (2012), can provide better
coordination among tasks, leading to teachers seeing the value of their
contribution and CoP itself.
They are also consistent with initiating and proposing activities for the group. In
all four cases, teachers indicated that they proposed activities that the
administrators supported. In Case A, for example, their principal noted how
dedicated the teachers were by proposing activities such as environmental clean-
up drives or even submitting a proposal to the mayor’s office for funding; in Case
C, the teachers proposed space shows and robotics training; in Case B, the teachers
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initiated their mentoring sessions; and in Case D, teachers came up with their
action research groups. These are just some of the activities teachers initiated in
their CoPs. Doing these activities can create what Wenger et al. (2002) termed as
rhythm, which they found to be present in successful CoPs and proposed to be a
principle for cultivating CoPs. Rhythm is having a balance of activities and
correctly pacing them to allow the community to thrive and remain vibrant.
The four participating CoPs are also consistent in utilizing data as the least
practiced activity. Case A teachers were required to conduct item analysis as a
basis for instructional improvement. However, teachers did these individually
and were not used as a basis for discussion in the Senior high school since they
teach different Science content for different tracks. Case D made use of data as
well for decision-making. They accordingly used data to transform their
instruction following low achievement scores in the National Achievement Test.
Data were also used in identifying least learned competencies as the basis for the
preparation of strategic intervention materials for both Case C and Case B. The
teachers, therefore, utilize data for decision-making but not as significantly
enough as they do this individually.
It should be noted that the Professional Standards for Philippine Teachers (DepEd
Memo 42, s. 2017) also stipulates that data-driven decision making be standard
practice. It has even included the exploration of data collaboratively to improve
instruction and practices as indicators of highly proficient and distinguished
teachers. In Gepila’s (2020) study, teachers assess themselves to be proficient only
in assessment and data use . This indicates that teachers’ use of assessment and
data is for their classroom only and is not shared and discussed with peers. Such
a result of Gepila is consistent with the results presented in Table 3. CoPs are
supposed to help utilize data for instruction according to the United States
Department of Education [USDE] report (2010). However, this required
administrative support, collaborative structures, and time for teachers to discuss
within workweek. Abbot and Wren (2016) suggest having specialists or experts
mentor teachers to utilize data for instruction. Thus, a structure for discussing
data and assessments should be embedded in the CoPs.
The four schools vary in their responses on being responsible for producing
outputs or learning resources on time. For both Case A and Case B, this item was
among the top observed practices, while for both Case C and D, this item is at the
lower end. One good reason for this is that the department heads described by
both Case A and Case B teachers were supportive. Case A teachers even said that
their chairperson is very organized and that all they need to do is comply, which
is also why they respected her. This characteristic of the department chairperson
is the opposite of what was mentioned in Case D. In Case C, teachers do not have
a chairperson. They only need to answer to their principal directly, which
indicates that they do not need to rush. Another reason for Case C is that, since
there are only three of them to work on tasks equivalent to six teachers, they do
not have much time to produce learning resources on time.
The other item with high deviation has a leader who organizes teaching loads and
schedules for meetings. This is similar to the scenario in the previous paragraph.
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Cases A, C, and D have department chairpersons who prepare schedules, while

Case C is their guidance counselor. For Case D, there was no common schedule
for teachers to meet. This is also evident in the frequency of interactions in Case
D compared to Case A and Case B. The teachers in Case A have bi-monthly to
monthly LAC sessions for LAC sessions on average. Case B has four times in a
grading period, whereas, for Case D, it is only once per grading period, or once
every two months.
The other item not consistent in the four cases refers to minutes and documents
when planning for activities, which again scored among the top observed
practices for both Case A and Case B. However, there is least for Case C and D.
This could again be due to the characteristics of the chairpersons of Case A and B
as being organized. Regarding Case C, they said that they do not have minutes as
most of the time, their daily interactions cum LAC session cum meetings were
done informally over lunch.
With what was presented, the following insights are drawn:

1. Active participation in meetings and activities need not require the imposition
of a memorandum like that for Case D. What is necessary is the frequent,
more structured, and well-supported CoP activities through the
leadership of both the principal and department head like in Case A.
2. Having a leader who programs schedules to ensure time for each other and for
meetings supplements the lack of shared office space, such as in Case B.
3. New CoPs without formal structure but have shared goals still work. They can
frequently meet to propose activities worth undertaking and designate
committee heads for complex tasks. These maintenance activities helped
develop a sense of community that is lacking, such as in Case C.
4. Current CoP cases in the Philippines are not data-driven; thus, support is highly
needed in this area.
Data drawn from the interview and FGD of the four cases points to three main
factors in the formation and maintenance of CoPs. These are presented in Table 4.
Table 4: Main Factors in Formation and Maintenance of CoPs

Factors/Implem Case A Case B Case C Case D
entation
Leadership Management of Management of Management of Management of
principal and Principal and Principal Principal
supervision of supervision of
Department Department
Head Head
Sense of Good Good Good Good
Membership relationship and relationship and relationship and relationship and
commitment commitment commitment commitment
towards goals towards goals towards goals towards goals
Opportunities Frequent due to Dependent on Every lunchtime Dependent on

for Interaction shared office CoP activities at the clinic CoP activity;
and proximity of lack of shared
homerooms; office
lack shared
office
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The first factor reported across cases is leadership. All the principals in the four
cases provided the necessary support to the teachers, of particular interest
mentioned as providing resources for the student research and competitions.
However, the leadership of the Science department head has more impact in terms
of CoP. In Case A, for example, the department head pushed the members to
collaborate. Important characteristics of department heads cited in Case A and
Case B are described during the FGD, which included being caring, organized,
and supportive. On the other hand, the Case D chairperson was described as
someone who does not go out of their comfort zone and is unsupportive, leading
the department not to advance. Leadership therefore in the context of CoP is vital
as it contributes to better coordination of networks and communication flow,
resulting in active participation and an increase in knowledge flow among
members (Probst & Borzillo, 2008; Zanjani & Alami, 2009).
Second is the sense of membership which includes aspects of commitment

towards their goals for Science learning, professional growth, and collegial
relationships. Sense of membership can be observed in both old CoPs such as Case
B and newer CoPs such as Case C. This finding is consistent with Pyrko et al.
(2016), which stated that CoP development involves creating a new link between
finding the meaning of learning together and the sustainability of thinking
together.
Lastly are the opportunities for interaction which vary mainly across cases due to
not having dedicated time for interaction and not having a shared office space.
However, teachers compensated for this with their teacher-initiated meetups,
online group chat, and other teacher-initiated activities. Having such regular
opportunities allows members to think together which is necessary in CoP based
on the findings of Pryko et al. (2017).
3.3 Science Teacher Development

This section presents the positive changes Science teachers experienced from their
participation in CoPs. This part is anchored to the teacher development model of
Bell and Gilbert (1994). According to Bell and Gilbert, CoPs lead to three aspects
of development among Science teachers, namely Social Development, Personal
Development, and Professional Development. The experience of social
development starts with the realization that isolation is problematic and ends in
working comfortably with colleagues. On the other hand, personal development
changes teachers’ experience in their perceptions, attitudes, and beliefs about
what it means to be a Science teacher
Lastly, the professional development of the teachers refers to changes teachers’

experience through CoP that led them to become empowered Science teachers
that includes desiring change, experimenting with methods, and then embracing
the change (Bell & Gilbert, 1994). The study of Bell and Gilbert was done by
observing how teachers work together through a research project for three years
to capture teachers’ development. However, in this study, data comes from
interviews and FGD, which intends to capture teachers' experiences from natural
and spontaneous CoPs. A summary of the results of teacher developments is
presented in Table 4.
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Table 4. CoP Contributions to Teacher Development Across Cases

Development Case A Case B Case C Case D
Aspect
Social Friendliness Friendliness Patience Patience
Development Help-seeking Help-seeking Comfortable Listening skills
with peers
Help-seeking
Personal Confidence to Confidence to Coping stress Staying

Development teach teaching and motivated to
Control in the handling teach
classroom responsibilities Flexibility
Staying Staying Social identity
motivated to motivated to
teach teach
Professional Innovativeness Innovativeness Increase of Goal-
Development Increase of personal orientedness
personal instructional Efficiency
instructional standards Openness to
standards input and
feedback
Social Development. The report of the participants has indicated genuine

experiences of social development. The first aspect reported is how teachers could
get along well with peers. For example, in Case B and Case C, the teachers
mentioned learning to get along, opening to others and being open to each other,
and adjusting to each other's personalities. Getting along well and adjusting well
with peers is essential because it makes collaboration easier, which is necessary
according to Case A teachers. After all, they need manpower.
Case D teachers also reported developing listening skills from their interactions
with each other which is important to know their colleagues better. Teachers also
reported improving their patience, learning to listen, and learning to handle and
adjust to peers who at times are irate or moody. Another change observed was
having a stronger bond that accordingly leads to being able to ask for help from
peers, such as in Cases C and D. In case B, teachers do not even have to ask to be
helped as they have developed in time an unwritten relational understanding
when a peer needs help.
The responses of participants as regards to their social development can therefore

be put in a continuum. This means that the participants, just like Bell and Gilbert
(1994), realized the necessity of getting along with peers by adjusting to each
other's personalities, which required listening and being more patient. Through
these, they have become more comfortable with each other, that they can seek help
and give support every time they need each other.
Personal Development. Responses from the participants indicated that there are
indeed personal level changes, including coping with stress, gaining confidence,
control in the classroom, and having an identity. First is the handling and or
coping with stress. Teachers of Case C, for example, had a chat and open forum
or feedbacking sessions as means to calm them down and help them handle
situations involving classrooms, peers, and students. Though heavily loaded with
84
teaching assignments, their warm interactions and relationship allowed teachers

of Case C to handle stress better. This was particularly observed by a teacher who
had experienced being the sole Science teacher in her previous school assignment.
No one else could relate to what she went through as a Science teacher.
Another change that teachers endorsed was control in the classroom, particularly
in Case A. One teacher in Case A reported that she used to break down resulting
from not knowing how to handle her students. She acknowledged that she could
not handle her class as a mature person like her colleagues. From there, she
received help and support from her colleagues and realized to accept challenges
in the classroom and make an effort instead of getting frustrated and complaining
about her students.
Another personal level change that the teachers experienced in Case D was being
able to have an identity. Teachers particularly described it as having roots and
belonging to a family. One teacher even said that he felt more effective if he
belonged to particular norms or groups. Another described having an identity as
a feeling of not being the only person struggling. Teachers added that some
identities of science teachers include being more organized and using more
teaching tools when teaching than teachers of other subject matter.
Participants also reported developing confidence in CoP. One experience of Case

A had a new Science teacher who lacked the experience in teaching Science. Her
colleagues in the CoP provided the necessary encouragement and support for her
to teach Science. In summary, the constant interaction and feedback from CoP led
teachers to realize they need peer support leading to control and confidence in the
classroom and the development of identities as Science teachers.
Professional Development. In terms of personal development, teachers reported

having clearer goals, increased teaching standards, and becoming innovative.
First, teachers reported that CoP led them to have clearer goals of producing
Science literate learners. They said that if they were alone, they would have
wandered. Second is the increasing the standards for Science teachers, which is
evident in the teachers’ desire to change. Teachers have reported particularly, in
case C, that being surrounded by the best teachers influences them to be better.
They were also inspired to stay current or updated on recent advances in Science,
saying they wanted to contribute much like their colleagues. Case D teachers have
also reported becoming more open to input and feedback from knowing their
peers’ performance through CoPs.
Another form of professional development was exploring new ways to teach a

particular topic. In Case A for example, teachers used to have typical culminating
Science activities but changed it recently after their deliberation in their CoPs.
They even had another plan for the succeeding year on tranforming trash into
something more useful. In Case B, teachers utilized of hands-on and student-
centered approaches and integration of ICTs that stems from their CoPs
observation of students who easily get bored in the class. In both cases, CoPs
allowed teachers to collectively reflect on their current practice and not just
85
remain comfortable with the status quo, hence, invoking to practice

innovativeness.
These findings are consistent with the review of Dogan & Adams (2018) that CoPs
can lead to positive teacher practices as CoPs allow facilitator support and
collaboration, promote active learning strategies, focus on instruction and
students, and reflective dialogue. In addition, the participants' responses
provided evidence that CoP contributed to the social, personal, and professional
development of science teachers. This also supports the model of Bell and Gilbert
(1994), indicating that the three aspects of development are interactive and
interdependent. As mentioned earlier, the personal development of the teachers
was enabled by their social development. Both personal and social development
precede professional development, as purported by Bell and Gilbert. Being
reflective and the increasing standards of teaching are indications of professional
development but arriving at this point required the teachers the social interactions
afforded to them by their membership in the CoP that allowed teachers to be
comfortable with each other, confident when interacting with peers, and is open
and empowered by seeking help.
This study thus agrees with Bell and Gilbert that professional learning programs
of teachers should involve not only the implementation of suggested activities by
the teachers in their respective classrooms but also must consider the personal or
social aspects which are often underplayed. This also explains why professional
learning that features content focus, active learning, collaboration, coaching,
feedback and reflection, and sustained duration is effective (Darling-Hammond
et al., 2017). This is because having professional learning that is both sustained
and collaborative enough could lead to the development of teachers' personal,
social, and professional development.
4. Key Lessons Learned

The following key lessons learned are derived from the presented results that
can provide inputs for CoP cultivation in schools.
a. The significant roles of the principal in CoP include setting the vision,
establishing mechanisms for teacher collaboration, providing the funds and
resources needed by teachers for their professional growth, and formulating
policies favorable for Science instruction and learning.
b. Department heads directly impact CoPs as they are the ones who organize and
encourage teachers to collaborate, provide immediate assistance, and monitor
implementation. Teachers prefer them to be caring, systematic, and
supportive over qualities that limit teachers’ potential.
c. Being a member of a CoP requires a commitment to pursuing goals and
maintaining a good working relationship.
d. CoP teacher engagements and productivity are highly dependent on
workload, schedule, and shared space.
e. Participation in CoPs can lead teachers to become driven by higher standards,
innovative, reflective, flexible, confident, optimistic, motivated, patient, and
friendly. This is because teachers can see models of performance and character
from peers through their frequent engagements in CoP.
86
f. Planning for activities before the school year is vital to identify activities that
Science teachers will pursue in their CoPs.
5. Conclusion
Based on the four cases, Science CoPs in the Philippines are governed by a DepEd
memorandum requiring schools to establish LAC. Science CoPs follow a typical
school organizational structure with principal and department heads as leaders
and master teachers as mentors and coordinators to Proficient or new teachers.
Leaders together with members work as a community in setting up learning
structure that fosters sharing and co-construction of practice through mentoring,
coaching, team teaching, LAC sessions, and other group initiated activities such
as group chats and meetups. Three vital elements of community structure led to
the formation of CoPs, namely leadership, a sense of membership, and
opportunities for interaction which are at the same time contributory to
maintaining the CoP in the participating schools. The maintenance activities
include active participation in CoP activities, programming schedules by
department heads, forming committees for complex tasks, and proposing Science
activities. On the other hand, the least prioritized activity is utilizing data for
reviewing and planning instruction as a group. The lack of fellowship made
attendance and participation in meetings a form of compliance rather than a
willful act borne out of mutual respect among members and to the leaders of the
CoP. Involvement in Science CoP can lead teachers to become innovative and
reflective and aim for high professional teaching standards. Socially, they
effectively fostered camaraderie and built effective working relationships making
them more confident, flexible, and motivated. The study, in general, has provided
evidence of total Science teacher development through participation in CoPs that
are beneficial for student learning. Therefore, schools and teachers can learn from
the structures, learning activities, and maintenance activities presented in this
paper to cultivate or improve their current CoP. Further studies focusing on
impact of CoPs on Science teaching practice, innovations and PCK are
recommended.
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Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 90-103, June 2022
Physics Course Content of University Physics

Education Programme as Reference to Content
Distribution of JUPEB and WAEC Syllabi
Olalekan T. Badmus , Abiodun A. Bada and Loyiso C. Jita

University of the Free State, South Africa
Abstract. The evolution of curricula at any level of education remains

relevant based on evolving developments, challenges, and policy
direction of society. A university physics education programme has
evolved over the years to accommodate, and in some instances,
remediate the societal dynamics using the principles of physics. The
training of physics teachers for post-basic or secondary education has
changed over the years to accommodate solutions to various infractions.
We examine the physics course content of a university physics
education programme with a view to providing data on content
distribution of both advanced and ordinary level physics syllabi. This
study is qualitative research of the case study type which sampled the
content of two syllabi and course content of a physics education
programme. Content analysis was employed to analyse topics and
subtopics among three documents. From the result, topics and subtopics
were fractionalised to provide an overview of each of the three
examined documents. The implication of this is that amendments can be
systematically made to accommodate the newly introduce theme
physics in technology. Thus, this study proffers a justifiable template for
moderating textbooks to authors, bridging the gap between present and
future additions and exposing areas of capacity building for physics
teachers, among others.
Keywords: content distribution; JUPEB; physics education programme;

physics syllabus; WAEC
1. Introduction
The dynamic nature of science brings to the fore its evolution. This evolution
allows for changes to be made in terms of content, process and product. The
teaching of science in the classroom is not static. The introduction of emerging
areas in science allows for exposure to learners at all levels of education with a
view to accommodating and equipping emerging learners with up-to-date
knowledge in both existing and new fields or disciplines. Automation and green
energy are new areas in physics, especially in the developing countries globally
©Authors
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(Badmus and Jita, 2022). These new areas are expected to be accommodated in
both the curricula and syllabi of all subject areas (in this case, physics). For new
introduction, the existing framework and content must be assessed to give
direction on areas of addition. For a fact, the number of days in a year will not
change, and a similar assumption can be said of time spent in school by learners.
As such, the curriculum is always reviewed to cater for emerging areas and for
jettisoning old knowledge to avoid cognitive overload. This study examined
existing syllabi of ordinary and advance level physics with a view to providing a
template for introducing the new theme. Subsequent paragraphs will discuss the
terminologies and rationale for this study.
A quality education should equip citizens with the ability not only to cater for
the immediate need of society but also to meet the evolving demands of such
society in field-related challenges. The National Policy on Education (NPE) as
relayed in the Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council
(NERDC) of 2013 has among its goals the study of science and the production of
an adequate number of scientists to inspire and support national development.
At the senior secondary level (post-basic education), the core science subjects are
Physics, Chemistry and Biology. The production of scientists is necessary to
support national development precepts, producing individuals equipped with
the content and pedagogical knowledge (know-how) of science concepts at all
levels, including senior secondary level of science education (Carlson & Daehler,
2019). Universities are responsible for the training of individuals in various
disciplines in science education across the board. As such, the training of
educators in the sciences falls under the purview of the faculties of education in
these universities (Baumert & Kunter, 2013).
Accreditation of programmes being undertaken in each university is solely done

by the National Universities Commission (NUC), a commission under the
Federal Ministry of Education. Among other responsibilities, the NUC accredits,
supervises and monitors programmes that are being studied at these
universities. As a guide, the NUC issues Benchmark Minimum Academic
Standard (BMAS) to universities in Nigeria which are occasionally reviewed.
These reviews are done to accommodate changes in the curriculum as deemed
appropriate in conjunction with various universities in the country. The BMAS,
as a document binds public universities (owned by federal and state
governments), as well as, private universities (owned by individual and
corporate entities). The afore-listed categories of universities have the mandate
to abide by the standard set in the BMAS. Courses in this document have the
compulsory (C), required (R) and elective components. Although the
compulsory courses are a core of the student’s discipline, the ‘required’ courses
vary with regard to each department. Elective courses are candidate specific in
terms of preferences. The training of the aforementioned prospective scientists
(physicists or physics educators) is principally the responsibility of the teachers
in each of the fields of science at the senior secondary level of education (NUC-
BMAS, 2007).
Physics is a branch of science that is concerned with the study of matter, energy
and their interaction. At the lower level of education, physics is taught as a
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single subject. The branches of physics at the higher level are numerous and still
evolving owing to the nature of science. These branches include but are not
limited to biophysics, astrophysics, optics, nuclear physics, thermodynamics,
classical physics, atomic physics, mechanics, modern physics, geophysics, and
acoustics. At both elementary and intermediate levels, physics is considered as a
difficult subject owing to its affiliation with mathematical principles and laws
(Singh et al., 2016; Benegas & Villegas, 2021). To some students, mathematics is
difficult enough; with its application in physics, a number of students lose
interest in studying any aspect of it (Nielsen, 2013). While many view physics as
a stand-alone field, it is all-inclusive, its application being found in virtually all
the fields of human endeavour. Interestingly, forensic scientists apply the
knowledge of physics in unearthing and reconstructing hidden evidence from
crime scenes and beyond (Franck & Franck, 2013; Lin et al., 2019).
The importance of the knowledge of physics in the advancement of global

technology and the economy has been established. For example, the
development in the field of information and communication technology (ICT),
especially in the areas of gadgets and devices produced, prevented the world
from going into total lockdown owing to legislations put in place by
governments to prevent the continuous spread of the deadly Covid19 pandemic.
Not only have these benefitted the nation technologically, advancement in
information and communication technology has also turned the world into a
‘global village’, thus facilitating the exchange of information. Societies willing
for such advancement must give proper attention to the knowledge of physics,
its teaching and learning. The teaching of physics is expected to be enshrined in
the curriculum of learners from the most elementary stage to the highest stage
possible owing to its importance. It is imperative to pay adequate attention to
physics knowledge and the content as spelt out at various levels of education,
especially the senior secondary level and the university content of the physics
education programme. This becomes germane as a result of the ripple effect
physics has in all the science, technology, engineering and mathematics-
(STEM)related fields (Badmus & Omosewo, 2020; Bada and Afolabi, 2020).
Despite the importance of studying physics to scientific and technological

development, its teaching and learning have associated challenges. These
challenges are not limited to student-related factors, teacher-related factors,
curriculum-content factors, or lack of or inadequate laboratory resources for
effective teaching and learning (Jeronen et al., 2017; Olatundun-Aiyedun &
Ogunode, 2020). Of the aforementioned, curriculum-related factors which
include the step-down content as reflected in the Advanced Joint Universities
Preliminary Examinations Board (JUPEB) and Ordinary West African
Examinations Council (WAEC) level syllabi of the Senior Secondary School
Physics Curriculum of the NERDC are the focus of this study. Similarly, the
physics component of the physics education programme of the National
Universities Commission (NUC) is also of interest. In the physics education
programme, there are three component courses, namely the physics content, the
pedagogical content and the extension component. The extension component
courses in this study are referred to as courses in which candidates minor (such
as mathematics and chemistry). The focus of this study with regard to the
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physics education programme is the physics component of the physics

education programme (JUPEB, 2020; WAEC, 2020; NUC-BMAS, 2007).
2. Reviewed Literature
Physics education is one of the teacher-education programmes in Nigerian
universities’ Faculties of Education. Physics teacher-education curricula which
were developed in line with the criteria established by the National University
Commission (NUC-BMAS, 2007) are meant to produce competent teachers for
senior secondary school physics teaching. In effect, graduates of this programme
are certified by various universities to have acquired competence in this area of
study and to have the pedagogical skill to pass down the knowledge of physics
to the learners.
The curriculum is the backbone of any educational system because it specifies

what should be taught, how it should be taught and to whom it should be
taught (Usman et al., 2019). Ahmadi and Lukman (2015) defined a curriculum as
a particular form of specification about the practice of teaching. The curriculum
is usually associated with all the learning experiences that the students are
expected to learn within a specified period of time. Musingafi et al. (2015)
opined that the curriculum is a well-defined and prescribed course of studies
which students must complete for them to pass a given level of education. The
curriculum is also viewed as the hard core of education that gives the substance
and methods for pertinent information, abilities and attitudes for sustainable
human development (Milner-Bolotin, 2018).
In Nigeria, the different curricula in physics were streamlined to achieve

particular purposes because each of the curricula was designed to meet different
goals and objectives (Ogodo, 2019). These different goals and objectives all work
towards achieving the philosophy of education as recorded in the National
Policy on Education. As highlighted in the NPE objectives are a total integration
of the individual into the immediate community, the Nigerian society and the
world; the provision of equal access to qualitative educational opportunities for
all citizens at all levels of education, within and outside the formal school
system; the inculcation of national consciousness, values and national unity; and
the development of appropriate skills, mental, physical and social abilities and
competencies to empower the individual to live in and contribute positively to
society (NPE, 2013; Ogodo, 2019).
The senior secondary school physics curriculum is also designed to achieve the
goals and objectives of the philosophy of education in Nigeria. The curriculum
is designed under six themes as compared to the old curriculum that was
designed under five themes (See Table 1). According to Bada et al. (2018), the
inclusion of the new theme “Physics in Technology” was to reduce the “abstract
nature of some topics in physics, thereby making the knowledge of physics real
and concrete” (p. 14). This is because of the importance the study of physics has
to the realization of the nation’s philosophy of education. The Nigerian
Educational Research and Development Council identified four objectives of the
senior secondary school physics curriculum (NPE, 2013). These comprise
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providing fundamental physics literacy of physics for functional living in

society, acquiring fundamental concepts and physics principles as preparation
for additional studies, acquiring important scientific skills and convictions as
preparation for applying physics principles technologically, and stimulating and
encouraging creativity.
Table 1: Difference between former and current physics curricula

Theme Former Curriculum Current Curriculum
Theme 1 Interaction of matter, space Interaction of matter, space
and time and time
Theme 2 Conservation principles Conservation principles
Theme 3 Waves Waves
Theme 4 Fields Fields at rest and in motion
Theme 5 Quanta Energy quantization and duality
of matter
Theme 6 - Physics in technology
In order to achieve the earlier objectives, the Nigeria government has tasked a
number of examination bodies with the assessment of students or candidates on
their attainment of the objectives. Prominent among these examination bodies
are the West African Examinations Council (WAEC), the National Examination
Council (NECO), the National Board for Technical Education (NABTEB), and
the Joint University Preliminary Examinations Board (JUPEB). All these
examination bodies have their various syllabi which serve as a guide for
students before writing the examination. These syllabi contain the different
topics that are more specific to the examination bodies even though the topics
that make up the syllabus are drawn from the curriculum.
A syllabus refers to the subject and topics to be covered in the course of study.
According to Okai (2010), a syllabus refers to an outline of topics that students
are required to study within an estimated time frame. This suggests that the
syllabus is more specific regarding the content and topics to be learnt, thereby
reducing the ambiguity that comes with the curriculum. The syllabus is a more
focussed document outlining the topics to be dealt with during a programme
(Dubicki, 2019; Khan & Krell, 2019). This means the various examinations have
their specific syllabi that guide the students or learners on specific areas on
which to focus. Dubicki (2019) posited that a syllabus ensures a fair
understanding between the students and the teachers, thus reducing to the
barest minimum the confusion on policy relating to the course. This buttresses
the importance of the syllabus of examination bodies to the realization of set
objectives. This further justifies knowing the content that makes up the different
curricula, especially as they relate to university physics education programmes
in Nigerian universities.
Prominent among these syllabi are the senior secondary school physics
curriculum (West African Examinations Council and the National Examination
Council), the joint university preliminary examination board curriculum, and
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the university physics education curriculum. The senior secondary school

physics curriculum is designed to expose secondary school students to the basic
literacy in physics for functional living in society. In addition, it is also meant to
prepare learners to acquire basic concepts and principles of physics as
preparation for further studies (FRN, 2013). The senior secondary school
physics curriculum has its contents arranged in a thematic approach and it is
structured on the two concepts of motion and energy. The content of the
secondary school physics is further broken down into six themes, namely
interaction of matter, space and time, conservation principles, waves, fields at
rest and in motion, energy quantization and the duality of matter and physics in
technology. Students are expected to have good mastery of all the topics under
each theme and are examined across topics. This curriculum represents the
standard for the teaching of senior secondary school physics and guide syllabus
and instruction among examination bodies and schools (Rocha, 2020).
3. Methodology
This study employed qualitative research of a case study. The cases were the
WAEC syllabus (ordinary level physics syllabus), the JUPEB (advanced level
physics syllabus) and the physics component of the university physics education
programme as spelt out in the NUC Benchmark Minimum Academic Standard
(BMAS). Content analysis was conducted on these three documents. Content
analysis was employed in the examination of the content of West African
Examinations Council, Joint University Preliminaries Examination Board
(JUPEB) syllabus and the physics content of the university physics education
programme. This was done by organising, analysing, representing and
presenting data with reference to the research questions. The method adopted
was to group the content of the syllabi and physics courses into topics and
subtopics for easy correspondence. The topics and subtopics in the syllabus in
each case were identified, as well as the number of items in the subtopics and
the percentage distribution of each item. The WAEC, JUPEB and BMAS are
public documents available to the public and can be found on various websites
(https://www.waecdirect.org,https://jupeb.edu.ng, https://www.nuc.edu.ng).
There is no ethical violation in accessing, assessing and presenting data in this
manuscript.
3.1 The West African Examinations Council (WAEC)

The WAEC is an examining body that was established in 1952 by the British
government to conduct a uniform examination among the anglophone countries
of Gambia, Ghana, Sierra Leone, Nigeria and Liberia. WAEC conducts two
examinations, namely the General Certificate Examinations (GCE) and the West
African Senior Schools Certificate Examinations (WASSCE) each year (Upahi et
al., 2015). The GCE is usually conducted for external students who are not
identified with any secondary school before writing the examination while the
West African examination is usually conducted for internal students currently in
identified senior secondary schools. The West African Examination Council has
its own physics syllabus which students are expected to use as a guide in
preparing for writing the examination. To date the examination body appears to
be the most widely accepted examination for senior secondary school students
in the country and it is also highly rated among the examination bodies on the
96
continent of Africa. The body organizes both ordinary and advance levels of
examination in the country. Physics students who register and sit for the
WASSCE must have satisfied a minimum of three years secondary school
education on the syllabus of the Council. This is because the syllabus spans
three years of learning activities which culminate in the writing of the
examination (WAEC, 2020).
3.2 The Joint Universities Preliminary Examinations Board (JUPEB)

The JUPEB is an examination body established in April 2014, and pioneered by
ten universities in Nigeria. The approval for the examining body was giving by
the Federal Government of Nigeria in December 2013. It has the responsibility
of conducting standard examinations to student candidates who have been
exposed to approved courses with a duration period of one year or more. The
JUPEB programme prepares students for diploma programmes or direct entry
admission seekers in the 200 level in the university without having to write the
Unified Tertiary Matriculation Board (UTME) examinations. The examining
body operates a syllabus that is a subset of the physics curriculum as approved
by the Federal Republic of Nigeria government (JUPEB, 2020).
3.3 University Physics Education Programme (UPEP)

The National Universities Commission (NUC) dictates the courses for all
programmes of study in the universities in Nigeria, including science education
programmes. These programmes (science education) are tasked with the
responsibility of producing professionally qualified teachers of science in the
post-basic (senior secondary) level of education. Accreditation of programmes
being untaken in each university is carried out solely by the National
Universities Commission (NUC). Among other responsibilities, the NUC
accredits, supervises and monitors programmes that are being studied in these
universities. As a guide, the NUC issues BMASs to universities in Nigeria which
are occasionally reviewed. The BMAS mandates the compliance of the minimum
academic courses for prospective students in various disciplines in Nigerian
universities. The BMAS contains courses which are compulsory (C), required (R)
and elective (E) for the various programmes of study. For a student to graduate
from the university, the compulsory and required courses are mandatory for
students to pass within the maximum academic years (mostly six). Elective
courses are optional and vary from student to student. Although, the
compulsory courses are a core of the student’s discipline, the ‘required’ vary
with regard to each department. Elective courses are candidate specific in term
of preferences (NUC-BMAS, 2007).
3.4 Current Study

This study sought to analyse the content of the WAEC syllabus, the JUPEB)
syllabus and the university physics education programmes in Nigeria. Specially,
this study has the following objectives: to analyse the content distribution of the
physics topics in the WAEC syllabus; to analyse the content distribution of the
physics topics in the JUPEB syllabus; and to analyse the content distribution of
the physics courses in the physics education programme. In line with the
objectives, the following questions were asked: (1) What is the content
distribution of the topics in the JUPEB syllabus? (2) What is the content
97
distribution of the topics in the WAEC syllabus? (3) What is the content
distribution of the topics in the physics education program syllabus?
4. Findings
This section presents data analysis which provides answers to the research
questions raised in this study. Content analyses of the WAEC syllabus, JUPEB
syllabus and the physics content of the physics education programme are
presented respectively.
Research Question One: What is the content distribution of the topics in the
WAEC Syllabus?
Table 2: Content distribution of the WAEC syllabus

S/N Topic Frequency Percentage
of items in distribution
subtopics (%)
1 Concepts of matter 6 3.6
2 Fundamental and derived quantities and units 2 1.2
3 Position, distance and displacement 4 2.4
4 Mass and weight 2 1.2
5 Time 2 1.2
6 Fluid at rest 3 1.8
7 Motion 7 4.2
8 Speed and velocity 4 2.4
9 Rectilinear acceleration 4 2.4
10 Scalars and vectors 6 3.6
11 Equilibrium of forces 3 1.8
12 Simple harmonic motion 5 3.0
13 Newton’s laws of motion 3 1.8
14 Energy 3 1.8
15 Work, energy and power 7 4.2
16 Heat energy 11 6.7
17 Production and propagation of waves 4 2.4
18 Types of waves 2 1.2
19 Properties of waves 6 3.6
20 Light waves 8 4.8
21 Electromagnetic waves 1 0.6
22 Sound waves 9 5.5
23 Description property of fields 2 1.2
24 Gravitational field 3 1.8
25 Electric field 11 6.7
26 Current electricity 8 4.8
27 Magnetic field 8 4.8
28 Electromagnetic field 6 3.6
29 Simple A.C. circuit 7 4.2
30 Structure of the atom 5 3.0
31 Structure of the nucleus 3 1.8
32 Wave-particle paradox 10 6.1
Total 165 100.0
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Table 2 reveals the content distribution of the topics and subtopics in the WAEC
syllabus. There are 32 main topics in the syllabus with a total of 165 subtopics.
The percentage distribution of the topics is as follows: Concepts of matter 3.6%;
Fundamental and derived quantities and units 1.2%; Position, distance and
displacement 2.4%; Mass and weight 1.2%; Time 1.2%; Fluid at rest 1.8%; Motion
4.2%; Speed and velocity 2.4%; Rectilinear acceleration 2.4%; Scalars and vectors
3.6%; Equilibrium of forces 1.8%; Simple harmonic motion 3.0%; Newton’s laws
of motion 1.8%; Energy 1.8%; Work, energy and power 4.2%; Heat energy 6.7%;
Production and propagation of waves 2.4%; Types of waves 1.2%; Properties of
waves 3.6%; Light waves 4.8%; Electromagnetic waves 0.6%, Sound Waves 5.5%;
Description property of fields 1.2%; Gravitational field 1.8%; Electric field 6.7%;
Current electricity 4.8%; Magnetic field 4.8%; Electromagnetic field 3,6%; Simple
AC circuit 4.2%; Structure of the atom 3.0%; Structure of the nucleus 1.8%; and
Wave-particle paradox 6.1%. Based on the data in Table 1, it can be concluded
that Heat energy and Electric field with 11 sub-topics which each account for
6.7% of the entire subtopic distribution have a wider distribution in the WAEC
syllabus.
Research Question Two: What is the content distribution of the topics in the
JUPEB syllabus?
Table 3: Content distribution of the JUPEB syllabus

S/N Topic Number of Percentage
items in distribution
subtopics (%)
1 Units 7 2.6
2 Vectors 6 2.2
3 Particle kinematics 8 3.0
4 Dynamics 12 4.4
5 The gravitational field 5 1.8
6 Work, energy, power 7 2.6
7 Circular and oscillatory motion 14 5.2
8 Elasticity 5 5.5
9 Hydrostatic 10 3.7
10 Hydrodynamics 11 4.1
11 Idea gases 7 2.6
12 Temperature and thermometry 5 1.8
13 Heat and energy 7 2.6
14 Thermodynamics 4 1.5
15 Electromagnetic waves 2 0.7
16 Geometrical optics 8 3.0
17 Lenses and optical instruments 8 3.0
18 Oscillations and waves 9 3.3
19 Wave theory of light 8 3.0
20 Sound waves 8 3.0
21 Electronics 10 3.7
22 Capacitors 6 2.2
23 Current electricity 14 5.2
24 Magnetic field 3 11
25 Force on conductor and moving charge 7 2.6
99
26 Electromagnetic induction 10 3.7

27 Alternating current (AC) circuit 10 3.7
28 Atomic structure 9 3.3
29 Elements of modern physics 9 3.3
30 X-rays 7 2.6
31 Wave-particle duality 6 2.2
32 Radioactivity and nuclear energy 9 3.3
33 Introduction to semiconductors 7 2.6
34 Applied physics 3 1.1
Total 271 100.0
Table 3 reveals the content distribution of topics in the JUPEB syllabus. Table 2
shows that there are 34 main topics and 271 subtopics in the JUPEB syllabus. The
percentage distribution of the topics is as follows: Units 2.6%; Vectors 2.2%;
Particle kinematics 3.0%; Dynamics 4.4%; The gravitational field 1.8%; Work,
energy, and power 2.6%; Circular and oscillatory motions 5.2%; Elasticity 5.5%;
Hydrostatics 3.7%; Hydrodynamics 4.1%; Ideal gases 2.6%; Temperature and
thermometry 1.8%; Heat and energy 2.6%; Thermodynamics 1.5%;
Electromagnetic waves 0.7%; Geometrical optics 3.0%; Lenses and optical
instruments 3.0%; Oscillations and waves 3.3%; Wave theory of light 3.0%;
Sound waves 3.0%; Electronics 3.7%; Capacitors 2.2%; Current electricity 5.2%;
Magnetic field 1.1%; Force on conductor and moving charge 2.6%;
Electromagnetic induction 3.7%; Alternating current (AC) circuit 3.7%; Atomic
structure 3.3%; Elements of modern physics 3.3%; X-rays 2.6%; Wave-particle
duality 2.2%; Radioactivity and nuclear energy 3.3%; Introduction to
semiconductors 2.6%; and Applied physics 1.1%. Based on Table 2, it can be
concluded that the topic Elasticity with 15 subtopics has wider scope in the
JUPEB syllabus.
Research Question Three: What is the content distribution of the topics in the
university physics education courses?
Table 4: Content distribution of the topics in the physics education syllabus

S/N Topic Frequency Percentage
of items distribution
(%)
1 Mechanics and properties of matter 15 5.0
2 Heat, sound and optics 18 6.0
3 Atomic and nuclear physics 14 4.7
4 Electricity and magnetism 15 5.0
5 Practical physics I 12 4.0
6 Practical physics II 5 1.7
7 Mechanics and properties of matter II 8 2.7
8 Vibration and waves 9 3.0
9 Heat, atomic and nuclear physics 14 4.7
10 Electricity and magnetism II 11 3.7
11 Practical physics III 9 3.0
12 Practical physics V 1 0.3
13 Practical physics VI 10 3.3
14 Waves and optics 15 5.0
100
15 Thermodynamics and statistical physics 11 3.7

16 Quantum physics 11 3.7
17 Electromagnetic theory I 17 5.7
18 Electronics I 8 2.7
19 Practical physics and treatment of data I 7 2.3
20 Measurement method 8 2.7
21 Solid state physics I 10 3.3
22 Solid state physics II 6 2.0
23 Nuclear and particle physics 14 4.7
24 Communications 17 5.7
25 Electromagnetic theory II 14 4.7
26 Digital electronics 8 2.7
27 Physics of the lower atmosphere 12 4.0
Total 299 100.0
Table 4 reveals that there are 27 physics courses in the syllabus with a total of
299 subtopics. The percentage distribution of the topics is as follows: Mechanics
and properties of matter 5.0%; Heat, sound and optics 6.0%; Atomic and nuclear
physics 4.7%; Electricity and magnetism 5.0%; Practical physics I 4.0%; Practical
physics II 1.7%; Mechanics and properties of matter II 2.7%; Vibration and waves
3.0%; Heat, atomic and nuclear physics 4.7%; Electricity and magnetism II 3.7%;
Practical physics III 3.0%; Practical physics V 0.3%; Practical physics VI 3.3%;
Waves and optics 5.0%; Thermodynamics and statistical physics 3.7%; Quantum
physics 3.7%; Electromagnetic theory I 5.7%; Electronics I 2.7%; Practical physics
and treatment of data I 2.3%; Measurement method 2.7%; Solid state physics I
3.3%; Solid state physics II 2.0%; Nuclear and particle physics 4.7%;
Communications 5.7%; Electromagnetic theory II 4.7%; Digital electronics 2.7%;
and Physics of the lower atmosphere. Furthermore, the data in Table 3 indicated
Heat, sound and optics to have 18 subtopics which accounts for 6.0% of the
entire subtopic distribution in the physics education syllabus.
5. Discussion
The findings from this study revealed the content distributions of the
topics/sub-topics in the WAEC, the JUPEB and the university physics education
programme syllabi. The results in Table 2 showed that the heat energy and
electric field had the highest number of occurrences in the WAEC syllabus. Table
3 revealed that circular and oscillatory motion and current electricity had the
highest number of occurrences in the JUPEB syllabus while Table 4 showed that
topics such as heat, sound and optics, electromagnetic theory, communication,
mechanics and properties of matter, waves and optics, electricity and magnetism
topped occurred most frequently in the university physics education
programme. A critical review of the three syllabi revealed that the topics that
make up the theme ‘Physics in technology’ have not been integrated into any of
the syllabi despite its inclusion in the last review of the senior secondary school
physics curriculum in 2009. This poses a significant question regarding its
teaching, even at the senior secondary school level of education. It appears that
there is a misalignment between the physics curriculum and the topics in the
three physics syllabi of the WAEC, JUBEB and UPEP. The disparity in the
number of topics and subtopics among the three syllabi also confirms
101
misalignment in the three official documents. This finding is significant as it

reveals a disconnect between the official physics curriculum and the three
physics-related syllabi as its topics and subtopics do not completely reflect what
the physics curriculum prescribes. This finding contributes to scholarship as it
reveals the gap in theory and practice, as the official curriculum did not totally
capture all the topics or subtopics as it ought to. The study also proffers a
justifiable template that can be used in the moderation of textbooks and other
resources in order to bridge the gap between the present and future additions to
the curriculum.
6. Conclusion
As mentioned in the analysis, the profiling of the topics and subtopics has been
brought to the fore in this study. Similarly, this profiling of content establishes a
template for easy moderation and representation owing to the sixth theme in the
senior secondary school physics curriculum (physics in technology) which so
far, has no representation in either the syllabi of Advanced JUPEB or Ordinary
WAEC levels. As indicated in previous paragraphs, there are two topics in the
sixth theme, namely Renewable energy and Automation. These two topics have
consequent subtopics which must also be represented in the various syllabi.
While the purview of this study is not to moderate or determine the worthiness
in terms of representation, this study is a reference material that establishes a
framework or template for policy makers and curriculum experts. By extension,
the WAEC and the JUPEB syllabi, as well as the physics content of the physics
education programme have all been laid bare. Worthy of note is the fact that
these topics are well established as courses in the BMAS. Therefore, a shift is
needed to change the status of these courses from elective (E) to required (R) to
prepare and give capacity to teachers in training for the task of teaching these
aspects, among others. Based on the aforementioned, this study should guide
the introduction of the sixth theme into the syllabi of ordinary and advanced
level topics as well as guiding its introduction into the physics education content
of the university physics education programme.
Based on the findings of this study, the present curriculum was reviewed in 2009
and is due for re-evaluation with regard to emerging areas in physics education.
A misalignment exists in the syllabus when compared to the curriculum content.
The sixth theme (Physics in technology) is yet to gain prominence in various
textbooks after 13 years. Therefore, efforts need to be directed on its integration
into textbooks, as well as the classroom teaching. It is worth noting that the sixth
theme is practically oriented and must engage the curiosity of learners. To this
end, it is necessary to build the capacity of teachers, instructors and laboratory
personnel to engage students. Researchers are encouraged to devise practical
manuals in this area to foster hands-on and activity-based approaches to its
teaching as recommended in the curriculum. Further studies should be
conducted on discrepancies in terms of content of the documents reviewed in
this study
102
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Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 104-121, June 2022
Received Mar 29, 2022; Revised Jun 12, 2022; Accepted Jun 19, 2022
Rasch Validation of Instrument Measuring Gen-

Z Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Mathematics (STEM) Application in Teaching
during the Pandemic
Hilman Qudratuddarsi
Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Riyan Hidayat*
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Perak, Malaysia
Raja Lailatul Zuraida binti Raja Maamor Shah

Nurihan Nasir
Muh Khairul Wajedi Imami

Rusdi bin Mat Nor

Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Abstract. The impact of the Covid-19 pandemic has had a far-reaching

effect on higher education institutions, and individual student
assessments have garnered much attention during the pandemic. This
study aimed to validate Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Mathematics (STEM) application instruments using the Rasch analysis
employing Winsteps version 3.73. A survey was conducted with 201
respondents from two provinces in Indonesia. The students were selected
by convenience sampling and answered the adopted STEM application
instrument. The STEM application instruments were adapted, and these
were divided into seven sub-constructs derived from STEM disciplines.
Rasch Modelling was employed for data analysis using Winsteps version
3.7.3 to analyse reliability, separation, item fit statistics,
unidimensionality, and rating scale calibration. Each sub-construct
*
Corresponding author: Riyan Hidayat, riyanhidayat@fsmt.upsi.edu.my
©Authors
105
fulfilled a minimum of 0.65 for Cronbach alpha, item, and person

reliability, and most of them had more than 1.5 person and item
separation. In general, each item had a good score of the mean square, Z-
tolerated standard, and point measure correlation, indicating fulfilment
of the Rasch measurement model. The analysis also showed
unidimensionality assumption and an excellent rating scale. This study
contributed to the body of STEM knowledge by using Rasch Modelling
to test the validity and reliability of STEM application instruments.
Keywords: COVID-19 pandemic; Gen-Z; STEM education; higher

education; Rasch model
1. Introduction
A systemic review has shown that Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Mathematics (STEM) education research is growing in importance on a global
scale, and the identity of STEM education publications is obvious in the realms of
politics, economics, and education (Li et al., 2020a). The importance of STEM is
also evident in the substantial amount of funding for STEM education research,
which has required research collaboration (Carlisle & Weaver, 2018; Li et al., 2020).
Li et al. (2020b) found that the number of projects with several principal
investigators has risen over time, and STEM education projects have become
increasingly collaborative. In Indonesia, as is worldwide, implementation of
STEM education is a hot topic among educational researchers. The trend assumes
that STEM education is crucial in educating future scientists and engineers to meet
the rapid development of technology (Geng et al., 2019). Similarly, STEM
education is rapidly being adopted by educational research to increase
employment and career opportunities, community STEM literacy (Zouda, 2018),
and to acquire key skills and abilities that will be beneficial personally and
professionally (Garry et al., 2020). Salzman and Benderly (2019), for example,
point out that STEM education produces a large number of students who can fill
STEM job openings.
People who were born after 1995, known as Generation Z (Gen-Z), were the first
to be born into a globally (internet) connected world. Their birth aligns with the
beginning of the worldwide web's appearance (Chicca & Shellenbarger, 2018),
and the beginning of the digital and internet era. As digital natives, they live and
breathe technology, they are quick decision-makers and are highly connected
(Cilliers, 2017). Owing to their intense interaction with technology, Gen-Z go by
many other appellations: post-millennial, the Facebook generation, switcher,
dotcom children, net-generation, connection generation, digital-generation, and
responsibility-generation (Csobanka, 2016). Other terms include the N generation
(for net), the D generation (for digital), the V generation (for viral), and the Google
generation (Poláková & Klmová, 2019). Generation Z adults differ from other
generations in that they are more connected to the digital and electronic world,
which they identify as digital and technology-centric (Sing & Dangmei, 2016).
Technology has been integrated into their daily lives and tends to influence their
thinking patterns (Polakova & Klimova, 2019). Generation Z has mostly been
educated using technology in their daily lives and academic endeavours (Talmon,
2019), and their learning characteristics are unsuitable for traditional methods of
106
teaching (Szymkowiak et al., 2021). The challenges of building a STEM education

for Gen-Z have been explored, but to date, the role of Gen-Z as teachers is not as
comprehensively discussed in the literature as is that of their closest predecessors
(millennial teachers).
Given their under-representation in STEM fields, it is apparent that persuading

Gen-Z to choose STEM careers is a major task. This under-representation is true
of most of Indonesia's population. Salzman and Benderly (2019) found that the
STEM workforce constitutes a tiny percentage of the overall student population,
accounting for around only 5% of K-12 students and 8% to 10% of the annual
supply of university graduates. In Australia, for instance, Timms et al. (2018)
found that elementary and high school pupils' interest in STEM subjects is
waning, as is their performance. The same is happening in the Malaysian context.
Using a longitudinal study, Mohd Shahali et al. (2019) showed that secondary
school students' (13–14 years old) interests did not improve significantly after the
programme (Bitara-STEM: Science of Smart Communities Program; Bitara-STEM)
was conducted. Senior high schools in Indonesia revealed diverse beliefs and
interests (Suwono et al., 2019): male students were more interested in engineering
than female students were in biology. Mohd Shahali et al. (2019) emphasised that
the quality of instruction and learning students received in the course was a
contributing factor to their lack of interest in STEM education, making it critical
to investigate and create an instrument for instructors to evaluate STEM teaching.
The implementation of STEM education during the COVID-19 pandemic

presented new challenges. According to Bakker et al. (2021), during a pandemic it
is critical to research learning and teaching of mathematics in a variety of
situations, including professional development, new goals, curriculum,
assessment, and teaching methods. Individual student assessments have garnered
much attention, but the review of the curriculum has been neglected. In STEM
settings, unfavourable environmental circumstances, time management concerns,
and a lack of expertise and experience in lesson planning were among the
difficulties instructors encountered (Aykan & Yıldırım, 2022) during the
pandemic.
Given the importance of teaching quality and its influence on students' interests,
understanding how to use the most appropriate valid instrument for the Gen-Z
generation is important. We used the instrument proposed by Wahono and Chang
(2019b), with its seven sub-domains, to assess teachers' use of STEM instruction
during the COVID-19 pandemic. This instrument used a limited sample
(secondary school science teachers) and tested only the exploratory factor analysis
(EFA). A large number of samples and advanced analysis were utilised to ensure
the quality of the instrument and fit to sample, which are crucial. Many
researchers have provided proof of the reliability and validity issues as they
commonly adopt measurements from one cultural setting in another (Hidayat et
l., 2018; Hidayat et al., 2021). Most prior studies, on the other hand, have focused
on using the EFA and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to explore data on
validity and reliability issues across a variety of cultural backgrounds. According
107
to Clarke (2013), the variety of cultural foundations is becoming increasingly

obvious.
This study aimed to validate STEM application instruments using the Rasch
analysis. The Rasch analysis compensates for several of the shortcomings in
previous studies of STEM application instruments (Wahono & Chang, 2019b), and
it gives a more accurate model of the data than results based on means of coded
items. For example, Wahono and Chang (2019b) only employed EFA to establish
the validity of the scale and a reliability test. Rasch Analyses are anticipated to be
at least as accurate as EFA, based on polychoric correlations. Rasch analysis will
contribute to the pool of information in terms of validating teachers' applications
toward STEM for Gen-Z in Indonesian classrooms during the COVID-19
pandemic. Using Rasch Analysis modelling will enhance the validity and
reliability of the instrument, which is specifically analysed for its reliability,
separation, item fit statistics, unidimensionality, and rating scale calibration. Some
scholars argue that the Rasch model is used to determine and confirm deviant
answers, such as person-fit statistics and item-fit statistics (Widhiarso &
Sumintono, 2016), person answers and quality of tool (Bond & Fox, 2015), but
concentrates only on item-fit statistics (Widhiarso & Sumintono, 2016). Since the
current instrument employs the Likert-scale, it is important to transform the data
to a ratio or interval scale to get a more reliable instrument. Alnahdi (2018)
indicated that the transformation from raw numbers to interval values is easy to
comprehend because each modification in one component has comparable weight
across the scale.
The current study aimed to answer the following research question: Is the adopted
STEM application instrument using the Rasch model valid and reliable in the
Indonesian context? The present work contributes to the body of knowledge by
applying Rasch Analysis modelling to test this instrument for Indonesians, in
particular Gen-Z.
2.1 STEM Education
Several concepts of integrated Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Mathematics (STEM) education have been offered, but no clear consensus has
emerged. The term ‘STEM’ originated from the National Science Foundation in
the late 1990s in the United States and is a broad term that encompasses both
informal and formal education from pre-school to higher education (Shanahan et
al., 2016). Several researchers have defined STEM as an interdisciplinary, applied
strategy focused on real-world scenarios (Gomez & Albrecht, 2013; Peters-Burton
et al., 2014). According to Sanders (2009), STEM refers to approaches that examine
teaching and learning across or among any two or more of the STEM content areas
and/or between a STEM topic and one or more other school subjects. Another
scholar agreed with the concepts, but integrated STEM education is not limited to
a combination of these fields as it can involve numerous classes (Stohlmann et al.,
2012). Kelley and Knowles (2016) admit that integrated STEM education refers not
only to a method of instructing students on the STEM topics of two or more STEM
disciplines, but it is also a way of implementing authentic settings to improve
108
student learning. In conclusion, STEM education is a method that examines

teaching and learning in interdisciplinary STEM content areas (Kelley & Knowles,
2016), or involves numerous classes (Stohlmann et al., 2012) and focuses on real-
world scenarios (Gomez & Albrecht, 2013; Kelley & Knowles, 2016; Peters-Burton
et al., 2014) to improve students' understanding (Kelley & Knowles, 2016). The
fundamental aims of STEM education are to increase students' scientific literacy
and encourage them to seek scientific and technical vocations such as scientists,
engineers, and mathematicians.
The definition of STEM education also depends on the level of discipline

integration. English (2016) summarised discipline integration as
multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary approaches. From a
multidisciplinary perspective, each field teaches concepts and abilities in its own
way, yet they all have a fundamental theme. The concept of STEM integration
proposed by Sanders (2009) seems to be similar to the multidisciplinary
perspective, which focuses only on the combination of each STEM field. The goal
of the interdisciplinary perspective is slightly different: to increase knowledge and
abilities by learning closely related concepts and skills from two or more fields.
This idea is in line with the definition of STEM combination suggested by Kelley
and Knowles (2016), which focuses on enhancing student learning. Finally, the
transdisciplinary perspective refers to the application of knowledge and abilities
from two or more disciplines to real-world issues and projects that aid in shaping
the learning experience. The STEM Task Force Report (2014) defined STEM
integration from a transdisciplinary perspective; according to this report, STEM
education is more than just a simple combination of the four domains; it includes
actual, real-world, problem-based learning that connects the disciplines through
coherent and proactive teaching and learning strategies. The interdisciplinary
character of STEM is defined as a holistic strategy that integrates the separate
disciplines so that learning becomes integrated, centred, purposeful, and relevant
to learners. In other words, it is a continuous, dynamic, student-centred teaching
and learning process. Despite these various perspectives, the key to equipping
STEM teachers is to start with a conceptual knowledge of integrated STEM
education by teaching essential learning frameworks, pedagogical techniques,
and increasing awareness of current secondary STEM educational projects'
research outcomes (Kelley & Knowles, 2016).
The idea of STEM has been extended to include the term ‘art’: Science,
Technology, Engineering, Art, and Mathematics (STEAM) (Kim & Kim, 2016;
Yakman & Lee, 2012). In a systematic review conducted by Perignat and Katz-
Buonincontro (2019), STEAM education is described as an approach to engage
students in STEM learning, promote students' creativity, or improve problem-
solving abilities in real-world contexts. The two main aims of STEAM are, first, to
raise interest in STEM topics and improve the skills needed for STEM professions,
and to engage minority and female students in STEM courses; and second, to
integrate domain-general abilities (e.g., skills in problem-solving and creativity)
and encourage learners to experiment with and learn about new ways of thinking.
109
As with STEM learning, researchers distinguish between five techniques for

combining STEAM disciplines: multi-disciplinary, interdisciplinary,
transdisciplinary, cross-disciplinary, and arts-integration (Perignat & Katz-
Buonincontro, 2019). Meeth (1978) has defined STEAM as a transdisciplinary
approach to teaching and learning, and research has shown that STEAM activities
help students learn in both cognitive and affective ways (Kang, 2019), enhancing
their creativity (Wandari et al., 2018), engagement (Togou et al., 2020), and
conceptual understanding, and minimising misconceptions (Ozkan & Umdu
Topsakal, 2020). Hsiao and Su (2021) have revealed that combining STEAM
education with Virtual Reality-assisted experience courses can assist learners in
enhancing both their learning satisfaction and outcomes while also increasing
their motivation to learn.
Science, Technology, Reading, Engineering, Art, and Mathematics (STREAM) was

created to enhance 21st century abilities by leading to the development of
metacognitive abilities (Padhmasari, 2016). STREAM education necessitates a
student-centred approach: students might think about an issue, find appropriate
techniques, and decide on a plan of action to solve a problem or complete a task.
Students are required to develop, design, and solve issues (Badmus & Omosewo,
2018). However, STREAM education has been extended to different contexts, for
example, incorporating STREAM into English Language Learners' (ELL)
education can help ELL students grow and engage in STEM courses (Maarouf,
2019). Teachers have a comprehensive perspective and are enthusiastic about
STREAM education (Nuangchalerm et., 2020). The importance of this study lies
in the use of theory to establish the validity and reliability of skills measuring Gen-
Z STEM applications during their teaching experiences. In previous studies
(Parmin et al., 2020; Wahono & Chang, 2019a, 2019b), the selected instrument was
validated using Classical Test Theory (CTT) by referring to reliability and EFA
results. However, this study aimed to apply the Rasch measurement model to
contribute to the body of knowledge. In many fields, previous researchers (i.e.,
Gocen & Sen, 2021; Hidayat et al., 2021; Jin et al., 2020; Sen & Gocen, 2021) have
shown that applying CTT and Rasch models are appropriate strategies for finding
well-validated instruments. The Rasch model can supplement CTT by providing
more detailed analysis than just the relationship between an item and a latent
factor (DiStefano et al., 2019; Rahayu et al., 2020; Rahayu et al., 2021). Figure 1
provides the conceptual framework for the current work employing Rasch
analysis.
STEM application
Application of Science-Technology (SAp-ST)
Application of Science-Engineering (SAp-SE)
Application of Science-Math (SAp-SM) Gen-Z generation
Teachers
Application of Science-Technology-Math (SAp-STM)
Student teachers
Application of Science-Engineering-Math (SAp-SEM)
Application of Science-Technology-Engineering-Math
(SAp-STEM)
Figure 1: Conceptual framework
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3. Methodology
3.1 Research Design
This study is a survey study (Creswell, 2014) for collecting data related to the Gen-
Z application of integrating STEM fields. The survey method can be conducted on
a large sample, and the results can be generalised to the population (Chua, 2020).
The population in this research was the Indonesian Gen-Z generation. The survey
was created to evaluate Gen-Z applications for integrating STEM fields because
the study has the potential to enlighten, explain, and help us understand (Cole et
al., 2019) a variety of applications for integrating STEM. The current work used
the survey method to examine the reliability and validity of the application of
STEM by Gen-Z. A convenience sampling strategy (Creswell, 2012) was used for
its accessibility and availability (Anderson & Mittal, 2000), and respondents were
asked to take an online survey. The researcher elected to use a convenience
sampling strategy for its easy access to Gen-Z who have had experience teaching
science during the COVID-19 pandemic. Using Google Form enabled data to be
collected during the online class. A WhatsApp group was used to gather data, and
all users were requested to reply to an online survey.
The respondents in the current work are Gen-Z who have had the experience of
teaching science during the COVID-19 pandemic. A person who was born in the
years between 1995 and 2012 is regarded a technology user and uses technology
to study, socialize, go shopping, and do many more things than the previous
generation (Aziz et al., 2021). The population in this work consisted of 748
respondents, while the sample of current work comprised 201 respondents from
two provinces in Indonesia (see Table 1). The respondents were included in the
following areas of specialization: Science (18.41%), Chemistry (44.28%), Physics
(23.38%) and Biology (13.93%). The majority of the students (66.67% of the overall
sample) were female, while 33.3% of the students were male. Of the total number,
25.37% and 74.62% were teachers and student teachers, respectively. Although the
sample size was rather small in the present work, Chen et al. (2014) have indicated
that a sample size of more than 100 is adequate for Rasch analysis.
Table 1. Sample of the study

Samples N (%)
Area of specialization 201 (100%)
Science 37 (18.41%)
Chemistry 89 (44.28%)
Physics 4 (23.38%)
Biology 28 (13.93%)
Gender 201 (100%)
Male 67 (33.3%)
Female 134 (66.67%)
Source of experience 201 (100%)
Teacher 51 (25.37%)
Student teacher 150 (74.62%)
3.2 Instrument
The application of STEM by Gen-Z in their science teaching was evaluated using
a locally developed instrument by Wahono and Chang (2019b) which has been
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applied in some studies, (i.e., Parmin et al., 2020; Wahono & Chang, 2019a). The
instrument can be divided into seven sub-domains as the derivation of STEM
disciplines. There were two disciplines (SAp-ST, SAp-SE, SAp-SM), three
disciplines (SAp-STE, SAp-STM, SAp-SEM), and four disciplines (SAp-STEM),
where SAp, T, E, and M refer to Science Application, Technology, Engineering,
and Mathematics. The STEM application scale consisted of 26 items rated on a 5-
point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
3.3 Data Collection Process

A consent letter was supplied before the online surveys were completed. In the
first section, we obtained biographical information from participants, such as area
of specialization, gender, and experience. In the second part, we examined the
variables relevant to the research question. However, before the online surveys
on STEM application instrument were conducted among Gen-Z generation, the
current work employed back translation to validate the accuracy of the initial
questionnaire's interpretation.
3.4 Data Analysis

After the data was collected, they were tabulated using Microsoft Excel to prepare
for data analysis using Winsteps (Linacre, 2017, 2018) version 3.7.3 to analyse
reliability, separation, item fit statistics, unidimensionality test, and rating scale
calibration. The data analysis was performed separately for each sub-construct of
the STEM application, based on the Rasch analysis. The core concept behind
Georg Rasch's model is that an individual with more ability has a higher
likelihood of answering any question of the kind in question, and that if one
survey instrument being more challenging than the other indicates that an
individual has a higher probability of answering the second test item (Rasch,
1960a). Rasch's analysis is probabilistic in nature and is based on logits (Rasch,
1960b), which enables the creation of a linear measure from ordinal observations
(Linacre, 1999). The Rasch study started with an assessment of how well objects
and respondents fit together (Abbitt & Boone, 2021). Rasch analysis is a powerful
tool for examining the psychometric features of measurements and adjusting for
response bias (Bradley et al., 2015). By employing the Rasch model, which falls
under item response theory (IRT), we examined an instrument with fewer
domains while keeping the psychometric features of the original measure. As a
result, measurement accuracy and effectiveness increased. Data may be
transformed using Rasch analysis in which the transformation from raw numbers
to interval values is easy to read (Alnahdi, 2018). This investigation looked at the
rating scale's quality, item quality in terms of identifying STEM application
factors, how effectively the items reflect the STEM application range, and item
function with regard to the subjects.
The STEM application's fit, item difficulty, response scale appropriateness, and
person and item separation indices were all examined using Rasch analysis.
According to Boone et al. (2014), there are several fit statistics to evaluate to ensure
construct validity: (a) the value of accepted Correlation Points (Pt Mean Corr): 0.4
<Pt Measure Right <.085 (b) the value of accepted infit and outfit mean square
(MNSQ): 0.5 <MNSQ <1.5. However, items having infit and outfit MNSQ values
outside of this range (i.e., 0.6 <MNSQ <1.4) are regarded as misfitting (Aryadoust
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et al., 2020; Linacre, 2020). At the same time, scores greater than 2.0 indicate that
the item is either being used inconsistently enough to skew the measurement
model or that it is not a component of the structure under investigation (Linacre,
1999). Therefore, in the current work, when the Infit MNSQ score was less than
0.7 or larger than 1.3, and the Z score was less than 2.0 or higher than 2.0, items
were deemed unsuitable. Furthermore, the separation and person indices as well
as item reliabilities were also investigated in the present work. In Rasch
modelling, the individual separation index and item separation index are
employed to assess the test's reliability. Person and item reliabilities of greater
than 0.7 are regarded as appropriate (see Boone & Noltemeyer, 2017), and the
person separation index should be greater than 2.0 (Linacre, 1999). According to
Andrich (1982), the reliability of separation is evaluated in the same way as
Cronbach's alpha. Furthermore, the STEM application's construct
unidimensionality was assessed utilising Rasch-based principal component
analysis of model residuals (PCA-R). The measure was deemed unidimensional
in this investigation if the Rasch factor explained more than half of the total
variance in STEM application and the eigenvalue of the first contrast/first
secondary factor was less than 2.0 (see Bravini et al., 2016; Chang et al., 2016). To
assess the item difficulty of the STEM application, we employed a Wright map of
Rasch analysis, which permits graphical analysis of participants and items on a
map depicting the spread of responses.
4. Results
To answer the research question (Is the adopted STEM application instrument
valid and reliable for Indonesian context using Rasch modelling?), we assessed
the instrument validity and reliability, unidimensionality, item fit statistics, and
Likert-rating scale.
4.1 Instrument Validity and Reliability

When validating a questionnaire based on the Rasch analysis, three types of
reported reliability are utilised (Adams et al., 2021). It is a mathematical model
based on the linear relationship between an object and a person, which is based
on latent features (Scoulas et al., 2021). The reliability of STEM application
instruments in the Indonesian context employing Winsteps software for item
reliability (0.94), person reliability (0.96) and Cronbach’s alpha (0.97) were
adequate (see Table 2). Furthermore, the separation between the item and the
person, should be greater than 1.5 to be regarded as appropriate (Suryadi et al.,
2021; Tennant & Conaghan, 2007). The separation for item (4.67) and person (3.81)
for the STEM application instrument in the Indonesian context was good. The
excellent results of reliability and separation indicate great internal consistencies
of the STEM application instrument (Iseppi et al., 2021).
Table 2. Validity and reliability of STEM application instrument

Reliability Separation Chi-Square
Cronbach Item Person Item Person
SAp-ST 0.79 0.91 0.70 3.22 1.53 1262.71**
SAp-SE 0.71 0.96 0.67 5.10 1.42 950.2**
SAp-SM 0.80 0.93 0.75 3.51 1.75 799.57**
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SAp-STE 0.86 0.89 0.84 2.84 2.27 734.78**

SAp-STM 0.76 0.96 0.71 4.80 1.55 992.49**
SAp-SEM 0.82 0.96 0.79 4.67 1.92 935.51**
SAp-STEM 0.88 0.89 0.86 2.80 2.50 1114.03**
All 0.94 0.96 0.91 4.84 3.26 9582.18**
4.2 Unidimensionality
The capacity of an instrument to estimate what the researchers aim to explore is
measured by its unidimensionality. Here the researchers aimed to explore the
STEM application of Gen-Z. The minimal raw variance explained was greater than
24% (Purnami et al., 2021). The Rasch model indicated unidimensionality via
Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and local independence analysis.
Nevertheless, the study only reported the PCA. The explained variance of the
STEM application instrument for the Indonesian context surpassed the minimum
score of 40%, meaning that the instrument was a valid instrument to measure
STEM application constructs (see Table 3).
Table 3. Unidimensionality of STEM application instrument

Explained Variance
By item By person Total
SAp-ST 36.3% 17.9% 54.1%
SAp-SE 39.6% 19.9% 59.5%
SAp-SM 49.5% 12.5% 62.0%
SAp-STE 63.4% 8.3% 71.8%
SAp-STM 43.7% 18.4% 62.0%
SAp-SEM 46.7% 15.9% 62.2%
SAp-STEM 57.1% 10.9% 68.0%
Entire instrument 23.7% 24.8% 48.5%
4.3 Item Fit Statistics

The examination of item fit statistics, such as mean square (MNSQ) and
correlation points (Pt Mean Corr), provides evidence of construct validity (Table
4). Mean square (MNSQ) indicated the size of the discrepancies (i.e., randomness)
while correlation points (Pt Mean Corr) tested the partial correlation of each item
with the total measure score, separation statistics and item reliability (Alkhadim
et al., 2021). For MNSQ, a value of 0.5-1.5 was accepted, and for Point Measure
Right, a score of 0.4-0.85 was accepted. (Boone et al., 2014).
Table 4. Item fit statistics of STEM application instrument

MNSQ ZSTD Point
Mea
Corr
SAp-ST1 0.87 0.88 -1.3 -1.2 0.81
SAp-ST2 0.96 0.96 -0.3 -0.4 0.80
SAp-ST3 1.16 1.22 1.5 1.9 0.71
SAp-ST4 1.00 1.00 0.00 0.1 0.77
SAp-SE1 1.22 1.32 2.0 2.6 0.70
SAp-SE2 0.90 0.90 -1.0 -1.0 0.84
SAp-SE3 0.83 0.83 -1.7 -1.7 0.84
SAp-SM1 1.00 0.99 0.00 -0.1 0.84
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SAp-SM2 0.96 0.96 -0.3 -0.4 0.87

SAp-SM3 0.99 1.01 0.00 0.1 0.82
SAp-STE1 1.17 1.17 1.5 1.5 0.85
SAp-STE2 0.80 0.77 -2.0 -2.1 0.92
SAp-STE3 0.98 0.99 -0.1 0.00 0.89
SAp-STM1 1.04 1.05 0.4 0.5 0.82
SAp-STM2 0.82 0.84 -1.8 -1.6 0.81
SAp-STM3 1.10 1.04 0.9 0.4 0.77
SAp-SEM1 1.18 1.15 1.7 1.4 0.82
SAp-SEM2 0.76 0.75 -2.4 -2.5 0.89
SAp-SEM3 1.05 1.05 0.5 0.5 0.85
SAp-STEM1 0.92 0.91 -0.8 -0.9 0.88
SAp-STEM2 1.32 1.28 2.9 2.5 0.83
SAp-STEM3 0.78 0.80 -2.3 -2.0 0.87
SAp-STEM4 0.95 0.93 -0.5 -0.6 0.87
4.4 Likert-Rating Scale

The STEM application instrument had five Likert scales (strongly disagree,
disagree, neutral, agree, and strongly agree; Wahono & Chang, 2019b) to express
Gen-Z application when they took their roles as science teachers. This information
was evaluated to allow the participants to comprehend and differentiate between
the various categories (Adams et al., 2021). This analysis was useful in evaluating
the precise number of Likert-scale items to use; it is possible to modify the scale
into a smaller or larger range (Ishak et al., 2016). To calibrate the scale, the current
research pivoted on the Rasch Andrich threshold with a desirable value of 1.40–
5.0 logit (Van Zile-tamsen, 2019). The result of the analysis for each sub-domain is
presented in Table 5.
Table 5. Rasch Andrich threshold of STEM application instrument

SAp- SAp- SAp- SAp- SAp- SAp- SAp- Entire
ST SE SM STE STM SEM STEM instrument
Strongly None None None None None None None None
disagree
Disagree -3.86 -3.54 -4.09 -6.39 -2.38 -4.00 -5.98 -2.03
Neutral -0.66 -1.41 -2.14 -2.25 -1.89 -1.49 -1.53 -1.01
Disagree 1.00 1.31 1.22 2.22 0.86 1.61 1.85 0.76
Strongly 3.53 3.64 5.01 6.42 3.42 3.88 5.66 2.28
disagree
5. Discussion
The goal of this study was to investigate the adopted STEM application
instrument (Wahono & Chang, 2019b) in higher educational levels in the
Indonesian context using Rasch modelling analysis. Overall, the current study's
results indicated that the adopted STEM application instrument is adaptable to
different cultural settings. In response to the research question, the current work
proved that the adopted STEM application instrument had an acceptable Rasch
model characteristic in general. In accordance with the work of Wahono and
Chang (2019b), all seven sub-domains were unidimensional. The current findings
were completely compatible with those of prior works (Parmin et al., 2020;
115
Wahono & Chang, 2019a; Wahono & Chang, 2019b), and the current work found
that the parallels between the current study and earlier studies on the adopted
STEM application instrument stem from the greater education level of
populations that demand sophisticated viewpoints. Some scholars argue that the
Rasch model is used to determine deviant answers, such as person-fit statistics
and item-fit statistics (Widhiarso & Sumintono, 2016), person answers and quality
of tool (Bond & Fox, 2015), and concentrates only on item fit statistics (Widhiarso
& Sumintono, 2016). Moreover, since the current instrument employed the Likert-
scale, it was important to transform the data to a ratio or interval scale to get a
more reliable instrument. Alnahdi (2018) indicates that the transformation from
raw numbers to interval values is easy to comprehend because each modification
in one component has comparable weight across the scale.
In the current work, the STEM application's fit, item difficulty, response scale
appropriateness, and person and item separation indices were all examined using
Rasch analysis. The adopted STEM application instrument for the Indonesian
context could be used as a valid and reliable measure. Generally, Principal
Component Analysis (PCA) and local independence analysis in the Rasch analysis
imply unidimensionality. However, the current work reported only the PCA. The
discrepancy between an actual and predicted score is known as the PCA residual
value (Ishak et al., 2018). The explained variance of the STEM application
instrument for the Indonesian context surpassed the minimum score of 40%,
meaning that the instrument can be used as a valid instrument for measuring the
adopted STEM application constructs. The separation for item and person for the
STEM application instrument in the Indonesian context were 4.67 and 3.81,
respectively. The great internal consistency of the instrument was demonstrated
by the outstanding outputs of reliability and separation, implying that the
instrument can effectively divide items and persons into some categories (Iseppi
et al., 2021). Again, in this study, some items revealed high ZSTD scores,
indicating a significant misfit, which was one type of measure other than MNSQ,
point measure correlation, and separation. It may be worthwhile investigating
whether deleting these elements improves the measuring qualities of the ZSTD
scores in future investigations. However, the fulfilment of other measures
suggested the neglect of the high ZSTD score (Alkhadim et al., 2021). In the
adopted STEM application constructs, the Rasch modelling results likewise
revealed a considerable dispersion of measures over the logit scale in item
difficulty level. The study has contributed to a new body of knowledge in terms
of validating teachers' applications of STEM for Gen-Z in Indonesian classrooms
during the COVID-19 pandemic.
6. Conclusion
A vital contribution of the current research is the validation of STEM applications
for the Indonesian Gen-Z generation using Rasch analysis. The findings of the
current study revealed that each sub-construct fulfilled a minimum of 0.65 for
Cronbach's alpha, item, and person reliability, and most of them had more than
1.5 for person and item separation. At the same time, each item had a good score
of the mean square, Z-tolerated standard, and point measure correlation,
indicating the fulfilment of the Rasch measurement model. The analysis also
116
demonstrated the unidimensionality assumption and an excellent rating scale.

This implies that the instrument could be a reference for universities and school
principals to assess Gen-Z teachers' STEM integration during their teaching.
Although the tools of STEM application are extensively used in Indonesia, and the
measure has the potential to be utilised for research and practice in this
environment, the current work acknowledges that this study had significant
flaws. Firstly, a limitation was the number of survey instruments (AKA) towards
attitude, knowledge, and application on the STEM scale. However, the current
study only involved the domain of application of STEM, including seven sub-
domains, because the current work focused only on the application of STEM
among the Indonesian Gen-Z generation. Secondly, because of the COVID-19
pandemic scenario, convenience sampling (a non-probability sample) was used in
this study, which was based on participant proximity and accessibility. This
approach may not provide a complete picture of the individuals in the study areas.
Future research should try to collect data from a variety of sources. Thirdly, female
learners outnumbered male students. Because the current study explored the
possibility of variability in respondents' replies based on location, this instrument
can be used to investigate gender prejudice in rural and urban areas. Future
research should explore the evidence from a variety of backgrounds.
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Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 122-137, June 2022
The Level of Sports Participation and Academic

Success among Malaysian Student-Athletes
Jorrye Jakiwa* , Siti Azilah Atan , Mohd Syrinaz Azli , Shahrulfadly
Rustam , Norhafizah Hamzah , Aizuddin Amri Zainuddin
National Defence University of Malaysia
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Abstract. There has been an ongoing debate about the relationship

between student-athletes and their academic success. Some believe that
student-athletes can never excel with their academic studies, especially
those who participate to a high level in sports. Hence, the aim of this
study is to examine the level of sports participation and academic success
among Malaysian student-athlete. A cross-sectional study with open-
ended questions was performed on 836 student-athletes who volunteered
to participate in this study (Age, 21.13±1.23 years old; weight, 63.18±7.50
kg; height, 169.34±4.82 cm; BMI, 22.01±2.72 in score index). Data
collection was executed through a web-based online platform, namely
Google Forms, whereas analysis of one-way ANOVA was performed to
analyze the differences in the level of sport participation towards
academic success. Sports participation consists of involvement at the
national, state, university, club and college levels, whereas academic
success or performance was examined through Cumulative Grade Point
Average (CGPA). As a result, the mean of CGPA among respondents was
in category 3 which was between 3.01 – 3.33 points. Other than that, this
study fails to reject the hypothesis (p > .05, F (4, 831) = .64) where there is
no statistically significant difference among student-athletes in their level
of sport participation and academic success. It can be concluded that
regardless of student-athletes’ levels of sport participation, no difference
detected in their academic success. As a recommendation, future studies
can explore the extent of similarities in the student-athlete’s academic
success.
Keywords: academic achievement; athlete education; comparison study;

learning environment; sport involvement
1. Introduction
Students involved in sports and are representatives at any level of participation
are called student-athletes. ‘Student-athlete’ is a term used principally to describe
*
Corresponding author: jorrye@upnm.edu.my
©Authors
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students that enrolled in higher educational institutions like universities or

colleges who participates in an organized and competitive sport. A student athlete
must fill dual responsibilities; as a student and as an athlete (Gomez et al., 2018).
Consequently, they have less free time as they have to attend classes, training
sessions and competition. These required energy and determination in order to
succeed. Therefore, at some point they are also called as scholar-athletes to define
students who want to develop a broad, holistic approach to education and
committed to be successful high-level sport performance (Cross & Fouke, 2019).
On the other hand, the advantages of being a student-athlete that competing at
the national or international level, they received financial and services support
from higher education institutions (Gomez et al., 2018).Therefore, in the context
of this present study, student-athlete can be defined as full-time, registered
students who are representatives at any level of sport participation with or
without financial support.
Due to dual responsibilities of student-athletes, it could be challenging them to

balance their time between classroom and training sessions. It is well known that
the purpose of higher education is for academic excellence and preparing the next
generation of scholars as well as encourages students to build character to become
future leaders of the nation. Based on Self-Determination Theory (SDT) by Rayn
and Deci (2000), the motivation and personality highlighted important part of
human for successful. SDT is typically linked to accomplishment and success aids
for an individual. Hence, motivation and personality of student-athlete need to
higher academic and sport participation success.
Previous research disagreed that taking part in sports will leave negative effects
on academic performance (Routon & Walker, 2015; Muñoz-Bullón et al., 2017;
Schultz, 2017; Guo et al., 2019). As stated by Robst & Keil (2000), involvement in
sports inhibits students’ abilities to perform well in the classroom because of the
practice and travel commitments that consume time and energy. Therefore,
researchers began to engage in the debate regarding the effects of student-athletes’
engagement in sports on their academic success (Guo et al., 2019; Yarkwah &
Agyei, 2020).
Research evidence showed that even though student-athletes required to spend

most of their time and energy in sports training, there was a positive effects of
sports participation on students’ academic achievement. Yarkwah & Agyei (2020)
reported the differences between student-athletes and non-student-athletes
academic achievements. They found there was no negative effect due to
involvement in sports. In fact, sports involvement positively influences student-
athletes’ on their academic success (Abieraba et al., 2019). More evidence showed
a positive association between sport participation and academic performance in
several variables such as ethnic (Bang et al., 2019), athletic status and time spent
doing sports (Rao et al., 2018), level of participation (Schultz, 2017) and gender
(Dyer et al., 2017). In addition, it was reported that even at high school’s level, the
involvement in sports did not affect their academic achievement even after the
implementation of K-12 curriculum (Billonid et al., 2020). At this point, it can be
concluded that there are several factors that contribute to the positive effects of
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sport participation on academic achievement. Sport training encourage focusing,

repetition and memorization, these skills can be implemented and useful in the
classroom environment (Rao et al., 2018). Other benefits include; increased
physical fitness and mental health (Jakiwa et al., 2020; Andersen et al., 2019;
Snedden et al., 2019), improved biological and psychological maturation (Malm
et al., 2019; Jasni et al., 2022) and boost self-confidence and self-discipline (Robst
& Keil, 2000). Each of these factors is very crucial to help student-athletes in the
classroom learning environment. Hence, parents and educators must encourage
students to participate in sports by eliminating the perception that sports will
worsen their academic success (Yarkwah & Agyei, 2020).
In contrast, some studies have reported negative effects of participation in sports

on academic success. For instance, Robst & Keil (2000) reported that student-
athletes who played at National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA)
university Division III had a lower average academic success (CGPA) when
compared to non-student-athletes. In line with this finding, Routon & Walker
(2015) indicated that being involved in college sports can negatively affect
academic success. However, Gadzic (2009) justified that participating in sports is
not a main contributor to academic success; rather, it is affected by various factors
such as self-learning motivation and teachers’ assistance. Some of the negative
effects on academic success include more hours of practice and preparation for
the game (Grimit, 2014), spending more hours on partying, social activities and
alcohol consumption after the training session (Routon & Walker, 2015),
overtraining and lack of communication between athletes and coaches (Gomez et
al., 2018) and exhaustion and fatigue (O’neill et al., 2017).
In the context of the National Defence University of Malaysia’s (NDUM) student-

athletes, levels of sport participation can range from intra-varsity to national-level
competitions. Each level of participation requires a different demand for time and
energy in training and competition. For national or high-performance athletes,
training and practice are highly demanding as they are required to follow the
training schedule and work closely with their coaches. Now and then, they need
to be away from the university due to representing the country, state or club.
Typically, national-level student-athlete allocated more than 20 hours a week for
training, practice, recovery and physical training sessions (Gomez et al., 2018).
Meanwhile, the demand for training among student-athletes at the state,
university, club and college levels are relatively lower compared to national-level
student-athletes (Schultz, 2017). These athletes are only entail to attend centralize
training when there is a competition. Most of the time, they do not have any
regular training and competition throughout a year. However, each student-
athlete regardless of level of sport participation has been involved in sports
during their academic journey. Therefore, this study hypothesizes that there are
no differences in academic success regardless of the level of sport involvement.
Moreover, the objective of this study is to examine the influence of sport
participation level on academic success among student-athletes.
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2. Methodology
2.1 Study Respondents
This study was conducted among university students at the National Defence
University of Malaysia (NDUM) in 2020. The data of respondents were collected
comprising 836 students (660 males and 230 females) who volunteered to
participate in this study. The age of respondents ranged from 18 to 27 years old
with the age mean of 21.13 ± 1.23 years old. In terms of physical characteristics
(Table 1), respondents showed an average weight of 63.18 ± 7.50 kg, an average
height of 169.34 ± 4.82 cm and an average Body Mass Index (BMI) of 22.01 ± 2.72
in score index. In order to increase the efficiency of participant selection, simple
random sampling was performed. One of the crucial parts in random sampling is
that each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected as a
participant of the study (Sharma, 2017).
Table 1: Physical characteristics of respondents

Variables Height (cm) Weight (kg) BMI Age
Mean 168.08 62.35 22.02 21.13
SD 7.33 9.58 2.73 1.23
2.2 Procedure
This study was conducted using a cross-sectional design. Based on Wang and
Cheng (2020), cross-sectional design is an observational study that analyzes a
population’s data at a single time by describing its characteristics, and is typically
cheaper, easy to be carried out and most importantly, can be used to create an in-
depth research study. This cross-sectional study was conducted through a survey
which applied open-ended questions to acquire a broad information about
respondents’ level of sport participation and academic success.
Respondents
National Level State Level Academic Success

(National (Inter-state (CGPA)
competition) competition in Category 1: 3.68 – 4.00
Malaysia) Category 2: 3.34 – 3.67
Level of Category 3: 3.01 – 3.33
College Level Sport University Level Category 4: 2.68 – 3.00
(Inter-college Participation (Inter-university Category 5: 2.34 – 2.67
competition at competition in Category 6: 2.01 – 2.33
NDUM) Club Level Malaysia) Category 7: 1.68 – 2.00
(Inter-club Category 8: 1.34 – 1.67
competition in Category 9: 1.00 – 1.33
Malaysia) Category 10: <1.00
Fig. 1: Paradigm of study design
Figure 1 showed the paradigm of the study with the important variables. There
are two vital questions asked: 1) What is your highest level of participation in
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sports? and 2) What is your current Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA)? In
general, there are three sections of questions, namely respondents’ background
information (section A), level of sport participation (section B) and academic
success (section C). All questions were in Bahasa Malaysia as it is a native
language of the respondents.
The collection of data was done from January to May 2020 through a web-based
online platform, namely Google Forms. Google Forms
(https://docs.google.com/forms/u/0/) was used to assist in data collection due
to its efficiency and user-friendly system. As mentioned by Rayhan et al. (2013),
Google Docs and Forms can act as a free and efficient platform for administering
questionnaires to any population without downgrading the quality, security and
reliability of data. Google Forms is also considered a powerful system for data
collection with safety in big data storage because of its collaboration with cloud-
based documents (Hsu & Wang, 2017). Hence, characteristics such as unlimited
survey, free system and easy accessibility have made Google Forms one of the
most popular web-based online platforms for research (Vasantha &
Harinarayana, 2016).
In terms of questionnaire distribution, it was done online without any physical or

face-to-face meeting with respondents due to the health crisis pandemic Covid-
19. In this stage, the emerging issue was the method of sharing the questionnaire’s
link to respondents. Based on Vasantha and Harinarayana (2016), the
questionnaire’s link can be shared through Facebook and e-mail. As for this
research, the questionnaire’s link was shared mostly through WhatsApp and
Telegram applications. The selection was due to students’ accessibility to these
applications as an online communication method with each other.
The potential respondents received the questionnaire’s link and would decide
whether to complete the questionnaire or not. Those who completed the
questionnaire would indirectly agree with the benefits and potential risks of the
study and they automatically became respondents in this study. Prior to
responding, respondents were asked to answer the questionnaire with honesty
and integrity. They were asked to answer the questionnaire without forces or
pressures or follow their peers. It took about 10 to 15 minutes to fill the
questionnaire. The chances of respondents not responding to all questions were
zero because all questions were set as compulsory. As mention to all students,
those who were not agreed to any question may withdraw to become a
respondent”
2.3 Statistical analysis

Results of the study are presented as means ± standard deviation (SD). The
assumptions of normality and homogeneity of variance of the data were analyze
through Kalmogorov-Smirnov tests. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) as an
inferential analysis was used to determine the differences between level of sport
participation and academic success among respondents. The statistical analyses
were performed using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 25.0
with the significance level set at P ≤ 0.05.
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3. Result
As shown in Table 2, a total of 836 respondents with 606 (72.5%) male and 230
(27.5%) female was involved voluntarily in this study. 82.2% respondents (n=669)
were aged between 20 to 22, 17.8% (n=167) were 18 – 19 and 23 – 27 years old.
Three categories of respondents were involved in this study, namely cadets with
51.8% (n=433), PALAPES (Reserve Officer Training Unit) with 34.3% (n=287) and
civilians with 13.9% (n=116). A majority of the respondents were doing bachelor’s
degree comprising of 754 students (90.2%) followed by diploma students with
only 79 (9.4%) of them. In terms of year of study, most of the respondents were in
year 1, 2 and 3 with 260 (31.1%), 270 (32.3%) and 268 (32.1%) students respectively
whereas only 4.6 % (n=38) students were in year 4 and 5.
Table 2: Respondents’ Profile (n=836)

Variables No. of respondents (n) Percentage (%)
Sex
Male 606 72.5
Female 230 27.5
Age
18 1 .1
19 46 5.5
20 227 27.2
21 257 32.9
22 185 22.1
23 75 9.0
24 16 1.9
25 7 .8
26 2 .2
27 2 .2
Category of respondents
Cadet 433 51.8
PALAPES 287 34.3
Civilian 116 13.9
Level of Study
Foundation 2 .2
Diploma 79 9.4
Bachelor 754 90.2
Master 1 .1
Year of Study
1 260 31.1
2 270 32.3
3 268 32.1
4 34 4.1
5 4 .5
Table 3 showed respondent’s level of sports participations. The most respondents

representing at university level with a frequency of 415 or 49.6% students.
Followed by the college- and club-level participation with a frequency of 199
(23.8%) and 100 (12.0%) students respectively. State level charted the second
lowest participation with a frequency of 65 (7.8%) students. Meanwhile, the
lowest level of participation in sports was the national level with only 6.8% (n=57)
students.
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Table 3: Respondents’ Level of Sports Participation

Level of Sport Participation n %
College 199 23.8

Club 100 12.0
University 415 49.6
State 65 7.8
National 57 6.8
The mean and standard deviation (SD) of academic success among respondents
represented in Table 4. The club level produced better in academic performance
with mean 3.27 ± 1.14 points followed by college level (3.25 points ± 1.14) and
university level (3.20 ± 1.24 points). While, the lowest CGPA scored by student-
athlete from state level with mean of CGPA 3.03 ± 1.19. The overall mean of
academic success among respondents was in category 3 which was a CGPA
between 3.01 – 3.33. The findings revealed that students’ CGPA will not be
affected by their level of sport participation.
Table 4: Respondents’ Academic Success

Level of Sport n Mean of CGPA’s SD
Participation Category
College 199 3.25 1.14
Club 100 3.27 1.11
University 415 3.20 1.24
State 65 3.03 1.19
National 57 3.08 1.14
The analysis of differences through one-way ANOVA between level of sport

participation and academic success is shown in Table 5. The significance value
was set as p > .05, F (4, 831) = .64. Therefore, this study fails to reject the hypothesis
and it can be concluded that there is no statistical significant difference between
level of sport participation and academic success. It means that, regardless of
student-athletes’ level of sport participation, there is no difference in their
academic success.
Table 5: One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) between level of sport participation

and academic success
Sum of Square df Mean Square F Sig.
Between 3.59 4 .89 .64 .64
Groups
Within Groups 1178.65 831 1.42
Total 1182.24 835
4. Discussion
To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study that investigates the differences
in level of sport participation (national, state, university, club and college)
towards academic success (CGPA). Even though there was a study regarding
sport participation level by Schultz (2017), it was only limited to the level of
129
participation intra university between senior and junior varsity athletes. Previous
studies on sport participation and academic success were conducted by several
other researchers such as Insler & Karam (2019), Dyer et al. (2017) and Yusof et al.
(2013). Other than that, studies on sport participation had been done specifically
in the contexts of linguistics and racial status (Bang et al., 2018), sex and
socioeconomic status (Dyer et al., 2017), the black ethnic group (Harris, 2014),
middle and high school students (Wretman, 2017), in- and off-season conditions
(Schultz, 2017), athletes and non-athletes (Abieraba et al., 2019). Therefore, this
study is driven by the essential to gain evidence from different level of sport
participation and the relationship to academic success.
The main objective of this study was to examine the differences between level of
sport participation towards academic success among student-athletes. Our main
findings have indicated no significant difference between level of sport
participation towards academic success. However, the mean of CGPA among
student-athletes were considered high, which was between 3.01 to 3.33 points.
This result was much similar to the findings by Schultz (2017) in which it was
stated that the CGPA of student-athletes in and out of season was 3.04 points.
Other than that, Routon and Walker (2015) stated that the CGPA of student-
athletes based on sports played was between 3.26 to 3.34 points. Also, in line with
this study, Robst and Keil (2000) stated that student-athletes who played in NCAA
Division III had achieved a CGPA between 2.96 – 3.04 points. Therefore,
representing or significantly involved in sports during university studies offers a
good result to the CGPA success. This is in agreement with Surichaqui-Tiza et al.
(2021) where positive and significant relationship was found between sport
participation and academic performance among student’s soccer players. It
showed that participating in sports is beneficial to student-athlete in terms of
teamwork, self-discipline, leadership, exposed to rules and personal
characteristics that can transform to classroom learning.
As with other research, the results of this study also confirm that different levels
of sport participation require different demands for time, energy and intensities
of training and practice. For those who are represented at the national level, they
need to spend more time in training and competitions (Atan & Kassim, 2020;
Burlow et al., 2018) compared to those that represent at the state level and below.
The training commitment is relatively lower and not really demanding (Schultz,
2017). They only need to train and prepare when entering any competition. It
means that they do not have any regular training throughout a year as compared
to national-level athletes. Nevertheless, this should take into account that
regardless of level of sport participation, this student-athlete has been involved in
sports. Hence, they still need to spend hours of practice, preparation and
attending competitions which would undoubtedly take a student-athletes away
from their studies (Grimit, 2014).
Regardless of level of sport participation that students engaged in, their CGPA
results are almost similar. It means that whether student-athletes represent the
highest or the lowest level of sport participation, they will not differ in academic
achievement. The similarities in academic success among student-athletes were
130
due to their involvement in sports which required the skills of focusing, repetition
and memorization, which are very crucial to class learning (Rao et al., 2018; Azli
et al., 2020, Diyaolu, 2021). Other than that, participating in sports results in a
positive effect to physical and mental health which affect the way student-athletes
act and think (Jakiwa et al., 2020; Snedden et al., 2019) as well as social and
psychological health that help student-athletes in handling stress, making
decisions and interacting with others (Andersen et al., 2019). Moreover, regular
participation in sports will also increase the level of biological and psychological
maturation (Atan & Kassim, 2019) which is very important in how individuals
think and make choices (Malm et al., 2019). In addition, sports involvement may
associate to boost self-confidence and increase self-discipline necessary for
academic success especially for individuals who are not currently active in sports
(Robst & Keil, 2000). The benefits reach far beyond the physical, this translate from
active participation that teach skills of memorization (Khamees, 2016) and focused
(Foran et al., 2017) which can be helpful in academic growth.
5. Conclusion
In conclusion, the current study has found that student-athletes who represent
their country, state, university, club and college in sports did not show a
difference in academic success. Participation in sports actually promotes a wide
range of social, physical and intellectual skills that lead to better performance in
the classroom. As explained by Self-Determination Theory the personality and
motivation is typically linked to accomplishment and success aids student-athlete
development. Therefore, it implicated that despite being involved as
representatives at any level of sport participation during university studies, they
would still gain benefits not only in mental, physical and social aspects but also
in academic success. As a recommendation for future study, there is a requirement
to understand the extent of similarities in the academic success and level of sport
participation among student-athletes.
Acknowledgement
This research is fully supported by GPJP grant, UPNM/2019/GPJP/1. The
authors fully acknowledge Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) and National
Defence University of Malaysia (NDUM) for the approved fund which makes this
important research viable and effective.
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Appendix 1
Questionnaire via Google Form
TAHAP PENGLIBATAN SUKAN DAN PENCAPAIAN AKADEMIK DALAM

KALANGAN PELAJAR UNIVERSITI PERTAHANAN NASIONAL MALAYSIA"
(Level of Sports Participation and Academic Success among National Defence
University of Malaysia Students)
Borang soal selidik ini digunakan untuk mendapatkan maklum balas berkaitan dengan
pencapaian sukan dan akademik pelajar. Ia bertujuan untuk menilai kesan penglibatan
sukan terhadap pencapaian akademik dalam kalangan pelajar Universiti Pertahanan
Nasional Malaysia (UPNM). Oleh itu, saya mengharapkan kerjasama daripada anda
untuk menjawab soal selidik ini secara telus dan ikhlas. Segala respon yang anda berikan
saya dahului dengan ucapkan terima kasih (This questionnaire was used to obtain feedback
related to students' sports and academic achievement. It aims to assess the impact of sports
involvement on academic achievement among students of National Defence University of
Malaysia (UPNM). Therefore, I expect cooperation from you to answer this questionnaire
transparently and sincerely. All the responses you give me are preceded by a thank you).
Soal selidik ini mengandungi Lima (5) bahagian utama, iaitu (This questionnaire contains 4
sections);
Bahagian A: Latar Belakang Responden (Part A: Background of Respondent)
Bahagian B: Penglibatan Sukan (Umum) (Part B: General Sport Participation)
Bahagian C: Penglibatan Sukan (Penyertaan Kejohanan Sukan) (Part C: Specific
Sport participation)
Bahagian D: Pencapaian Akademik (Part D: Academic Achievement)
Bahagian A: Latar Belakang Responden (Part A: Background of Respondent)

Arahan: Sila jawab semua soalan pada ruangan yang berkenaan (Instructions: Please
answer all questions).
1. Jantina (Gender)
Lelaki (Male)
Perempuan (Female)
2. Kategori Pelajar (Type of Students)

Kadet (Cadet)
PALAPES (PALAPES)
Awam (Civilian)
3. Umur (tahun) Age (Years)

19
20
21
22
23
24
Other:
4. Tinggi (cm) (Physical Height)
5. Berat (kg) (Body Weight)
135
6. Peringkat Pengajian (Level of Study)

Asasi (Foundation)
Diploma (Diploma)
Ijazah (Degree)
Master (Master)
Ph.d
7. Tahun Pengajian (Year of Study)

Tahun 1 (year 1)
Tahun 2 (year 2)
Tahun 3 (year 3)
Tahun 4 (year 4)
Tahun 5 (year 5)
8. Semester Pengajian (Study Semester)

Semester 1
Semester 2
Semester 3
Semester 4
Semester 5
Semester 6
Semester 7
Semester 8
Semester 9
Semester 10
9. Tahun Memulakan Pengajian di UPNM (Year of becoming as UPNM student)

2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
Bahagian B: Penglibatan Sukan (Umum)

(Part B: General Sport Participation)
Sila nyatakan penglibatan sukan tertinggi anda (Please state your highest sports
participation)
10. Anggaran MASA BERSUKAN anda dalam SEHARI? (Estimation of your minutes of
sport participation in a day)
<30 minit
60 minit
90 minit
120 minit
150 minit
180 minit
>180 minit
Tidak bersukan (not participated in any sports activity)
136
11. Anggaran jumlah hari bersukan anda dalam seminggu? (Estimation of your days of
sport participation in a week)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Tidak berkaitan (not applicable)
12. Anggaran MASA LATIHAN SUKAN yang anda peruntukkan dalam SEHARI
(latihan khas/pusat untuk kejohanan atau perlawanan sukan)? (Estimation of your
minutes of training in a day for central training)
<60 minit
91 minit
120 minit
150 minit
180 minit
>180 minit
Tidak berkaitan (not applicable)
Other:
13. Anggaran JUMLAH SESI LATIHAN anda dalam SEMINGGU (latihan khas/pusat
untuk kejohanan atau perlawanan sukan)? (Estimation of your number of training sessions
in a week for central training)
1 sesi
2 sesi
3 sesi
4 sesi
5 sesi
6 sesi
7 sesi
> 7 sesi
Other:
Bahagian C: Penglibatan Sukan (Penyertaan Kejohanan Sukan) (Part C: Specific Sport

participation)
Sila nyatakan penglibatan sukan tertinggi anda (Please state your highest sports
participation)
14. Nama kejohanan sukan yang pernah anda sertai (semasa anda bergelar pelajar
UPNM)? Name of sports tournament you have participated in (when you were a UPNM
student)?
15. Sila nyatakan sukan yang anda wakili? (What sport you played?)
16. Bila (tahun) anda menyertai kejohanan sukan tersebut? (When you participated in a
competition?)
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
137
17. Peringkat kejohanan sukan tersebut? (Level of tournament)

Kolej (College)
Kelab (Club)
Universiti (University)
Negeri (State)
Negara (National)
Other:
18. Pencapaian dalam kejohanan sukan tersebut? (Achievement in the competition?)

Johan (Champion)
Naib Johan (1st runner up)
Ketiga (2nd runner up)
Separuh akhir (semi-final)
Suku akhir (quarter final)
Pusingan kedua (second round)
Peringkat Kumpulan (group stage)
Other:
Bahagian D: Pencapaian Akademik (Part D: Academic Achievement)

*PNGK (Purata Nilai Gred Keseluruhan) *CGPA (Cumulative Grade Point Average)
Arahan: Sila jawab setiap soalan yang dikemukakan (Instructions: Please answer all
questions)
19. PNGK* (CGPA) semasa anda. (Your CGPA)

> 3.68
3.34 - 3.67
3.01 - 3.33
2.68 - 3.00
2.34 - 2.67
2.01 - 2.33
1.68 - 2.00
1.34 - 1.67
1.01 - 1.33
<1.00
20. Anggaran MASA DALAM SEHARI yang diperuntukkan untuk PEMBELAJARAN

KENDIRI (selain daripada kelas/ kuliah)? (Estimated TIME IN A DAY allocated for SELF -
LEARNING (other than classes/ lectures)?
< 30 minit
60 minit
90 minit
120 minit
150 minit
180 minit
> 180 minit
Sekian dan terima kasih di atas kerjasama anda semua. (Thank you for cooperation).
138

Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 138-159, June 2022
‘Publish or Perish’: a Transformation of Professional

Value in Creating Literate Academics in the 21st
Century
Asep Kurnia Jayadinata*
Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia,
Bandung-Indonesia
Kama Abdul Hakam , Tatang Muhtar , Tedi Supriyadi , J. Julia

Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia,
Bandung-Indonesia
Abstract. The academics of higher education are required to write

scientific papers in reputable international journals, which they find
challenging in terms of English language skills and the lack of research
skills, low literacy skills, and skills in accessing references. Thus, this
study aims at exploring the framework for improving academics’ literacy
competence for scientific publication activities. Action Research was
employed as a design by involving 24 doctoral program students at one
campus in West Java Province, Indonesia, who were lecturers at four
universities in Indonesia. This research resulted in 7 stages as a critical
reflection step in improving literacy competence. The seven stages are
summarized in the acronym LITERAT as an extension of Literacy,
Investigation, Writing Techniques, Exploration, Reflection, Actualization
and Translating. This study concludes that these seven steps proved that
87% of academics’ literacy competences have increased. This study
contributes by providing guidance for academics in improving literacy
competence and boosting the number of scientific publications of each
university as a manifestation of a country's pride in the form of diplomacy
portrayed in the quality of education and science.
Keywords: literacy; scientific publication; value education;

professionalism, action research
1. Introduction
One of the industries attached to research and publication activities is higher
education as a manifestation of the tridharma of education (teaching, research and
community service) in Indonesia. With this inherent obligation, lecturers are
*
Corresponding author: Asep Kurnia Jayadinata; asepkurniajayadinata@gmail.com
©Authors
139
required to conduct research and have it published (Arizal et al., 2019). In

Indonesia, strategic efforts to increase the number of publications in higher
education as a form of diplomacy in the quality of education and science are stated
in a circular from the Director General of Higher Education no. 152/E/T/2012
concerning the obligation of scientific publications for undergraduate,
postgraduate, and doctoral students. In addition, the doctoral students were
commanded to publish in reputable international journals indexed by Scopus.
However, doctoral program students who are lecturers and are familiar with the
world of research often experience difficulties. Publishing research results in
reputable journals at the international level is challenging, as experienced by
many Indonesian students. Besides the language-ability factor, the weak ability to
write and search for reference sources for doctoral students is an obstacle in
accessing international publications in Scopus-indexed reputable journals. This
phenomenon has an impact on the length of study undertaken; because the
conditions for completing the final study are not fulfilled, thus such conditions
cause a domino effect on the image of the institution, with many students who
did not graduate in time. This fact indicates the weak literary competence of the
students.
The low reading literacy level causes it to be uncompetitive, due to the lack of
mastery of science and technology, because of the weak interest and ability to read
and write (Teguh, 2013). Therefore, strategic steps are needed to improve the
literacy competence. This is important considering that the World Economic
Forum states some of the skills that must be mastered, in order to face the 21st
Century. These skills include literacy, competence, and character (Antoro, 2017).
Researches have been conducted related to competence in scientific publications.

For example, research in the UK shows that students’ perspectives stated that
lecturers who already have scientific publications and have been published are
considered more credible and would be able to more effectively link their research
activities with their learning experiences (Camacho et al., 2017; Schofield &
Burton, 2015).
Furthermore, Intan et al. (2019) explored the effect of publication requirements
on work stress on academic lecturers in Indonesia, using the Job Demand-
Control-Support (JDC-S) model. The research employed 100 random lecturers
in Indonesia. The research revealed that the distribution of stress levels,
according to the data, tend to follow a normal distribution, and for most
lecturers, stress levels are at an acceptable level. According to the JDC-S
theory, lecturer stress is mainly influenced by the demand and control related
to work, rather than job support. The number of respondents’ ratings
regarding research support in Indonesia is relatively low. However, the lack
of support did not cause or significantly affect their stress levels.
Yulianti et al. (2020) analyzed the influence of organizational climate, punishment

and reward, and competence on increasing lecturers’ capacity in writing scientific
papers. By processing the data using SEM-Amos, it was found that the
organizational climate had an effect on capacity building, with CR 3.494> 1.96 in
a significance of 0.00 <0.05 and a termination of 0.219. While punishment and
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reward affect the capacity development; and CR 2,740 <1.96, significance 0.006>
0.05 discontinued 0.240; competence affects capacity building with CR 1.992> 1.96,
significance 0.046 <0.05 and 0.175 terminations; Simultaneously, organizational
climate, punishment, and reward, and competence affects the capacity of building
with a regression coefficient of 0.518, and so on.
Those studies only describe the implications of lecturers who already have
publications and the factors that affect lecturers’ activities in carrying out further
scientific publication activities. In contrast to previous studies, this research is
aimed at finding the strategic steps in increasing lecturers’ literacy skills needed
for publishing scientific publications in reputable international journals.
Therefore, in limiting this problem, this research is formulated in one research
question: what are the critical steps needed for improving literacy skills through
publication activities in reputable international journals?
2. The Theoretical Framework

In developing countries, the expression “publish or perish” has been cultured;
and it has become a living guide for scientists and researchers (Wibawa &
Wirawan, 2017). The publication is self-actualization for academics and
researchers in the development of science. Publications, especially at the
international level, play a role in increasing a country’s self-esteem in
diplomacy,as regards the quality of education and science (Subekti, 2015).
Research and publication are closely related. Without publication, a research
finding would be meaningless and not impactful; since fellow scientists cannot
value or even recognize it.
The tendency for scientific recognition of a research parameter’s findings is its

publication in reputable international journals. Therefore, the ‘publish or perish’
culture can be understood; since an academic must conduct research and publish
his research findings (Amelia et al., 2018; Dewi, 2013). Writing scientific papers
for students is a necessary activity; since it is an academic culture (Husin &
Nurbayani, 2017; Nasution, 2018; Persadha, 2016). To find something, to come up
with new ideas, to develop the ability to organize and clarify various concepts or
ideas, to practise an objective attitude that exists in a person, writing is the
essential tool for academics to do research; and they therefore need to publish
(Amelia et al., 2018; Dewi, 2013).
Reading scientific works is necessary, in order to find the ideas outlined in an

article; because producing scientific work requires scientific reading. That is why
literacy’s primary meaning is closely related to reading and writing activities
(Barton & Hamilton, 2012).
Today, the barometer of scientific work is considered acceptable if the paper is
published by credible and representative publishers, and in this case, reputable
journals. A reputable international journal’s criteria are journals indexed by
indexing institutions, such as ScienceDirect, ProQuest, EBSCO, Web of Science,
Scopus, and others (Falagas et al., 2008; Meho & Yang, 2007; Mongeon & Paul-
Hus, 2016).
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Therefore, besides having writing skills, getting scientific references and

publishing requires information, literacy skills and the mastery of information
technology related to such scientific work (Julia & Isrokatun, 2019).
Budimansyah et al. (2019) stated that every component of society should master
new literacy: data literacy, technology literacy, and humanitarian literacy. Data
literacy is related to reading, analyzing, and thinking conclusions, based on the
data and the information obtained. Technological literacy is related to
understanding how machines work, applying technology, and working on
technological products, in order to get maximum results.
Humanity literacy is the goal of data and technological literacy; because,

essentially, a 21st.-century learner is a human resource; and to be able to use it for
a more dignified life is important (Budimansyah et al., 2019).
Although literacy is closely related to reading and writing (Barton & Hamilton,
2012), it is not limited to these issues only, in order to understand information
critically and analytically (UNESCO, 2003). Also, literacy skills are a person’s
socially functional skills, in order to contribute to their community (Keefe &
Copeland, 2011). A community-based effort is essential for the improvement of
someone’s literacy. It implies that literary skills also involve cognitive capacities
and information processing (Webber & Johnston, 2000).
In the context of character education, literate humans are humans with character
(Naibaho, 2007; Permatasari, 2015); because literacy is also an essential part of
character education: the character of the learner, the character of curiosity, and the
character of sharing knowledge (Hasfera, 2017; Lizawati, 2018). Literate people
have creative, innovative, competitive power; and they develop collaborative
attitudes (Afandi, 2017). For Indonesians, building a literate society is a necessity,
especially for academics. This is because the level of literacy of the Indonesians is
shallow, in line with the UNESCO Survey in 2012, as quoted by Fitriyah et al.
(2019). This indicates that the reading index of Indonesian society is 0.001. This
means that for every 1000 persons, only one person has an interest in reading.
While the 2009 Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) reported
that the Indonesian reading literacy test results are ranked 57, with an average
score of 402 out of 500.
In 2012, Indonesia was ranked 64th., with an average score of 396 out of 500. Even
in 2015, Indonesia was ranked 69 out of 76 countries, with an average score of 397,
out of an international average score of 500 (GLN, 2017).
Policies related to the obligation to publish an article in international-indexed

journals actually require academics to improve their literacy skills and tool
mastery in carrying out publication activities, in addition to mastering an
established research methodology. However, the efforts to improve these skills
have not come to the attention of academics; thus, this has resulted in a low level
of literacy and a minimum number of publications. Therefore, this study seeks to
answer the question: What are the practical steps required in improving students'
literacy skills, and for increasing the number of publications? This is believed to
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be important, considering: (1) the increasing numbers of publications is an

important agenda for academics; and (2) the demands and challenges of policies
related to publication obligations for students in pursuing final studies in their
doctoral program; and (3) the opportunities in academic diplomacy activities for
academics.
The contribution of this research is expected to be a practical guide in improving

the literacy skills of academics in the higher educational environment.
3. The Method
3.1. Design
To achieve this research objective, action research (AR) was chosen to conduct this
research. Given its theoretical and principle roots, AR is often used to explore
critical pedagogical issues (Gibbs et al., 2017). This is in line with this study’s
problems related to the lack of literacy competence for scientific publications.
With this AR design, it can explore such problems, in order to find solutions
(Creswell, 2002). Furthermore, this research design can help understand self-
practice, in order to improve every action (Kemmis et al., 2013; Kemmis &
McTaggart, 2005; McTaggart, 1994).
3.2. The Collaborative Aspect

One of the characteristics of action research design is the collaborative aspect that
is applied as a process between researchers and practitioners (Bruce et al., 2011;
Creswell, 2002; Ferguson-Patrick, 2007; Jaipal & Figg, 2011; Leeman et al., 2018;
Somekh, 2010). In initiating collaboration, researchers refer to the methods used
by Heil (2005), what is needed, and who is interested in this project. When this
project was announced, one professor with characteristic educational
qualifications and head of the study program was interested in becomingg
involved. One lecturer of civic education and the director of innovation at a state
university and one English lecturer were already involved.
This collaborative team designed various needs for research, such as a solution
for learning plans, developing indicators for formulating literacy competences,
and determining what students should produce at the end of the project. We
decided that students must have 21st.-century literacy competence, as initiated by
Budimansyah et al. (2019), including data literacy, technology literacy, and
humanitarian literacy. Each student can produce articles submitted to reputable
international journals. By referring to these three domains, in order to support the
expected results from this study, we developed a rubric of information-
technological literacy, with mastery as a guide to the extent of the success
achieved in this action research. This rubric was formulated and discussed in a
focus-group discussion with the collaborative team, as presented in the following
Table 1.
Table 1. Literacy Development Indicator
No Aspects Descriptions Indicator
1 Data Reading skill, 1. Analyzing issues
Literacy comprehension skills
and Concluding skill
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from the given 2. Finding and collecting relevant

information and data. references from reputable publishers.
2 Technology The capability to 1. Utilizing technology in tracing reference
Literacy comprehend how the sources in reputable journals
program is 2. Utilizing the reference manager
functioned and application
working with it.
3 Humanities Related abilities to 1. Achieving similarity index fairness level

Literacy research publication for the paper.
and writing: 2. Submitting articles to reputable
communication, international journals.
teamwork, critical
thinking and
creativity and
innovation
3.3. The Research Procedure

This research employed three stages. Firstly, there was the pre-action analytical
stage. At this stage, we try to map the initial literacy skills in students’ scientific
publications, and to design the necessary steps. The second is the implementation
of actions. The implementation of the action steps designed in the previous stage
was applied, and the third is post-action analysis. This stage is a series of activities,
in order to evaluate the success of an action.
3.4. Participants and Sites
This research was carried out at one of the universities in West Java-Indonesia. As
for the participants, 24 people consisting of 12 women and 12 men, were involved.
They are lecturers, who are currently pursuing a doctoral program in one study
program in a state university in Bandung, Indonesia. These participants are the
lecturers from two state universities, as well as private universities in Indonesia,
with several professional backgrounds. They belong to the digital native group,
the generation born in the digital technological environment; because they were
born after 1980 (Prensky, 2001).
These participants benefitted this research activity; since they had obtained their
training and materials on how to find references, cite, and add them to the
research papers. They also experienced the real experiences in submitting and
publishing a research paper to international-indexed journals.
3.5. The Data Collection

Surveys collected the data, observations, and semi-structured interviews. The
survey was carried out by using the Google-Documentary facility, and by using
the Likert and Guttman scales (Allen & Seaman, 2007; Widhiarso, 2011). Google
Documents have grown into a superb and simple survey-software system that
everyone can use (Chiu et al., 2016; Lin et al., 2016; Travis, 2010). This research
utilizes interviews, and questionnaire instruments. Before the survey was
administered, the students from one study program were asked to participate in
this study; but there were only 24 students that were willing to take part in this
144
study. They were asked to write a consent letter before the research activities
began. The instruments were validated by judgement experts in the field of
pedagogics, educational technology, and character education.
3.6. The Data Analysis
The data generated were in the form of numbers, which were obtained from
survey result bys using the Likert and Gutman scales. These were analyzed by
using the quantitative approach, especially when analyzing the comparison in the
pre-action and post-action sections. The data that were not in numerical form,
which were obtained from the results of semi-structured interviews, were
analyzed by using a qualitative approach. The qualitative analysis was carried out
by using an inductive-thematic method, with a content analytical approach. This
is content analysis that allows researchers to carry out subjective interpretations
of the content of text data through a systematic classification process, coding and
identifying themes or patterns (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008; Erlingsson & Brysiewicz,
2017). What are the students' difficulties, obstacles; and what do they think and
feel when doing publication activities?
4. The Results
4.1. Pre-Action Analysis
This stage is that of mapping the subject’s literacy abilities. A total of 24
participants were instructed to submit a draft of the article by way of an
assignment. Observation and semi-structured interviews were carried out at this
stage. From this stage, a mapping of the subject-literacy skills was generated, as
in Figure 1:
Total Percentage
6
5
3
2
2
25.00%
20.83%
12.50%
8.33%
8.33%
0.00%
0
REFERENCE MANAGER
SEARCH REPUTABLE
SIMILARITY INDEX
1. TAKING REFERENCES
REPUTABLE JOURNAL
ARTICLE TO ONE OF
CONTRIBUTION BASED
TECHNOLOGY TO
1. PRODUCING
1. EMPLOYING
FROM REPUTABLE
ACCEPTABLE
2. SUBMITTING
ON THE CURRENT
2. UTILIZING A
APPLICATION
2. EXPLAINING
NOVELTY AND
ARTICLES
PUBLISHERS
RESEARCH
ISSUES
DATA LITERACY TECHNOLOGY LITERACY HUMANITIES LITERACY
Figure 1. Lecturers’ Literacy Ability
Figure 1 provides information indicating that the participants’ literacy skills are
deficient. Only 3 (12.50%) of the participants used references from reputable
publishers, for example, Tailor and Francis, Springer, Sage, Wiley, or Elsevier.
145
These five publishers are a popular reference for academics in writing journals
(Gadd et al., 2018; Larivière et al., 2015).
In the second indicator in the data-literacy component, only 2 (8.33%) participants

explicitly explained novelty and the article’s scientific contribution. This is
important because previous studies’ novelty and differentiation indicated that
one’s article is worth being published (Julia & Isrokatun, 2019; Wekke, 2015).
In the aspect of technological literacy, based on the results of semi-structured
interviews, it can be concluded that the majority of the participants did not know
how to browse reputable journals. This digital-era trend is that the criteria for a
reputable international journal are journals indexed by indexing institutions, such
as ScienceDirect, ProQuest, EBSCO, Web of Science, Scopus, and others. (Falagas
et al., 2008; Meho & Yang, 2007; Mongeon & Paul-Hus, 2016).
Based on the interview results, only 2 (8.33%) of the participants knew the criteria
for reputable journals and could trace them by using internet information
technology. As for the citation technique, only 6 (25%) of the participants used one
of the reference-manager applications: Mendeley, Zotero, or Endnote; and all six
of the participants used Mendeley.
In the humanities-literary aspect, we checked the similarity of articles that had
been compiled by using the Turnitin application. The similarity check results on
the articles they compiled were only 5 (20.83%), which met the fairness threshold
below 20%. The search results were based on semi-structured interviews with all
the subjects related to the publication experiences in reputable international
journals. The majority answered that they had never published or submitted
articles in reputable international journals.
Based on the mapping results, at this stage, it may be concluded that the average
literacy level of doctoral students is 10.14%. This figure is obtained from the
percentage of each indicator, divided by the number of indicators. Therefore, the
proper steps are needed for increasing the literacy skills of the subjects.
4.2. Action Implementation
This action-implementation stage is an effort to improve the participants’ literacy.
Based on the results of the pre-action analysis, this resulted in 7 stages. The seven
stages can be described as follows:
4.2.1. Stage 1. Information-Technology Literacy
At this stage, we introduced several tools needed in preparing a manuscript for
publication. It took three steps to complete the stage. The first was preparing a
working paper through Microsoft Office, and explaining the features frequently
used by the participants. The leading feature for arranging maps in writing
systematics was the caption featured on the references menu to provide captions
on tables or figures, including the numbering references in tables or figures. It is
essential in writing to minimize any mistakes in numbering the lists of tables and
figures.
The second was to explain one of the reference-manager applications: Mendeley.
This application was chosen; since one of the participants was already familiar
146
with it. This Mendeley application also has relatively good accuracy in citation;
and it is easy to use (Kratochvíl, 2017; Kusumaningsih, 2018; MacMillan, 2012).
We guided the participants through installing the program, explaining the
features, and using them in this step. We have created a manual and video tutorial
for using Mendeley, in order to make it easier and more efficient. In this step, we
also emphasize that each participant continuously checks the metadata that had
been inputted in the Mendeley application; for example, the type, the author’s
name, year, edition, volume, and DOI. If not completed, each participant was
instructed to complete it.
In the third step, the participants are given skills in accessing reputable journals,
by using one of the applications released by the Indonesian national library. The
Participants were instructed to register by visiting the page
http://keanggotaan.perpusnas.go.id. After the participants were registered, and
had received a membership number, they were instructed to access the site
http://e-resources.perpusnas.go.id and log into the site.
After that, the participants could search for the required references by entering
keywords into the search engines, based on reputable publishers. This application
is shown in Figure 2. In addition to using the application, the participants are also
given the knowledge to access the links related to 5 reputable publishers, such as
Taylor and Francis, Springer, Wiley, SAGE, and Elsevier.
Figure 2. E-Resource Indonesian National Library
In the fourth step, the participants were given insights to browse reputable
journals. For this, we set the criteria for Scopus-indexed journals, as targets for
publishing the manuscripts. The selection of the Scopus-indexed journal target
and the Scopus-indexed journal is a policy for almost all universities in Indonesia,
as a requirement for completing their doctoral studies, including a requirement
for lecturers’ promotion. Scopus-indexed journals are equipped with several
features, such as Citation, Networking, Research, and Score (Muriyatmoko, 2018;
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Siti, 2018); therefore, many researchers in Indonesia use Scopus-indexed journals

as targets and references in publishing their research.
Furthermore, the participants are directed to access the site
https://www.scopus.com and to describe the features on the site, such as
searching for authors on the author feature, or browsing journals by journal name,
ISSN number, subject area on the source feature, and journal filtering, based on
quartile 1-4, as well as selecting open-access journals, or not. By accessing the site,
participants get information on whether the Scopus indexing agency still covers
the journal that is the target of publication, or not. In addition to setting targets in
Scopus-indexed manuscripts, this also makes it easy for the participants to visit
the address of the intended journal and to read the research results published in
the journal; so that it can be used as a reference source, as well.
In this step, we also directed the participants to select targeted journals, and to
avoid potential predatory journals. For that, we directed the participants to access
the site https://beallslist.net/standalone-journals/. This site provides
information or recommendations, in order to avoid a list of journals listed on the
site.
After completing these four steps, the 24 participants were surveyed, in order to
evaluate their effectiveness. The survey results are shown in Table 2:
Table 2. The Survey Result for participants’ knowledge of the information and
technology
No Description Yes No
1 I know and understand how to prepare working papers 24
to publish manuscripts in Microsoft Word, and I know
some MS Word features required for preparing the
publication.
2 I know how to operate Mendeley, as a reference manager. 22 2
3 I know how to use E-Resources from the National 24
Library, as a reference-search application for reputable
publishers articles.
4 I know how to get information related to Scopus-indexed 24
journals.
Total Average 23,5 0,5
In Percentage (%) 97,92 2,08
Based on the survey results, it can be concluded that 97.92% of the participants
already know and understand the information-technology literacy needed to
support the publication. However, this requires further verification; since it is only
gained from the participant’s perspective. Furthermore, 2 participants stated that
they did not know how to use Mendeley, as a reference manager. Based on further
research, the two participants did not follow the material. Therefore, we provided
an opportunity for the two participants to view the presented material’s video
footage.
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4.2.2. Stage 2. The Investigation

At this stage, we directed the participants to find five references related to the
latest research from 5 reputable publishers. These references are related to the
participants’ topic of interest. We set the five reference criteria, based on the
publication year from 2018 to 2020. We aimed to do this, in order to investigate
the empty research gaps, based on the previous studies. To make it easier for the
participants to investigate some of the results of previous studies, we provided
several rubrics, as in the following table:
Table 3. Abstract-Analysis Rubric for the previous research
No Study (Write Participants Context Design Finding
the /Method
references)
1
2
Table 3 has guided the participants to analyze the previous research on abstracts,
including several components: who and how many participants are involved,
what the research context is, how the design or research is used, as well as the
findings.
Table 4. Conclusion and Recommendations: Analysis in The Previous Research
No References Conclusion and Further research
Recommendations
1
2
After the participants had analyzed the abstract, the next step was to analyze the
research’s conclusions and recommendations. Then, the participants concluded
the necessary follow-up. These conclusions were then made an issue by the
participants and analyzed by using the rubric in Table 5.
Table 5. Issues’ Analysis for The Following Study
Issues’ Analysis (Scale 1-5) Prior
ity
No Issue Issues’ Criteria (1-5)
Urgen Seriousn Issue Total
cy ess Growth Priority
1 Actual :
Eligibility :
Problematic:
Feasibility:
Based on Table 5, each issue was analyzed on four review criteria: actuality,
eligibility, problem, and feasibility. The participants assessed the issue on a scale
of 1-5, based on three components: urgency, seriousness, and issue growth. The
assessments were then added up, and the biggest score became the main priority
to be appointed. Based on this stage, each participant had issues based on the
analyses. This means that there are 24 issues as topics that would be used as
material for the publication.
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4.2.3. Stage 3. The Writing Technique

At this stage, we provided guidance related to the writing techniques in
international journals. A systematic IMRAD CAR was used: Introduction,
Methodology, Results and Discussion, Conclusion, Acknowledgments, and
References. Each participant was explained in every section’s components. For
example, the title must not reach more than 16 words. The abstract consists of 200-
250 words, explaining the problems, objectives, methods, findings, and
conclusions. The introduction must include the problems, previous research,
objectives, emphasizing any novelties, and the research contributions. IMRAD
CAR is the general writing style for a journal article. However, it is necessary to
follow the guidelines of each targeted journal strictly. The participants may create
a section in their working paper (e.g., Microsoft word), based on the IMRAD CAR
systematics, by using the headings feature to make it easier to fill in each
component, as they are arranged in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Heading Sections in Microsoft Word based on IMRAD CAR

4.2.4. Stage 4. Supporting Theories Exploration
At this stage, the participants were directed to explore the theories used by
previous researchers and to find the supporting theories related to the issues
raised. They were given another rubric, as in Table 6, as a guide in inventoring the
theories that support the issues. Further, they paraphrased the sentence, based on
their understanding, while still adhering to the Authors, as a manifestation of
academic honesty.
Table 6. Supporting Theories Inventory Rubric
References The key sentences related Paraphrasing
to the used theories (Re-write the sentences using own
(write with the references) words)
1 1.
. 2.
3.
4.
5.
2
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Based on the observations, 24 participants could do it; and they did not encounter
any significant obstacles. It also shows that the participants could easily access
and render their understanding information. The results of this stage were used
to prepare the theoretical framework for the manuscript.
4.2.5. Stage 5. Reflection
Reflection is widely regarded as a professional practice and process that supports
learning through experience (Coulson & Harvey, 2013). Reflections can be
approached from a different perspective (Brookfield, 2017); and they can be
involved at varying degrees of depth, complexity, and criticality (Kreber &
Castleden, 2009; Mezirow, 1992). This depends on experience, the desired learning
outcomes, and the learner’s capacity for self-analysis towards open-mindedness
(Paris & Winograd, 2003). As a reflection, we directed the participants to analyze
the draft of their manuscript and made some improvements, based on the
experiences they had gone through from stages 1 to 4. Through this stage, they
could identify the weaknesses and strengths of the manuscripts. Some of the most
dominant issues include: inconsistency between the styles in the body text and the
reference list, even inconsistency with the bibliographical writing style. For
example, some used a mix of Vancouver and APA 6th styles, or APA 6th and 7th
APA styles.
Based on the interviews it wasdifficult for them to change the reference style,
when one journal rejected the paper; and the participants then wanted to publish
the paper in another journal, with a different referencing style. In addition, there
were found to be many reference sources, some from unrepresentative references
and inappropriate writing systematics.
4.2.6. Stage 6. Actualizing
This stage is an effort to produce productive and creative actions from the
participants, in order to continue the reflection stage. It aimed to improve the draft
text that had been prepared, based on the notes during the reflection stage. The
process was carried out in the form of mentoring. After the improvement process
was carried out and the criteria had been met by each targeted journal, we
examined a form of peer review for possible improvement.
4.2.7. Stage 7. Translating
This stage is a follow-up to the previous stage. After the improvement and peer
review process had been carried out, the next step was to collaborate with the
translator. For Indonesians, whose English was not their mother tongue,
collaboration with a translator was needed, in order to transfer the ideas to an
international language.
Furthermore, it was necessary to check the similarity, in order to ensure that the
value was below 20%. The similarity check of the translated manuscripts is, on
average, below 15%. The next step is to make adjustments, based on the targeted
journal’s style, starting from the type of letter, the distance between the
paragraphs, and others. After being fulfilled, the participants submitted the
manuscript to the Scopus-indexed international journal. The details can be seen in
Figure 4.
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NUMBER OF DOCUMENTS SUBMITTED

15
10
10 9
5 3
2
0
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
Figure 4. The Total Submitted Manuscripts to an Indexed International Journal
Most participants are interested in journals in quartiles 3 and 4. We tried to

explore the participants’ reasons by conducting semi-structured interviews with
two of them. This relates to their decision to submit the manuscript to Q3 and Q4
Scopus-indexed journals. The question is, “Why did you submit your journal to
Q3 or Q4?”. The participants’ answers were almost the same: initial experiences
only. As for some of the participants who submitted to the quartiles 1 and 2
Scopus-indexed journal, the reason was: participant 1 stated that the initial target
was Q4 journals, but after checking through the site
https://beallslist.net/standalone-journals/journal, it was listed on the site.
According to participant 1, although the manuscript was rejected, the editor’s
input could improve the Paper’s quality.
The second participant mentioned the demand from one of the campuses in
completing the final study by submitting it to the Q2 international indexed
journal.
The Action-Evaluation Result
When this research was written, the status of the participants’ manuscripts in
journals varied considerably. Some were under peer-review status; some had
been accepted with minor and significant revision status; some were still in the
initial screening. The details can be described as follows:
0
3
Initial Screning
7
2 Rejected
Reviewing Proces
Accepted With Major Revision
Accepted With Minor Revision
4 8
Accepted As It Is
Figure 5. Status of the participants’ manuscripts in journals
Figure 5 shows that the submitted manuscripts by the majority had met the
journal’s writing criteria; this was indicated by the existence of several
152
manuscripts received with a note of improvement. The manuscripts that required

major revisions were 4 (16.67%), for minor revisions there were 7 (21.17%).
Meanwhile, 8 (33.33%) of the manuscripts are still in the reviewing process: this
means that the editorial board has approved these eight manuscripts. The editor
is still investigating 3 (12.5%) manuscripts. 2 (8.33%); some of the manuscripts
have been rejected because they are out of the Journal’s scope. The participants
need to be careful to ensure that the manuscript is following the targeted journal’s
scope.
4.3 Post-Action Analysis
This stage is the final stage of the research-series activities. Based on the action-
evaluation results, there were several improvements needed in the participants’
literacy skills. The increase is viewed from the comparison between the results of
the pre-action and the post-action analysis. Some of these improvements can be
seen in Figure 5.
Pre Action Post Action Enhancement
24 23 21 24 22 24 24 24 24
21 19
18
6 5
3 2 2 0
1. Taking 2. Explaining 1. Employing 2. Utilizing a 1. Producing 2. Submitting

References from novelty and technology to reference acceptable article to one of
reputable research search reputable manager similarity index reputable journal
publishers contribution articles application
based on the
current issues
Data Literacy Technology Literacy Humanities Literacy
1 2 3
Figure 6. Increased Literacy Skills

Figure 5 shows the increase in all indicators for each literacy component. There
was an increase in the first and second indicators for the Data Literacy: 21 (88%).
It increased by 22 (92%) for the first indicator and by 18 (75%) for the second
indicator in the technology-literacy component. The first indicatorwais changed
to 19 (79%) for the humanities literacy component and 24 (100%) for the second
indicator. Based on this increase, the average increase in the participants’ literacy
competence was 87%.
The afore-mentioned seven stages can be summarized in an acronym LITERAT:
L = Literacy of Technology: This introduces the information technology needed
for publication; I = Investigation: it explores and analyses the results of the latest
research; T = Writing technique: it aims to understand how to compile a
publication manuscript; E = Exploration: it explores to find and develop any
supporting theories; R = Reflection: it aims to improve the quality of the text,
based on the experience; A = Actualization: it is an attempt to produce productive
153
and creative actions in compiling the publication manuscripts; T = Translation: it

is the act of collaboration to transfer the ideas to targeted languages. Through
LITERAT, the literacy skills were able to increase by 87%.
5. Discussion
Maslow (1987), in Hierarchy of Needs, uses self-actualization as the highest human
need and achievement. Moreover, for an academic, scientific papers’ publication
is no longer a requirement, but rather a necessity. It is a form of scientific
actualization to disseminate knowledge, in order to increase a country’s self-
esteem in the diplomacy of the quality of education and science (Subekti, 2015).
Therefore, ‘Publish or perish’ is a cultural value that needs to be cultivated for
academics in general.
Along with the development of internet-based information technology, the media
for publishing scientific works in the form of online digital-based scientific
journals have been pervasive and easily accessible to all people around the world
(Astuti & Isharijadi, 2019; Daive, 1997; Willinsky, 2005) for regional or
international indexed journals. Journals are also the informational media for all
academics, in order to trace and read their research results (Gould, 2010). It affects
an intellectual dialectical process among scientists, developing people’s research
results or filling in the research gaps that others have not done. Ideally, internet-
based publication media should be a meaningful lesson for academics, especially
students, by expressingthe ideas or thoughts to the public or society.
In other words, through publishing scientific papers, a positive and creative

mindset grows in writing scientific papers (Cronin, 2005; Hartley, 2008).
Consequently, writing scientific papers is a tradition that is studied by students
in every learning activity in higher education (Persadha, 2016).
Research and publishing results play a vital role, especially in universities and
research institutions, because they are the university’s credibility or the research
institute’s leading indicators. The progress of universities and research
institutions is measured by how much high-quality research is produced. The
more research or scientific work produced, the better the campus image (Salam et
al., 2017). Apart from the quantity, research is also assessed by how much the
produced paper influences others: directly or indirectly.
This impact factor can be measured by looking at the number of citations, while
the quality of the research results is also measured by the journal that publishes
them (Istadi, 2015; Sellers et al., 2004). The current trend shows that quality
journals are journals indexed by journal-indexing institutions, such as
ScienceDirect, ProQuest, EBSCO, Web of Science, Scopus, and others (Falagas et
al., 2008; Meho & Yang, 2007; Mongeon & Paul-Hus, 2016). In Indonesia, Scopus-
indexed journals are used to measure the quality of the research results.
Therefore, many researchers in Indonesia have used Scopus-indexed journals, as
targets and references in publishing research results. However, there were case
examples: undergraduate students who had received intensive guidance to
publish their research results. They had gone through the publisher’s review
process and were declared accepted; but they were unable to publish their work
154
because they collided with a costly publication. This indicates an achievement for
undergraduate students; because they have succeeded in submitting publications
at reputable international levels that impact universities. However, because they
did not get financial support, the research results could not be published. Factors
like this need to be considered by the related institutions, in this case, the
university.
In the learning context, increasing the number of student publications is described
in this action research. It is closely related to developing and providing
breakthroughs in learning and adapting and integrating technological
developments in learning. Thus, educators need to progress even better. They
need to stay on top of their knowledge, by constantly educating themselves. They
must have basic literacy skills and are alwaysbe able to learn by reading various
resources. For instance, research on and recommended discussion around
professional learning paradigms (Castle, 2006; James & McCormick, 2009; Nisbet
& Shucksmith, 1986; Novak & Gowin, 1984; Olson & Craig, 2001); how learning
media are developing through time by technology-assisted aid using computer
games (Rahman & Angraeni, 2020), or even utilizing LMS for practical courses
(Rahman et al., 2020).
The result of this research are intended to inspire and assist educators for their
literacy endeavors, allowing them to use the theories to adapt the changing
environment (Korthagen, 2010; Penlington, 2008). As such, the research has
shown that this can only be accomplished by improving academics’ learning.
6. Conclusion
This study’s aims have explored the framework for improving academics’ literacy
competence for scientific publication activities, by providing several stages
through pre-action, action, and post-action planned stages. These stages are
translated into an acronym of seven practical steps, namely: LITERAT: L =
Literacy of Technology: It introduces information technology needed for
publication; I = Investigation: It explores and analyses the results of the latest
research; T = Writing technique: It aims to understand how to compile a
publication manuscript; E = Exploration: It explores to find and develop
supporting theories; R = Reflection: It aims to improve the quality of the text,
based on the experience; A = Actualization: it is an attempt to produce productive
and creative actions in compiling publication manuscripts; T = Translation: this is
the act of collaboration to transfer ideas to targeted languages.
Through LITERAT, literacy skills were able to increase by 87%. It can be inferred
that these practical steps are promising for the improvement in academics’ literacy
competence for scientific publication.
However, this study has limitations; as it only focuses on higher education in West
Java, and in developing the literacy skills of doctoral program students. In
addition, E-Resource Indonesia National Library was the only online application
used to find references. The results of this study can be followed up by expanding
the scope of its locus and targets, which are not only implemented for doctoral-
program students, but at all levels in higher education. The reference searches can
155
be expanded to ‘Publish or Perish’ application from harzing.com or from major

publishers, such as SAGE, ScienceDirect, Taylor & Francis and etc.
7. Acknowledgements
We would like to extend our gratitude to the Research and Community Service
Institution of Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, which has provided financial
support for carrying out this research. The results of this research are free from
any conflicts of interest.
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160

Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 160-177, June 2022
Received April 7, 2022; Revised Jun 17, 2022; Accepted Jun 28, 2022
E-learning Outcomes during the COVID-19

Pandemic
Sang Tang My*
Ho Chi Minh City University of Economics and Finance, Vietnam
Hung Nguyen Tien

University of Economics Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Ha Tang My
Thang Le Quoc
Abstract. During the COVID-19 pandemic, it was necessary to implement

online courses so that teaching and learning would not be interrupted.
While online courses cannot replace traditional forms of learning, this
form of teaching and learning has been and is the most effective solution.
How to effectively teach and learn online is still a question of interest to
many. The study aimed to determine the relationship between factors that
promote learner satisfaction and e-learning outcomes among online
learners of nine private universities in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, from
the learner's perspective. Because the model has an intermediate
variable, the PLS SEM method is used. The study used the technology-
mediated learning (TML) approach. Independent variables in this study
include student motivation, student self-regulation, teacher-student
dialogue, student-student dialogue, activities, course structure,
technology quality, and LMS tools and features. The dependent variable
in this study is e-learning outcomes. Research shows that student-to-
student dialogue, course structure, and technology quality have a
positive and significant impact on learner satisfaction. The results also
show that learner satisfaction correlates with learner outcomes. From the
research results, we have proposed some solutions, such as teaching
platform, accuracy in course design, selection of software and teaching
aids. This research offers a new understanding of the relationship
between learner satisfaction and the learning effectiveness of online
education at private universities, and contributes online education
solutions suitable for new conditions in Vietnam.
*
Corresponding author: Sang Tang My, sangtm@uef.edu.vn
©Authors
161
Keywords: Technology-mediated learning, e-learning, satisfaction,

learning outcomes, COVID-19 pandemic
1. Introduction
The COVID-19 pandemic has forced educational institutions to shift from
traditional face-to-face classes to online classes (Yahya et al., 2021). Despite the
general population's acceptance and implementation of this setup, the students
face a variety of challenges (Del Rosario & dela Cruz, 2022). Online education has
benefits, but it also has disadvantages (Xie et al., 2020). Students who took online
classes encountered a number of challenges in delivering information (Jaca, 2022).
In Vietnam, the COVID-19 outbreak also began to spread to other provinces. As
of April 8, 2020, all 63 provinces and cities across the country allowed students to
stay at home. On April 1, 2020, Vietnam began implementing social distancing
across the country to prevent the spread of the disease. The pandemic brought
various challenges to Vietnam's education and training system (Nguyen, 2022).
Education and training changes gradually to adapt to a new trend as society's

development changes. In the context of Technology 4.0, education systems have
transformed from traditional structures to modern teaching methods. Teaching
and learning are not limited to face-to-face courses; today's educational
technology also enables learners to learn remotely and on mobile devices (Yahya
et al., 2021). In addition, educational technology enables teachers and learners to
interact at any time. Many educational institutions, such as universities, colleges,
and training centers, have used online teaching methods and created virtual
classroom environments to organize courses (Vanessa, 2020). Online learning
allows learners to take classes in their free time, even if they have other jobs (Xie
et al., 2020). Consequently, under the new trend, both teachers and learners have
the opportunity to gain further teaching experience.
Modern teaching methods are beneficial to learners and provide many

conveniences for teachers' teaching subjects, and the teaching environment may
be more pleasant (Xie et al., 2020). Additionally, advancements in educational
technology have pushed the boundaries of the classroom, ensuring learning is
always available (Yahya et al., 2021).
The COVID-19 pandemic forced universities to switch to emergency online

learning (Yahya et al., 2021). The complex and rapid evolution of the pandemic
made it difficult for policymakers to devise appropriate solutions for the
pandemic situation, especially for the education sector (Crawford et al., 2020).
Organizing learning in new conditions is not easy for some countries, especially
low- and middle-income countries where even physical facilities are still
challenging.
E-learning is affected by many other factors, so the quality of e-learning is also a

matter of concern (Saba, 2012). Similarly, satisfaction in this form of learning is
also affected by many other factors, such as learner motivation, course structure,
teacher qualifications and supporting factors (Baber, 2020).
162
To connect with students and ensure the continuity of teaching, universities

shifted from face-to-face training to online learning. While online training has
many benefits, its implementation also has certain limitations, especially at a time
when many universities are just beginning to adopt this form of teaching.
A summary of previous studies shows that this is a topic of high urgency and
research on this topic has recently begun to receive the attention of researchers.
However, because online teaching in Vietnam only began after the pandemic,
there had been no research on this topic. As a result, research is required to find
solutions.
The goal of this study was to identify factors that influence learner satisfaction
and the outcomes of e-learning from the learner's perspective; propose
appropriate solutions to help increase learner satisfaction, and increase learning
efficiency in new educational conditions. The findings can help university
managers, government politicians, teachers, and students to improve the quality
of online learning and enhance learner satisfaction and e-learning outcomes.
2.1 Technology-Mediated Learning (TML)
Technology-mediated learning (TML) is a learning environment supported by a
complex information technology system, in which teachers, learners, and learning
resources can interact online. The term "information technology" refers to the
convergence of computing, communication, and data management technologies
(Islam Sarker et al., 2019). TML is an essential trend in education as it enables the
advantageous inclusion of traditional and IT-based learning activities.
Consequently, TML's significance will grow as it empowers the creation of
innovative, personalized, and resource-efficient ways of education. Learners can
learn from a physical workplace or a self-contained, cloud-based learning
location.
Despite its numerous advantages, such as growing business feasibility and

increased student achievement, TML raises several fundamental problems due to
its variability. For example, due to the complexity of TML, studies cannot fully
capture the impact of synchronous and asynchronous learning elements on TML
outcomes (Zhong et al., 2022).
2.2 E-learning and E-Learning Satisfaction

E-learning is the use of information technology to disseminate information and
knowledge for education and training. This form of teaching and learning has
become a model of modern education. E-learning involves using the internet to
access information and update knowledge at any place and time (Aparicio et al.,
2014). Al-Fraihat et al. (2020) also define an e-learning system as an information
system that can integrate a variety of instructional materials (via audio, video, and
text media) via email, live chat sessions, online discussions, forums, tests, and
assignments. It is an internet learning ecosystem that connects various
stakeholders to technology and processes.
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E-learning allows learners to have greater access to internet-connected devices,

such as mobile phones, computers, tablet devices, and laptops (Alraimi et al.,
2015). In general, an e-learning system is a collection of information systems,
human activities (students, trainers, and managers), as well as non-human
organizations (learning management systems), that enable holistic learning
communication (Andrade et al., 2019).
Cyert and March (1963) pioneered user satisfaction to assess the success of
information systems. It was proposed in that review that if data systems meet
users’ needs, their satisfaction will grow naturally. Satisfaction can be defined as
feeling the result of comparing perceptions and experiences of perceived service
with people's expected happiness or disappointment. According to Moore (2012),
characteristics, including the use of learning strategies, learning challenges, peer
interaction, capacity to apply data, and achievement of learning outcomes, all
effect learners' satisfaction levels with e-learning (Moore, 2012).
There are various instruments for measuring student satisfaction in an online
context. Survey questionnaires, such as the course experience questionnaire, the
national student survey, and students' evaluations of educational quality, are
widely used to assess learner satisfaction.
E-learning is a system composed of three elements, including learners, teachers,

and a learner management system (LMS). This system will connect everyone to
optimize learning outcomes and increase student satisfaction (Eom et al., 2006).
There are two sorts of processes that result in learning satisfaction. The course
structure and design specify the process that the instructor creates and manages.
In an e-learning system, student satisfaction is an important question in
understanding the success factors of any online learning. Student satisfaction is
an important factor that creates the final learning outcomes and student
achievements (Babushkina et al., 2017).
According to Eom et al. (2006), eight elements influence e-learning satisfaction:

student motivation, student self-regulation, instructor-student interaction,
student-student interaction, instructor activities, and course structure.
Additionally, in the research of Kintu and Zhu (2016), technology quality and
LMS tools and features were also found to impact on e-learning satisfaction.
2.3 Learner Motivation

Learner motivation is regarded as a complex and difficult issue in education
(Dewi et al., 2021). The five main factors that affect student motivation are
students, teachers, content, method/process, and environment (Meşe & Çiğdem,
2021). The role of students in education is critical and should go beyond the
traditional view of students as clients or recipients of knowledge. Students prefer
teachers they like for their motivational benefits over ones they dislike.
Instructors are responsible for guiding the knowledge based on designed content,
and supervising the learners and the learning environment. Instructors need to be
empowered to take the initiative in assessment to achieve the desired goals.
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Besides, the content must be accurate, timely, relevant and valuable to a student's
life.
The educational method should provide an environment conducive to optimal

motivation, engagement, and learning, and assist students in developing tools
that will allow them to be self-regulated (Howard et al., 2021). A suitable
atmosphere must be present and easily accessible; the environment can be both
physical and mental, emotional, and spiritual. Students with high motivation will
be more successful in online environment than students with low motivation
(Hsu, 2019). The reason for dropouts from online courses is dissatisfaction with
the learning environment.
2.4 Course Structure

In an e-learning environment, the most important consideration is course
structure. Course content should be carefully developed and taught in
moderation (Gopal et al., 2021). Course design is how courses are structured so
that they can be delivered through various communication media. It expresses the
program's educational objectives, instructional practices, and evaluation methods'
rigidity or flexibility (Foster-Hartnett et al., 2022). This is how an education
campaign can accommodate or respond to the unique needs of each learner.
In low transaction distance courses, learners are guided through the course
structure and conversations with instructors. In more remote programs, learners
must decide on their learning strategies (Yahya et al., 2021), so course structure is
fundamental in e-learning. The course structure includes course development,
organization, design, curriculum, pedagogy and methodology, schedule, and
master planning before, during, and after course instruction (Sadikin & Hakim,
2019). Eom et al. (2006) found that course structure has a strong impact on student
satisfaction.
2.5 Learner Self-Regulation

Self-regulated learning strategies are “actions and processes aimed at acquiring
information or skills that involve the learner's perception of agency, purpose, and
tools” (Zimmerman, 1990). Self-regulated studying is a loop of “self-oriented
feedback”. In teaching, self-regulated learning has a framework that does not take
into account students' internal states, but instead relies heavily on learners' self-
control styles (e.g. self-mentoring, self-evaluation, self-support, self-correction,
and self-instruction) (Batool et al., 2019). Ejubović & Puška (2019) found that
student self-regulation significantly influences satisfaction.
2.6 Instructor-Learner Dialogue

Lecturers and students are the human resources for initiating and maintaining
interpersonal dialogue; they act within structured resources. Dialogue can be used
to improve student comprehension, strengthen learners' analytic skills, or as an
evaluation tool. In online classes, dialogue can take several forms. For any type of
dialogue to be successful, it must be carefully integrated into the curriculum,
including using e-mail, bulletin boards, 'real-time' chat, asynchronous chat, group
discussion, and debate (Shoepe et al., 2020).
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According to Simmons and Simmons (2020), if student interaction is not involved

in the learning process, students will not participate voluntarily. The findings of
the empirical study have revealed a variety of impact trends. According to Gopal
et al. (2021), teacher-student interaction is an important predictor of student
satisfaction. The results of Eom at el. (2006) demonstrate a statistically significant
positive relationship between instructor-student interaction and users’
satisfaction.
2.7 Learner-Learner Dialogue

In the current study, dialogue refers to “communication, collaboration, and
interaction between learners and their instructors, as well as learners among
themselves, to improve learners' understanding and engagement with course
content” (Abuhassna et al., 2020). Abuhassna et al. (2020) discovered that learners'
cooperation with their classmates influences their reaction to that cooperation.
Only important interactions are considered. Meaningful connections directly
impact on learners' knowledge acquisition, stimulate their curiosity, and assist
them in engaging in constructive learning activities that have an immediate
impact on their learning results.
Eom et al. (2006) and Kintu et al. (2017) discovered that student-student
interaction predicts satisfaction with the delivery medium, which has a positive
impact.
2.8 Instructor Activities

In a traditional classroom, instructors are the primary actors in education and are
primarily responsible for students’ learning experiences. However, changes in the
educational environment require a different approach from instructors, such as a
scaffolding role or a coaching role. E-learning instructors have combined two
distinct pedagogies: students and the classroom climate. When students have
problems in an online course, prompt guidance from the professor inspires them
to continue their studies. Previous studies found that instructors' quick responses
substantially impacted learners' satisfaction (Lee et al., 2018). An instructor's
attitude in the teaching process has an impact on student satisfaction. According
to Gopal et al. (2021), teachers' views toward e-learning considerably impact e-
learner satisfaction.
2.9 Technology Quality

E-learning involves learning and conversation through the use of other
technologies such as video conferencing (Bari et al., 2018). Therefore, the quality
of technology and the internet is crucial for e-learning. The quality and reliability
of information technology systems have an impact on the learning performance
of learners. Web data loading speed is closely related to the host server. The higher
the server quality, the faster the online interface loads. If students have no sign-in
or sign-out issues, continuing to interact with the teacher will increase their
satisfaction. According to several studies, the strength of digital technology has a
serious influence on e-learning satisfaction (Lam et al., 2021).
2.10 LMS Tools and Features

Today, a large number of universities around the world are equipped with LMS
to aid in the provision of a rich online learning environment, as well as to use its
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tools and functionalities to improve pedagogy and learning quality (Al-Sharhan

et al., 2020). LMS tools and features are one of the most important elements of an
e-learning system. LMS tools and features quality is related to whether LMS tools
and features are error-free and easy to use.
The quality of LMS tools and features affects learner satisfaction, especially those
aspects that affect how learners use the system. These characteristics include ease
of use, learnability, and friendliness. Therefore, learners will be more likely to use
a system if it is simple to use, and this increased use will have a positive impact
on their satisfaction.
Kintu and Zhu (2016) analyzed LMS tools and features for usability, navigation,
published course content, and perceived usefulness. The results showed that
learners made heavy use of the tools and resources, and found them valuable,
leading to learners' satisfaction.
2.11 E-learning Satisfaction and E-Learning Outcomes

E-learning outcomes are goals that must be met during the learning process
(Kustono et al., 2021). This is an important factor when studying e-learning,
measuring whether students attain competencies in their e-learning (Weinert,
2001). Evaluating e-learning outcomes is critical because dissatisfied students
become less likely to be enrolled in prospective e-learning classes. E-learning
outcomes occur when participants acquire new knowledge through e-learning
programs.
E-learning satisfaction is a significant predictor of student outcomes. It frequently
represents the cognitive component of course outcomes and is thus critical to
evaluate in an e-learning environment. In their research, Eom et al. (2006) found
that user satisfaction is an important predictor of student outcomes.
3. Hypotheses of the Study

H1. Student motivation has a positive influence on e-learning satisfaction.
H2. The course structure has a positive influence on e-learning satisfaction.
H3. Student self-regulation has a positive influence on e-learning satisfaction.
H4. Instructor-student dialogue has a positive influence on e-learning satisfaction.
H5. Student-student dialogue has a positive correlation with e-learning satisfaction.
H6. Instructor activities have a positive correlation with e-learning satisfaction.
H7. Technology quality has a positive correlation with e-learning satisfaction.
H8. LMS tools and features have a positive correlation with e-learning satisfaction.
H9: E-learning satisfaction is significantly associated with e-learning outcomes.
Figure 1 shows the article's hypothetical model showing the interrelationships

between the variables of interest.
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Figure 1. Hypothesized model
4. Methodology
4.1 Research Design
To answer the research question, we used partial least squares structural equation
modelling (PLS-SEM) to analyze the data. The study employed quantitative
research methods, including tests the model's fit, CFA analysis and SEM model
analysis. PLS-SEM is a powerful instrument used to analyze linear structural
models under abnormal conditions (Latan, 2018).
4.2 Research Setting and Participants

The respondents for this study were students of nine private universities in Ho
Chi Minh City, including Hutech University, UEF, Hoa Sen University, Hong
Bang University, Van Lang University, Huflit, Van Hien University, FPT
University, Sai Gon University. The interviewees were economics students in
their first to fourth years who are studying online. The questionnaire was
available in Vietnamese, translated by the authors.
A group of 15 people each took part in face-to-face discussions for the pre-test.
The subjects selected for the pre-test were students of two universities, UEF and
FPT University. These were students who had online learning experiences during
the pandemic.
The goal of pre-testing is to identify and eliminate potential problems with

wording, topic, sequence, and question difficulty. The results of the pre-test
questionnaire provide important feedback and helped to improve the construct
validity of the questionnaire (Cook et al., 2002).
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4.3 Research Instrument and Data Collection

In the research, we use the online data collection tool Google Forms. A total of 250
questionnaires were distributed via Google Sheets. A total of 223 valid answers
were received, corresponding to a response rate of 89%. This is regarded as a high
response rate, which reduced the possibility of response bias.
In PLS-SEM, the sample size must be at least 10 times the number of structural
routes in the structural model that are directed at a specific latent construct (Hair
et al., 2019). Because there are nine possible paths, the sample group should be
greater than 90. As a result, the sample size of 223 answers in this study met the
PLS-SEM minimum size criteria.
4.3.1 Measure of Constructs

We assessed all items using a five-point Likert scale ranging from "1" ("strongly
disagree") to "5" ("strongly agree"). All 10 construct measures of the 44 variables
were adjusted. Existing scales were used in the questionnaire to determine the
content validity, which was modified from previous studies (Trochim et al., 2016).
The scale for student motivation, instructor activities, student-student dialogue,
instructor-student dialogue, course structure, student self-regulation, and
learning outcomes was adapted from Eom and Ashill (2016).
The scale for technology quality was adapted from Kintu and Zhu (2016). The
scale for LMS tools and features was adapted from Kintu and Zhu (2016). All
constructs and measures are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Questionnaire items and their derivation sources

Student motivation (STUM) [Source: Eom & Ashill, 2016]
STUM 1 I prefer challenging teaching material in online courses like this so I can learn new things.
STUM 2 In this online course, when allowed the opportunity to choose class assignments, I choose those that
will help me with my studies, even if a good grade isn’t guaranteed.
STUM 3 I do everything in my power to ensure that my assignments are completely perfect.
STUM 4 Even when I dislike a class, I work hard to get a good grade.
STUM 5 I want to do well in this online class so that I can demonstrate my abilities to my family, parents,
and others.
STUM 6 I want to be one of the most well-known students in my class.
Instructor Activities (INSA) [Source: Eom & Ashill, 2016]
INSA1 The instructor actively facilitated this online class.
INSA2 This online class's instructor provided timely and useful feedback on assignments, exams, and
projects.
INSA3 The instructor in this online class encouraged students to exert intellectual effort beyond what was
required in face-to-face classes.
INSA4 In this class, the instructor was concerned about my learning.
INSA5 In this class, the instructor pays attention to all the interests of the learners.
Learner-Learner Dialogue (STUD) [Source: Eom & Ashill, 2016]
STUD1 In this online class, I had a lot of good and constructive interactions with other students.
STUD2 Online classrooms are built to foster student interaction.
STUD3 In this class, my classmates taught me more than any other class at this university.
STUD4 Positive interaction between students in the class has helped me improve my academic results.
Instructor- Learner Dialogue (INSD) [Source: Eom & Ashill, 2016]
INSD1 In this online class, I frequently interacted with the instructor in a positive and constructive
manner.
INSD2 In this online class, the instructor and students had a lot of positive and constructive interactions.
INSD3 Interaction between learners and teachers has helped me achieve better learning results.
INSD4 Interactions between students and the instructor that was positive and constructive were an
important part of the learning process.
Course Structure (COUS) [Source: Eom & Ashill, 2016]
COUS1 This online class's course objectives and procedures were communicated.
COUS2 The modules are simple and straightforward.
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COUS3 This online class's course materials were interesting and piqued my interest in learning.
COUS4 This online class's course materials provided me with a diverse set of challenges.
COUS5 Learning outcomes have been linked to assignments, projects, and exams.
Learner Self-Regulation (STUR) [Source: Eom & Ashill, 2016]
STUR1 I set goals and develop learning strategies to achieve the expected results.
STUR2 I still try to finish my homework even though the study materials are boring.
STUR3 I keep track of my grades in each course, and if one appears to be slipping, I prioritize that class in
my studies.
STUR4 When I'm studying for a test, I try to combine information from class notes and the book.
Learning outcomes (LOUT) [Source: Eom & Ashill, 2016]
LOUT1 The quality of online and in-person classes is the same during the pandemic.
LOUT2 During the pandemic, this online class taught me just as much as the offline classes.
LOUT3 During the pandemic, online classes taught me more than in-person classes.
LOUT4 During the pandemic, the quality of the learning experience in online classes is superior to that of
offline classes.
User satisfaction (SAST) [Source: Eom & Ashill, 2016]
SAST1 Other students would benefit from having this instructor as a teacher.
SAST2 I will recommend this course to other students.
SAST3 I will continue to follow this school's online courses in the near future.
SAST4 I am satisfied with this school's online course during the pandemic.
Technology quality (TECQ) [Source: Kintu & Zhu, 2016]
TECQ1 I believe that the information technologies used in e-learning are simple to use.
TECQ2 I believe that the information technologies used in e-learning serve a variety of purposes.
TECQ3 I believe that the information technologies used in e-learning are adaptable.
TECQ4 I believe that the information technologies used in e-learning are simple to obtain.
LMS tools and features (LMSF) [Source: Kintu & Zhu, 2016]
LMSF1 LMS tools and features are easy to use.
LMSF2 LMS tools and features spawn interaction between the learners and instructor.
LMSF3 I can access resources via LMS tools and features.
LMSF4 LMS tools and features give learners feedback on tasks.
In qualitative research, we assess the model's fit, reliability, and validity by test
composite reliability (CR) and average variance extracted (AVE). Composite
reliability is the lower constraint for internal consistency reliability, for all latent
variables or constructs must be greater than 0.70 (Sahoo, 2019). The average
variance extracted (AVE) metrics could be used to evaluate the convergent
validity of the constructs, and an acceptable AVE is 0.50 or greater, suggesting
that the construct explains at least 50% of its items' variance (Hair et al., 2019).
The outer loadings are used to assess individual item dependability. This ratio
indicates the loadings of the reflective manifest variables in relation to their
associated latent variables. A loading greater than 0.7 indicates that the item is
reliable.
After confirming the measurement model, the research then estimates the
structural model, which specifies the relationships between latent variables. The
square root of the AVE indicator is used to assess discriminant validity; the
construct must be greater than the approximate correlation between that
conceptual framework and the other concepts (Sahoo, 2019).
4.4 Data Analysis

The partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) method was
used to analyze these studies. The multivariate data analysis technique has gained
popularity among academics in recent years (Sahoo, 2019). PLS-SEM can be used
for smaller samples, but the nature of the population will dictate when small
sample sizes are appropriate (Latan, 2018).
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The study required confirming the measurement model's reliability and validity
before performing a non-iterative implementation of ordinary least squares
regression to provide latent and manifest variable outer weights, loadings, and
structural model linkages. Finally, the bootstrap resampling method was used to
determine the statistical significance of structural paths.
5. Results
No data items were missing from the 223 questionnaires sent by email and
received filled out by the respondents. The first step was to assess the
measurement model, which included assessing the model's fit, reliability, and
validity. The second step considered the results of outer loadings. The next step
assessed discriminant validity.
Table 2. The results from the measurement model estimation (weight, loading, CR
value, and AVE)
Manifest Outer Outer CR
Latent variable AVE
variable weight Loading value
COUS1 0.204 0.747
COUS2 0.235 0.779
Course Structure COUS3 0.301 0.851 0.898 0.638
COUS4 0.275 0.843
COUS5 0.230 0.767
INSA1 0.247 0.759
INSA2 0.287 0.779
Instructor Activities INSA3 0.282 0.795 0.871 0.576
INSA4 0.286 0.736
INSA5 0.214 0.723
INSD1 0.413 0.828
Instructor-Learner
INSD2 0.349 0.820 0.878 0.707
Dialogue
INSD3 0.426 0.873
LMSF1 0.281 0.853
LMSF2 0.309 0.830
LMS Tools and Features 0.913 0.724
LMSF3 0.283 0.879
LMSF4 0.303 0.841
LOUT1 0.292 0.871
LOUT2 0.307 0.851
E-Learning Outcomes 0.914 0.727
LOUT3 0.291 0.865
LOUT4 0.284 0.823
SAST1 0.274 0.774
SAST2 0.298 0.799
Learner’s Satisfaction 0.884 0.656
SAST3 0.317 0.809
SAST4 0.343 0.854
STUD2 0.392 0.818
Learner-Learner
STUD3 0.409 0.824 0.863 0.678
Dialogue
STUD4 0.413 0.829
Learner Motivation STUM1 0.683 0.846 0.783 0.644
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STUM5 0.557 0.757

STUR1 0.348 0.745
STUR2 0.362 0.792
Learner Self-Regulation 0.856 0.598
STUR3 0.272 0.748
STUR4 0.311 0.806
TECQ1 0.304 0.825
TECQ2 0.313 0.854
Technology Quality 0.894 0.678
TECQ3 0.288 0.801
TECQ4 0.310 0.811
According to the statistical findings shown in Table 2, the CR values in the models
used in this study ranged from 0.863 to 0.914, exceeding the criterion (0.7). The
results also include the estimated results of the measurement model, such as outer
loadings. All outer loadings in this study, ranging between 0.723 to 0.879, were
greater than 0.7. The AVE values in this study ranged from 0.576 to 0.727, which
exceeds the threshold value (0.5) proposed by Fornell and Larcker (1981).
Following the validation of the measurement model, we estimated the

relationship between latent variables. Figure 2 shows the path coefficients and R-
squared of the endogenous latent variables.
*** ρ < 0.001; ** ρ < 0.05

Figure 2. Empirical study results
The empirical results show that learner’s satisfaction associates significantly with
e-learning outcomes from the learner’s perspective. Where learner’s satisfaction
(SAST) associates significantly with instructor–student dialogue COUS (β = 0.263,
p = 0.006), learner–learner dialogue STUD (β =0.188, p=0.007), course structure
TECQ (β = 0.257, p = 0.001), but does not significantly associate with learner self-
regulation STUR (β = 0.010, p=0.885), learner motivation STUM (β =0.090,
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p=0.085), INSA instructor activities (β =0.101, p=0.191), LMSF (β =0.019, p=0.775),

instructor- learner dialogue INSD (β =0.06, p=0.407); (2) learner’s satisfaction
SAST significantly associates with e-learning outcomes LOUT (β = 0.829, p=0.000).
The findings supported hypotheses H2, H5, H7, and H9, but not hypotheses H1,
H3, H4, H6, and H8. This shows that learner motivation, learner self-regulation,
instructor-learner dialogue, instructor activities, LMS tools and feature have not
affected the satisfaction of learners at private universities in Vietnam.
The findings also show that the square root of AVE on each conceptual framework
(i.e., the diagonal elements in Table 3) is higher than the correlation between the
construct and other constructs (i.e., those related off-diagonal elements in Table
3.)
Table 3. Inter-construct correlations and the square root of AVE measure
COUS INSA INSD LMSF LOUT SAS STUD STUM STUR TECQ
COUS 0.799
INSA 0.595 0.759
INSD 0.618 0.578 0.841
LMSF 0.569 0.504 0.462 0.851
LOUT 0.628 0.499 0.537 0.497 0.853
SAS 0.715 0.579 0.592 0.527 0.829 0.810
STUD 0.619 0.513 0.653 0.406 0.639 0.633 0.823
STUM 0.341 0.316 0.360 0.413 0.401 0.420 0.401 0.803
STUR 0.578 0.509 0.419 0.501 0.424 0.488 0.377 0.389 0.773
TECQ 0.748 0.577 0.557 0.628 0.610 0.702 0.561 0.389 0.526 0.823
6. Discussion
In terms of the positive influence of STUD on SAST, the results show that
encouraging student-to-student dialogue may improve learner satisfaction (Kintu
et al., 2017b). One of the biggest barriers to online learning is students' lack of
intimacy and interaction. Therefore, solutions are needed to improve student-to-
student dialogue in the classroom and increase the efficiency of interactions. This
may be because students are motivated to learn when they are in a group. They
no longer feel isolated and benefit from the feedback of others.
Our study is one of the few that enhances the growing literature by validating a
model investigating the determinants of learner satisfaction and their impact on
learner outcomes. This research also confirms that COUS is significantly
associated with SAST. This information indicates that learners' satisfaction
increases.
Course structure plays a central role in a successful e-learning ecosystem. If

learners are not able to ask for help and feedback throughout the entire learning
process, the desired results will not be achieved. More simply, learners cannot join
the -learning ecosystem, because they have no motivation and support.
The findings are consistent with the research of Eom et al. (2006), that the course
structure is more than just words on a page. There are links, images, and
formatting. It is not just about designing a page. It is about designing a complete
learning journey. Instructional designers need to recognize the importance of
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content and visual design to provide learners with a better learning experience
and make e-learning a great success (Eom et al., 2006).
Consistent with findings in the literature, this study demonstrates that SAST
receives a positive and significant influence from TECQ. When the quality of
technology increases, learner satisfaction will increase. Similar results have
previously been found by Sun et al. (2008) and Kintu et al. (2017a).
Online learners face difficulties when using live online learning and other
platforms requiring an internet connection. They face technical challenges not
because they are unfamiliar with computer technology and applications. A fast
and reliable technology connection can change the speed at which they can join
classes and avoid missing live classes. So, if technology quality increases, the
satisfaction of learners will increase.
In terms of learner's outcome, it is shown that SAST positively relates to LOUT.

Learners' outcomes are driven by satisfaction, as has been proven in the literature
of previous research (Eom et al., 2006). Satisfaction can bring happiness to the
individual in the learning process, and thereby generate excitement and create
conditions to stimulate, arouse and achieve high learning efficiency.
In the process of designing online classrooms, educational institutions need to

consider overall factors such as policy frameworks, facilities and technology
infrastructure, human resources, teaching methods, assessment, and content, and
digital resources for teaching. In which, there should be solutions to promote
learner-learner interaction, classroom structure design and technology quality.
6. Conclusion
This study emphasizes key concepts related to the determinants of e-learning
satisfaction and e-learning outcomes. According to the findings, student-to-
student dialogue is positively related to satisfaction. Instructors need to add a
social element to help online learners connect and feel connected to the entire
group, creating a sense of authentic presence through interactions and discussions
through web chat and direct messaging. Teaching platforms must be used to
create online discussion groups.
The higher the level of satisfaction, the more complete the course structure. So,
creating online course content requires extreme precision. Online courses need be
both necessary and appropriate for learners. A key requirement for every lecture
is a clear and coherent layout. With such a reasonable layout, online courses will
be able to guide learners very effectively, and thereby improve the teaching
quality of any online course.
Technological quality is also seen as an important factor in student satisfaction.

Therefore, appropriate online learning software and teaching aids must be
selected. Attention should be given to internet systems to best support
connections between teachers and students.
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Based on the above ideas, the authors propose the solution for the online
classroom design process as follows:
Step 1. Create a plan. This is the first stage of the process of organizing an
interactive course. It is necessary to identify the objectives of the course, the
learning activities and methods that will best support student learning, the tasks
students must complete, and the opportunities for students to demonstrate their
academic achievement.
Step 2. Teach Design. When designing courses, instructors should pay attention
to the determination of learning outcomes, the determination of learning content
and resources, the choice of teaching methods, the choice of technology, the form
of assessment and assessment methods.
Step 3. Organize implementation. The role of instructors in organizing the
curriculum includes organizing online and in-person learning activities,
managing learners, supporting and sustaining learner learning, motivating and
engaging learners, reviewing and evaluating learning outcomes.
Step 4. After-school assessment. The assessment of online teaching and learning
is based on three main areas: pedagogy – the learning activities that underlie
teaching; resources – the content and information provided to learners; and
questions.
Step 5. Improvements. During the improvement phase, the design process, the
course organization starts again to incorporate any changes made to improve the
course into the next course.
7. Limitations
The research also has several limitations. First, it has not yet compared the two
periods before and during the pandemic. Second, the authors only conducted
research on college students at private schools, and not on a group of public
universities that invest in facilities according to national standards. Future
research could expand the comparison of the relationship before, during, and after
the pandemic. It is also possible to conduct a broad survey of all types of
universities.
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Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 178-193, June 2022
Saudi Teachers’ Attitudes towards using Online

Learning for Young Children during the Covid-
19 Pandemic
Ahlam A. Alghamdi*
Early Childhood Education, Taif University, Saudi Arabia
Abstract. The outbreak of Covid-19 and consequent school closures

created a considerable challenge for educational systems around the
world. Many countries have shifted to online learning and other digital
alternatives to ensure continuity in education. Within this global and
historical context of the Covid-19 pandemic, the present study aimed to
explore teachers’ attitudes towards the use of online learning for young
children in Saudi Arabia. A total of 346 early childhood teachers were
surveyed during school closures and the concomitant shift to online
learning and teaching. The teachers who participated were recruited from
public and private kindergartens and early childhood centers. The
respondents completed a survey consisting of two scales developed for
the purposes of this study. The first scale explored teachers’ general
attitudes towards using online learning strategies with young children
(10 items). The second scale explored teachers’ attitudes towards using
online learning with young children based on their professional
experience during the Covid-19 pandemic (10 items). The findings
indicated that the majority of the respondents held positive attitudes
about the use of online learning as an alternative to regular schooling.
However, some beliefs varied among respondents, for example, whether
online learning is developmentally and educationally appropriate for
young children, and whether it creates or lacks a learning atmosphere. In
addition, chi-square test results for both scales indicated statistically
significant associations between teacher attitudes towards using online
learning and years of teaching experience. However, no statistically
significant associations were found for both scales between teacher
attitudes and geographic area (urban/rural) or school type
(public/private). Implications for teaching during and beyond the
pandemic are discussed.
Keywords: Covid-19; online learning; Saudi Arabia; teacher attitudes;

young children
* Corresponding author: Ahlam A. Alghamdi, Abghamdi@tu.edu.sa
©Authors
179
1. Introduction and Background

The multidimensional impact of the Covid-19 pandemic has resulted in
disruptions and real challenges for health, the economy, and education
worldwide. The pandemic has caused the most extensive educational disruption
that the world has ever witnessed (United Nations, 2020). Nearly 1.6 billion
learners in more than 190 countries have been affected by school closures,
constituting 94% of the world’s student population (United Nations, 2020). Nearly
200 countries established strict regulations to lock down schools, from early
childhood care centers to institutions of higher education (UNESCO, 2020). In
early childhood education, as many as 40 million children around the world
missed out on educational opportunities in their critical early preschool years
(United Nations, 2020). Sustaining the continuity of education for children is a
considerable challenge for education systems worldwide. In many countries,
governments and education stakeholders have been under immense pressure to
make immediate decisions to adapt and develop alternatives to regular schooling.
The implementation of an online learning format has been necessary. Using online
learning and other digital devices has been the safest choice to maintain children’s
education when health considerations create physical barriers to prevent in-
person interaction, and consequently, online approaches have been applied
(World Bank, 2020).
Different terminology have been used to refer to online learning, including virtual
learning, e-learning, and internet learning. Online learning is commonly known
as a web-based learning mode that relies on internet use without the physical
presence of either the instructor or learners (Nachimuthu, 2020; Singh & Thurman,
2019). Online learning is a form of distance education that can provide
asynchronous or synchronous learning experiences. Asynchronous learning does
not require exact timing, and learners can access learning materials at any time.
In synchronous learning, teachers and students meet virtually using computer
screens and facilitate real-time interaction (Anderson, 2008). During the difficult
time of the pandemic, both asynchronous and synchronous modes of online
learning were used, whether completely or in part, to cope with school closures
(UNESCO, 2020).
1.1 Online Learning in Early Childhood Education During Covid-19

The number of young children who are using online tools is rapidly increasing.
Due to the advanced technologies resulting from the revolution in smart devices
and touchscreen tablets, children have become more connected to the digital
world than ever before (Livingstone, 2013). The use of digital technologies in the
early childhood years is not a novel phenomenon and has been debated heatedly
among early childhood professionals. In recent years, some scholars have raised
concerns about the effect of young children using digital technology and have
called for screen time to be limited (cf., Carson & Janssen, 2012; Elkind, 2007;
House, 2012; Zosh et al., 2016), claiming that it limits the development of the social
and emotional skills that children need for school. Other scholars have viewed
technology and digital learning experiences as good avenues to extend learning
and support children’s cognitive capacity (Plowman et al., 2012; Stephen &
Edwards, 2017). Despite this controversy, the 2020–2021 school year was
180
exceptional. Educators have emphasized the need to maintain young children’s

access and connection to digital and online resources to prevent school dropout
and learning losses in the crucial early years of their lives (cf., Daniel, 2020; Kim,
2020; Vanderloo et al., 2020).
Teaching young children entirely online is beyond teachers’ technological and

digital capacity. Teachers are more familiar with using technology and online
materials to expand classroom learning and make meaningful connections to the
real world. Technology has been viewed mostly as an effective supplement to
teaching modes rather than a replacement (Donohue et al., 2020). The
appropriateness of online learning experiences for young children has been
viewed through the lens of the thoughtful and intentional use of proper
technology and age-appropriate digital content. The availability and accessibility
of online resources for children in remote locations, as in the case of Covid-19, do
not suffice for online learning to be adopted as an effective approach. As a result,
teachers need to take on an additional role when teaching online (Kim, 2020). The
competencies required for online teaching success include the ability to
communicate effectively, manage technology, deliver digital content, and mediate
various active interactions (learner-learner interaction, learner-instructor
interaction, and learner-content interaction) (Roddy et al., 2017). From a
developmental point of view, the use of technology has the power to bridge the
physical divide between children and their peers but should not replace
meaningful face-to-face interaction (National Association for the Education of
Young Children [NAEYC], 2020a).
The dramatic shift to online and virtual modes of teaching and learning activities
has raised several concerns related to teachers’ digital attitudes, knowledge, and
skills, and confidence in using technology as a vehicle for content in the online
learning environment and an alternative to traditional face-to-face teaching.
Teaching online has required teachers to be knowledgeable about information
and communication technologies (ICTs) to continue instructing students when
physical teaching has not been possible (World Bank, 2020). The necessity of ICT
skills has proven to be a significant limitation of online teaching. This has resulted
in teachers with limited technological experience believing that they were not
fully prepared to switch from a face-to-face learning system to an online learning
system in which all the instructional components would take place via digital
media and screens (Aliyyah et al., 2020; Carrillo & Flores, 2020; Kim, 2020). Trust
and Whalen (2020) reported that teachers felt overwhelmed and unprepared to
use online or remote teaching tools and struggled to adapt effective pedagogy for
their students. Teachers did not have sufficient digital literacy in the skills needed
for online communication with students. Teachers were also found to have
difficulty maintaining stable internet access to offer regular communication with
their students (Alea et al., 2020; Bird & Bhardwaj, 2020). All these issues have
resulted from the unexpected shift to online-based learning, which might in turn
have impacted teachers’ attitudes towards using online learning with children.
1.2 Saudi Education Experience With Covid-19

The disruption caused by Covid-19 to education communities has been almost
identical around the world. The massive spread of the virus was unpredictable,
181
and immediate action had to be taken to find an alternative to in-person teaching.

In Saudi Arabia, major transformational decisions were made to support the
continuity of education (Mann et al., 2020). After the World Health Organization
(WHO) (2020) alerted the world to the outbreak of the virus, the Saudi
Government immediately responded and suspended all in-person meetings at
schools, from preschools through to universities, in early March 2020. This was
one month into the second term of the school year (Alshammari et al., 2020). The
Saudi Ministry of Education (MOE) announced the urgent transition to online
alternatives to sustain education and resume schooling remotely (Perveen et al.,
2020). Two options were available for students and teachers. The first was massive
open online courses (MOOCs), known locally as iEN satellite channels, which
began airing lessons asynchronously for students in all grades on the 9th of March
2020. The second option was an established online platform, Madrasti [My
School], which offered synchronized interaction between students and their
teachers according to a daily schedule (Saudi Arabia. MOE, 2020).
For early education, the Saudi MOE created a virtual learning platform called
Alrawdha Aliftradhiah [Virtual Kindergarten], in which children aged 3 to 7
could enroll under their parents’ supervision. Each child was assigned a teacher
to guide their journey of joy, learning, and discovery. This virtual experience
offered young children a variety of educational elements and content through 11
units in an interactive virtual environment. Children could level up according to
the timeline of their progress and achievement. Two versions of Alrawdha
Aliftradhiah (a website and a downloadable application) were launched in 2019,
and 2020 recorded the highest level of enrollment by children. Children also had
the opportunity to synchronize interactive learning with their teachers through
another national online platform, Rawadati, which was first launched in January
2021. Teachers met with the children every day and presented lessons, activities,
and stories using digital materials and resources provided by the National iEN
Gate. Before the Rawadati platform, teachers used other digital platforms, such as
Google Meet, Microsoft Teams, and Zoom, to meet virtually with preschool
children based on their preferences. Although multiple options were made
accessible to both teachers and learners during the pandemic, the experience of
the sudden shift to online teaching created a range of challenges. Teachers had to
move from face-to-face settings to online platforms and develop the digital
literacy and skills needed for this transition, and moreover, they had to adapt to
the transition within a matter of days.
1.3 The Current Study

There is a plethora of research on online learning in higher education at the
university and college levels. However, it is not common to adopt distance
learning and online courses for the early years of education (Donohue et al., 2020;
Martin et al., 2021). The urgent shift to online learning for all learners due to
Covid-19 demonstrates the need for research on the possibilities of online teaching
in early childhood education (Chen & Krieger, 2022; Goldschmidt, 2020; Kim,
2020). School lockdown decisions, followed by the transition to online learning,
have been disruptive for all teachers. For many teachers, shifting classroom
practices to a virtual environment in a short time period is considered a major
transformational situation in their profession. There is an urgent need to explore
182
how this unprecedented event has shaped early childhood teachers’ attitudes
regarding online learning as major digital changes have occurred due to school
lockdowns. Thus, this study aimed to explore teacher attitudes towards the use of
online learning for young children during the difficult pandemic period. The
following research questions guided this investigation:
• Research question 1: What are Saudi teachers’ attitudes towards using online
learning for young children?
• Research question 2: What are Saudi teachers’ attitudes towards using online
learning for young children during the Covid-19 pandemic?
• Research question 3: Is there a relationship between Saudi teachers’ attitudes
towards using online learning for young children and years of teaching
experience, school type, and geographic area, respectively?
• Research question 4: Is there a relationship between Saudi teachers’ attitudes
towards using online learning for young children during the Covid-19
pandemic and years of teaching experience, school type, and geographic area,
respectively?
2. Methods
A quantitative survey was used to explore teachers’ attitudes regarding the use of
online learning for young children during the Covid-19 pandemic. Prior to
starting data collection, the Committee of Research Ethics at the author’s
university reviewed the tools of data collection and approved the study.
Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval was obtained. All ethical guidelines
were considered and followed. Each respondent was provided with an electronic
copy of the informed consent form before being provided access to the survey.
Informed consent indicated that participation in the study was voluntary and that
respondents knew their right to withdraw from the study at any time.
2.1 Instrument
The instrument used for this study was a researcher-made survey constructed to
explore early childhood teachers’ attitudes towards using online learning for
young children during the Covid-19 pandemic. Two scales were developed for
the purposes of this study. The first scale consisted of 10 items related to general
attitudes regarding online learning for young children. The second scale consisted
of another 10 items related to teachers’ attitudes based on their own professional
experience using online learning during the Covid-19 pandemic. The content and
context of the survey were academically checked by experts in the field – one
assistant professor and one associate professor – to ensure that all the items were
scientifically correct and relevant. All suggestions and corrections were made to
the last version of the survey before distribution. The reliability of the survey was
verified by calculating the value of Cronbach’s alpha, with a value higher than
0.60 considered statistically acceptable. The Cronbach alpha values for each scale
and for both scales as a whole are statistically acceptable, indicating survey
reliability (Table 1).
The internal validity of the survey statements was calculated with the Pearson
correlation coefficient (correlational relationship) between the degree of each item
and the total degree of the scale to which it belongs. Correlation coefficients
183
between the degree of all items and the total degree of the scale to which they
belong were statistically significant at a significance level less than 0.01 and 0.05,
respectively. This indicates the coherence of these items and their validity for
application to the sample.
Table 1: Validity results (between each scale and both scales as a whole)
Pearson
Number Scale
correlation
1 Attitudes towards using online learning for young children 0.860**
2 Attitudes towards using online learning for young children 0.916**
during Covid-19
** The correlation was significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed).
2.2 Data Collection and Analysis

The target population of this study was early childhood teachers teaching young
children in public and private kindergartens and early childhood centers. An
electronic copy of the survey was distributed using digital multimedia (e-mail,
social media, and teacher groups on WhatsApp, Telegram, and Twitter). The data
collection period lasted from October 2020 to March 2021, during the time when
online learning was adopted due to the Covid-19 pandemic and schools were still
in lockdown. Respondents were asked to indicate their level of agreement with
each item of the survey on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree,
3 = neutral, 4 = agree, and 5 = strongly agree). SPSS software was used to analyze
the obtained data. A descriptive statistical analysis and chi-square tests were
performed to answer the research questions. To answer research questions 1 and
2, we calculated the means and percentages for self-reported measures of teachers’
attitudes towards using online learning for young children and teachers’ attitudes
towards using online learning for young children during the Covid-19 pandemic,
respectively. To answer research questions 3 and 4, chi-square tests were run to
test the associations between each independent variable (years of teaching
experience, school type, and geographic area) and each dependent variable.
2.3 Sample Characteristics

A total of 346 teachers completed the survey (N = 346). All the respondents were
female, as in Saudi Arabia only female teachers can serve at early childhood
education programs and child centers. The demographic information of the study
sample is shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Descriptive statistics of the sample characteristics
Characteristic N = 346 %
Years of experience
Fewer than 5 75 21.7
5 to 10 years 175 50.6
More than 10 96 27.7
School type
Public 252 72.8
Private 94 27.2
Geographic area
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Rural 67 19.4
Urban 279 80.6
Regarding teaching experience working with young children, 50.6% of the sample
had 5 to 10 years, 27% had more than 10 years, and 21% had fewer than 5 years.
Regarding school type, 73% of the respondents worked in public establishments
and 27% worked in the private sector. Finally, 81% of the sample worked in urban
areas, while 19% worked in rural areas.
3. Results
3.1 Research Question 1
The first research question explored teachers’ attitudes towards using online
learning for young children. The survey statements (items) for scale 1 with their
respective means and standard deviations are presented in Table 3.
Table 3: Means and standard deviations for survey statements of scale 1

No. Statement M SD
1 Online learning is needed for the new generation. 2.12 1.005
Online learning is more interactive for children and has a wider range
2 2.10 1.034
of digital materials than traditional education.
Online learning allows parents to be effectively engaged in their
3 1.81 0.772
children’s learning.
Online learning costs children’s families less than traditional
4 1.57 0.848
education.
Online learning is developmentally and educationally appropriate for
5 3.00 1.006
young children.
Online learning consumes more time and effort than traditional
6 2.87 1.189
education.
Online learning helps children develop independence and decision-
7 2.42 0.921
making skills.
Online learning mediates children’s interaction with technology and
8 1.85 0.754
digital media effectively.
9 Online learning lacks a learning atmosphere for young children. 2.18 0.951
10 Online learning causes stress for children’s families. 2.12 0.878
The majority of the sample (75%) believed that online learning is needed for the
new generation. Furthermore, more than half of the sample (72%) believed that
online learning is more interactive and has a wider range of digital materials than
traditional education. In terms of parental involvement, although a large number
of the respondents believed that online learning allows parents to be effectively
engaged in their children’s learning (82%), they also believed that online learning
causes stress for children’s families (70%). The respondents largely agreed that the
cost of online learning is lower than that of traditional learning in regular
schooling (90%), and that online learning effectively mediates children’s
interaction with technology and digital media (85%).
Just over half of the sample (55%) believed that online learning helped children
develop independence and decision-making skills, while 32% were unsure or
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neutral about this item. There was noticeable variation among the respondents
regarding whether online learning is developmentally and educationally
appropriate for young children. Approximately equal proportions believed that it
is appropriate (30%) and that it is not (29%); 38% were not certain about the
appropriateness of online learning for young learners. Such variation was also
found between respondents who believed that online learning consumes more
time and effort than traditional education (40%) and those who did not (38%).
Finally, more than two thirds of the respondents (68%) believed that a learning
atmosphere is lacking in online learning.

The second research question explored teachers’ beliefs and attitudes regarding
online learning for young children based on their professional experience during
the Covid-19 pandemic. The survey statements (items) for scale 2, in relation to
online teaching during the pandemic, and their respective means and standard
deviations are presented in Table 4.
Table 4: Means and standard deviations for survey statements of scale 2

No
Statement M SD
.
I enjoyed the experiences of online learning and teaching during
1 2.12 0.957
the pandemic.
I had a smooth transition from a face-to-face learning style to an
2 2.13 1.000
online learning platform.
I had experience with online learning and teaching prior to the
3 3.40 1.175
pandemic.
I have experienced some difficulties with online learning (e.g.,
4 1.95 0.981
technical difficulties, internet access) that affect my teaching.
I have received sufficient support and training during my
5 2.20 0.956
experience with teaching children online.
I need more professional development like courses or
6 1.92 0.809
workshops for online learning and teaching.
I can interact with children and motivate them effectively
7 2.21 0.897
through the screen.
I collaborate with children’s parents and families on some online
8 1.84 0.749
activities and tasks during online learning.
9 I have gained new skills and knowledge while teaching online. 1.44 0.636
I am willing to continue using online learning and teaching in
10 2.05 1.017
the future.
Most of the respondents enjoyed the experience of online teaching (74%), and
gained new skills and knowledge while teaching online (94%). Although more
than two thirds of the sample had a smooth transition from face-to-face to online
learning (71%), they also experienced technical difficulties (e.g., with internet
access) while teaching virtually (84%), which they believed affected their
performance. The majority of respondents (68%) also stated that they received
sufficient support from IT units during their experience with online learning. A
larger majority (85%) believed that they needed more professional development,
such as courses or workshops, in online learning and teaching.
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The respondents were generally positive regarding their ability to interact with
children and motivate them effectively through the computer screen (68%). They
also reported collaborating with children’s parents and families on some online
activities and tasks during their experience with online teaching (84%). Just over
one quarter (28%) had had experience with online learning and teaching prior to
the pandemic, while 68% of respondents reported no such experience. The
respondents also demonstrated a positive attitude towards their experience with
online teaching and their willingness to continue using it in the future (72%).

The third research question investigated the relationship between teachers’
attitudes towards using online learning for young children and years of teaching
experience, school type, and geographic area, respectively. To test this, chi-square
tests were performed for both scale 1 and scale 2 (Table 5).
Table 5: Chi-square results for scales 1 and 2

Variable Scale 1 Scale 2
Chi-square p value Chi-square p value
Years of experience 97.093 0.026* 107.881 0.025*
School type 18.876 0.759 32.603 0.210
Geographic area 30.876 0.157 24.769 0.587
* Association found at 0.05 level of significance
Note. Scale 1: attitudes towards using online learning for young
children. Scale 2: attitudes towards using online learning for young
children during the Covid-19 pandemic.
The chi-square test of associations for scale 1 revealed a significant association

between attitudes towards using online learning for young children and years of
teaching experience (p = 0.026). The test also indicated that there was no
significant association between attitudes towards using online learning for young
children and school type (p = 0.759) or geographic area (p = 0.157).

The fourth research question explored the relationship between teachers’
attitudes towards using online learning for young children during the Covid-19
pandemic and years of teaching experience, school type, and geographic area,
respectively. The chi-square test of associations for scale 2 (Table 5) showed a
significant association between attitudes towards using online learning for young
children during the Covid-19 pandemic and years of teaching experience (p =
0.025). However, there was no significant association between attitudes towards
using online learning for young children and school type (p = 0.210) or geographic
area (p = 0.587).
4. Discussion
This study aimed to explore teachers’ attitudes towards using online learning for
young children during the Covid-19 pandemic. The analysis revealed overall
positive attitudes towards online learning among the teachers in the sample. High
percentages of respondents agreed with items representing beliefs that reflect an
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openness to the new innovation of online learning as they believed it is needed

for the new generation. It is also economic, with respondents believing online
learning costs learners’ families less than traditional education. Moreover, they
believed that online learning effectively mediates children’s interaction with
technology and digital media. On the other hand, respondents supported
statements reflecting a negative attitude regarding limitations in using online
learning in that it lacks a learning atmosphere. Respondents viewed online
learning in family relationships negatively as they believed that online learning
causes stress for learners’ families. There was variation across respondents’ beliefs
regarding different attitudes about whether online learning is developmentally
and educationally appropriate for young children. Additionally, respondents had
varied attitudes regarding online learning as they believed it to consume more
time and effort than traditional education.
Comparisons can be made between the findings from this study and those from
other studies conducted during the pandemic. The results of the present study are
similar to the results obtained by Alea et al. (2020) regarding Saudi teachers’
beliefs that online learning and teaching consumes more time and effort than
traditional education. Alea et al. (2020) reported that during the Covid-19
pandemic, teachers faced challenges with time management in online classes and
experienced stress meeting the requirements set by the school administration,
which required extra effort. Teachers reported feeling frustrated with online
teaching requirements, as they considered mastery of technology to be key to
successful teaching (Alea et al., 2020; Dong et al., 2020; Kim, 2020). Teachers’
confidence with technology is critical and vital to making online learning
successful for children (Hoq, 2020). In other words, technology alone cannot make
online learning successful. To keep learners effectively engaged, especially young
learners, teachers need to be equipped with digital and pedagogical skills
concerning technology functionality for educational purposes and online teaching
(Hoq, 2020; UNICEF, 2020).
Respondents in this study also held the opinion that online learning helps children
develop independence and decision-making skills. Likewise, Fox-Turnbull (2019)
noted that learning related to technology education promotes children’s sense of
independent engagement with the technology and that technological literacy is a
necessary competency for 21st-century children to flourish. Chen and Krieger
(2022) noted a valuable learning gain from interacting virtually as individuals
and/or cooperatively as groups, that children will become more resilient and
confident with their actions online. However, the level of independence involved
in learning online does not translate into independent learning, especially for
young children. Donohue et al. (2020) noted that independent learners in online
or distance learning are not necessarily lonely learners and that there is a third
party involved, specifically with young users. This third party are parents and
other family members, who are involved as a means of support in distance
learning to ensure that children are actively connected. This is because children
need help with technology not only to log in or out of online resources but also to
prepare materials for hands-on activities at home (Kim, 2020).
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The respondents also believed that online learning causes stress for children’s
families. This finding is consistent with an existing finding that parents were
overwhelmed trying to keep up with their children’s new style of education while
fulfilling their other responsibilities during the global pandemic (Garbe et al.,
2020). Other documented negative beliefs and attitudes regarding children’s
online learning among parents during Covid-19 are that online learning is
inconvenient, challenging, time-consuming, and generally less effective than
traditional learning (Dong et al., 2020). On the other hand, the respondents in this
study believed that parents and families have an important role in some tasks and
activities with their children. Similar findings by Braslauskienė et al. (2021)
showed that preschool teachers were constantly engaged in mutual
communication with learners’ parents to provide them with instructional
materials. Undoubtedly, the Covid-19 pandemic has created anxiety for children,
families, and educators alike. However, the beneficial aspect of the crisis is that it
has encouraged all adults engaged in duties involving young children to work
individually and collectively to allow education to continue amid pressure and
uncertainty about when life will return to “normal” (Daniel, 2020).
Although the majority of the respondents in this study agreed that online learning
during the pandemic has had beneficial aspects, they also reported uncertainty
about the developmentally and educationally appropriate way to teach young
children. The dramatic increase in the use of online learning for young children
during the pandemic has generated a new perspective on the appropriate use of
technology for educational purposes. The technology used in online learning
includes digital tools such as computers, tablets, apps, e-readers, and
smartphones, and the use of these technologies “results in the modification of the
natural world to meet human needs and wants” (NAEYC, 2020b, p. 37). Amid the
challenges of the pandemic, support for young learners across spatial and
temporal boundaries has not been a choice as much as an obligation to “meet
human needs and wants”, as the NAEYC stated. Consequently, the goal has
shifted from providing overall development learning opportunities to keeping
children connected to school life as consistently as possible (OMEP Executive
Committee, 2020). In other words, online learning might not be the best choice to
meet all children’s needs developmentally, but it was the most convenient method
during the crisis.
Lastly, in reflection upon the overall experience with Covid-19, researchers can
observe that the crisis helped in reconceptualizing our thinking of the flexibility
and adaptability of all education alternatives to better support children’s
education and development. The disconnect between children and their school
lives due to quarantine has created a sense of physical and social isolation.
Technology and online learning resources have provided some of the socialization
that children need and eliminated boundaries through the digital world
(Adedoyin & Soykan, 2020). Chen and Krieger (2022) proposed “learning gain” as
an alternative perspective to the so-called “learning loss” during the pandemic.
They claimed that children’s potential learning gains are not necessarily assessed
or recognized if they are not enrolled in academic subjects such as reading or
mathematics. Rather, children’s well-being as a whole should be prioritized in
189
terms of learning to be more socio-emotionally resilient and digitally confident

and acquiring technological knowledge and skills through online connection
(Chen & Krieger, 2022; Goldschmidt, 2020). The pandemic highlighted the
potential of well-designed online-based programs to be considered a valid means
of bringing more to the education of young children. This means that
overemphasis on learning loss due to Covid-19 might lead educators to limited
ways of thinking about children’s education during the pandemic rather than
considering all the possible gains (Hargreaves, 2021; Zhao, 2021). The lesson
learned from the online shift during Covid-19 is that even after the crisis and when
normal classes resume, all the possibilities of online-oriented learning experiences
and activities should still be used to enhance the education of young children to
the greatest extent possible (Chen & Krieger, 2022).
5. Conclusion
The findings from the current study represent an initial exploration of how Saudi
teachers felt about using online learning for young children in a time when an
unprecedented and unexpected crisis hit the world with Covid-19. Considering
the overall positive attitudes towards using online-based learning and teaching,
the respondents revealed an openness towards adopting online alternatives. A
potential gain from the current findings is that it might inspire decision-makers in
the Saudi education system to consider online teaching as a part of teachers’
professional development. Given the uniqueness of early childhood education
and the professional responsibility of early childhood teachers, we need to
evaluate what is effective in delivering developmentally appropriate online
learning for children. As a means of bringing more to the education of young
children, the skills and knowledge needed to teach in an online format must be
considered a part of teacher competencies (Foulger et al., 2017; Hicks & Bose, 2019;
Trust, 2017).
More specifically, and within the Saudi early childhood education context, the
crisis created a common ground where both teachers and parents can work hand
in hand to keep children as connected to the school as possible. A valuable gain
from the crisis within Saudi education is unprecedented cooperation in home-
school relationships (Saudi Arabia. MOE, 2020). The digital world reduced the
educational divide in terms of the roles and responsibilities of all parties involved
with children and their education (Hassounah et al., 2020). While the Saudi nation
itself is well connected to the digital world and well equipped to switch to an
online learning format, teachers and families of children need to ensure that the
children’s online learning experiences are developmentally and educationally on
target (Tanveer et al., 2020; Yezli & Khan, 2020).
6. Limitations and Recommendations for Future Research

This study represents an initial exploration and was limited to the data collected
and analyzed quantitatively to measure how the respondents responded to the
topic in question. For further explanation, qualitative data resources such as
interviews would significantly help to provide a better understanding of teachers’
professional experiences, challenges, and potential gains regarding the Covid-19
crisis. Future areas for such research would include teachers’ post-pandemic
190
perceptions regarding the inclusion of online teaching as an alternative to

traditional teaching. Other potential studies with a similar intent could include
families as indispensable partners in this historical event, with a special focus on
the parent-teacher relationships during the prolonged lockdown.
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Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 194-209, June 2022
A Survey of Teachers’ Perceptions of a Learning

Portfolio in Lesotho Classrooms
Julia Chere-Masopha*
National University of Lesotho, Lesotho
Abstract. A learning portfolio entered the Lesotho classrooms between

2010 and 2012 as part of the reforms that were introduced by the 2009
Curriculum and Assessment Policy Framework. Before they were rolled
out countrywide, the reforms were piloted in some schools some of which
were in the districts of Maseru and Berea. About 45 primary school
teachers who participated in this study were purposely sampled from
these schools. A questionnaire was distributed among these teachers to
collect their perceptions about a learning portfolio as a teaching strategy
in Lesotho primary schools. All the questionnaires were filled out and
returned. The results show that teachers’ perceptions are that a learning
portfolio is not successful in Lesotho primary schools. These teachers
identified their limited knowledge and experience and low confidence as
factors responsible for the unsuccessful use of this strategy. Even the
training they received in preparation for the reforms has not been
effective because it has failed to equip them with the knowledge, skills,
and confidence they need for this strategy. Knowledge, skills, and
confidence appear in many studies as the key factors influencing
unsuccessful reforms in Lesotho. There is a need for a study that
investigates the practices that are used to prepare teachers for the reforms
in Lesotho.
Keywords: teachers’ perceptions; learner-centred; constructivism;

learning portfolio
1. Introduction
The debate among scholars about how learners should be taught and assessed so
that they are relevant in modern society is intensifying. These discussions have
brought about many learning theories, which include constructivism (Pattalitan,
2016). Constructivism, the theory preferred the most in education, has influenced
teaching and learning practices observed in many education systems. This theory
suggests that because knowledge is individually and socially constructed by a
learner, teaching and learning should view and engage learners as learning
partners in the creation of knowledge (Bay et al., 2012; Narayan et al., 2013).
* Corresponding author: Julia Chere-Masopha, juliachere@gmail.com
©Authors
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Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences supports the constructivism theory.

The theory claims that people have and exhibit different profiles of intelligence
(multiple intelligences) that influence how each learner learns (Sajjadi et al., 2017).
Hence, the teaching and assessment processes should be differentiated to match
individuals’ learning styles and allow them to demonstrate their different profiles
of learning. The constructivists believe that school graduates exposed to this type
of learning environment are likely to exhibit independent and creative work
practices in their communities and the workplace (Chere-Masopha & Mothetsi-
Mothiba, 2022).
The Lesotho education system has undergone many curriculum reforms targeting
the development of a teaching culture that is learner-centred. The most recent
curriculum reforms require primary school teachers to use a learning portfolio for
teaching and assessment. This is because a learning portfolio strategy provides an
opportunity for learners to reveal their different profiles and apply their preferred
styles of learning. Even though some education systems have been quick to adopt
this strategy, other systems, Lesotho included, have delayed adopting a portfolio
for classroom use. For example, when Motlomelo carried out a study in 2008, a
learning portfolio was not used in the classrooms in Lesotho and there was very
little knowledge about it among teachers. Even in 2022, about 12 years after the
reforms had been introduced, Chere-Masopha and Mothetsi-Mothiba (2022)
reported a similar situation that knowledge, skills, and confidence needed to
implement this strategy were still limited among teachers.
1.1 Introduction of a learning portfolio in Lesotho schools

Between 2010 and 2012, major curriculum changes were introduced in the
primary schools in Lesotho through the Curriculum and Assessment Policy (CAP)
of 2009. Some of these reforms were intended to change how learners are taught
and assessed in the classroom. The reforms embraced the theories of
constructivism and required teachers to use the teaching, learning, and
assessment strategies that are preferred by the constructivists (Healey, Flint &
Harrington, 2014) and that as enable learners to identify the right tools for
information search and evaluation and to apply such information to solve their
learning problems. These learning problems may include creating objects,
evaluating, and making judgments and presentations. The reforms also require
teachers to change their perceptions of teaching, learning, and assessment, and to
view these processes as inseparable and integral to one another (Ministry of
Education & Training [MOET], 2009). Díaz and González (2016) support this
approach to teaching, learning, and assessment. Their view is that there should
not be a clear separation of teaching, learning, and assessment activities in a
classroom. Rather, assessment activities should be embedded and be integral to
teaching and learning.
Before the 2009 curriculum reforms were introduced in the Lesotho education
system, teachers in the primary schools used teaching methods that were more
teacher-centred and that distinctively treated teaching and learning and
assessment as separate entities. In this teaching approach, learner assessment was
viewed as a separate entity that was implemented after teaching and learning had
been completed. That is, assessments were viewed more as a process that
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evaluated the effectiveness of teaching. These assessments were mostly

summative and in the form of tests and examinations (MOET, 2009). The results
generated from these assessments were used to determine learners’ progression
from one level of education to another, or to grade the learners’ general
performance at the end of a programme (Chere-Masopha & Mothetsi-Mothiba,
2022; Khalanyane & Halahala, 2014). Learners who performed poorly in these
assessments were forced to repeat classes or drop out of the school system (Chere-
Masopha & Mothetsi-Mothiba, 2022). Consequently, Lesotho’s educational
system experienced high rates of dropouts and grade repeaters.
The high failure and dropout rates in Lesotho schools stirred public
discontentment, which led to the questioning of the nature and quality of
education in the country. For example, according to school teachers who
participated in the doctoral study conducted by Chere-Masopha (2011), some
parents pulled their children out of the school system even before they could
complete primary education because of the concern that the school education was
not equipping their children with survival and employable skills. This concern
was triggered by the observation that after many years (maximum 12) of
schooling, the school leavers were unemployable. These parents viewed factory
jobs as more profitable than the education offered in Lesotho schools.
The public was not only unhappy with the teaching and learning in the schools in
Lesotho; the summative assessment practices that were mostly used were also
heavily criticised. The general observation was that the summative methods used
were insufficient to assess learners’ competencies and skills accurately, as
outlined in the national curriculum documents (Chere-Masopha & Mothetsi-
Mothiba, 2022). Khalanyane and Halahala’s (2014) view is that these methods pay
very little attention to the national curriculum needs and standards. Instead, they
sort, classify, reward, and punish the learners. The above claims are in line with
Yan and Brown’s (2021) observation that in the education systems where
summative assessments are utilised, they only tap into a subset of a curriculum
and assess learners in terms of their performance for purposes of selection and
accountability. In turn, the results of these assessments are often narrow and
sometimes distort information about learners’ knowledge and skills.
1.2 Curriculum and assessment reforms

CAP of 2009 proposes new ways of teaching, learning, and assessing learners in
Lesotho schools. The framework proposes practices that use constructivist
strategies that make learners central to teaching and assessment. These strategies
focus on and use practical activities that develop and assess learners’ knowledge
and skills that will make them relevant and functional in their communities. Also,
the purpose of these assessments should be to produce information that informs
the teachers about individual learners’ progress and development (MOET, 2009).
That is, the assessments should generate the information teachers need to improve
their classroom practices and to monitor and support learners’ efforts to acquire
targeted knowledge and skills. The teaching and assessment strategies
recommended by this policy are task-oriented and include project-based learning
and learning portfolios. A portfolio specifically, its preference is based on the
argument that it enhances learners’ experiences by providing them with a
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personal space to evaluate their own learning, process their thoughts and
experience, and document their lives and learning in an authentic and meaningful
way (Farrell & Seery, 2019). Farrell and Seery (2019) further ascertain that this
strategy is capable of facilitating the learners’ development of critical thinking
skills within a disciplinary context. The focus of this study is on a learning
portfolio as a reform in the Lesotho classroom. It investigated the perceptions of
primary school teachers about this strategy.
2. Literature review
As early as 1997, Danielson and Abrutyn observed the increasing popularity of
portfolio use in teaching and learning. This trend appeared to have been
motivated by the constructivist view that a learning portfolio is not only capable
of engaging a learner as an active partner but also integrates teaching, learning,
and assessment activities effectively and seamlessly (Klenowski, 2002). Goodier
et al. (2022) also view a learning portfolio as an opportunistic strategy that makes
the learning process visible to teachers and learners by providing a space for
evidence of learning, supporting self-assessment and reflection, and enhancing
collaboration.
Various concepts in the literature have been used to refer to a portfolio used in a
classroom such as a learning portfolio, a portfolio for learning, a student portfolio,
a portfolio assessment, a portfolio for learning and assessment, and/or a portfolio
for teaching and learning (Chere-Masopha & Mothetsi-Mothiba, 2022; Lam, 2020).
the purpose of this paper is not to argue about the appropriate name for a
classroom portfolio. A learning portfolio, as applied in this paper, refers to any
portfolio that is used for purposes of teaching, learning, and assessment.
A learning portfolio is generally viewed by scholars such as Cronenberg (2020) as

a collection of a learner’s work that has been documented in such a way that it
demonstrates the learner’s progress in the acquisition of new knowledge and
skills. As reflected in Himpsl-Gutermann’s (2012) argument, in the development
of a product, the documentation should logically show the learner’s engagement
from the beginning to the end. Thus, a learning portfolio should be viewed as a
planned collection of a learner’s achievements, documented in line with the steps
a learner has taken to get there. In line with this argument, Matsuba et al. (2012)
contend that a learning portfolio should exhibit a process that reveals a
collaborative effort between a teacher and a learner, and demonstrate deliberate
and systematic planned teaching, learning, and assessment that are aligned
accurately.
Even though Mueller (2014) argues that there is no consensus on how a learning
portfolio should be constructed and implemented, he acknowledges that a
learning portfolio should have common elements such as a clear purpose, learning
goals that target a learner, the tasks that match the expected learning outcomes,
the collection of a learner’s work that aligns with the learning goals and targeted
learning outcomes, and logically documented work by a learner that shows the
beginning of the development of a portfolio up to the assessment stage (Mueller,
2014). A learning portfolio should enable a teacher to collect and analyse
information about the learner from various documented pieces of the learner’s
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work. The results from this analysis should inform both the teacher and the
learner accurately about the depth and breadth of the learner’s capabilities in the
various domains. A teacher should also be able to use the same information in the
development of learning tasks and material that targets enhancing the learner’s
performance.
2.1 Studies on a learning portfolio

Even though the importance of a learning portfolio has long been established, not
many studies have investigated this strategy. This is supported by Scully et al.
(2018) who critically reviewed the literature about the use of a learning portfolio
in higher education. Their findings were that, although the underlying theory of
the use of learning portfolios is promising, there is still limited robust empirical
evidence that supports its effectiveness. They also established that a portfolio as a
learning strategy is rooted in a complex pedagogy, and its potential can only be
realized if the underlying processes are properly understood by its advocates and
users. They also observed a recurring tension between the developmental
(process) and evaluative (product) conceptualizations of a learning portfolio.
Other studies that have been reviewed for this paper include Köpeczi-Bócz (2020),
Eridafithri (2015), Tangdhanakanond and Wongwanich (2012), and Chere-
Masopha and Mothetsi-Mothiba (2022).
Köpeczi-Bócz (2020) carried out a one-year higher-education pedagogical

experiment that replaced a submission of a thesis with a learning portfolio for
assessment in a diploma course. The results of this study showed that a portfolio-
based assessment was more comprehensive and effective than a thesis
assessment. Köpeczi-Bócz (2020) concludes by indicating that a learning portfolio
is an essential innovation in learning and assessment and recommends it for
training courses.
Other studies found that many teachers find it difficult to use this strategy in their
practices. For example, Eridafithri (2015) investigated the perceptions of English
as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers on the Indonesian English Curriculum
reform, which required these teachers to use a learning portfolio in their
classroom practices. The study established that the teachers found it difficult to
design the portfolio items such as learning-oriented tasks and marking rubrics
that could assess learners’ achievements accurately. Using a qualitative approach,
Chere-Masopha and Mothetsi-Mothiba (2022) also investigated 20 primary school
teachers’ experiences with a learning portfolio in Lesotho schools. The study
established that teachers found the strategy challenging to use. As a result, they
only used it in a limited way. Tangdhanakanond and Wongwanich (2012) also
reported the same findings about Thailand teachers who were requested to use a
learning portfolio as an assessment strategy in their teaching practice. Eridafithri
(2015), Chere-Masopha and Mothetsi-Mothiba (2022), and Tangdhanakanond and
Wongwanich (2012) observe that teachers’ limited use of this strategy was mainly
influenced by their limited knowledge and skills.
2.2 Teachers’ Perceptions

Teachers are the ultimate implementers of the classroom curriculum. They can
influence the success of any curriculum reforms introduced in the classroom.
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However, how teachers respond and commit to the curriculum reforms or any
classroom change depends mostly on their perceptions (Krüger et al., 2013).
Teachers’ perceptions influence professional behaviours and can dictate how they
respond to the reforms. As such, a deep understanding of how teachers perceive
issues that relate to their profession, particularly classroom reforms, can assist to
predict their response to the reforms and influence their preparation (Chere-
Masopha, 2018). Chere-Masopha (2018) claims that teachers’ perceptions are
teachers’ beliefs or views about curriculum issues, learners, peers, others, or the
self. As such, teachers’ beliefs, particularly about their knowledge and skills, their
classroom experiences, and their general views about what is important to their
learners can influence how they work in the classroom or how they respond to
classroom changes. This view is supported by Krüger et al. (2013) who list
teachers’ knowledge, experiences, and beliefs as key influencers of the way
teachers teach and respond to educational and curriculum change. Thus, a deep
understanding of teachers’ perceptions of a learning portfolio as a teaching,
learning, and assessment strategy can be beneficial for the development and
implementation of the programmes intended to support teachers to use this
strategy successfully.
3. Research questions
The purpose of this study was to establish teachers’ perceptions of a learning
portfolio intended for teaching, learning, and assessment in Lesotho classrooms.
The key questions that were asked in this study were about (1) teachers’
knowledge of a learning portfolio, (2) How teachers implement a learning
portfolio in classrooms, and (3) teachers’ views about using a learning portfolio in
Lesotho schools.
4. Methodology
This study used a questionnaire survey to collect the perceptions of 45 teachers
who were purposefully sampled from 15 primary schools in Lesotho. Most of
these were located in the urban and peri-urban areas of the Maseru and Berea
districts. The schools had participated in the piloting of the curriculum and
assessment reforms that were introduced through the Curriculum and
Assessment Policy Framework of 2009. Therefore, teachers at these schools had
been working with these reforms longer than teachers of the schools which did
not participate in the piloting of the reforms. This study was not funded.
Therefore, proximity and access to these schools were also considered in the
selection of the schools.
All teachers who were recruited for this study were teaching in the lower classes
(Grade 1 to 3). As the reforms had been rolled out from Grade 1 onwards, these
teachers had had a long time working with the reforms than other teachers had.
Of the 45 (100%) teachers who participated in this study, 40 (89%) were females
and 5 (11%) were males. Their ages ranged from 28 to 55 years, with the majority
(n=36; 80%) in the group aged 35 to 45 years. Some teachers (n=10; 22%) had more
than 30 years’ teaching experience, with a minimum of 20 years of teaching in the
lower classes of primary education.
A questionnaire that included objective questions such as Yes and No, Optional,
200
and a Likert Scale was distributed, filled in, and returned by 45 teachers. Data
collected by this questionnaire were analysed using Microsoft Excel to calculate
frequencies and percentages, and measures of central tendencies such as mean,
mode, median, or measures of variability. The results are presented mainly as
charts, graphs, and tables.
5. Presentation of Results
The results are presented in three broad themes: teachers’ knowledge of a learning
portfolio; teachers’ implementation of a learning portfolio, and teachers’ views
about using a learning portfolio in Lesotho classrooms.
5.1 Teachers’ Knowledge of a learning portfolio

Data collected about the teachers’ knowledge included teachers’ general
knowledge of a learning portfolio and knowledge of the purpose for which a
learning portfolio was introduced in Lesotho schools. The results generated from
this data are presented as knowledge of a portfolio and knowledge of the purpose
a learning portfolio was introduced in Lesotho classrooms.
5.1.1 Knowledge of a portfolio

In this section, the results include teachers’ knowledge of a learning portfolio,
sources of their knowledge, and their confidence to use a learning portfolio. The
findings in this study indicate that the knowledge teachers claimed to have of a
learning portfolio was very limited and could not enable them to use this strategy
effectively in their classroom practices. For example, when asked to rate their
knowledge and experience of working with a learning portfolio, more than half
of these teachers (n=29; 64%) rated their knowledge and experience as of a
beginner (n=24; 53%) or none existent (n=5; 11%). Fewer than half rated their
knowledge and experience of using a learning portfolio at the intermediate stage
(n=11; 24%) or at an advanced level (n=6; 13%). This information is displayed in
Figure 1.
Teachers' level of a learning Portfolio Knowledge
Advance 13%
Intermediate 24%
beginner 53%
None 11%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%
Figure 1: Participants’ knowledge of a portfolio
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5.1.2 Teachers’ sources of their knowledge

Many of these teachers (n=31; 69%) had acquired knowledge about a learning
portfolio from various sources such as the teacher professional development
training workshops they attended in preparation for the reforms. These
workshops were organised and run by the National Curriculum Development
Centre (NCDC) and the Examinations Council of Lesotho (ECoL). About 27 (60%)
teachers claimed to have attended NCDC workshops, while 7 (16%) attended
those that were run by ECoL. As the names indicate, the NCDC is a national body
responsible for national school curriculum development and implementation
while ECoL is responsible for curriculum assessment. These institutions are also
responsible for the review and reforms of the school programmes and the training
of teachers. Other teachers (n=11; 24%) indicated that they learned about a
learning portfolio either from teachers who had attended the training workshops
or by reading the CAP document. According to the findings of this study, all
teachers were aware that they were expected to use a learning portfolio for
teaching, learning, and assessment-related activities. The results further indicate
that even though the teachers had heard about a learning portfolio as a teaching
strategy, and were expected to use it in their practices, they had never been
exposed to the use of this strategy through training, mentoring, or peer
observation. They claimed that the training that they attended focused more on
other aspects of the reforms than a learning portfolio.
5.1.3 Confidence in using a learning portfolio

Many teachers (n=32; 71) rated their confidence as low. Only 29 percent (n=13)
rated their confidence as average (n=7; 16%) or high (n=6; 13%). The results
indicate that the 71 percent of teachers who rated their confidence as low included
all teachers who rated their knowledge and experience as non-existent, as of a
beginner, or at the intermediate stage. Teachers (n=13; 29%) who rated their
confidence as average or high rated their knowledge as intermediate or advanced.
These results suggest a positive relationship between teachers’ views about their
knowledge and experience with a learning portfolio and their confidence in using
this strategy for teaching and learning. Thus, teachers who viewed their
knowledge as low with limited experience, were likely to indicate that they had
low confidence in the use of a portfolio, while teachers who viewed themselves as
knowledgeable, were likely to claim to have confidence in implementing this
strategy (see Figure 2).
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Teachers' ratings on their portfolio knowledge, experience &

confidence
80
70 71
64
60
50
40
30
24
20
16 13
10
6
0
LOW/ NONE /BEGINNING AVERAGE/INTERMEDIATE HIGH/ ADVANCED
Knowledge and Experience Confidence
Figure 2: The relationship between teachers' perceptions about their knowledge,

experience and confidence in using a learning portfolio
5.2 Knowledge of the purpose of a portfolio in Lesotho classrooms

Teachers were asked about their knowledge of why a learning portfolio was
introduced in Lesotho classrooms. They were asked to respond to the question by
selecting statements they believed matched their knowledge from a list of
statements provided. The teachers’ responses to this question are shown in Figure
3.
Teachers' views on why they are requested to use a learning portfolio
To accumulate evidence to measure learner's… 19
To exhibit learners' academic achievements in… 22
To showcase only learners' best work 36
Just to keep the learners' work safe 45
To demonstrate leaners' learning progress and… 37
For teacher accountability 42
To make learner's academic progress visible 6
Don't know/not sure 14
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Figure 3: Teachers’ views on why they were requested to use a portfolio in classrooms
The results show that all 45 (100%) participating teachers believed that they were
requested to use a learning portfolio for purposes of keeping the learners’ work
safe. This is followed by 42 (93%) who thought the portfolio was for teachers to
account for how they spend their class time. A few teachers, representing 13
percent (n=6) believed that a learning portfolio was introduced to make learners’
203
academic progress visible. Further analysis of this result indicates that these
teachers (13%) belonged to the cohort that claimed to have advanced knowledge
and experience in using a portfolio. There was also another group of teachers
(n=14; 31%) who was not sure or did not know why this strategy was introduced
in Lesotho classrooms. This cohort comprised mostly teachers who rated their
knowledge of a portfolio as that of a beginner or none existent.
5.3 Teachers’ implementation of a learning portfolio in their practices

Teachers we asked about how they used a learning portfolio in their practices and
how they constructed and implemented it. The results generated from these
questions are presented as portfolio implementation and portfolio.
5.3.1 Portfolio implementation

The participants were asked whether they were implementing a portfolio in their
practice. Given that a learning portfolio is one of the strategies recommended by
the Curriculum and Assessment Policy of 2009, it was expected that all
participating teachers in the study would claim to be using a portfolio in their
classroom. While the results indicated that the majority (n=40; 89%) of these
teachers claimed to use a portfolio for teaching and learning, a small number (n=5;
11%) indicated that they were not using a learning portfolio for teaching and
learning. From the results, there was no explanation why these teachers were not
using a learning portfolio in their classroom practices. As a result, it is not known
why these teachers do not abide by the policy requirement. The only explanation
that could be provided may be that these teachers find a pedagogical concept of a
learning portfolio too difficult.
5.3.2 Portfolio construction

Regarding the question about the process they use to construct a learning
portfolio, only 40 teachers, representing 89 percent of the participants, responded
to this question. Other 5 (11%) teachers did not respond to this question. Further
analysis indicated that this was a cohort of teachers who claimed that they were
not using a portfolio in their classroom.
The results also revealed that during the construction of a learning portfolio,
teachers were not following the principles of a learning portfolio construction as
recommended in the literature. For example, all participants indicated that they
do not include the curriculum learning standards or outcomes, and are not
involving the learners during the construction. It was only 7 percent (n=3) of the
teachers claimed that they engage their learners during the construction. This
compares with the participants (n=2; 4%) who allowed their learners to decide on
the work to document in the portfolio.
Table 2: How teachers implement a learning portfolio in their classrooms

How teachers engage learners in the implementation of a Yes No
learning portfolio
1) I list and display in the learners’ portfolio the curriculum - 40 (100%)
learning standards or outcomes on the learners’ portfolio.
2) I match all the learning activities with the curriculum - 40 (100%)
learning standards or outcomes.
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3) I engage my learners to participate in the construction and

implementation of the portfolio by:
a) deciding what to learn - 40 (100%)
b) deciding what to document 2 (4%) 38 (95%)
c) reviewing completed portfolio items for self- 3 (7%) 37 (93%)
reflection.
Note: Percentages may not add up to 100% exactly due to rounding off
Source: Computed from survey data
These results appear to complement the results that indicate that teachers’
knowledge of a learning portfolio is limited. For example, with limited
knowledge, teachers will not be able to follow the principles of constructing and
implementing a learning portfolio, as suggested in the literature by Matsuba et al.
(2012) and Mueller (2014).
5.4 Teachers’ views of a learning portfolio in Lesotho classrooms

Teachers’ views on the use of a learning portfolio in Lesotho classrooms were
explored. Teachers ‘were asked about the a) benefits of a learning portfolio in
teaching and learning and b) the challenges of implementing a learning portfolio
in Lesotho classrooms. The responses to these questions are presented in Tables 3
and 4.
5.4.1 The Benefits

The majority of the teachers (n=32; 70%) believed that a learning portfolio was
beneficial in many ways. For example, out of 11 statements that these teachers
were asked to rate, 5 statements that were positive about the use of a portfolio
scored more than 70 percent, and 4 above 50 percent (see Table 3). Only two
statements scored below 25 percent. These statements suggest that a learning
portfolio enhances cooperation among teachers and parents and that it changes a
teacher’s role of being an instructor to a facilitator. Thus, even though most of
these teachers had limited knowledge, experience, and low confidence in using
this strategy, they appreciated this strategy and believed that it could benefit
Table 3: Teachers’ views on the benefits of using a learning portfolio strategy

Belief statements Agree Maybe Disagree
1) A learning portfolio strategy facilitates learning. 43 (96%) 2 (4%) -
2) A learning portfolio strategy reveals the -
strengths and the weaknesses of learners. 41(91%) 4 (8%) -
3) A learning portfolio strategy enables learners to
apply knowledge and skills in various authentic
environments. 35 (78%) 10 (22%) -
4) A learning portfolio strategy enhances
cooperation between a teacher, parents, and
colleagues. 10 (22%) 14 (31%) 21(47%)
5) A learning portfolio strategy contributes to
making learners work more actively and become
problem-solvers. 45 (100%) - -
6) A learning portfolio strategy increases learners’
awareness of the importance of every piece of 25 (56%) 4 (9%) 16 (36%)
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work they are assigned.

7) A learning portfolio strategy makes teaching and
learning fun. 25 (56%) - 20 (44%)
8) A learning portfolio strategy enhances teachers’
pedagogical abilities. 30 (67%) - 15 (33%)
9) A learning portfolio changes teachers’ role of
being an instructor to a facilitator. 18 (17%) 23 (51%) 4 (40%)
10) A learning portfolio seamlessly integrates
teaching, learning, and assessment activities. 28 (62%) 1 (2%) 16 (36%)
11) A learning portfolio promotes the integration of
knowledge and concepts from various subjects
(e.g. maths, English, etc.) 41 (91%) 3 (7%) 1(2%)
5.4.2 The challenges

The challenges of using a portfolio in Lesotho classrooms as pointed out by the
teachers are presented in Table 4. Teachers appear to agree that the challenges of
using a portfolio in Lesotho classrooms are many. They include taking up much
of teachers’ time (n=40; 89%); limited resources available for classroom activities
(n=43; 96%); large classes that do not allow individualised learning required by
this strategy (n=43; 92%); and teachers’ limited knowledge and skills required to
implement this strategy (n=40; 89%).
Table 4: Challenges of using a portfolio in Lesotho classrooms

Belief statements Agree Maybe Disagree
1. Portfolio takes time away from other
important school activities. 40 (89%) 4 (8%) 1 (2%)
2. It is difficult to use a learning portfolio
strategy in the schools in Lesotho because
of the resources and time required. 43 (96%) - 2 (4%)
3. A learning portfolio requires
individualized attention for each learner
and this is impractical in Lesotho because
of the large classes. 42 (93%) 1 (2%) 2 (4%)
4. It is difficult for teachers who are not well-
trained to implement this strategy. 39 (87%) 7 (16%) 2 (4%)
5. A learning portfolio strategy requires a
teacher who is well-equipped with
curriculum, pedagogical knowledge, and
skills. 40(89%) - 5(11%)
6. Discussions
This paper has presented the results of a survey of the perceptions of primary
school teachers about a learning portfolio in Lesotho classrooms. Specifically, the
study investigated teachers’ knowledge of a learning portfolio and how it is used
in the Lesotho classroom. Their views of this strategy being used in Lesotho
classrooms were also studied.
6.1 Teachers’ knowledge of a learning portfolio

The teachers who participated in this study claimed to have been trained in
preparation for curriculum reforms that included implementing a learning
portfolio in their practices. They attended NCDC and ECoL’s workshops. Those
206
who were not able to attend these workshops learned from their peers or by
reading a CAP document. Despite this training, the results revealed that these
teachers knew very little about a learning portfolio. They lacked the basic
knowledge and skills that are required to successfully use a learning portfolio in
a classroom. Their limited knowledge and skills also affected their confidence as
they did not believe that their knowledge and skills could enable them to
implement this strategy successfully.
Others such as Eridafithri (2015), Chere-Masopha and Mothetsi-Mothiba (2022),

and Tangdhanakanond and Wongwanich’s (2012) have reported the same
findings about teachers lacking the appropriate knowledge and skills for the
successful implementation of a learning portfolio. Teachers in this study believed
that the training they received in preparation for the reforms paid little attention
to a learning portfolio strategy. This claim appears to support Scully et al. (2018)
observation that, despite the promising underlying theory of the use of learning
portfolios, the strategy is rooted in a complex pedagogy, and its potential can only
be realized if the underlying processes are properly understood by implementers.
Another evidence that showed that these teachers had limited knowledge and
understanding of a portfolio, they had differing views about why a portfolio was
introduced in Lesotho schools. Many of these teachers appeared to be oblivious
about why a learning portfolio was introduced in Lesotho classrooms. Some
believed it was there for them to keep the learners’ work safe, demonstrate
learners’ progress, display learners’ best achievements, and for teachers’
accountability regarding how they spend time with learners. There were quite a
few teachers (n=6; 13%) who associated the introduction of a learning portfolio
with learner engagement in teaching and assessment processes.
6.2 How teachers should implement a learning portfolio in their practices

A well-constructed learning portfolio should include curriculum learning
standards or outcomes and the learning activities that match these standards.
Learners should be involved from the beginning of the construction up to the
actual implementation. These learners should be included in the decision-making
about what to learn, what to document, and the items to review and consider in
self-reflection (Mueller, 2014). In this study, teachers appear not to consider these
principles in their construction and implementation of a learning portfolio. It
became clear that their portfolios do not include curriculum learning standards or
outcomes and the portfolio learning activities did not match these standards. Also,
these teachers hardly engaged learners during the construction. Generally, these
teachers were not using this strategy to enhance learner-centred teaching but to
continue to teacher-centred practices.
6.3 Teachers’ views of a learning portfolio in Lesotho classrooms

Even though teachers in this study had limited knowledge and skills and low
confidence to use a learning portfolio successfully in their classrooms, they
acknowledged the benefits of using this strategy in Lesotho classrooms. Many of
them believed that, if it is implemented properly, it can reveal learners’ strengths
and weaknesses, facilitate authentic learning, and enhance collaboration among
teachers. However, these teachers were also quick to point out the challenges of
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implementing a learning portfolio in Lesotho classrooms. Some of the challenges

they listed included resources that are limited in the schools, teachers who are not
well-trained to use this strategy successfully, and the classes that are too large to
allow individualised learning required by this strategy. These challenges are also
reported by Chere-Masopha and Mothetsi-Mothiba (2022).
7. Conclusions, Recommendations, and Limitations of the Study

Teachers in this study believe a learning portfolio is not successful in Lesotho
classrooms because teachers have not been well prepared for this strategy. The
way teachers implement this strategy excludes the principles associated with it.
They use a learning portfolio more as a documenting tool of learners’ work. Much
as these teachers acknowledge the benefits of using a portfolio in the classroom,
they also observe the challenges that hinder the successful implementation of this
strategy. This study recommends that teacher education, in-service training, and
development programmes in Lesotho should focus more on the development of
teachers’ knowledge and skills relating to the construction and implementation of
a learning portfolio strategy. Also, teacher educators in the pre-service and in-
service programmes should use this strategy in their professional practices to give
teachers enough exposure and experience.
The limitations of this study are in the methodology. The study recruited teachers
from the schools in the schools in the Maseru and Berea districts. Schools in the
other eight districts were left out. Even in the districts where the study was carried
out, a small number of teachers were involved. As a result, this study is too small
to represent all primary school teachers in Lesotho in the Maseru and Berea
districts. Another study that uses a large sample to represent all the primary
schools in Lesotho and that uses more than one research method can provide a
comprehensive picture of a learning portfolio in Lesotho schools.
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Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 210-225, June 2022
Purposeful Collaboration through Professional

Learning Communities: Teacher Educators’
Challenges
Carolina Botha*
North-West University, South Africa
Carisma Nel
North-West University, South Africa
Abstract. The Covid-19 pandemic has affected the teaching practicum

component of initial teacher education programmes in significant ways.
School-based placement could not take place, but teacher educators still
needed to ensure that the teaching practicum component complied with
policy. The aim of this study is to indicate how work-integrated learning
teacher educators created professional learning communities among an
entire population of 7 041 student teachers enrolled for the Baccalaureus
Educationis degree, the challenges they faced and how they managed
these challenges. The professional learning community model of Hord
(2009) was used as a conceptual framework for this study. In this
qualitative multi-site case study, document analysis was the primary data
collection method. Journals and WhatsApp messages kept by the two
work-integrated learning teacher educators and the minutes of virtual
work-integrated learning meetings were analysed using narrative and
thematic analysis. The findings indicated four main challenges, namely
constituting the professional learning communities and developing the
alternative task, dealing with issues related to group demographics and
diversity, connectivity, technology and collaborating in learning in a
remote environment, and lastly, providing continuous feedback, support
and guidance. Recommendations for future practice are discussed.
Keywords: collaborative learning; professional learning communities;

student teachers; teacher educators; work-integrated learning
1. Introduction
The Covid-19 pandemic has had a severe impact on initial teacher education, and
specifically the teaching practice component, in various ways (Donitsa-Schmidt &
Ramot, 2020; Flores & Swennen, 2020; Nel & Marais, 2021). The agendas of Faculty
*
Corresponding author: Carolina.Botha@nwu.ac.za
©Authors
211
of Education meetings also reflected the pandemic mode – plans to ensure

successful completion of the teaching practicum: Plan A, Plan B, and if all else
fails, Plan C.
Work-integrated learning, commonly known as “teaching practice”, is the

trademark of initial teacher education and a required component of Baccalaureus
Educationis (BEd) degree programmes (Department of Higher Education and
Training, 2015; Reyneke & Botha, 2019). As universities and schools throughout
the country moved their instruction online to ensure that Covid-19 protocols, such
as social distancing, were complied with, a crucial problem emerged for teacher
training programmes: the disappearance of classrooms, namely school-based
placement, the main feature of collaboration between universities and schools.
Work-integrated learning teacher educators at the university were tasked to create
alternatives to the traditional school-based placement component that would still
comply with the South African Department of Higher Education and Training
policy (Nel et al., 2021). Several risk factors were considered during this discourse,
including a media briefing by the South African minister of Basic Education where
she stated that the department “highly discourage[d] people from visiting
schools” (Motshega, 2020, p. 1) to curb infection. Communication from many of
the almost 6 000 schools on the database of a South African university mostly
indicated an unwillingness to host student teachers at these schools in 2020.
Communication from the Department of Higher Education and Training did not
provide explicit guidance in terms of what would constitute acceptable
alternatives for the required number of school-based placement weeks in order to
complete the four-year BEd programme, as stipulated within the Minimum
Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications policy document (Department of
Higher Education and Training, 2015). It was clear that the onus would be on
individual institutions to meet the requirements while still adhering to protocols
and placing the safety of student teachers at the forefront of their decisions. After
negotiations with the Department of Basic Education, the Department of Higher
Education and Training, and university management, one university proposed a
non-school-based project for first- to third-year BEd students for the second
semester of 2020.
Student teachers need opportunities to learn and practise skills needed for their
profession, including those of successful collaboration. Darling-Hammond (2006,
p. 305) states that “[p]reparing teachers as classroom researchers and expert
collaborators who can learn from one another is essential when the range of
knowledge for teaching has grown so expansive that it cannot be mastered by any
individual”. Furthermore, through learning about and experiencing collaboration
during the preparation period, pre-service teachers can avoid having to learn,
unlearn, and relearn what teaching and learning look like. Teachers can thus be
guided to collaborate by establishing professional learning communities (PLCs)
to work together to improve their own careers as well as the whole educational
system. The purpose of this study was to address the following research
questions:
212
• What challenges did work-integrated learning teacher educators

encounter in, firstly, constituting student teacher PLCs, and secondly,
emphasising collaboration as a process?
• How were these challenges addressed, if at all?
2. The need for student teacher collaboration within professional

learning communities
According to Barber and Mourshed (2007), teachers’ competence is regarded as
one of the most important factors affecting learners’ learning and chances of
success. Consequently, the growth of that competence is an important part of
ensuring that learners’ achievement and success are addressed. Research indicates
that teacher collaboration is a crucial means by which this can be achieved
(Carpenter, 2017). Initial teacher education programmes that are more practice-
based and aligned with the realities of teaching in a school prepare student
teachers better for the challenges they will face in their first few years of teaching
(Greenhill, 2010). According to Long et al. (2021), interaction with and support
from colleagues is essential for promoting work satisfaction and retention among
teachers. In this article, we view collaboration as a process, namely “a domain-
general skill that is important in its own right for work and life in society” (Evans,
2020, p. 5). The focus is on the nature and quality of the collaborative task and the
interaction among the student teachers. By providing student teachers with
opportunities to engage in collaboration within groups resembling PLCs, we hope
to lay the foundation for student teachers’ professional growth (cf. Damjanovic &
Blank, 2021; Long et al., 2021). Research indicates that this type of collaboration
that is focused on addressing learners’ needs and success can be achieved in PLCs
(Olsson, 2019; Reyneke & Botha, 2019).
In the Integrated Strategic Planning Framework for Teacher Education and Development
in South Africa (Department of Basic Education, 2011, p. 14), PLCs are defined as
“communities that provide the setting and necessary support for groups of
classroom teachers, school managers and subject advisors to participate
collectively in determining their own developmental trajectories, and to set up
activities that will drive their development”. In addition, the Department of Basic
Education (2015, p. 4) states that “PLCs can make professional development more
relevant and effective”. The importance of PLCs and collaboration is also
emphasised in the Professional Teaching Standards document of the South African
Council for Educators (2020), in which the following points are made:
Teachers collaborate with others to support teaching, learning and their
professional development.
2.1 Teachers conduct themselves in ways that earn the respect of those in their
communities and uphold the dignity of the teaching profession.
2.2 Teachers understand that the wellbeing of learners and the support of their
learning requires communication and collaboration between teachers, parents,
caregivers, other professionals, and the community.
2.3 Teachers are responsible for their ongoing personal, academic and
professional growth through reflection, study, reading, and research.
213
2.4 Teachers participate in endorsed continuing professional teacher development

activities/programmes organised by their subject associations, PLCs, higher
education institutions, teacher unions and private providers.
2.5 Teachers provide supportive environments for the induction and mentoring
of colleagues who are new to their school, as well as for pre-service and newly
qualified teachers.
2.6 Teachers actively involve themselves in educational debates, curriculum

development initiatives, and educational issues that affect them.
The work of teaching and learning in schools in the 21st century differs from how
it was done in the schools of the previous century, as the work has become more
collaborative in nature. As initial teacher education programmes are to train
teachers that can work collaboratively in PLCs in order to enhance learners’
learning and success, they need to be provided with opportunities to practise
these skills. However, a study conducted by Dolezal (2008) indicates that there is
hardly any use for PLCs in initial teacher education. Teacher preparation
programmes have the challenge of engaging student teachers in learning the
professional discourse and practices of primary and secondary schools. This
statement reinforces Hollins’s (2011, p. 405) declaration that the practices in the
preparation of teachers for quality teaching, “at the core, mirror those which
candidates are expected to apply in PK-12 schools”.
We selected the PLC model developed by Hord (2009) as the conceptual

framework for this study. This model identifies six dimensions, namely
supportive and shared leadership, shared beliefs, values and vision, intentional
collaborative learning and application of learning, supportive structural
conditions, supportive relational conditions, and shared practice. PLCs can only
be successful if there is supportive leadership from a person or persons in charge
of the group. The leadership and ideas are shared in collaborative decision
making. Teachers and student teachers working collaboratively share beliefs and
a vision about ensuring that no learner is left behind and that success is within the
reach of all learners. So, teachers and student teachers intentionally collaborate to
ensure that their knowledge and teaching practice grow to ensure the continued
learning of learners. PLCs can only be successful if both structural and relational
conditions are addressed. Structural conditions refer to logistical aspects such as
a place and time to meet and access to resources. Relational conditions refer to
aspects such as building trust, learning to communicate respectfully, being
supportive and caring, and learning to handle conflict (Hord & Tobia, 2012). The
dimension of shared practice “involves the review of a teacher’s behavior by
colleagues and includes feedback and assistance to support individual and
community improvement” (Hord & Tobia, 2012, p. 26).
Research indicates that the implementation of PLCs is a successful strategy for

addressing and sustaining the successful learning of learners (DuFour, 2007).
However, many teachers continue to work independently and in isolation from
their colleagues; hence, fostering collaboration in most schools is a challenge.
DuFour and Marzano (2011, p. 1) point out that “no single person has all the
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knowledge, skills, and talent to lead a district, improve a school, or meet all the
needs of every child in his or her classroom”. Therefore, initial teacher education
programmes need to play their part in providing student teachers with
opportunities to practise collaboration skills within PLCs.
3. Methodology
3.1 Design
As context was crucial, a qualitative case study approach was employed to
examine the initiatives implemented within a BEd programme at one South
African university. The case study allowed for the “exploration of a ‘bounded
system’ or case” (Creswell, 1998, p. 61). Bounded systems are typically bounded
by time and place, and a case may be a programme (Creswell, 1998). A case study
“allows investigators to retain the holistic and meaningful characteristics of real
life events” (Yin, 2009, p. 4). Zeichner (1999, p. 9) notes that case studies in teacher
education programmes provide “a close-up and detailed look at particular teacher
education activities and show what a teacher education programme looks like
from the inside, from the perspectives of students and faculty”. The perspectives
of the challenges faced by work-integrated learning teacher educators in trying to
enhance student teachers’ collaborative skills by placing them in PLCs provide a
richer, fuller “inside” perspective – essentially, the study of the lived experience
(cf. Glesne, 2006).
3.2 Participants and sampling

The South African institution where this study was conducted is a unitary,
integrated, multi-campus university with three campuses (i.e., multi-site) offering
a BEd programme in a contact and open distance learning delivery mode. The
total number of students taking part in the study included the entire population
of first-, second-, and third-year students registered for the work-integrated
learning module (i.e., teaching practice) in the second semester of 2020 (cf. Table
1).
Table 1: Number of students in the BEd programme

Qualification name BEd
Year level 2 020
1 2 560
2 2 290
3 2 191
Total 7 041
In addition, 16 postgraduate students were appointed as facilitators to assist us

(two work-integrated learning teacher educators) with student teacher inquiries
and monitoring the PLC progress. An administrative assistant was tasked with
initially constituting the communities and managing the process of ensuring that
all of the student teachers made contact with their community members. Ethical
clearance was obtained from the ethical committee of the university, and
gatekeeper permission was also attained from the university.
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3.3 Data collection methods

Documents can be regarded as a valuable source of information within qualitative
research, as they help researchers to understand the phenomenon at hand
(Creswell, 1998). The standard approach to the analysis of documents focuses
primarily on what is contained within them. Documents are viewed as pieces of
communication between a writer and a reader that contain meaningful messages.
Document analysis can be understood as the study of existing documents, either
to understand their substantive content or to illuminate deeper meanings that
may be revealed by their style or coverage. For this study, the following
documents and artefacts were collected: journals, WhatsApp messages and voice
notes kept by us, and the minutes of work-integrated learning meetings focused
on discussing the alternatives to school-based placement.
3.4 Data analysis

The data collected were analysed using both a narrative and a thematic analysis
approach. Thematic analysis was used to identify themes in the data, and
narrative analysis was used to examine how the themes were used in our
narratives during meetings and on WhatsApp voice notes. Narrative analysis
seeks to acknowledge the context and understand phenomena through the
meanings that speakers assign to them (Cortazzi, 2014). Thematic and narrative
analysis is often used together in research as complementary approaches not only
to search for patterns and themes (thematic analysis) but also to interpret the
meaning and reasoning behind the presence of those patterns and themes in
context (narrative analysis).
4. Findings and discussion

An analysis of our journals, WhatsApp messages, and voice notes and the minutes
of meetings indicated four themes highlighting the challenges we were facing
during the study. The following themes emerged: constituting the PLCs; dealing
with group demographics and diversity; connectivity, technology, and
collaborating in an emergency remote environment; and providing feedback,
support, and guidance.
4.1 Challenge 1: Constituting the professional learning communities

The first challenge included aspects such as developing a meaningful task and the
Protection of Personal Information (POPI) act. As mentioned, the Covid-19
pandemic brought about unprecedented challenges for teacher education, one of
which was that students not only had to learn in an online format but also
communicate and collaborate with one another remotely. Teacher educators,
therefore, had to adapt all existing course requirements. As student teachers could
not be placed in schools for work-integrated learning, teacher educators had to
find innovative ways to bring the classroom to the student. This should ensure
learning from practice in a situation where learning in practice would not be
possible. The task below was an effort to employ PLCs to challenge student
teachers to critically reflect on their current understanding of schooling and
challenge the dominant discourses they upheld, while at the same time actively
engaging with learning material for the course. Creating a meaningful task that
would contribute to learning, as well as the development of their personal and
professional identities, proved to be a significant endeavour.
216
The task
The task that the student teachers were required to complete is provided in Table
2.
Table 2: Group task

Design the ideal school that brings together the philosophies and approaches to
teaching and learning that you have been exposed to, as well as the practical
considerations that you feel would be most effective and engaging to all stakeholders
in the educational system. In doing so, please make sure that you address the following:
• The basics (name, logo, etc.)
• The physical space
• The teachers
• The learners
• The learning
• The curriculum
• The activities
• The system
The motivation for your ideal school should also be a critique of the current schooling
system in South Africa. You are welcome to use parts of the system that you consider
to be effective, but be innovative and creative in the alternatives that you suggest!
The POPI act

A total number of 7 008 student teachers, spread out across the entire country, had
to be divided into PLCs in 2020. In South Africa, the POPI Act (2020) regulates the
sharing of personal information and sets conditions for the protection of personal
data. This act spells out definite consequences should an institution not adhere to
this law and freely share the personal information of student teachers. The
implication of this for universities is that no email address or telephone number
of a student teacher may be made available on public platforms such as learning
management systems. This legislation created a challenge for this study which
was aimed at enhancing collaborative learning among student teachers in PLCs.
Innovative thinking was, therefore, required to create a system where student
teachers would be able to connect with one another and form PLC without
violating the POPI Act. The learning management system of the university offers
teacher educators the option of posting forum topics where student teachers can
engage with one another. In order to address this challenge, we posted a list of
student numbers and PLC numbers (thereby not sharing any personal
information) on the forum. Each individual student teacher then had to post their
email address or telephone number in the forum for their specific PLC. Once all
six of the PLC members had willingly shared their contact information, one
student teacher had to accept the leadership role and create a communal PLC on
WhatsApp or Google Docs where they could work.
The students did not have the option of not sharing their detail, as they needed to
complete this task in order to pass the module. Despite several attempts to
motivate the students to make contact, an additional challenge was experienced,
as some of the students did not reply to numerous requests to initiate contact with
their PLC members. This prevented the PLCs from starting with their
217
collaborative task, as they were still waiting for some individuals to join. This
challenge was addressed by appointing an administrative assistant who
continuously monitored the PLCs. After the first due date for PLC constitution
had passed, the assistant removed all students who had not made contact. A
second set of PLCs was created for the initial non-responsive student teachers to
join. This action was repeated four times on a weekly basis to ensure that the PLCs
could effectively progress with their tasks, while students who did not make
contact still had the opportunity of joining a new PLC rather than joining their
initial PLC late and possibly causing conflict and frustration among the
community members. A due date was also set for the PLCs to submit contracts
accepting their responsibility and committing to personal accountability in their
collaborative task (cf. Table 3).
Table 3: Group contract
Group contract: Individual members’ responsibilities
As a member of this professional learning community, I agree to:
• respect group members, demonstrate sensitivity, and encourage learning;

• be fully committed to the group task and the individual responsibilities I have
been entrusted with;
• work according to the agreed timeframe;
• give and receive feedback about my work and participate in group discussions;
• attend all meetings unless the group has been informed of anticipated
absenteeism;
• agree to resolve conflict according to the group’s process as soon as it arises;
• ensure that all group members contribute equally to the task by addressing
problems as they arise;
• agree to collectively read and edit the final group presentation; and
• provide contact details and respond to group communication when and where
required.
Name: _______________________ Student number: ______________________
Group number: _______________ Role: _________________________________
Colour you will be using in the Google Doc to indicate your contribution: ______
4.2 Challenge 2: Dealing with group demographics and diversity

The second challenge included issues with regard to gender and race, campus and
mode of delivery, age and level of study, language, teaching practice experience,
socio-economic circumstances, and educational background.
4.2.1 Gender and race
A total of 7 008 student teachers across the three campus sites and the open
distance learning cohort had to be placed into PLCs. Table 4 gives an outline of
the student teacher population in terms of gender and race per campus.
218
Table 4: Gender and race per campus

Qualification BEd
name
Year 2020
Gender Race Campus A Campus B Campus C
Female Unknown 2
African 1 052 904 779
Coloured 13 380 21
Indian/Asian 1 76 6
White 3 1 786 107
Total female 1 069 3 146 915
Male Unknown 1
African 669 312 392
Coloured 4 98 5
Indian/Asian 1 12 3
White 0 373 41
Total male 674 795 442
Grand total 1 743 3 941 1 357
4.2.2 Campus and mode of delivery

Although the university is a unitary institution, teachers are very seldom given
the opportunity of collaborating across the campus sites. This collaborative task
within PLCs was the first time in which we grouped student teachers across the
campus sites, as well as the open distance learning cohort, into PLCs to work
together. Table 5 gives an outline of the number of student teachers per campus
and mode of delivery.
Table 5: Number of student teachers per year group
Qualification Name BEd
Year level 2 020
1 2 560
2 2 290
3 2 191
Total 7 041
4.2.3 Age and level of study

Another challenge that presented itself was the age and year level of the members
of the groups. Traditionally, the general trend is that contact students are younger
students who tend to come to university directly after completing their schooling.
The age of the contact students in this cohort ranged from 19 to 21 years old.
Distance students tend to be older, and many of them are employed full time,
either in education or outside of the education sector. The age of the group
members could, therefore, vary greatly, which had implications for the life
experience and perceptions that they brought to the PLC. Including first-, second-,
and third-year students in one PLC could also be a source of tension and
difference within a PLC. The intention was for the more senior students to act in
a mentoring role towards the first-year students, but due to their varying ages and
life experience, that was not always the case.
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4.2.4 Language
Another obvious challenge that had the potential to create a lot of tension in PLCs
involved the home language and language of instruction of the community
members. At the university, two languages are offered as the medium of
instruction, namely English and Afrikaans. The groups were constituted in
random ways to promote multilingualism among the students and adhere to the
language policy of the institution. A number of emails from students to us
indicated that not all of the members felt at ease being in a community with
members who spoke other languages. Table 6 gives an outline of the language
distribution at the different campus sites.
Table 6: Number of students per language in the BEd programme

Language Campus A Campus B Campus C
Afrikaans 6 2 177 121
English 116 660 129
isiNdebele 18 15 10
isiXhosa 78 68 84
isiZulu 35 103 155
Other language 155 187 169
Sesotho 69 185 522
SesothosaLebowa 17 29 19
Setswana 1 116 469 75
siSwati 76 17 25
Tshivenda 9 5 11
Unknown 1 2 4
Xitsonga 47 24 33
Grand total 1 743 3 941 1 357
4.2.5 Teaching practice experience

The students in the groups represented different year levels within the BEd
programme. Therefore, these student teachers differed in terms of the time they
had spent in school-based placement; for example, second- and third-year
students had been placed in schools for some teaching practice blocks prior to the
pandemic, while the first-year students had never experienced teaching practice
placement. As the academic year starts in February, these students had barely
been at university for two months when the pandemic hit South Africa. Whereas
the second- and third-year students had a point of reference of being on the other
side of a desk in a classroom, the first-year students had only their own schooling
to use as a very limited point of reference.
4.2.6 Socio-economic circumstances

When student teachers go for their school-based placement, we try to ensure that
they are exposed to different and diverse schools, as stipulated within the
Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications (Department of Higher
Education and Training, 2015). South Africa is a country with a vast array of
school environments, from extremely prestigious private schools where monthly
tuition exceeds the salaries of most South Africans and well-resourced schools
with the newest technology to under-resourced schools with classrooms that have
only the bare basics in terms of furniture and staff. Many of these schools have
feeding schemes that provide learners with their only meal of the day. Weather
220
elements, such as flooding, affect the daily lives of the learners at under-resourced
schools. Moreover, approximately 60% of the students enrolled at the university
in question are able to study only because they have a government-funded
bursary, which means that many of them come from the above-mentioned poorly
resourced schools. Students tend to go back for teaching practice to the type of
school where they completed their schooling (Goldhaber et al., 2021); however, it
is crucial that they experience different contexts to sensitise them to the challenges
most South Africans face in trying to receive quality schooling for themselves, or
later, their children.
4.2.7 Educational background

The challenge presented by the diverse educational backgrounds of the student
teachers is that in one PLC, there might be students from very privileged
backgrounds together with students who had never had any experience with or
exposure to a well-resourced school. The challenge in terms of educational
background not only involved the schools where the students came from
themselves or where they chose to complete their teaching practice but also
referred to the resources they themselves had available to collaborate on the task.
4.3 Challenge 3: Connectivity, technology, and collaborating in an

emergency remote environment
This challenge posed issues of internet access and connectivity, access to data, and
experience using technology.
4.3.1 Internet access and connectivity

Internet access in South Africa remains elusive to most people, and frequent
access to the internet is restricted to a small part of the population (Dataportal,
2020). Wi-fi is not freely available in public spaces, and the reality for this cohort
of students was that many of them only had access to the internet or even access
to devices when they were on campus and could use the computer rooms. These
computer rooms were, of course, out of reach at the time due to campuses being
closed. The collaborative task was thus designed to offer equal opportunities for
both students who did have internet access and students who were struggling
with connectivity. They were scattered all over the country, and even if they had
the financial means to use internet cafés, these establishments were still closed
due to the high level of lockdown, or the students could not afford to spend the
hours there needed to collaborate with their fellow PLC members. As continuous
collaboration was essential, once-off or intermittent access to the internet would
not suffice.
4.3.2 Access to data

Although the university was committed to providing all students with data for
the duration of the lockdown, many students did not have access to smartphones
or laptops to use the data they were provided with. After deliberations with
mobile phone service providers, the university learning management system
became zero-rated, and students could access this crucial platform without using
any data. To add to the challenges many students faced regarding connectivity,
prolonged periods of loadshedding prevented many students from collaborating
on the task.
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4.3.3 Experience using technology

In addition to challenges regarding the availability of internet access and data,
many students had very limited knowledge of and experience in using digital
technology for learning (cf. Al-Ansi, 2021). The first-year students only had one
or two months of experience in using the university’s learning management
system. Ways in which we tried to address this challenge included creating
tutorial videos, using forums to make contact with the groups, and using the chat
room to communicate with facilitators and other functionalities to access
resources. In addition to a lack of experience with the learning management
system of the university, students also experienced challenges related to the use
of the Google suite of products (Google Docs, Google Forms, etc.). Some students
also had only a very basic knowledge of using Microsoft Office products such as
Word and PowerPoint. In order to address these challenges, postgraduate
facilitators were appointed to assist with training via tutorial videos.
4.4 Challenge 4: Providing feedback, support, and guidance

The fourth challenge included issues of support and individual accountability and
roles.
4.4.1 Support
Providing continuous support for more than 1 400 PLCs remained a challenge
throughout the process. Facilitators were appointed to assist with challenges with
regard to technology, communication, and conflict resolution. However, the
number of emails received soon made it clear that we had to put additional
measures in place to address this challenge. A decision was made to provide the
students with a section on frequently asked questions (FAQs) in order to address
common and repetitive issues arising in the communication from the various
PLCs. The FAQs section was added to a live Google Doc where questions and
answers could be added as they emerged. This turned out to be a very helpful tool
for both facilitators and students.
4.4.2 Individual accountability and roles

It was quite evident that PLCs would rather send an email to a facilitator or the
work-integrated learning teacher educators than watch the tutorial videos or
reading the FAQs document. It was important to teach these students the
responsibility of accepting ownership for their work and their role within their
PLCs. They had to learn to follow prescribed steps and use the relevant
communication channels. Conflict in the groups had to be dealt with first by the
peacemaker and group leader (as per roles assigned at the beginning of the task)
(cf. Table 7) before involving facilitators and teacher educators. During the first
phase of the collaborative task, training was provided to the student teachers so
that they could optimally fulfil these roles. Not only did this empower the
students, but it was a pre-emptive measure to address the challenges that were
anticipated to occur during the duration of the collaborative task.
Table 7: Preparing PLCs for their roles

Group leader:
- Spokesperson for the group. Communicates with the facilitator.
- Monitors the progress of individual members.
- Assists in allocating roles, responsibilities, and duties within the group.
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- Ensures that all members have an equitable share in the project.

- Constantly checks that all members understand the expectations.
- Recognises conflict and addresses it in collaboration with the peacemaker.
Energiser:
- A dynamic, caring member of the group
- Sets goal dates in collaboration with the group leader. Makes adjustments where
necessary.
- Motivates and encourages the group.
- Facilitates the process of group members getting to know one another.
- Promotes positive relationships among group members.
- Keeps discussions on track by monitoring progress.
- Has a good sense of when a topic has been sufficiently discussed and when the focus
of the group should shift.
- Reassures and supports members when they become stressed or anxious.
- Is a reflective thinker who can analyse the group dynamics and climate and promote a
positive atmosphere.
Peacemaker:
- Encourages continuous communication among the members.
- Manages conflict situations.
- Manages conversation to achieve an appropriate balance so that all members participate
in a meaningful way.
- Should be invitational, rather than confrontational. Asks members for specific rather
than general contributions.
- Works towards inclusion and celebrating diversity in terms of culture and abilities.
Wild card:
- The innovative and creative thinker of the group who can be provocative and
argumentative.
- Can suggest new, creative, and alternative ways of looking at the assignment.
- Their plans are often impractical due to their highly creative nature, but their ideas can
spark more practical and alternative thoughts in other members.
- The “idea” person who communicates the thoughts on the big picture and provokes
group discussions.
- Seeks connections between past, current, and future discussions.
- Effective at sourcing a variety of resources.
Reality checker:
- Often the loner of the group who enjoys working away from the rest of the group.
- Listens to what others have to say and explains it back in their own words.
- Asks for more information and provides clarity on both content and process.
- Will ask questions to find factual evidence for group members’ opinions.
- Summarises what has taken place, points out departures from the plan, and brings the
group back to pertinent issues.
- Doublechecks data, resources, and bibliographies for accuracy.
Tech wizard:
- Ensures a professional final product.
- Collects the content and produces artwork, sound, etc.
- Collaborates with the wild card on the creative side of the project and with the reality
checker on insuring that all components have been included.
- Collaborates with the group leader on the quality of the content.
The greatest source of conflict seemed to be language issues, various opinions on

work ethic, and resistance to collaboration. The complaints highlighted the
student teachers’ lack of experience in and commitment to collaboration and
sharing ideas on issues related to the completion of the task; individualism was at
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the forefront of most of the complaints. These complaints were addressed as far
as possible by the intervention of the facilitators and teacher educators.
5. Conclusion and recommendations

Before the onset of the Covid-19 pandemic, campus-based students only had
experience in face-to-face classes and had not been required to learn or collaborate
in PLCs in an online format. Most of them had probably worked in groups before
where they knew their group members. None of the students had ever worked
collaboratively across campus sites and modes of delivery and with such diverse
community members. The results clearly indicated a number of challenges in
trying to get student teachers to collaborate on a task within PLCs. Experiencing
challenges is, however, not a reason to discontinue trying to offer student teachers
the opportunity to practice professional skills in structures that will one day
resemble what is required in their school working environment.
This study has indicated the value of PLCs as a pedagogical tool for enhancing
the personal and professional development of student teachers.
Recommendations for future practice include a proactive effort to anticipate
challenges and identify areas where additional support may be needed. Using
student facilitators can provide such support while at the same time freeing up
teacher educators to focus on core academic requirements. Utilising technology
such as live Google Docs to continuously communicate with students not only
ensures that teacher educators remain on top of challenges as they arise but also
creates more space to work towards reaching the aims of the collaborative task
without spending too much energy on logistical matters. The success of creating
PLCs lies within the fostering of a sense of individual accountability in student
teachers. It is, lastly, recommended that an opportunity such as this is utilised to
embrace, rather than avoid, diversity within communities of students working
together. This not only reduces potential conflict situations but also creates a
platform for student teachers to work towards meeting the graduate attributes of
the institution, thereby preparing them to meet the professional standards of their
chosen career.
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Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 226-246, June 2022
Received Apr 9, 2022; Revised Jun 20, 2022; Accepted Jun 28, 2022
Trends of Educational Technology (EdTech):

Students’ Perceptions of Technology to Improve
the Quality of Islamic Higher Education in
Indonesia
Susanto*
Pascasarjana Institut PTIQ, Jakarta, Indonesia
Evi Muafiah
Institut Agama Islam Negeri Ponorogo, Ponorogo, Indonesia
Ayu Desrani
Sekolah Tinggi Agama Islam Sabili, Bandung, Indonesia
Apri Wardana Ritonga

Universitas Islam Negeri Maulana Malik Ibrahim, Malang, Indonesia
Arif Rahman Hakim

Institute Agama Islam Negeri Ponorogo, Ponorogo, Indonesia
Abstract. This study aimed to investigate the use of technology in

enhancing the quality of Islamic higher education in Indonesia. A
mixed-method approach, with a sequential explanatory design, was
applied in this research. The participants in the quantitative research
were 608 students from 10 provinces in Indonesia, while those in the
qualitative approach were 23 students. The quantitative data were
collected using a questionnaire, and the qualitative data were collected
through interviews. The quantitative data were analyzed descriptively,
while the qualitative data were analyzed using the Miles and Huberman
model, which included collecting, reducing and displaying the data, and
drawing conclusions. The findings showed that students’ perceptions of
the use of technology in improving the quality of Islamic higher
education were categorized into three parts. First, the technology used
in enhancing the quality of delivering materials includes LMS (38%),
Zoom meetings (30%), Google Meet (18%), and Google Classroom
(14%). Second, the technology used in improving the quality of
* Corresponding author: Susanto, susanto@ptiq.ac.id
©Authors
227
monitoring or learning direction includes WhatsApp (55%), Telegram

(25%), Line (9%), and Google Classroom (11%). Third, the technology
used to improve the quality of learning evaluation includes Kahoot
(9%), Quizizz (10%), Google form (48%), Turnitin (28%), and computer-
based tests (5%). In addition, the respondents gave a positive response
to the use of technology in learning in Islamic higher education. The use
of technology in Islamic higher education shows an increase. It eases the
lecturers, students, and other stakeholders to provide a more
outstanding quality of Islamic education.
Keywords: education technology, quality of education, students’

perceptions
1. Introduction
Modern technology has been widely used in education, ranging from primary to
tertiary educational institutions. It supports educators and students in
facilitating a better teaching and learning process (Hassan & Hamada, 2017).
Universities worldwide use smart devices to provide users with access to class
content and materials. User numbers are also steadily increasing (Safsouf et al.,
2020). Innovation and technological advances have changed pedagogy and
approaches to facilitating and delivering content in higher education worldwide
(Sharma et al., 2019). This has also happened in Indonesia.
Massive global developments demand that educational orientation is not limited
to learning in classrooms, and students are directed to explore all educational
information outside the classroom (Lai et al., 2018). To support this, the concept
of intelligent learning or educational technology (EdTech) is promoted as one of
the trends with very strong growth in higher education (Bozkurt, 2020).
EdTech’s advantages involve its flexibility in using a computer or mobile device
(smartphone or tablet) (Tobin & Hieker, 2021). By using the Internet, students
can access resources anytime and anywhere. It may adapt to each learner’s
learning needs and preferences (Safsouf et al., 2020).
The growing demand for technology learning drives massive growth for
Indonesia’s leading EdTech platforms (Bhardwaj et al., 2020). Popular EdTech
products offer learning management systems for teacher-student collaboration
and online teaching management, as well as interactive classroom tools to host
hands-on and interactive learning sessions, such as G-Suite for Education,
Microsoft for Education, Zoom, Google Meet, and Google Classroom (Basilaia &
Kvavadze, 2020). However, not all students can access EdTech (Amo et al., 2019)
because the Indonesian education system is not equipped to increase online
learning rapidly (Churiyah et al., 2020).
EdTech is vital for higher education institutions, including Islamic higher
education in Indonesia, to increase competitiveness (Au-Yong-Oliveira et al.,
2018). As a result of utilizing EdTech, all of the information related to teaching
and learning can be accessed easily and quickly by students, teachers, and the
community who need it (Suryaman et al., 2020). In addition, EdTech is needed in
higher education management (Castañeda & Selwyn, 2018) to manage academic,
student, and administration personnel (Shaturaev, 2021).
228
The potential of EdTech to increase student activeness in the learning process

has long been recognized and the involvement of students in educational
technology is a focus. EdTech requires good planning and preparation (Foulger
et al., 2019) because it can also potentially neglect students and hinder learning.
EdTech in online learning, where teachers and students have virtual meetings,
may lead to students’ deviant behavior (Susanto & Hakim, 2021). Improving the
teachers’ competence in using EdTech needs to be considered (Fernández-
Batanero et al., 2021). One of the problems in teaching and learning is the lack of
teachers’ competence in choosing media and using educational technology as a
learning facility. A teacher plays the role as a facilitator who guides a learner to
knowledge (Wu & Nian, 2021).
Along with the development of education and technology issues, research on the
use of EdTech increases daily. Some scholars and academics have conducted
some research on the internalization of EdTech in the learning process in higher
education, including Islamic higher education. It has been found that students’
engagement in learning using EdTech grows rapidly when teachers use
technology well (Bedenlier et al., 2020). Moreover, Sailer’s findings propose a
contextual facilitators model as an EdTech-based learning model for higher
education with a distance learning system to understand the dynamics and
factors that lead to successful learning (Sailer et al., 2021). Shen (2019) also states
that EdTech in higher education is an innovation and disruption to conventional
learning practices (Shen & Ho, 2019). Nikou’s findings emphasize the
importance of the attention to the structure of the use of EdTech amid significant
changes in higher education, so it provides benefits rather than being merely a
symbol (Nikou & Aavakare, 2021).
EdTech can foster a comfortable and flexible learning ecosystem. It also helps
students to access information and learning resources. Therefore, its utilization
must be increased to obtain a better quality of learning. EdTech should be
encouraged and developed, especially in teaching and learning activities in
Islamic higher education. Although the use of EdTech has shown an
encouraging trend, it must be ensured that such use not only follows the trend of
technological developments but also provides interactive, effective, and good
quality learning activities in terms of processes and learning outcomes.
This research explored the trend of using technology to improve the quality of
teaching-learning activities in Islamic higher educational institutions in
Indonesia, which was formulated in three research problems. The first problem
is how technology is used to improve the quality of learning materials delivery;
the second is how technology is used to improve the quality of monitoring
learning activities; and the third is how technology is used to improve the
quality of the implementation of learning evaluations. From these three research
problems, the researchers obtained complete and comprehensive data regarding
the use of technology today in improving the quality of teaching and learning in
Indonesian Islamic higher educational institutions.
It is crucial to make the best use of technology to enhance effective,
communicative, and quality learning activities in the future. There are three
reasons why this research is essential. First, improving the quality of Islamic
higher education requires the adoption of technology and information. Second,
229
to examine trends in the use of educational technology in Islamic tertiary

institutions, it is necessary to have accurate data. Third, it is essential to
investigate the perception of Islamic higher education students as users.
2.1 Educational Technology
Educational technology (EdTech) is technology developed to support more
efficient educational needs as well as e-learning and home schooling. Everything
that happens in the world of technology has a direct impact on education and
learning systems (Bower, 2019) and has an impact on the efficiency of teachers,
students, and the education system as a whole (Purnell et al., 2020). EdTech
gives access to education to anyone, wherever they are (Ideland, 2021). These
advantages help the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), as outlined by the
United Nations, to realize quality education (Mondejar et al., 2021). By including
the role of EdTech, it is very possible that this global agenda will be achieved by
providing access to all people to the same educational opportunities (Selwyn et
al., 2020), especially with the opportunity to learn from the best teachers in the
world (König et al., 2020).
The number of students in Indonesia continues to increase annually. Based on
the data from the Indonesian Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and
Technology in the 2019/2020 school year, there were around 50.6 million
students (Zhao et al., 2021). A total of 57.9% went to elementary schools, 19.9%
to secondary schools, 9.9% to universities, and 12.1% went to vocational schools.
There were around 8.3 million students that used technology. The number of
young Internet users is also increasing (Park & Kwon, 2018).
Online platforms, smartphone applications, and new learning formats have
massively increased access to education and improved the teaching and learning
process itself, while online and cloud technologies have presented attractive
standardization possibilities for learning content (Zhang & Min, 2020). Now,
every school in rural areas can receive the same standards and levels of learning
content as schools in urban areas (Hermino & Arifin, 2020). This connection
happens not only inter-schools and inter-cities but also inter-countries (Martín-
Cuadrado et al., 2021), because EdTech offers developing countries access to
follow the education system in more developed countries, both in academic and
professional learning activities (Teräs et al., 2020).
EdTech also creates stronger connections between what happens in the
classroom and what happens outside the classroom (at home, work world, and
so on), making teacher-supported digital educational resources, such as
assignments and exam preparation materials, available permanently (Hofer et
al., 2022). This creates a structured circuit in the student learning experience.
2.2 Various types of educational technology in Indonesia

There are several types of services offered by EdTech in Indonesia. One types is
e-learning, selling learning materials online, delivered through interactive
content, on-demand videos, and online live tutoring (Gao et al., 2021). From a
material point of view, the scope is diverse, ranging from courses for school
students and foreign language learning content to strengthening skills, such as
230
accounting and programming (Sepulveda-Escobar & Morrison, 2020). Examples

of startups in this field include Akademi, Bahaso, Bensmart, CodeSaya, Kode.id,
Ruangguru, Vokraf, and Zenius.
E-learning services in Indonesia mostly target general users, followed by K-12
(equivalent to elementary, junior high, and high school levels). Some also
specifically present packaged materials for preschools (e.g., Playable, Smart
Point), universities (e.g., DQLab), and businesses (e.g., Ringerlaktate). The
concept of blended learning is also still being applied by EdTech to this sub-
vertical as an anticipatory step towards market readiness, namely by providing a
program that combines online and offline (Goodyear, 2020).
Another EdTech service model is the learning management system (LMS)
(Fearnley & Amora, 2020). In contrast to e-learning, LMS is designed more to
help plan learning activities. Previously, it was widely used institutionally but,
over time, it was also designed for personal use. Some LMS platforms only
provide an administrative management system for teaching and learning
activities, while others also provide a learning material marketplace (Kant et al.,
2021). From existing local startup products, LMS was developed to
accommodate several market shares, including business (e.g., Codemi,
HarukaEdu, RuangKerja), K-12 level (e.g., Kelase, Mejakita, Pintro), universities
(e.g., Ngampooz), and the general public. (e.g., ZumiApp) (Shurygin et al., 2021).
3. Methodology
3.1 Research Design and Participants
A mixed-method approach was applied in this study. The design used is the
sequential explanatory design, where the research method combines
quantitative and qualitative research methods sequentially, where the first stage
of the research was carried out using the quantitative method and the second
stage was carried out using the qualitative method. They were used to obtain
more comprehensive data. The quantitative data were gathered from
respondents who used EdTech in Islamic higher educational institutions in
Indonesia. Then, the qualitative data depicted their perceptions about using
applied technology.
The participants in the quantitative approach were 608 students of Islamic
higher educational institutions in 10 provinces in Indonesia, who were
established as the sample by using the cluster random sampling technique. The
respondents in the qualitative approach were 23 students of Islamic higher
educational institutions in Indonesia, who were established as the sample by
using the purposive sampling technique. The 23 students were active students
studying at various higher education institutions in Indonesia. Below is the
distribution of participants in each province.
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Figure 1. Participants of each province in Indonesia
3.2 Research Instrument

The instrument used for data collection was a questionnaire with several
questions about educational technology used in learning in higher education.
The questionnaire was tested for validity in learning technology by using SPSS
(Version, 26.00). The questionnaire is divided into three parts: the first part deals
with the technology to improve the quality of material delivered; the second
deals with the technology to improve the quality of learning monitoring; the
third deals with the technology to improve the quality of evaluation. The
questionnaire contains 13 questions with yes/no alternative answers. The results
of the validity and reliability measurement of the instrument was as follows:
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Table 1. Instrument validity and reliability
No Cronbach's
Pearson
Indicator item Alpha if item is
correlation
deleted
Technology to improve the quality of material delivery
a. Learning management system 0.377 .817
b. Zoom meeting 0.567 .804
c. Google Meet 0.574 .804
d. Google Classroom 0.582 .803
Technology to improve the quality of learning monitoring
a. Line Group 0.423 .816
b. WhatsApp 0.565 .803
c. Google Classroom 0.538 .807
d. Telegram 0.436 .810
Technology to improve the quality of evaluation
a. Kahoot 0.518 .812
b. Quizizz 0.560 .803
c. Google Form 0.641 .797
d. Turnitin 0.560 .803
e. Computer-Based Test (CBT) 0.556 .804
The table shows that all question items are declared valid, with rCount greater
than rTable. The rTable, determined by the 608 respondents at the significance level
of 0.05, is 0.080. This indicated that all items show more than 0.080, meaning the
instrument was valid. Furthermore, the reliability of an instrument using the
Cronbach alpha questionnaire is declared reliable when the Cronbach alpha is
>0.6. The table shows that the value of the overall question item is >0.6,
indicating the instrument is reliable.
3.3 Data Collection
The data were collected from January to February 2022. The quantitative data
were obtained from the questionnaire distributed by Google Forms, while the
qualitative data were gathered through telephone interviews. The questions
dealt with the use of technology to enhance the quality of material delivery,
learning monitoring, and learning evaluation.
3.4 Data Analysis

The researchers analyzed the quantitative data obtained by using the
questionnaire descriptively. Meanwhile, the qualitative data were analyzed
using the Miles and Huberman model (Huberman, 1992). First, the researchers
collected data based on the random distribution of respondents of 608 Islamic
higher education students in Indonesia. Second, the researchers classified the
data based on the predetermined research problem. In the third stage, the
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researchers presented the data according to the specified research problem and
then drew the findings. Based on the findings, the research analysis focused on
the use of EdTech in Islamic higher education. The data were critically examined
by following these three stages.
4. Presentation of Findings
4.1 Technology to Improve the Quality of Material Delivery
The use of technology in education continues to develop along with the
development of science and technology. Lecturers continue to adapt themselves
to the use of technology in teaching processes to improve the quality of services
in Islamic higher education. With supporting technology, the delivery of
learning materials can be done online. In fact, with the rapid support of
technology and information (ICT) today, Islamic higher education services can
innovate to develop multiple virtual-based services in learning, administration,
community service, and other services needed.
Materials delivery by utilizing EdTech becomes more exciting and flexible
because technology creates more interesting and effortless human activities. The
utilization of learning media and technology is one of the breakthroughs that
need to be developed and expanded to improve the quality of educational
services. The findings of this study indicate that technology is being used in
Islamic higher education to improve the quality of the teaching-learning process
with various types of platforms, which can be seen in the following figure.
Figure 2. Technology in delivering learning materials
Figure 2 shows the Islamic higher education in Indonesia has utilized

educational technology through various alternative platforms to improve the
quality of learning materials delivery. The percentage using LMS is 38% and
Zoom as a face-to-face online tool is 30%. Meanwhile, 18% of the respondents at
Islamic higher education said that they had taken advantage of the feature
provided by Google Meet and 14% of the respondents use Google Classroom.
Furthermore, in interviews with respondents related to the use of technology to
improve the delivery of the materials in Islamic higher education, a respondent
said “To improve the quality or quality of learning activities, especially before teaching
and learning activities take place, we as students are given socialization regarding the
use of learning technology on campus, especially on the availability of LMS on campus”
(interview with Fahril on January 16, 2022).
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Then, related to the use of technology in the delivery of the materials, another
respondent stated that “The ability of students from the 2020-2021 class in using the
LMS and operations is directed through zoom meetings before the start of the lectures for
teaching and learning activities, for us as new students who are still new to the
operation of the LMS, socialization is not only done once or twice, but socialization is
also done by the lecturer who is competent in the subject” (interview with Mela on
January 21, 2022).
The researchers asked the respondents whether or not using technology in
lectures could improve the quality of learning materials delivery in Islamic
higher education. One respondent confessed that “Using technology in delivering
learning materials certainly makes it easier for us to obtain subject matter from lecturers,
especially with the current learning situation, which is still online; technology is highly
relied upon to obtain lecture materials for the sake of good continuity of learning”
(interview with Iman on January 19, 2022).
Furthermore, another respondent also said, “With technology that is growing and
getting better, of course, it is very easy for us as students to access learning materials
and also not only learn from one reference, we are still allowed to access material from
several other technology references under the direction of the lecturer” (interview with
Tika on January 27, 2022).
Based on those descriptive data and the respondents’ views, it can be concluded
that EdTech is needed to improve educational services in Islamic higher
educational institutions in the learning materials delivery. Materials delivery can
be improved and packaged by utilizing technology so that the quality of
education services is better and adaptive to the needs of the times. Several
platforms can be used for EdTech in learning materials delivery, whose use is
different from one another in percentages. The highest user percentage is LMS,
which is 38%, followed by Zoom (30%), Google Meet (18%), and the lowest
percentage is Google Classroom (14%).
Examining the interviews shows that the use of EdTech in delivering learning
materials with several types of platforms illustrates that the learning process can
attract students’ interest because the series of learning activities are not limited
by time and space. In fact, it promotes flexible learning. In addition, the use of
technology in learning material delivery also provides students with
opportunities to seek and obtain various types of learning resources. It has also
increased the quality of the learning process.
The readiness of higher education institutions to use EdTech is decisive.
Therefore, Islamic higher educational institutions are required to be adaptive to
technology-based facilities. The use must be ensured to impact positively on the
improvement of the learning quality and on the comfort of students in learning.
The respondents’ acknowledgement confirms that the use of EdTech in higher
education can foster a lively, interesting and varied spirit of learning; it makes
students comfortable with learning because the use of technology makes for
learning services that are innovative, and modern (interview with Lastri on
February 5, 2022).
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4.2 Technology to Improve the Quality of Learning Monitoring

Islamic higher education in Indonesia has utilized information technology-based
learning to monitor learning activities such as assignment submission, analysis,
recording, reporting, and management information about the implementation of
learning activities. The quality of learning process monitoring in Islamic higher
education is shown in Figure 3.
Line
Group
Telegram 9%
Group
25% WhatsAp
p Group
55%
Google
Classrrom
11%
Figure 3. Technology in learning monitoring
Figure 3 shows that WhatsApp is the platform most widely used by lecturers
and students to improve the quality of the monitoring of the teaching-learning
process. As many as 55% of the respondents stated that they used WhatsApp.
Meanwhile, 25% of the respondents stated that they used Telegram to monitor
their learning. Line was used by 9% of the respondents, and the remaining 11%
used Google Classroom as a medium to improve the quality of learning
monitoring in Islamic higher education. WhatsApp is the most crucial choice as
it provides various features, such as telephone, voice notes, and video calls, even
though the other platforms have almost the same features as WhatsApp does.
These features can support the implementation of digital-based learning
monitoring in Islamic higher education.
The respondents confirmed that using social media platforms, especially
WhatsApp, was a medium to improve the quality of the implementation of
learning monitoring. One respondent said, “From most of the existing technology
social media, WhatsApp is an option for lecturers and students to communicate and
monitor the implementation of having assignments, both outside and inside the teaching
and learning activities” (interview with Fadli on January 27, 2022). Another
respondent said, “The use of social media, including WhatsApp, telegram, and others,
makes it very easy for lecturers and us as students to communicate anywhere and
anytime, especially in the current COVID-19 pandemic which makes us unable to meet
face to face” (interview with Annisa on January 27, 2022).
Based on the findings, various social media platforms are used to communicate
between lecturers and students to monitor the learning process. It is used from
the beginning of learning to the end through special groups for each course. The
use of social media for monitoring online and offline learning activities involves
distributing KRS syllabus and other learning tools. In addition, it is intended to
be used for sharing Google Meet links, materials, and references for monitoring
the learning process, and as a discussion forum between lecturers and students,
as well as among students.
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The respondents from an Islamic university in East Java Province added that
social media, such as Telegram, WhatsApp, or personal chats, provides
accessible communication between lecturers and students or among students to
discuss lecture materials and guidance and to share information related to
services on campus (interview with Linda on February 25, 2022).
With regards to the data findings about the use of social media, it should also be
noted that social media can bridge the need for information and communication
with all parties related to lectures, such as academic staff and other stakeholders.
Seeing the dynamics of digitalized education services, it is possible that teaching
at Islamic universities in the future will experience very rapid development.
4.3 Technology to Improve the Quality of Evaluation

In addition to improving the quality of teaching and monitoring the
implementation of teaching, EdTech is also used to improve the quality of the
evaluation of learning outcomes. The results of this evaluation depend on the
method and the media used. In learning evaluation activities, lecturers must pay
attention to the method or media used to meet the quality standards of
evaluation processes. This is done so that the evaluation results have a high level
of accuracy to reflect students’ abilities genuinely. Based on educational
assessment standards, the assessment includes authentic assessment, self-
assessment, portfolio-based assessment, daily test, mid-semester test, end-of-
semester test, competency level test, and competency level quality test. Some
social media platforms are used to improve the quality of the evaluation process
for student learning outcomes at Islamic higher education. The media platforms
used are shown in Figure 4.
5% 9% Kahoot
10% Quizizz
28%
Google form
Turnitin
48%
Computer based
test
Figure 4. Technology used in learning evaluation

Figure 4 shows the improvement in the quality of the evaluation of student
learning outcomes by utilizing the five media platforms of Kahoot, Quizizz,
Google form, Turnitin, and the computer-based test (CBT). The most widely
used media platforms to improve the quality of evaluation in Islamic higher
education are Google Form (used by 48% of lecturers), Turnitin (28%), Quizizz
(10%), Kahoot (9%), and CBT (5%).
These findings show that Google Form is the most widely used media platform
in Indonesian Islamic higher education today, while the CBT platform is the
least used.
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As the most used platform, Google Forms is a medium that can collect
information from users through personalized surveys or quizzes. The
information is collected and automatically linked to a spreadsheet to group the
scores or data from the evaluation. In addition, lecturers also use Quizizz to
evaluate teaching-learning activities in Islamic higher education. It is a website
for creating interactive quiz games that can be used for classroom activities and
learning evaluation. It can be accessed on the Playstore for Android users,
making it more practical and mobile-friendly. Meanwhile, Kahoot is a game-
based learning platform used as a learning technology in schools.
Turnitin is also widely used by several higher education lecturers to improve the
quality of learning evaluation. Turnitin is a web-based software system that can
identify plagiarism elements in scientific writing. A respondent said that some
lecturers used Turnitin to check the validity of student assignments. It is
necessary as most lecturers give assignments to students to write papers or other
scientific works (interview with Jauharul on January 27, 2022). For Islamic higher
education that is advanced and adaptive to technological advances, Turnitin is
expected to ensure the quality of student assignments and work.
One of the respondents said, “Using Turnitin is not only to correct assignments
given by lecturers but also to see the originality of ideas, the text of our assignments. It is
a requirement for the assignments. We are also encouraged to learn how to write and
communicate ideas through scientific writings whose authenticity would be checked
before they are submitted” (interview with Hasan on January 27, 2022). Another
respondent also said, “The sophistication of this Turnitin used in learning positively
impacts students not haphazardly plagiarizing or copying and pasting other people’s
assignments and works” (interview with Robi on January 27, 2022).
Finally, CBT is used by lecturers or teachers to evaluate student learning
outcomes. It is the use of computers in the tests and assessments of student
learning outcomes. The classifications used in assessing learning outcomes
include diagnostic assessments, individual tests, and summative tests. CBT is
usually used as objective tests for individual students. The presentation and
selection of CBT questions are computerized. Each participant who takes the test
gets a different set of questions. As shown in Figure 4, as many as 5% of the
respondents stated that they used technology to improve the quality of
evaluating student learning outcomes at Islamic higher education. Regarding
fluency in using CBT, respondents from Islamic higher education in West
Sumatra stated that before lecturers used the media to evaluate learning
outcomes, students had received socialization and education on how to use it
(interview with Nurul on February 27, 2022).
According to the Oxford Dictionary of English, perception is sensing and/or
interpretation, which tends to be subjective. Based on this view, perception is a
person’s response to a particular object based on sensing (Oktavianti & Ardianti,
2019). The study of Ivanaj et al. (2019) shows that the factors that influence the
perception of e-learning about service quality are motivated by some factors.
They are the attractiveness of the e-learning system, quality assurance to meet
students' needs, and attention to users.
238
Based on the responses or perceptions of students as users of technology-based

teaching services, Islamic higher education still needs improvement and
innovations in applying technology-based teaching. Thus, Islamic higher
education needs to make various breakthroughs and innovations to improve
service quality so that technology-based teaching services can be well received
by students and provide convenience for learning processes and services.
Through these, the quality of education can increase measurably.
The findings also show that Islamic higher education in Indonesia generally
responds positively to the presence of EdTech to support the quality of
education and teaching services. It is proof that Islam is very open to developing
science and technology (Huda et al., 2020). Islam does not prohibit anything that
benefits human life, and it even recommends that it be used for more significant
interests. Islam emphasizes that every Muslim learns and adapts to the times
and adopts technology to improve Indonesia’s quality of education services
(Salehudin et al., 2021). Thus, theologically, Islam has guided its ummah
(adherents) to become the best ummah, able to utilize science and technology for
the benefit of humankind.
The use of technology can be a strategic support to improve the education
service quality of Islamic higher education. Three things must be realized. First,
lecturers and students must access technology and good quality Internet in
classrooms and educational institutions (Ratheeswari, 2018). Second, educational
institutions must provide quality materials, be up to date with the times, and be
relevant to students’ current level of thinking. Third, educators, as learning
facilitators, must have good skills in operating EdTech as a medium and source
of learning to achieve quality academic standards (Karsenti et al., 2020). The
more adaptive the Islamic higher educational institutions are to today’s
technological advances, the more positive their potential to deliver a better
quality of Islamic education output (Tolchah & Mu’ammar, 2019).
5. Discussion
Based on the research findings, technology-based learning can be accepted and
recognized as facilitating students and lecturers in teaching-learning activities:
sharing and receiving learning materials, monitoring the learning activities, and
evaluating learning. The positive responses to the use of technology to improve
the quality of learning in Islamic higher education today will positively affect
lecturers and students in supporting teaching-learning activities. This is in line
with what Abdullah (2017) found that the positive use of technology will have a
positive impact on lecturers’ and students’ science and technology development.
The use of the technology acceptance model (TAM) can improve the quality of
higher education with technology-based strategic management. The design of
the techno university concept can guarantee the quality of Islamic higher
education (Jamaluddin et al., 2019).
In addition to using sophisticated technology, students can also have face-to-face
interactions for an unlimited period (Lamri & Hamzaoui, 2018). Technology,
which is not restricted to time between students and lecturers, can be utilized
optimally in learning (Osman & Hamzah, 2017). Stakeholders can use
technology as a learning tool in any situation. However, adequate preparation is
239
needed to use technology for effective learning, including the importance of

instructing students to use it properly.
The findings show that students and lecturers utilize media platforms that are
already popular and familiar in teaching-learning activities, including materials
delivery, monitoring, and evaluation activities. This finding is supported by the
results of a survey conducted by Sabzian et al. (2013) who found that students
have a positive perception of the use of technology today. They are use
technology media when they are guided and directed to use and choose the
media based on the target competencies (Supriyanto et al., 2020).
Informed by the promising prospects of using technology in various parts of life,
large companies, such as Apple, Facebook, Samsung, and Magic Leap, have
increased their investment in technology development to improve their
accessibility in the future (Howard & Howard, 2017). With technological
advances being developed, educational institutions get better benefits because
they can develop virtual learning services (Muehllehner, 1981). Therefore,
although the findings of this study have shown that the use of technology in
improving the quality of Islamic higher education has been implemented, it
must constantly be improved upon to achieve a high level of success in
supporting teaching and learning activities in Islamic higher educational
institutions in Indonesia.
However, several studies comparing the effects of implementing digital learning
in some traditional classes have not shown consistent and significant gains in
digital learning (Bernard et al., 2004; Gilbert, 2021). In contrast, other research
shows that digital classrooms and technology-based learning can outperform
traditional classroom learning services (Sevindik, 2010). Another study reveals
that technology changes the role of teachers because technology can improve the
quality of better learning (Suhr et al., 2010; Sabzian et al., 2013). Thus, the rapid
development of technology today has facilitated educators at the primary,
secondary, and tertiary levels. Therefore, the spirit of increasing the intensity of
the use of technology in improving the quality of the teaching and learning in
Islamic higher education must be rekindled.
Levin and Schrum (2013) stated that in schools with successful technology
initiatives, there is a change in the way teachers develop curriculum and
teaching practices (Glassett & Schrum, 2009). Technology can even change
teaching routines, including access to learning resources and advanced learning
content; it can improve the quality of learning; it can change the way teachers
deliver learning materials (Levin & Schrum, 2013; Shapley et al., 2010).
In the improvement of the quality of Islamic higher education, technology can be
applied in the entire educational and learning systems. Technology can be
applied through an educational system that combines digital competencies in
curriculum and assessment. Furthermore, technology as a learning facility and
formative assessment media will help digital literacy and address the
complexities and dynamics of education in today’s society (Englund et al., 2017).
Various types of EdTech, both software and hardware systems, can be used as
formal and informal learning media (Dijck & Poell, 2018). Some studies show
that social media generally has the potential to encourage user participation
240
(Hung & Yuen, 2010). It can be used to improve the quality of education services
and it can also help establish seamless virtual professional communication
(Zachos et al., 2018).
Teachers still worry about the safety of students, especially primary and
secondary school students, because there are many spam, privacy, and
information security issues in the use of technology. However, the use of
technology to improve the quality of education in Islamic higher education must
be developed. At the higher education level, social media can be used without
concern for its users (Bates & Poole, 2005), because college students are generally
quite mature in their thinking and they are able to use social media wisely.
Moreover, information and telecommunication technology is now deeply rooted
in the daily life of students and lecturers (Gumport & Chun, 2016). Thus, the use
of technology is strategic to improve the quality of services and learning in
higher education, including Islamic higher educational institutions (Rustan,
2021).
There are three interrelated elements for quality improvement in Islamic higher
education. They are character education, character strengthening, and
curriculum development in Social Era 5.0. However, these three elements cannot
be separated from the support of educational technology. In the element of
character education, the task of a lecturer is to build several programs that
integrate the character into learning through media and technology. Meanwhile,
the character is strengthened by implementing a curriculum consisting of
models and learning strategies, evaluations, and assessments. Curriculum
elements are developed through integrated planning that internalizes character
strengthening with Islamic values in Social Era 5.0 (Susilawati & Supriyatno,
2020).
In addition, three main factors influence the successful use of technology-based
learning: organizational characteristics, instructors, and Internet support. Of
these factors, the organization characteristics are the essential factor. Instructors’
perception of the benefits of learning technology and ease of access to the
Internet support contribute to success (Siritongthaworn et al., 2006). However,
the study by Santosa and Devi (2021) reported that the obstacles experienced by
technology-based learning included unstable networks and weak student
enthusiasm for attending lectures. They often become inhibiting factors for
technology-based learning to be effective. To overcome this problem, teachers or
lecturers can create exciting and innovative learning innovations so that learning
can run well based on the goals to be achieved (Santosa & Devi, 2021).
Based on the findings, students positively perceive the efforts to improve the
quality of Islamic higher education through EdTech services and, therefore, it is
necessary that Islamic higher educational institutions make various strategic
breakthroughs. First, it is necessary to improve the quality of EdTech
management on an ongoing basis according to current needs and challenges.
Second, it is essential that Islamic higher educational institutions increase the
innovation of EdTech services that are attractive to all students with various
conditions. Third, it is urgent that Islamic higher educational institutions ensure
adequate infrastructure quality assurance.
241
6. Conclusions
Based on the findings and results of the analysis of quantitative and qualitative
data, the following conclusions were made. First, Islamic higher education has
utilized technology to enhance the quality of delivering learning materials. It
employs some platforms of varying degrees of popularity: 38% use LMS, 30%
use Zoom Meetings, 18% use Google Meet, and 14% use Google Classroom.
Second, Islamic higher education has employed some social media platforms to
improve the quality of monitoring or learning direction. They are WhatsApp
(55%), Telegram (25%), Line (9%), and Google Classroom (11%). Third, Islamic
higher education has applied EdTech platforms to improve teaching evaluation
quality. The EdTech platforms, each of which has different percentage of users,
includes Kahoot (9%), Quizizz (10%), Google forms (48%), Turnitin (28%), and
CBT (5%).
The respondents positively responded to the use of technology in teaching-
learning activities in Islamic higher educational institutions. The use of
technology in education has been escalated. It simplifies the work of the
lecturers, students, and other stakeholders and it contributes to a better quality
of teaching and learning.
This study recommends that other studies examine the overall application of
EdTech used in universities in all provinces in Indonesia. It also requires an in-
depth study of how effectively this technology is used. Moreover, further studies
should focus on the intense, sustainable, and effective application of EdTech in
universities. Technology should be used for learning and as educational facilities
by considering the readiness of human resources. This will ensure the effective
and efficient implementation of EdTech.
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Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 247-269, June 2022
Received Mar 30, 2022; Revised Jun 20, 2022; Accepted Jul 2, 2022
High School Students’ Mathematics Anxiety:

Discouragement, Abuse, Fear, and Dilemma
Induced through Adults’ Verbal Behaviour
Boj Bahadur Budhathoki , Bed Raj Acharya

Central Department of Education, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal
Shashidhar Belbase
College of Education, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, Abu Dhabi,
United Arab Emirates
Mukunda Prakash Kshetree , Bishnu Khanal , Ram Krishna Panthi

Mahendra Ratna Campus Tahachal, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal
Abstract. Mathematics anxiety in students seems to be one of the most

common phenomena in mathematics teaching and learning worldwide.
However, mathematics anxiety induced through the verbal behaviour of
other people is an understudied area in mathematics education. This
paper aimed to investigate the influence of the verbal behaviour of older
people on the students’ interest and choice in studying mathematics.
Ten grade-nine students studying in a high school in Kathmandu
participated in semi-structured interviews. A descriptive qualitative
research design, followed by a thematic analysis of the data through
primary, secondary, and tertiary coding, identified four major themes
related to the verbal behaviour of elders that induced mathematics
anxiety in the students. These themes were discouragement, abuse, fear,
and dilemma due to adults’ verbal behaviour when choosing
mathematics as an optional subject in high school. The study results
have educational implications in terms of the way teachers and parents
express their viewpoints and interest in mathematics and related
subjects may affect students’ interests and attitudes toward
mathematics.
Keywords: Mathematics anxiety; verbal behaviour; discouragement;
fear of mathematics
©Authors
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1. Introduction
Mathematical anxiety seems to be a common phenomenon in mathematics
education across schools in many parts of the world. It may negatively affect
students' interests, attitudes, and choices of mathematics (maths) in higher
grades. Therefore, parents and teachers should understand mathematics anxiety
and support students in developing study habits that can help them overcome
this (Mutodi & Ngirande, 2014). Anxieties and attitudes towards mathematics
are common interests among mathematics teachers, students, and researchers
(Belbase, 2013; Luu-Thi et al., 2021). In this context, mathematics anxiety is
considered a psychological status that manifests in students when dealing with
mathematical content, whether in teaching and learning situations or in solving
mathematical problems (Akbayır, 2019; Belbase, 2013). Those with a fragile self-
esteem may easily become distracted from concentration which can lead to
mathematics anxiety.
Other factors, such as the unavailability of a good teacher when learning
mathematics at an early stage and the lack of a suitable environment in which to
learn mathematics may contribute to students’ mathematical anxiety (Smith,
2004). It is also a consequence of students’ inability to handle frustration, school
absence, poor self-concept, internalized negative parental and teacher attitudes
towards mathematics, and learning through drills without fundamental
understanding (Jain & Dawson, 2009). In the words of Stuart (2000), the
development of mathematics anxiety often originates from a lack of confidence
in situations to handle numerical information. The issue can further be linked to
the lack of realistic mathematics connecting students’ learning to daily life
(Banes, 2005). Recent studies have associated students’ mathematics anxiety
with their working memory and performance in mathematics (Barroso et al.,
2021; Korem et al., 2022). Such studies focused on the modelling of anxiety
profiles with students' performance in mathematics to establish cause-and-effect
relationships.
Mathematics anxiety, considered a fear or phobia, produces a negative response
specific to learning or doing mathematical activities that may interfere with
students’ performance (Khan, 2019). Mathematics anxiety can affect individuals
in varying ways, including a cognitive, affective, or physiological reaction, as
most mathematics learners find that mathematics is complicated, abstract, and
needs a great deal of rote memorization (Acharya et al., 2021). Owing to anxiety,
fear, anger, feelings of loss or an emotional state when engaging in mathematical
learning processes, students develop a range of subjective responses to the
experience, which in turn are related to the physical and behavioural changes
they may feel or experience, or express emotionally (Viver, 2021). Mathematics
anxiety appears to have serious long-term consequences that negatively affect
career choices, types of employment, and career development in adulthood
(Caviola et al., 2019). A cognitive reaction may involve negative self-talk,
blanking out, and avoidance; an affective reaction may be characterized by
distrust of ability, fear of being stupid, and loss of self-esteem; and a physical
reaction may be evidenced by perspiring, increased heart rate, tenseness, or
nausea (Desender & Sasanguie, 2019). The emotional feeling of helplessness, loss
of confidence, fear of getting things wrong, abnormal breathing, sweating,
shaking, biting nails, and frustration from trying to do mathematics and not
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being successful are symptoms of mathematics anxiety (Finlayson, 2014). Other

symptoms can be students’ feeling lost and not knowing where to start with
questions or never getting the correct answer, being confused and just wanting
to quit and go home, being very stressed before and during examinations, and
beginning to shut down and stop listening in class (Finlayson, 2014). Mental
stress and disorientation can be observed in their activities in classroom
teaching, presentation, problem-solving, and in examination time (Akkuss &
Hand, 2010). There can be various factors leading to mathematics anxiety, and
due to loss of confidence and interest in learning, mathematics anxiety may
affect student achievement with low performance and avoidance (Preis & Biggs,
2001).
Verbal behaviour was technically introduced by Skinner (1957) in the context of
language and literacy. However, we have conceptualized the life stories, tales,
and life experiences shared by a person with other people to influence their
actions and thoughts as verbal behaviour. These behaviours may be motivating
or demotivating, and encouraging or discouraging to other persons. Many
students in Nepal trust their elders, teachers, and friends in terms of what to do
and not to do; and what to study or not in high school or afterwards. Based on
what others have said and have heard, many students believe that subjects such
as mathematics and science are complex, difficult, and only the talented ones can
manage them. As a result, many of them may prefer not to study those subjects,
believing that these subjects are difficult to understand.
On this basis, the available scholarly works in this area have related the
periphery of mathematical anxiety and its effects, anxiety levels, and causes to
students’ achievement. However, we have not been able to find adequate
literature on mathematical anxiety arising from the verbal behaviour of adults.
Therefore, this study is worthwhile. Despite some studies on students’ images of
mathematics (Lamichhane & Belbase, 2017), students’ learning styles in
mathematics (Khanal et al., 2021), and social justice issues in mathematics
teaching and learning in Nepal (Panthi & Khanal et al., 2021), literature is scarce
regarding how such verbal behaviours influence high school students’ interest in
learning mathematics. The objective of the study was to explore the influence of
adults’ verbal behaviours on high school students’ mathematics anxiety. To
achieve this objective, the research question was: How does adults' verbal
behaviour influence the mathematics anxiety of high school students? This
research question is essential in order to understand how high school students
decide about choosing mathematics as an optional subject and how their
mathematics anxieties are related to the verbal behaviours of other people,
mostly adults (elder siblings, parents, teachers, and other family relatives).
Several past studies have discussed students’ mathematics anxieties (Estonanto
& Dio, 2019; Musa & Maat, 2021; Luttenberger et al., 2018). Musa and Maat
(2021) reported that mathematical anxiety impacts students' emotions, thoughts,
and actions. Their study emphasized secondary level students' mathematical
anxiety with reference to their cognitive, environment, and behaviour based on
their learning experiences. This study, conducted among seven Malaysian
students who suffered from mathematical anxiety, developed five themes
250
related to self-conflict, external influences, the nature of mathematical content,

the importance of mathematics, and mathematics learning strategies. Further,
they found that mathematics anxiety was experienced by both high and low
achievers. From this study, the researchers acquired an in-depth understanding
of how to diagnose and remediate students' mathematical anxiety through their
perspectives based on their learning experiences.
In another study, Estonanto and Dio (2019) investigated various factors causing
mathematics anxiety related to the calculus of senior high school students. The
study found eight factors of mathematical anxiety, namely lack of self-
confidence, interest and study habits, the role of the teacher, fear of failure,
pressure from parents and peers, pressured quizzes and tests, poor skills in
analysis, and the abstract nature of mathematical concepts (Estonanto & Dio,
2019). Likewise, Luttenberger et al. (2018) described the phenomenon of
mathematics anxiety, including information on its prevalence, how it differs
from other forms of anxiety and which variables may influence the occurrence of
mathematics anxiety. Luttenberger et al. (2018) found that there was a
relationship between mathematics anxiety and moderating variables such as
intrinsic motivation and positive influence on performance. There were
numerous possibilities to support mathematics-anxious individuals and
reducing mathematics anxiety. Further, it was learned that countermeasures
should ultimately be offered that were tailored specifically to each individual's
personality, knowledge, and needs (Luttenberger et al., 2018).
Sometimes teachers' negative attitudes, inappropriate teaching methods,
students’ negative classroom experiences, parents' unrealistic expectations, and
high-stake test pressure are responsible for creating mathematics anxiety in
students (Mollah, 2017). Chávez et al. (2017) claimed that anxiety among high
school students (both boys and girls) stems from nervousness and discomfort
caused by mathematics as students face problems owing to a lack of self-
confidence. Such a complicated situation does not enable students to think
rationally and clearly while working on mathematics problems (Chávez et al.,
2017).
The majority of people nowadays are scared of mathematics and feel powerless
regarding mathematical concepts (Henderson, 1981; Kuwar, 2021). Many
people's images of mathematics are perceived to be difficult, abstract, cold, and
in many cultures, primarily masculine (Sam, 1999). Furthermore, Sam (1999)
claimed that there are mainly three public perceptions that mathematics is a
complicated subject, mathematics is only for clever ones, and mathematics is a
male domain. Frank (1990) suggested 12 myths in mathematics applicable to
students and pre-service teachers which resulted in mathematics anxiety and
mathematics avoidance for some students and pre-service teachers. Pupils
commonly have negative views of mathematics connected to bad stories, while
bad experiences in learning mathematics also support mathematics anxiety in
learners (Hoyles, 1982). Owing to the generally negative societal image of
mathematics, young students seem to be more anxious about learning
mathematics in the classroom (Sam, 1999). Some people may have had negative
mathematics experiences, such as embarrassment or humiliation at failure,
feeling unsupported or uncared for, being influenced by negative attitudes
251
toward mathematics from peers or family, and having difficulty with traditional
rote learning with didactic memorization rather than understanding processes.
Mathematics may trigger negative memories; therefore, many anxious
mathematics students may avoid it. Poor preparation may lead to a poor
performance, in turn leading to another negative mathematics experience that
makes students more anxious as it reinforces their opinion that they are not
good at the subject (Finlayson, 2014).
Therefore, the literature on mathematics anxiety emphasizes characteristics,
consequences, and various causes or sources of such anxieties. The above brief
review of literature shows that mathematics anxiety is an experiential
phenomenon that affects students' cognitive, affective, and social aspects of
mathematics learning. It also has a severe consequence on their choice of
mathematics and mathematics-related disciplines in their future studies that are
also related to careers. In addition, such long-term mathematics anxiety may
spread to generations in the form of verbal behaviours that influence young
students’ perceptions and practices of mathematics.
Motivation is an important concept in the learning of mathematics. Ryan and
Deci’s (2000) self-determination theory and Turner’s (1988) interactionist theory
of motivation were used in this study to guide the entire work process. These
theories state that human beings naturally strive for a state of high motivation
and engagement through social interaction to determine what they are going to
do. There is an inherent positive human tendency to move towards growth
through the paths that connect them with each other that may help in their self-
determination of what to study and how to go about it (Vansteenkiste et al.,
2009). The self-determination theory of growth is associated with autonomy,
competence, and relatedness (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Self-determination has been
defined as a combination of an individual's attitudes and abilities that lead them
to set goals and to take the initiative to reach them (Ryan & Deci, 2000). If a
person is motivated enough to pay attention, motivation can reduce their
anxiety about mathematics learning. Students are more motivated to persevere,
produce a high-quality effort, learn in-depth, and perform well in the classroom
and on standardized tests (Ng et al., 2016). On the other hand, individuals'
actions and their choices of such actions may be influenced by others in a social
context. According to Turner (1988), social interaction influences and
reorganizes the behaviour of another person. In this sense, students'
mathematics learning behaviour may be influenced by their peers, parents, and
teachers. Therefore, students’ mathematics anxieties as triggered by adults’
verbal behaviour can be discussed according to the self-determination theory
and social interaction theory. These theoretical concepts may provide teachers
and educators with a view of mathematics anxiety induced as a result of adult
verbal behaviour through a relational lens, not as an absolute individual trait.
4. Methodology
An interpretive constructivist research (Schwandt, 1998) was conducted from the
viewpoint of nominalist ontology (Bryman, 2012), and subjectivist and relativist
epistemology with research as a means to explore contextual reality based on
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individual experiences of the anxiety-related phenomena (Cohen et al., 2011;

Denzin & Lincoln, 2018). These assumptions in this study consider human
knowledge as a subjective construction of meaning by the researchers through
the interpretation of participants’ experiences of mathematics anxiety induced
through adults’ verbal behaviour.
This study applied descriptive qualitative research designs with structures,
processes, and strategies aimed at obtaining answers to research questions
(Creswell, 2009). This involved the process of collecting and analyzing data,
clarifying the premises and results, and linking their potential meanings with
the existing data (Bryman, 2008) in order to achieve greater accuracy in
understanding the influence of verbal behaviour on students’ mathematics
anxiety (Brewer, 2005). A conceptual framework has been generated by
connecting the verbal behaviour of adults to their perceptions and experiences of
mathematics as a whole, and its impacts on learners (Figure 1). Figure 1 shows
how a student's self-determination and social interaction with adults may
influence their beliefs and attitudes toward mathematics, leading to differential
mathematics anxiety. The conceptual framework also shows the connection of
data collection, analysis, and interpretations leading to the conclusion.
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Figure 1: Conceptual framework for studying students’ mathematics anxiety induced

by adult’s verbal behaviour
4.1 Research Participants
Ten students out of 50 from the same grade nine class of a community school in
Kathmandu participated in the study. Only ten students were selected
purposefully because the verbal behaviours of their elders had a remarkable
effect on their mathematical studies, of which the teachers had become aware.
The inclusion criteria were that the students should have demonstrated
mathematics anxiety, and that they had reported (to the mathematics teacher)
that their elders talked about mathematics. They were selected for the study as
research participants on the recommendation of their class teachers based on the
inclusion criteria. For a qualitative study, a sample of ten is considered enough.
So far, there was enough qualitative data to the level of saturation while
generating themes (Cohen et al., 2011, Creswell, 2009). Among the ten
participants, six were boys and four were girls. Male participants were given
pseudonyms such as Suresh, Bishal, Anuj, Dinesh, Umesh, and Mukesh, while
female participants were named Geeta, Bindu, Mona, and Ramita. Their real
names, schools, and photographs were not disclosed to protect their identity
owing to ethical concerns.
4.2 Data Collection Tool and Procedure
A semi-structured interview was considered appropriate because of its flexibility
and opportunity to ask questions based on participants’ responses. It was
conducted with each research participant to understand the feelings,
experiences, and their impacts on the participants’ mathematics anxiety and
interest in studying mathematics (Husban, 2020). An interview guideline was
prepared to guide the interview process. The research tool was designed with a
few structured leading questions to be asked to all the participants. Additional
prompts were used based on the participants’ views and considering their
current experiences in mathematics learning (Flick, 2015). This allowed for less
structured interview questions with more open and word-based ones (Cohen et
al., 2011). However, care was taken not to mislead the interviews owing to the
addition of open, unstructured interview questions so that most of the required
information could be collected from the participants.
The semi-structured interviews included participants’ thoughts, feelings, beliefs
about mathematics, verbal behaviours, and their interests in studying
mathematics (Galletta, 2013). The head teacher was informed about the study
beforehand. The researcher (the first author) asked the school principal’s
permission to conduct the study with the students. The head teacher helped in
the recruitment of ten students (six boys and four girls) from grade nine as
research participants based on the referrals of class teachers and mathematics
teachers to get students having mathematics anxiety and who have shared their
adults' verbal behaviour about mathematics learning. The students were given a
voluntary choice to participate in the study or not. They were informed about
the study, its purpose, and the time required for the interviews. Several students
voluntarily wished to participate in the study. However, the head teacher helped
in a purposive selection of ten students for the study from a grade-nine class
with the help of inclusion criteria set by the researcher. Each student was
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interviewed for about 10-15 minutes. The interviews were audio-recorded,

transcribed, and translated from Nepali into English for further analysis and
interpretation.
4.3 Data Analysis and Interpretation

Qualitative interview data was analyzed by classifying and interpreting
concepts about implicit and explicit meanings within thematic structures
(Anderson, 2006; Flick, 2015). The data analysis was applied to determine
conceptual issues in the participants’ experiences (Best & Kahan, 1999). In this
research, the thematic data analysis process was applied to extract the essence of
the experiences of the research participants by identifying patterns or themes
within qualitative interview data (Braun & Clarke, 2006; Clarke & Braun, 2013).
The first author coded the transcribed interview data into meaningful units
based on the concepts they represented. Then, the codes were grouped into
meaningful categories by relating them together based on their meanings or
concepts. He then shared the codes and categories with the second and third
authors to discuss the themes. The researchers agreed upon the codes and
categories to align with four broad themes. Overall, the thematic analysis was
consistent with the qualitative research (Denzin & Lincoln, 2018) regarding the
conceptualization of meanings from the participants’ voices and interpreting
them in terms of the meanings they bring to them (Lochmiller, 2021). Therefore,
the thematic analysis was carried out by clarifying the main concepts as codes
and categories to recognize their utility, versatility, and ability to describe and
inscribe the major themes (Braun et al., 2016) with repetitive patterns (Braun &
Clarke, 2006) applying a range of theoretical and epistemological frameworks.
4.4 Maintaining Quality Standard

The quality criteria of the study were maintained with credibility, transferability,
dependability, authenticity, and conformability (Korstjens & Moser, 2017). The
credibility of this study was maintained by creating an environment of trust
between the research participants and the researcher (interviewer) to obtain
authentic data. The researcher visited the schools and the participants multiple
times to establish a comfortable environment for the participants to take part in
the interviews. Participants were initially informed of the aim of the study, and
the fact that their participation was voluntary. The ethical aspects of the study
approach were guided by informed consent, privacy, and data protection
(Jameel & Majid, 2018). Therefore, the participants were also informed that their
identity would be protected by changing their names and not revealing their
pictures in the study reports. There was no impact of the power relation between
the interviewer and the research participants. The participants were assured that
they could leave the study any time they wished to without any penalty or
consequence.
The credibility of the data was maintained by focusing the interview questions
on participants’ experiences of adults' verbal behaviour and their impacts on
mathematics learning and mathematics anxiety. The transferability criteria were
applied to generate the themes that could possibly explain similar experiences of
other students who were not the participants in the study. The dependability
criteria were assumed with full responsibility to represent the participants'
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voices true to their words so that the themes fully depended on what
participants said during the interviews. In this way, the criteria of authenticity
were also maintained by listening to the audio interviews by the third researcher
and looking at the interview transcripts and the thematic excerpts to present the
data in the study, thus confirming the participants’ voices in the interpretations
(Denzin & Lincoln, 2018; Thorne, 2022).

The analysis of interview data from ten participants yielded four major themes
associated with discouragement, abuse, fear, and dilemma through the verbal
behaviours of adults, parents, and teachers in relation to mathematics anxiety.
Each of these themes has been discussed by presenting participants’ narratives,
extracting major concepts from the narratives, and relating them to the relevant
literature. While relating the themes to the relevant literature, social, intellectual,
and psychological aspects have been considered in relation to adults’ verbal
behaviours and their impact on students’ mathematics anxiety. In particular, the
verbal behaviour of adults produced negative effects on the learners’ choice of
mathematics as an optional subject in higher-level studies. The thematic analysis
of interview data extracted the four major themes. These themes have been
discussed by connecting them with relevant theory and literature as follows.
5.1 Discouragement through Verbal Behaviour
Why do some students not have much interest in subjects such as mathematics?
Why are other students interested in choosing this subject? Almost everyone
advises that if someone really wants to study it, they choose the subject,
otherwise not. The motivating and demotivating factors are highly rooted in
every student’s choosing or not choosing a particular subject at the school level.
Mathematics is widely known as a subject that many students hate (Swan, 2004).
We often hear students say, “I hate maths class” or “Maths is too difficult”. Some
students do not like mathematics because they think it is boring. They may view
mathematics as an incomprehensible, abstract, and irrelevant subject relating to
symbols and numbers. Those are the personal feelings of students about
mathematics. Nevertheless, demotivating factors in Nepalese society expressed
through verbal behaviour are remarkably significant. A student, Bishal,
expressed his views about mathematics and how verbal behaviour negatively
influenced his interest in studying mathematics as follows:
We also discuss math in class and solve problems. That is right. All my
friends have realized that mathematics is a complex subject, and
everybody suggests not to study mathematics furthermore. I find math
difficult. I don't understand why and when somebody understands it. I
also have to understand, but it seems difficult for me. Mathematical
formulas are harder to remember. My father always says, “If you feel
mathematics is difficult, no need to study it. Only the study of
mathematics does nothing, it is just a burden to you. Mathematics is a
subject made only for creative students and you are not among them.
You need to study only the easy subjects.”
Bishal’s narrative excerpt includes some key concepts related to demotivating
factors for mathematics. For example, students realize that mathematics is
difficult; they are not interested in continuing their study of mathematics; it is
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difficult to remember mathematics formulas; their fathers advise them not to

study mathematics; mathematics is difficult; and mathematics is only for
creative students. These views indicate that many of the students in the
classroom talk about mathematics, and about solving mathematical problems,
although they feel ‘mathematics is a difficult subject.’ Many students listen to
their elders, namely parents and teachers, and if they are motivated or forced to
take any subject, then they go for it. Otherwise, they do not. Some parents
actively dissuade their children from studying a problematic subject as their
optional subject. Other parents say that mathematics is tough and their children
do not have the ability for it. Therefore, the children are afraid of selecting
mathematics as a subject at the school level. When they progress to higher
education, their image of mathematics is that of a difficult subject, and they do
not study it at the college level either (Lamichhane & Belbase, 2017). According
to Oxford Learning (2019), some students do not like mathematics because they
think it is boring. Numbers and formulas are not so interesting to them; instead,
they select history, science, languages, or other subjects that are easier for them
to understand. They think that mathematics is abstract and irrelevant. Many
students struggle with mathematics and find it difficult to remember all the
rules and equations (Lamichhane & Belbase, 2017). It is hard to memorize
everything in mathematics, and students have to repeat the same exercises until
they find the correct answer, which can be frustrating (Sullivan et al., 2014).
Frequently, wrong answers can damage their self-confidence and lead them to
drop out of the subject.
There are several reasons why children find certain subjects difficult, for
example mathematics, because they are inherently weak in a particular field,
have knowledge gaps, or may need more time or practice to complete specific
tasks. The verbal behaviour of adults is also one of the demotivating factors
(Sullivan et al., 2014). Repeated failure in a particular subject will eventually
cause negative associations with the subject that may lead to a lack of motivation
to learn (Wong, 2021). To find the best possible solution, it is essential for adults
to talk to the child and help them determine the reason for their difficulty in
learning the subject. If children find the topic meaningless or useless, they may
encounter learning difficulties. To motivate children to study, parents usually
look for a simple explanation. Learning will bring good grades, and good grades
are necessary for success in life (University of Tübingen, 2017). This is
meaningful for parents because children do not have the same life experience
and do not necessarily understand why success is so important.
5.2 Abuse of Verbal Behaviour
Nepal is the first country to criminalize the corporal punishment of students in
schools in South Asia, and it was reported to be the 54th country globally to do so
(Kamat, 2018). In 2006, the Supreme Court of Nepal issued a judgment calling
the government to take reasonable and practical measures to prevent corporal
punishment and cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment of children. Despite the
legal framework, teachers across the country continue to beat students with fists,
feet, sticks, and even terrible shisnu (stinging nettles), exerting inhumane
pressure on them (Ghimire, 2019). Article 39 of the new Constitution of Nepal
adopted in 2015 prohibits any form of abuse and violence against children in the
home, school, or community. Finally, the new Children's Law was passed in
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September 2018, which guarantees all children the right to be free from all forms
of violence, and physical or mental punishment. Moreover, it imposes a fine of
up to 50,000 rupees and one year's imprisonment for those who carry out
physical or psychological punishment or conduct disrespectful behaviour at
home, school, or elsewhere (Nepal Law Commission, 2018).
Maintaining a positive and educational classroom environment is challenging,
especially in classrooms that require frequent intervention due to disruptive
student behaviour (Panthi & Acharya et al., 2021). Punitive disciplinary
measures are usually ineffective when responding to a student’s disruptive
behaviour (Dhaem, 2012). Although the punishment neither improves students'
study habits nor improves the classroom environment, teachers frequently
punish students or use verbal abuse. Our participant, Bindu, expressed her
experience of being punished, which affected his learning of mathematics.
One day, there was a class test when I was in grade 5 at a private school.
I got 16 marks out of 20. The math teacher beat me very bitterly for not
getting full marks. I could not sleep for the whole night remembering
this incident. Since then, I had promised myself I would never go to
school to study. But a few days later, I felt easy and continued my study.
But one of my classmates dropped out of school. He stayed at home for a
whole year and was admitted to another school the following year. His
parents were also illiterate and did not pay much attention to his study.
Time and again, they would say, “You will feed yourself by carrying a
heavy load (as a porter) like us, why don't you study it now?" Now, I
am pretty good at mathematics. This is due to the fear of mathematics
teachers. The teacher misbehaves when I make any mistakes in math.
However, sometimes he supported me in mathematics learning.
The narrative excerpt by Bindu included some important concepts, for example,
performance in mathematics, punishment by the mathematics teacher, worry
about mathematics, improvement in mathematics, student dropout, parental
role, negative reinforcement, and positive outcome of negative verbal behaviour.
The teacher had beaten (physically punished) a student because she could not
achieve full marks in a class test of mathematics. Teachers' negative actions in
the classroom can adversely affect the students’ psychology and thinking or
images towards teachers or the subject taught in the classroom. For some
students, the negative behaviour of the teacher may lead to a change in their
learning when they improve and study hard to achieve better results to avoid
such punishment. However, it is not a common practice. She thought that she
would never go to school again. Nevertheless, she did not quit school; instead,
she studied hard to achieve better scores in mathematics tests.
In many cases, owing to the inappropriate behaviour or violence of teachers,
students abandon their mathematical studies forever (Wagley, 2012). Teacher
stress leading to inappropriate behaviour is a concern in the educational
community. It has many negative short- and long-term consequences for
students, such as depression as well as psychological and social problems (Lewis
& Riley, 2009). Students who lack proper guidance and motivation are likely to
fail their examinations owing to various reasons, the most prominent of which is
teacher behaviour and the school environment (Wagley, 2012). Failure in school
can have severe consequences if left untreated. Students who fail in mathematics
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may lose confidence, become depressed, lose motivation, and are more likely to
fail again (Kamal & Bener, 2009; De-Juanas et al., 2020).
One of the research participants, Anuj, shared his experience during the
interviews:
I find mathematics a challenging subject. I don't remember a single
moment when someone praised my work in mathematics. My father is a
bus-driver. He talks more about his job than my studies. My parents
cannot support me in mathematics assignments and other activities.
Ever since I started going to school, neither my parents nor teachers
have talked to others about my positive attitude. When someone comes
into our room and talks about the children's studies, I often hear my
mother saying, "My son is an idiot and never performs well in his
studies”, or my father saying to others, “My son is khatam (bad) and his
study is jhan khatam (worse).” My parents mistreat me for the same
reasons. When my parents meet with teachers in my school to talk about
my study, the teacher always tells my parents that I cannot study well
and I will never pass the grade. On the same issue, my parents scold me
very bitterly. When the math exam reports are out, whatever the
outcome may be, my parents and teachers start abusing me for getting a
bad result with a low grade. Now, I know that no one talks well
(positively) about my studies. When I get a low score on math test, my
father always scolds (verbally abuses) me and tells me not to go to school
and not to waste his money in vain. I always worry about getting low
score on a math test and being scolded after each test.
Some key concepts from Anuj’s narrative are: no appreciation of mathematics
learning, no support from parents, verbal abuse at home, discouraging
comments from the teacher, low performance in mathematics, and belief that
mathematics is difficult. Research studies have reported parents' neglect and
psychological abuse of their children in Nepal (Neupane et al., 2017). In a
developing country such as Nepal, most uneducated parents think that their
child's test scores are everything for assessing student performance and are used
to measure student progress as a whole. Society believes that low academic
performance is an indicator of the negligence of students; this then can be a trait
of children based on their performance. Achieving high scores on the standard
test is seen, by most parents, as a way to achieve professional and academic
success. If their children get poor grades, parents worry about their academic
and career success. After seeing the poor mathematics performance of their
children, parents often blame them (children) for the root causes of improper
homework assignments, lack of diligence, or poor preparation. In Nepali society,
many parents still seem to think that if their children read books for a long time,
they are doing well.
Misbehaviour, whether verbal abuse or physical maltreatment from parents and
teachers, cannot improve the study of students; however, such behaviour can
dampen students’ interest in the subject, and they may likely become further
disappointed, fearful, and uncooperative. Most parents punish their children
physically or mentally, or both (Kandel et al., 2017) by simply viewing their test
results in a negative way or making negative comments without examining the
root cause of their failure. Sometimes, to avoid punishment from their parents
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while performing low in math, children try to hide their poor test results, as they
may feel guilty and fearful of showing the results to their parents. Just because a
child did not study well or performed poorly in a test, disciplinary action can
have the opposite effect. Moreover, poor instruction cannot improve ratings but
can only worsen the situation. In this regard, Edelman (2018) suggested that
students learn better when they are not afraid to take risks and make mistakes.
Fear can be disastrous to teaching and learning mathematics (and other
subjects).
Teachers can motivate students by praising their efforts, relating their
experiences to daily life, and telling stories about successful personalities in
mathematics and related subjects. Students would subsequently be motivated to
work hard for the teacher. They may feel that the teacher is doing [the best] for
me and I should do [the same] at any cost (Hewson, 2018). An experienced and
motivated teacher transforms their students’ attitudes from "I can't do it" to "I
can do it.” Children develop attitudes towards learning during these early years
that subsequently affect their school and future life. When teachers and parents
provide the proper support, an open, adventurous learning environment, and
encouragement throughout these years, students will be more creative and
adventurous learners throughout their lives than children who do not receive
this support (Nesbit et al., 2021).
5.3 Fear of Verbal Behaviour

Mathematics is a necessary subject for all people throughout their entire lives,
from solving daily life issues to more complex problems in science, technology,
engineering, economics, accounting, and the like. Unfortunately, many students
experience stress and anxiety when faced with this subject. The difficulty with
mathematics can affect a student's ability to interpret and apply knowledge, and
it can subsequently affect their adult life. Criticism and punishment by teachers
may negatively affect children's interest in learning mathematics and cope with
the difficulty in mathematics problem-solving, leading to giving up and quitting
the class (Lewis & Riley, 2009; Acharya et al., 2021). The negative verbal criticism
that can be used to threaten or mentally torture children can be termed verbal
abuse. Emotional and verbal abuse can have severe negative consequences, just
as serious as those of physical abuse. One of the female participants, Mona, said
that she did not study the extra mathematics owing to fear of verbal abuse from
others.
My upper-class friends (seniors) used to tell me that extra math is very
difficult and that there are many formulas to memorize. Even if someone
asked the teacher about something in the math problem, the teacher
would scold, saying, “If you are not capable of studying additional
mathematics, why did you choose it?” When I went to attend an extra
math class, the teacher said that ‘If math is difficult for you, choose
another subject’, but in the middle of the session, I could not hear that
extra math is difficult. Listening to everyone, I didn't think I could
continue studying the extra math. Then I gave up the idea of studying
extra mathematics and studied another subject.
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The narrative by Mona includes some key concepts, namely extra mathematics is
difficult, too many formulas, discouragement from the teacher, and giving up
and taking another subject. Upper-class students (seniors) usually talk about
their experiences in different subjects to the students in the lower grades
(juniors). When students reach the upper grades, at a time, their subject choice is
influenced by teachers, the hearsay of other students in that class, the syllabus,
and former students who share negative experiences of mathematics.
Mathematics serves as a gatekeeper for many students to allow them access to or
prevent them from taking further mathematics and related subjects at a higher
level (Martin et al., 2010). Here, the upper-class students (seniors) tell the lower-
class students (juniors) that the extra math is too complicated, the formulas are
too difficult to memorize, and the teacher scolds (verbally abuses) those who
choose extra mathematics, although they are weak in mathematics. This seems to
have created fear in the lower-class students (juniors) towards extra
mathematics, thereby creating a barrier. When one of the students went to the
extra mathematics class, she found the subject teacher's behaviour unhelpful, as
the previous class students had warned. She decided not to study extra
mathematics and chose another subject. She would thus lose the opportunity
and benefits of learning mathematics and related subjects in her future studies
and career. In such a way, the verbal behaviour of upper-class students and
teachers is sufficient for a student to abandon a particular subject, such as extra
mathematics.
The next participant’s (Ramita’s) experience is also a fearful one:
As soon as I reached home from the examination hall, my big brother
saw the mathematics question paper and asked me about my exam. I said
that I could not do well. My brother scolded me in front of my parents
that the mathematics paper was elementary, and I spoilt the exam due to
carelessness in the study. Since then, I have always been afraid of
getting scolded by my brother and parents, so I quickly tear off the
mathematics test paper as soon as the exam is over.
Many students are afraid of their family members, such as older brothers and
sisters, parents, and grandparents, because they ask the students about
preparing lessons, home assignments, and examinations. It would be better if
the family members could help the students. Nevertheless, if the family
members criticise the students instead of helping and encouraging them, the
students are afraid of their family members making negative comments about
them leading to adverse consequences in their mathematics learning. Instead,
family members, including parents, can engage students in many mathematics-
related activities at home to support them in learning and development in
mathematics (Jay et al., 2018).
However, when a family member (especially an adult) shows a negative attitude
toward students' efforts and gives a negative reinforcement in the form of
criticism, the student may hide the facts about his or her studies, and the
situation may worsen. One of the participants expressed that she tears up every
mathematics test paper as soon as the examination is over owing to the fear of
being scolded (verbally abused) by her family members. The lack of family
members’ understanding of the problem or support of the student, as well as
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their negative comments may likely force the student to hide her problems with
mathematics learning. Family members sometimes may not know how to
support the student, and they also may not know enough about school
mathematics to be able to help their children at home. Therefore, they become
frustrated (Jay et al., 2018). Students who are good enough in mathematics may
also become nervous during an examination and be fearful of its result.
Therefore, mathematics teachers should promote a positive learning
environment to help students develop positive self-esteem toward mathematics
that may reduce their anxiety toward mathematics (Koca, 2018). They may create
such a conducive environment for mathematics learning through group work
and other creative activities (Koçak et al., 2009).
5.4 Dilemma through Verbal Behaviour
Most people communicate with others about their interests, emotions, and
experiences by means of verbal behaviour and try to motivate others regarding
the matters of their interest (Durksen et al., 2017). Thus, people’s verbal
expressions may convey important information about another person's
intentions, and this information may possibly modify or influence the behaviour
or decisions of other people. The interpretation of a verbal communication
affects the social perception and behaviour of others (Stouten, 2009). The verbal
behaviour of adults in Nepalese society is taken as the key factor in students’
decisions in subject choice (Yadav, 2012). Some suggestions may likely turn into
a pathfinder for the young students so that they can make the right decision for
their future study and career. These suggestions most likely help in either
solving their social dilemmas or else they make their choices even more difficult.
In this context, Anderson (2006) suggests various reasons for encouraging
students to choose mathematics. These reasons should be smarter, economically
prosperous, have access to higher education in the STEM field, live in the global
world, cope with changes, and be creative. However, many students may not
realise these and other potential values of learning mathematics in their lives.
They are, unfortunately, influenced by the negative verbal comments of others
about terrible mathematics experiences and subsequently find themselves in a
dilemma. In our research process, some of the participants said that they were
fraught with indecision after the verbal comments of the adults in their family.
One of the informants, Dinesh, had a different experience:
My grandfather did not get any opportunity to study in schools and
colleges. He says, “Education at present is useless. This education spoilt
everyone. After having some education, people started leaving their
village and moving toward the city. The village is going to be an empty
place. The farms are turning to barren lands. The educated daughters-
in-law have no respect for elderly people and other in-laws in the family.
If you become a foreigner to your place after being educated and become
a stranger in your hometown, how is that education anymore better? We
did everything in jour job without a formal education. In our time, the
fields (farm lands) were fully cultivated with crops and vegetables. We
had several cattle in our farms. We were perfect in maintaining farms
and raising cattle. What do today’s educated people do? They only
misuse the fertile agriculture land in the name of roads and other
constructions. Besides, when I was uneducated, I used to sell the crops,
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ghee, goats and chicken. Whereas, your father is somewhat educated.

Now, he buys everything to survive. How can I say that his education
did anything better? If a person becomes dependent on education
without work or practical skills, he does not become self-reliant and
independent. Such education is useless.” Listening to my grandfather's
words, I sometimes feel that I should leave school. I should go to the
village to cultivate and raise cattle. Again, my father says that people at
the present time are useless without education. Therefore, you should
study well.
The above narrative of a participant Dinesh has some vital elements such as the
generation gap, the transition from rural to urban life, the neglect of the villages,
the neglect of the traditional occupations, the negative attitude toward
education, the mismatch between modern education and the expectations of
elderly family members, and the motivation to continue education. One of the
participant's grandfather was completely illiterate, and he was not concerned
about being illiterate because he had no problem with his hand-to-mouth
existence in the village. Although illiterate, he seems to have earned enough
with a high income from the farming and raising livestock. He seemed unhappy
with those who went to the cities after being educated and did not return home,
and left their village lands uncultivated. He is disappointed that educated
people seem to have forgotten their culture more than illiterate people have. He
is worried about buying the foodstuffs he used to sell at his age. Therefore, he
tells his grandson that it is better not to have an education and that it is not good
to strugglet with difficult mathematics. On the other hand, Dinesh’s father and
teachers motivated him to study mathematics.
The participant, Dinesh, was faced with the dilemma of being motivated to
study mathematics on the one hand and being discouraged from doing so on the
other. This points to a clear generational difference in attitude towards
education. Along these lines, Bishara (2018) claims that social and ethical
dilemmas are practical. Faced with social and ethical dilemmas, one has to
decide how best to deal with them among the options available to them that are
mutually exclusive. For example, a dilemma may be related to values, beliefs,
ethics, and behaviour such as generosity, decency, honesty, respect for life, or
obeying the law. Social and ethical values may affect the resolution of such
dilemmas, and there may not be a single clear approach. Even though people
have lived uneducated lives in the past, formal education is important in today's
scientific age. In today's world, the adults in society and the teachers in the
schools can create a positive environment for the children to learn (Vibulphol,
2016). Young children learn from everything they do and experience owing to
their natural curiosity, exploring and discovering things in their environment
(Piaget, 1990). During these early years, children develop attitudes towards
learning mathematics or other disciplines that may likely affect their later school
life and career.
Therefore, educators, parents, and teachers should emphasize the importance of
learning mathematics with greater intrinsic motivation in children's early years.
The generational gap in a family should create new opportunities for young
students with diverse ideas and knowledge rather than regarding these as a
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barrier to modern education. Education should transform lives and quality of

life in terms of a better and healthier environment, food, and lifestyle. Family
education can be an option for avoiding such dilemmas regarding different
voices related to education due to a generational gap that might have created
differences in work ethics and respect for each other (Adcox, 2021), besides
issues of education in general and mathematics in particular.
6. Implication and Conclusion
This study explored the connection between students' preference for
mathematics, mathematical anxiety, and the verbal behaviour of adults in
Nepalese society. The study's findings showed how verbal behaviour could
discourage, abuse, cause fear, and lead to a dilemma among students regarding
mathematics learning and their interest in continuing mathematics in higher
levels or grades. These findings further showed that adults’ expressions of like
or dislike toward mathematics in front of their children or students could affect
students' interest in and choice of mathematics as a subject. Dislike of
mathematics may result in having negative perceptions of the subject, and even
eventually giving it up. Therefore, meaningful and effective teaching practices
are called upon for improving the image of mathematics among the young
adolescent students (Ukobizaba et al., 2021). The images, perceptions, and
experiences of the mathematics teaching and learning shared by the adults may
either motivate or demotivate the young adolescent students when learning
mathematics and developing their perceptions towards selecting mathematics as
their major in high school. Therefore, the study's findings have pedagogical
implications because of the way teachers and parents express their views of and
interest in mathematics and related subjects. Students may consider their verbal
behaviour as a reference in forming their opinion and developing their attitude
toward mathematics accordingly. Parents and teachers should not express their
negative anxieties, frustrations, and lack of ability to deal with mathematics or
mathematics-related issues in front of their children and students. Instead, they
should help in generating curiosity, wonder, and excitement in learning
mathematics (Knuth, 2002). A positive discourse in the mathematics classroom
may also help reduce students' mathematics anxiety (Suh et al., 2008).
In Nepalese society, the adults in the family and society are considered to have
more knowledge and experience in a specific field. They can guide and provide
suggestions to young adolescent students. The same is expected in education,
especially regarding the choice of subjects at the school level. Before selecting the
subject of their choice, students listen to the adults in the family, society,
teachers, and other senior students from the upper grades. People's verbal
behaviour may be either motivating or demotivating to the children when
selecting particular school subjects, including mathematics. Inspiring stories and
the experiences of adults can incentivise young adolescent students to choose
mathematics as their major at the upper level of high school. It may provide
students with self-belief, self-esteem, and willpower in deciding mathematics as
their major without any anxiety or fear. However, conflicting and negative
stories and experiences can demotivate, intimidate, and create dilemmas for the
students regarding decisions to take mathematics as a major. It is concluded that
teaching activities with carefully planned strategies can play a vital role in
mitigating students' mathematical anxiety (Mollah, 2017). Understanding the
264
causes and consequences of mathematics anxiety is vital for improving the

teaching and learning of the subject (Metje et al., 2007).
This study has limited generalizability due to the small sample of participants in
one school. Therefore, further research in the field of verbal behaviour of adults
relating to young adolescent students in choosing subjects at the high school
level is necessary. The findings of such studies will help determine the possible
impacts on the students’ cognitive, affective, and social aspects of learning
mathematics. Future studies can focus on the following research questions: What
kind of verbal behaviours of adults regarding young adolescent and teenage
students can trigger positive motivation in mathematics learning? How can
adults help reduce young adolescent students' mathematics anxiety through
verbal behaviour? What are the social, cultural, and historical factors of adults'
verbal behaviour that influence students' anxieties, attitudes, and beliefs about
mathematics?
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank the research participants for their voluntary
participation in the study. Also, they would like to thank the anonymous
reviewers for their constructive feedback on the manuscript.
No Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest in publishing this manuscript.
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270

Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 270-285, June 2022
Entrepreneurship Education in Ghana:

A Case Study of Teachers’ Experiences
R J (Nico) Botha
University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa
M Obeng-Koranteng
Methodist University College Ghana, Accra, Ghana
Abstract. Despite the global popularity of entrepreneurship education

in higher education, concerns persist about its heterogeneous, broad,
and ambiguous objectives and curricula. Many research studies and
papers have highlighted these weaknesses and offered remedies for
addressing them. Not much is known about how teachers (who are their
primary interpreters and users) actually experience the objectives and
curricula. This study addresses this gap by exploring teachers’ lived
experiences of the entrepreneurship education objectives and curricula
for insights regarding their nature from the perspective of teachers in
order to identify more appropriate solutions to enhance them. Adopting
the qualitative single case study research approach, primary data was
collected from face-to-face interviews with four teachers at a Ghanaian
institution offering entrepreneurship education. The data was
supplemented by secondary data from course study documents and
then analysed using the interpretive and case study analysis methods.
The findings indicate that (1) teachers perceive the entrepreneurship
education objectives and curricula as heterogeneous, broad, and
ambiguous, (2) this placed certain limitations on teaching and learning,
and (3) despite their shortcomings, the objectives and curricula were
fitting for achieving entrepreneurship education’s broader aims of
creating awareness of entrepreneurship, fostering the enterprise culture
in students and developing entrepreneurial skills. Teachers indicated
that institutional interventions such as continuous teacher education,
increased resources, and more credit hours could address the perceived
shortcomings. The findings underscore the need for further research on
the nature of the objectives and curricula from the lenses of teachers and
students in order to enhance policy and practice.
Keywords: entrepreneurship education; entrepreneurship education

objectives; entrepreneurship education curriculum; entrepreneurship
education drawbacks; entrepreneurship teachers; higher education;
Ghana
©Authors
271
1. Introduction
Since its emergence in higher education in the mid-20th century with the aim of
creating entrepreneurship awareness, promoting the enterprise culture, and
developing students’ entrepreneurial skills, entrepreneurship education as an
academic subject area has gained global recognition (Blundel & Lockett, 2011;
Hardie et al., 2020; Liguori et al., 2018; Weiming et al., 2019). Several studies
assert that it is a vehicle for fostering entrepreneurial attitudes and competencies
for socioeconomic growth (Drucker, 1985; Greene & Saridakis, 2008; Hardie et
al., 2020; Harrison, 2014; Nabi et al., 2018). Entrepreneurship education offers
knowledge, skills and the tools for nurturing the entrepreneurial personality for
business start-ups, their management and their growth (Joshi, 2014; Neck &
Corbett, 2018). It is often used interchangeably with `entrepreneurship training’
(Azim & Al-Kahtani, 2014) and `enterprise education’ (QAA, 2018). There are
different genres of entrepreneurship education in higher education, ranging
from single-course modules to stand-alone degree programmes.
The objectives and curricula of entrepreneurship education are alleged to be

diverse with variations from one country to the other, and from institution to
another, even in the same country (Fayolle, 2013; Kuratko, 2005; Schramm, 2014;
Weiming et al., 2019). For instance, the aims of entrepreneurship education of
the USA differ from those of Europe. Whereas the USA aims to develop traits
and skills germane to entrepreneurship and for planning and analysing business
issues (Sá et al., 2014), in Europe the emphasis is on the development of
functional management skills and entrepreneurial mindsets for establishing and
managing start-ups, and increasing worker productivity (Lackéus, 2015; QAA,
2018). In contrast, South Africa, a developing country, chooses to address its
high unemployment levels with entrepreneurship education by focusing on the
development of entrepreneurial skills and attitudes for fostering self-
employment (Ras & Pretorius, 2007). In a similar vein, China’s entrepreneurship
education prepares students to consider self-employment as an alternative
source of employment by encouraging and equipping them with a foundational
knowledge of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial skills (Valerio et al., 2014).
Ghana, likewise, focuses on theoretical and business management topics such as
‘introduction to entrepreneurship, ‘creativity and innovation’, ‘marketing
research’, and ‘business plans’ (Dzisi, 2014; Gyamfi, 2013; Mordedzi, 2015).
According to Ras and Pretorius (2007), these variations in focus are due to the
differences in the environmental, economic, and socio-cultural contexts of the
countries concerned.
The entrepreneurship education objectives and curriculum are also perceived as

wide-ranging, broad, and ambiguous (Kigotho, 2014; Kuratko 2005; Neck et al.,
2014; Schramm 2014; Sirelkhatim & Gangi, 2015).). This situation has been
ascribed to several reasons. An example is the study of Weiming et al. (2019)
who attribute this to the lack of agreement on the paradigms and theories of
entrepreneurship. Another is Sirelkhatim and Gangi’s (2015) ascription to the
existing variations in the definitions of concepts such as ‘entrepreneur’,
‘entrepreneurship’, ‘enterprise’, and ‘small businesses’. Alberti et al. (2004) and
Neck and Corbett (2018) also believe that the divergent stakeholders’
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expectations and understandings of entrepreneurship education, and the over-

exuberance of entrepreneurship education providers to satisfy their different
needs have contributed to this state of affairs. For instance, governmental and
public institutional interest in entrepreneurship education is driven by the
search for alternative avenues for employment, poverty reduction and rapid
socio-economic growth (Acs et al., 2018; Bögenhold, 2019). On the other hand,
students’ motivation for entrepreneurship education is largely influenced by
their varied present and future career and professional aspirations, their
academic backgrounds, and specializations. Thus, the interests of management
and economics studies students may be fuelled by the need for enhanced
managerial and innovation skills, whereas those of students or aspiring
entrepreneurs would be for the skills and the tools required for business venture
creation (Ras & Pretorius, 2007).
These variations and ambiguities in the objectives and curricula of

entrepreneurship education have attracted the attention of several researchers
(Dzisi, 2014; Fayolle, 2013; Gyamfi, 2013; Mwasalwiba, 2010). Most of these
research studies, largely quantitative and analytical, have concentrated on
highlighting the weaknesses of the objectives and curricula, and suggesting
ways to improve upon them (Dzisi, 2014; Gyamfi, 2013; Neck et al., 2014). A few
studies have also been conducted on entrepreneurship education classroom
dynamics (Neck & Corbett, 2018), and their effect on students’ learning
(Supramaniam & Aumugam, 2012). The role of entrepreneurship education on
students’ entrepreneurial intentions has also inspired many research studies
(Musetsho & Lethoko, 2017). There is, however, a knowledge gap in teachers’
perceptions and actual experiences of the entrepreneurship education objectives
and curricula. This study contends that since teachers are primary
communicators and users of these objectives and curricula, a logical approach
for addressing their shortcomings would be firstly, to explore teachers’
experiences of the objectives and curricula, and then secondly, to use the
insights to inform revisions or changes in them.
2. Purpose of the study

This research was therefore meant to address this knowledge gap by
highlighting teachers’ experiences of the objectives and curricula they use for
teaching and learning at a Ghanaian higher educational institution in order to
use the insights gained for improvement. Motivation for this study was driven
by the researchers’ interest in entrepreneurship education and the search for
strategies to enhance policy and practice, as well as contributing to
entrepreneurship education research. The research was framed by the research
question: How do teachers experience the entrepreneurship education objectives
and curriculum?
3. Methodology
3.1 Research Design
The qualitative case study approach, based on the interpretivist constructionist
research paradigm, was adopted for this study owing to the following
considerations: Primarily, it facilitated the collection of the rich data that was
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sought from the research participants (Rubin & Rubin, 2012). It also offered a
direct engagement between the researcher and participants, and the opportunity
to collect first-hand information on the participants’ individual and common
realities, perceptions, thoughts, and sense-making of the phenomenon from
within their lived natural contexts (Mohajan, 2018; Rubin & Rubin, 2012;
Shaughnessy et al., 2012). This approach also supported the production of a
detailed descriptive narrative of how the teachers themselves experienced the
entrepreneurship programme objectives and curriculum at the study institution
and the unearthing of some political, socio-economic, and cultural
underpinnings. Being an entrepreneurship education teacher, this approach thus
ensured that the researcher’s personal experiences and views were held in
check. It also facilitated the conduct of diligent, disciplined, systematic, and
public research from multiple data collection sources to enhance credibility and
trustworthiness (Creswell, 2008; Mohajan, 2018).
3.2 The Study Context

The study was conducted in a Ghanaian higher educational institution,
purposefully chosen because of its history of mainstreaming entrepreneurship
education into its undergraduate programme. The institution introduced
entrepreneurship education in response to the then emerging global trends and
the Ghanaian government’s invitation to higher education for interventions for
addressing the escalating graduate unemployment. The institution has four
campuses in the southern part of the country offering day-time and evening
undergraduate and graduate academic study programmes to students from
varied backgrounds, including high school leavers, diploma holders, workers,
business owners, and bureaucrats.
At the institution, entrepreneurship education is offered in two forms - as a core

module for its undergraduate programme, and as a stand-alone undergraduate
degree programme. The objectives of the modular entrepreneurship education
programme were threefold, namely to promote entrepreneurship as an
alternative career path, foster entrepreneurial mindsets, and develop students’
entrepreneurial skills for business start-ups. The curriculum consisted of study
topics which matched the objectives. These were the nature and role of
entrepreneurship; creativity and innovation; opportunity and ideas generation;
market assessment; business model and business plan; new venture creation;
entrepreneurial venture team formation; founders’ issues; types of business
ownerships; entrepreneurial finance; business ethics; family business; franchise;
and the entrepreneur.
Entrepreneurship education was taught by a heterogeneous set of part-time and

full-time teachers from academia and practice. A wide range of pedagogical
approaches and methodologies, such as lectures, guest entrepreneur visits,
classroom discussions, group learning, group project work, case study analyses,
quizzes, and examinations were used for the programme. The compulsory
modular entrepreneurship education programme was the focus of the study.
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3.3 Population
Since the study was seeking teachers’ insights on the entrepreneurship
education objectives and curriculum, the study’s population consisted of nine
past and present entrepreneurship education teachers at the selected institution.
These two groups of teachers were included in the study because of their
common background as teachers of entrepreneurship at the study institution
and their familiarity with the objectives and curriculum, as well as facilitating
the study’s search for theoretical generalizability (Vasileiou et al., 2018).
3.4 Sampling
Sampling was based on Yin’s (2011) approach for first selecting the case for a
study, followed by the selection of its potential data sources and Patton’s (2015)
typologies of purposive sampling strategies. Consequently, the purposive non-
probability sampling approach was used at two levels to select the study
institution, the research participants, and secondary data sources. The study
institution was selected because of its over 15-year history of mainstreaming
entrepreneurship education in its undergraduate degree programmes.
Participants’ selection, on the other hand, was based on their perceived capacity
to provide appropriate answers to the research question (Creswell, 2014).
In view of the small size of the population, the purposive complete target
population sampling method was first considered for selecting the entire teacher
population as research participants for the study (Patton, 2015). However, owing
to challenges in locating all of them, this method was revised to the purposive
homogeneous and maximum variation sampling methods to select a smaller
sample based on their shared backgrounds as entrepreneurship teachers, and
their diverse characteristics respectively for this purpose. This resulted in the
selection of four teachers (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Maxwell, 2012; Patton,
2015; Yin, 2011). These sampling methods ensured that those who possessed the
characteristics germane to entrepreneurship teachers indicated in theory and
literature, and were capable of providing relevant answers to the research
question were included in the research study (Creswell & Creswell, 2018;
Palinkas et al., 2013). Four teachers were consequently selected for the study.
They consisted of one full time teacher from academia and one part-time teacher
from practice; both were then teaching at the study institution during the data
collection process. Two former part-time teachers from industry were also
selected.
3.5 Instrumentations and Data Collection

Primary and secondary data were collected in the study. The primary data was
collected through face-to-face interviews to elicit the detailed rich information
and knowledge of the four research participants. A total of four face-to-face
interviews were moderated by the researcher using a two-part semi-structured
interview schedule. The interviews lasted between 60 and 75 minutes.
The structured section of the interview schedule consisted of a core set of closed
questions that were asked in a systematic order to elicit demographic data on
the respondents’ formal entrepreneurship educational and entrepreneurial
experience backgrounds. The unstructured part of the interview schedule, on
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the other hand, contained unstructured open-ended questions that sought

insights on the teachers’ experiences of the discipline’s objectives and
curriculum. The open-ended questions enabled participants to give as much
detail as was possible that enriched the data (Ogden & Cornwell, 2010). The
wording and order of questions during the unstructured part of the interview
varied from one interview to the other according to the dictates of the emerging
data. The interviews were audio-recorded with the full knowledge of the
participants to ensure the sanctity of the data. The recordings were
supplemented by hand-written notes of observed non-verbal and verbal
communication by the researcher. This backup prevented the loss of valuable
information. Prior to every interview session, the times and venues were agreed
upon by the researcher and research participants.
Artefacts such as course outlines, teachers’ notes, textbooks, and extant

documents provided additional data that served as methodical triangulation.
They helped to clarify and authenticate the data collected from the interviews,
thereby enhancing the validity of the data collected (McMillan & Schumacher,
2010).
The researcher’s role in research is crucial for its rigour and validity. For a this
study, the researchers served as the data collection and data analysis instrument
and were therefore responsible for moderating and audio recording all the face-
to-face interviews, reviewing extant documents, and analysing all the data.
Measures such as allowing respondents to tell their own experiences, the
verbatim presentation of their stories, and subjecting the research to peer review
were adopted to prevent researcher bias in view of the researchers’ close
association with entrepreneurship education.
3.6 Data Analysis

In conformity with the dictates of the research design, the absence of a unitary
formula for transforming qualitative data into findings, and owing to the large
volume of data generated from the data collection processes, several qualitative
data analysis methods were used to analyse the data. The data was analysed
manually by the researchers. This ensured a close interaction with the data and
avoided the loss of valuable data. A major approach adopted was analysing the
emerging data simultaneously with the data collection process. It involved the
verbatim transcription of the data recorded in the researchers’ hand-written
notes and audio recordings into narrative data after every interview. This was
followed by an initial reading of the transcripts by the researchers, after which
they were clarified and authenticated with the participants, thus maintaining the
data’s integrity (Akinyode & Khan, 2018; Cohen et al., 2011). The final
transcripts were processed using content analysis, interpretive
phenomenological analysis, and thematic and case-oriented analysis (Babbie,
2011; Braun et al., 2019). These methods helped to reduce and organise the data
into identifiable codes, themes, categories, relationships and causalities for their
relevance to the theoretical dimensions of the study (Akinyode & Khan, 2018;
Creswell, 2014). It also provided a holistic view of the data for its subsequent
presentation, interpretation, and discussion (Creswell, 2014; Yin, 2011). The use
276
of these data analysis methods ensured the preservation of valuable information

and the reporting of participants’ own voices in their purest form (Akinyode &
Khan, 2018; Creswell, 2014; Long, 2014; Sutton & Austin, 2015).
4. Ethical Considerations
Measures were adopted to maintain high ethical standards and the integrity,
validity, and trustworthiness of the entire research process and the data. They
included ensuring due diligence in the selection of the study site and research
participants, the data collection and the data analysis processes, and
safeguarding the anonymity of research participants’, the research institution
and the researchers. A high level of assiduousness was attached to the accurate
interpretation and presentation of the respondents’ views (William & Morrow,
2009). Permission was duly sought for and granted by the study institution,
while the respondents were given the opportunity to give their informed
consent to participate. The time and venue for each interview were agreed upon
by the respondents and the researchers before each session. The identities of the
four respondents were protected by the use of the alphabetical codes T1, T2, T3,
and T4.
5. Presentation of Findings
The data collected on teachers’ experiences of the entrepreneurship education
objectives and curriculum yielded the following findings:
5.1 The teachers had diverse backgrounds as illustrated in Table 1

It was observed that all the teachers had practical experience in
entrepreneurship and had at different times either worked in family businesses
or founded their own business start-ups such as farms, trading, transportation
and consulting services. Their entrepreneurial experiences included failures,
challenges and successes. TI, for instance, had operated a number of businesses
intermittently with different degrees of success over the years. She recounted
that:
I have done so many things…I set up a game centre. And then I went to
school…so there was problem with supervision, so I closed it…I set up a
distribution business…water distribution. I had to go back to
school...that one too, I close it down…now I have ventured into
plantation farming.
Childhood entrepreneurial experience was common to T2, T3, and T4. In the
case of T2, this dated back to his primary school years when he helped his
mother to sell foodstuff at home and on the streets. He revealed that:
…in primary school, my mother used to sell foodstuffs in our house.
Sometimes I did the selling in the house, other times I hawked in our
area….currently, I have a transport business.
A slight deviation on teachers’ childhood entrepreneurial experience was T4’s

disclosure that his encounter with business was a deliberate decision to make
extra money for his own personal needs as a school boy. According to him:
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When I was growing up, I actually engaged myself in all sorts of

trading. At one point I used to pluck mangoes and sell them after school.
It was my own business. I currently own a consulting business.
With regard to academic background in entrepreneurship education, the data

showed that only T1 had formal qualification in entrepreneurship education.
Coupled with her practical entrepreneurial background, she was therefore the
ideal entrepreneurship education teacher.
According to the literature, having practical experience in entrepreneurship

enhances teaching because it provides opportunities for the sharing of real life
insights on challenges, failures and successes of entrepreneurship. In addition, it
fostered students’ confidence in the teacher’s abilities to teach entrepreneurship
theory and practice (Bosma et al., 2012). In spite of this, it is also argued that the
ideal entrepreneurship education teacher ought to have a combination of both
practical and academic competencies in entrepreneurship. The data confirms
that entrepreneurship education teachers consist of practitioners from both
industry and academia. It also supports the viewpoint that formally qualified
entrepreneurship teachers are in the minority, a situation considered inimical to
the development of the discipline (Carlson et al., 2012).
Table 1: Demographic profile of teachers and programme coordinators

Teaching Entrepreneurship Practical entrepreneurial
Respondents tenure education experience
background
T1 Full-time Formal Own businesses
T2 Part-time No formal Parents’ and own businesses
T3 Part-time No formal Parents’ and own businesses
T4 Part-time No formal Own businesses
5.2 The entrepreneurship education objectives and curriculum were

considered diverse and broad, and some study topics ambiguities
All the teachers maintained that the objectives and curriculum were quite broad,
containing many diverse topics to be covered in one semester. They were also of
the opinion that some of topics in the curriculum were vague. Specifically, T1
indicated that “‘innovation’ and ‘creativity’ lacked clarity, and either conflicted or
overlapped with each other”. T2, on the other hand pointed to topics such as
‘marketing’ and ‘creative thinking’ as being “too open and difficult to
interpret”…by ‘marketing’, are we looking at principles? If it is ‘creative thinking’,
which aspect should be emphasized?”
5.3 There were drawbacks associated with the diverse, broad, and ambiguous
nature of the objectives and curriculum
One drawback was the low topic completion rates of the objectives and syllabus.
This was evident from T4’s revelation that “the time was too short to cover all the
topics“. This was corroborated by T1’s assertion that “the large volume of topics to
be covered made it extremely difficult to teach all of them in one semester. I think only
about 70% of the content is covered by the end of the semester.” Another challenge
was the superficial teaching and learning of theories and skills in view of the
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time constraints imposed by the loaded nature of the objectives and curriculum.
Teachers also had difficulties with interpreting and differentiating between
some of the topics in the curriculum owing to their vagueness or overlapping
with each other. This finding corroborates the observations of Neck et al. (2014)
and Sirelkhatim and Gangi (2015) that teachers often had to grapple with the
ambiguities and similarities of some of the topics. Furthermore, high levels of
stress in trying to cover the greater part of the objectives and curriculum were
experienced by teachers such as T3 who disclosed that the lack of
standardization made “it difficult and stressful designing lesson notes and teaching”.
In addition, there was a lack of uniformity in what was taught and learned
because of teachers’ arbitrary selection of topics to cover. This is reflected in T2’s
explanation that ‘I think some topics are not clear…so what we do is left to you the
lecturer’s discretion. This means that people will be teaching different things and the
students will not have the same knowledge”. , thus resulting in variations in teaching
and learning of content and a lack of depth in what was taught (Neck et al.,
2014; Sirelkhatim & Gangi, 2015). A further drawback was the neglect of some
topics that could have enhanced students’ learning of entrepreneurship theories,
skills and mind-sets. An additional problem was the large number of topics
which hampered in-depth teaching and learning.
5.4 The entrepreneurship education objectives and curriculum were

considered relevant for fostering entrepreneurial behaviour in students
Teachers maintained that the objectives and curriculum were essentially
necessary for an in-depth and holistic understanding of entrepreneurship and
for motivating students to develop entrepreneurial skills and mindsets for
embracing self-employment. To illustrate his point, T4 argued that:
If I am training somebody to be a driver, the objective is that after the
training, the person should be able to drive a car. So if I am training
somebody to learn how to start a business then after the training that
person should be able to start and run his or her business if the person
wants to do that…In my opinion, I think all the relevant topics are
captured in the curriculum.
Teachers similarly indicated that the objectives and curriculum topics enhanced
students’ efficiency, creativity, and productivity despite their broad range and
vagueness. In support of this observation, and based on his encounters with
some of his past students, T2 disclosed that
Some walk up to me on campus or outside to tell me about the
businesses they have started. Just recently, a former student told me she
had started the delivery of fresh and frozen foods thanks to the course.
She said she was making gradual progress and was about to have her
business legally registered.
Similarly T3 found it reassuring that

Even though it is impossible to create the real life business experience
within the semester long course…for me, I think the entrepreneurship
education objectives and topics as they stands now is the way to vamp
up student’s interest in entrepreneurship and business start-ups and
create entrepreneurially minded individuals for the work place.
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The teachers were also of the view that the heterogeneity and broadness of the
objectives and curriculum helped to address the divergent needs of the
heterogeneous students, and were hence necessary as reflected in T2’s views
that
“I think the objectives are okay because they cut across the needs of the
students, because some are entrepreneurs who want tips for their
businesses, and others only need skills to enhance their creativity in
their offices.”
These views were indicated by Neck et al. (2014) and Weiming et al. (2019) and
hence were also relevant.
5.5 Teachers’ strategies for dealing with the drawbacks of the objectives and
curriculum
One such strategy adopted by T1 was attempting to complete all the objectives
and topics of the curriculum within the stipulated one-semester duration of the
programme.
To address time constraints, some teachers also selected and prioritised teaching
certain aspects of the objectives and curriculum that they felt were more
important in achieving the aim of entrepreneurship education. T2, for instance,
explained that “I focus on the topics that I think develop an awareness of
entrepreneurship as a socio-economic activity, and also the stages of the entrepreneurial
process.” T1, on the other hand, disclosed that his emphasis was “on the
entrepreneurial personality, entrepreneurial mindset, and innovative behaviour.”
Other strategies reported by the teachers were mentoring and coaching of

students outside classroom sessions to address the inadequacy of credit hours
for teaching. To circumvent the ambiguities in some of the topics in the
curriculum, all the teachers once again clearly indicated that they relied on their
own interpretations and discretion. In the words of T4, “I did not go strictly
according to the curriculum…I did not use the normal structure…I used my own which
I knew would achieve the goals of the course outcome”.
5.6 Teachers’ proposed institutional interventions for addressing the

drawbacks of the entrepreneurship education objectives and curriculum
The first was the call for the standardization of topic definitions to address the
ambiguities associated with some topics, thereby bringing clarity to them. This
was elucidated by T2, “if we are talking about ‘innovation’ we will know whether it is
about the system or the types.” Doing so, according to them, would provide some
guidance to teachers and students alike regarding the true nature of the
curriculum topics and the objectives. T1 noted that
I think the school will have to get the topics to be clearly defined. They
should be standardized. If they are standardized, everybody will know
this is what we are going to do and teach. Or this is the book we are
going to use….The standard description of the topic will guide the
lecturer on what to do.
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Another proposed intervention was the teachers’ appeal for more credit hours to
make it possible to cover all the objectives and curriculum topics which they had
indicated were essential for in-depth teaching and learning of entrepreneurship.
They argued that this would support the development of students’
entrepreneurial skills and mindsets. As noted by T1:
…the current one-semester programme doesn’t help students to really
understand the theory and practice of entrepreneurship. It is too short to
learn theories and come up with a business project. Two semesters will
help them to come up with prototypes at the end of the first term. Then
during the vacation, they can go out and test them in the market. By the
time they come back for the second semester, they will know if their
businesses were viable…When they have done this, then they can say
they have learnt some entrepreneurial skills.
The teachers also proposed regular meetings by the entrepreneurship teachers at

the study institution for the exchange of ideas and best practices. In support of
this intervention T3 proposed that:
There should be collaborations among the teachers so that there is
agreement on definitions and answers. I think this will reduce the
situation where we, the teachers, use our own discretion and interpret
the course in our own way.
Similarly T4 stated that:

I would advocate for collaboration between entrepreneurship lecturers at
the school. There are a lot of areas that we can learn from each other like
as how to introduce innovation in the way we teach entrepreneurship for
the benefit of everyone.
A final intervention proposal by the teachers was introducing in-service
entrepreneurship education training for teachers to ensure uniformity in the
teaching of the different topics.
6. Implications and Recommendations

In the literature, the objectives and curriculum of entrepreneurship education
are described as heterogeneous and ambiguous, and their contents as lacking
consensus and therefore a source of concern and a challenge to the programme.
These points were corroborated by the findings of the study, as presented above.
However, despite their drawbacks, the teachers also found some merits in the
objectives and curriculum. The measures they had devised and the institutional
interventions they proposed for addressing the drawbacks of the objectives and
curriculum have implications for policy and practice.
The implications for practice are that the findings provide clear examples of the
challenges teachers encountered with the objectives and curriculum as well as
the measures and strategies they adopted for addressing them in their work as
facilitators of learning. They also point to the resultant lack of uniformity in the
instructional methodologies used and in what was taught. The institutional
interventions proposed by the teachers themselves appear to be more effective
ways of addressing the drawbacks. For instance, the introduction of faculty
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programmes for teachers to facilitate networking and interact with each other,
share ideas and experiences, and work in teams would introduce
standardisation in the interpretations of course objectives and the ambiguous
topics in the curriculum. This would, in turn, reduce the variations in what was
taught and learned. It is evident from the study that such an institutional
intervention would boost morale in view of the difficulties encountered in using
their own remedies.
The differences in understanding of the objectives and curriculum among the

teachers (who are major stakeholders of entrepreneurship education) stem from
the absence of clear definitions and standardisation in the programme
guidelines, as well as their varied backgrounds in entrepreneurship education
and industry. Therefore, providing standard definitions and clear guidelines to
teachers could easily remedy this situation through regular staff meetings and
in-service teacher training. These meetings would provide the platform for
discussions on difficult topics, as well as strategies and methodologies for
teaching the different topics. The variations in understanding topics also
highlight the need for collaboration with other institutions providing
entrepreneurship education, and other stakeholders such as the business
community within the wider entrepreneurship system.
Entrepreneurship education, as with every educational programme, demands

certain necessities for its success. An implication for policy from the teachers’
experience of the objectives and curriculum is an obligation by the institution to
resource the programme with teaching and learning resources, and in-service
teacher training. From the study, the loaded nature of the curriculum had
become an issue because of the inadequate credit hours and resources for
innovative teaching and learning projects, and not because they considered
some topics irrelevant. By the teachers’ reckoning, successful entrepreneurship
was supported by a deep understanding (awareness creation), the learning of
skills (developing entrepreneurial skills and mindset), and recognising the
different stages of the entrepreneurial process (fostering entrepreneurship). This
implies that introducing more credit hours or increasing the number of
semesters for entrepreneurship education as suggested by the teachers would
ameliorate this challenge rather than reducing the number of objectives or topics
in the curriculum, as suggested by some researchers. Increasing credit hours
would also guarantee the in-depth teaching and learning of the theories, as well
as sufficient time for practice projects. Therefore it is not enough for critics to
refer to the packed nature of the objectives and curriculum without linking it to
the failure of policy-makers and programme managers to resource the
programme with the requisite inputs such as textbooks, internships, funded
practice projects, and sufficient credit hours. More funding and resources could
also support the development of textbooks the content of which reflects the local
socio-economic and cultural entrepreneurship context by including local cases
and examples. This would ultimately motivate teachers to strive to cover all the
topics in the objectives and curriculum.
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The study’s findings point to the need for further research on stakeholder
perceptions and experiences of the objectives and curriculum of
entrepreneurship education. The teachers exhibited certain behaviours, such as
deliberately choosing certain topics over others due to their perceived relative
importance. In addition, there were time constraints that led to differential
teaching and learning. This can be investigated further to identify the real
impact of the drawbacks of the entrepreneurship education objectives and
curriculum on teaching and learning. Similarly, additional research is needed to
replicate this study on a wider scale in the study institution, as well as in other
institutions, to enhance theory.
7. Conclusions
This study investigated teachers’ experiences of the heterogeneous, broad, and
ambiguous objectives and curriculum of entrepreneurship education. It
contributes to knowledge by providing insights into teachers’ varied experiences
of theses, and how they try to address some of the challenges imposed by them.
The study findings affirm the viewpoint in the entrepreneurship education

literature that the objectives and curriculum of entrepreneurship education are
heterogeneous, broad, and ambiguous. The study likewise found that the
ambiguities in some aspects of the objectives and curriculum resulted in
differences in teachers’ interpretations that led to variations in what was taught
by the teachers and ultimately in what students learned. The findings also
indicate that, despite their limitations, the teachers perceived the study topics
and objectives to be necessary for achieving entrepreneurship education’s aims
of creating awareness about entrepreneurship, developing entrepreneurial skills
and mindsets, and creating business start-ups. This observation by teachers
should be taken seriously and explored by provider institutions with the
support of additional resources and increased credit hours. The study suggests
that, rather than being fixated on their drawbacks, researchers, practitioners, and
policymakers should focus on how best to maximise their usefulness in their
present form. The findings indicate that designing entrepreneurship courses to
conform to prevailing global standards or trends ought to be accompanied by
adequate resources, funding, teacher training, and teacher collaborations and
networking.
Though limited in scope, this study extends the knowledge on the objectives and
curriculum of entrepreneurship education through the lenses of teachers by
affirming their limitations, and pointing to their appropriateness for meeting the
goals of entrepreneurship education if the requisite funding, resources, teacher
training, and the time allocations are increased. It offers direction for future
research and policy interventions for improving the quality of the objectives and
curriculum of entrepreneurship education.
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Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 286-303, June 2022
Received Apr 23, 2022; Revised Jun 9, 2022; Accepted Jul 6, 2022
Enhancing Students’ Attitudes in Learning 3-

Dimension Geometry using GeoGebra
Marie Sagesse Uwurukundo
University of Rwanda College of Education, Rwamagana, Rwanda
Jean François Maniraho

Michael Tusiime
Abstract. Using technology for learning geometry has been found to

have a positive impact on students’ skills and attitudes. GeoGebra
software is effective in encouraging teachers to employ technology as a
supporting tool to improve student potential in their learning of
mathematics. However, GeoGebra software has not yet been formally
introduced into the teaching and learning of mathematics in Rwanda.
This research aimed to ascertain Rwandan upper secondary school
students’ attitudes when learning geometry with GeoGebra. A total of
84 participants from four schools were purposively sampled and
categorized into two quasi-experimental design groups. A group of 44
students was the control group, and 40 students formed an experimental
group. Attitude scales were administered to both groups pre and post
intervention. Students in the control group were taught geometry in the
traditional way, and students in the experimental group studied 3D
geometry using GeoGebra software as a supporting tool. To collect data,
we used a standardized attitude scale. The results reveal a statistically
significant difference between the groups and, therefore, confirm the
effectiveness of GeoGebra in improving students' attitudes when
learning 3-D geometry. However, a correlation analysis did not find a
high correlation between students' performance and attitude. Based on
the results, the researchers recommended integrating GeoGebra
software at different levels of education in Rwanda, in mathematics
curricula generally, and in geometry in particular.
Keywords: GeoGebra; Geometry; Mathematics; Rwandan secondary

schools; student attitudes
©Authors
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1. Introduction
Mathematical ideas, procedures, patterns, and rules are fundamental to every
aspect of our day-to-day actions. Since mathematics is now a part of daily life, it
has become crucial to include mathematics instruction from an early age in our
schooling (Mollah, 2017).Mathematics is regarded as the mother of all sciences,
and the universe cannot move without mathematical knowledge and skills
(Mollah, 2017). At the same time, mathematics has proven to be a complex
subject for secondary school students in different countries (Mukuka et al., 2021;
Niyukuri et al., 2020) – not only in Rwanda (Ukobizaba et al., 2019). This
difficulty is evident in the challenges that have been observed in teaching and
learning mathematics at different levels of education in different contexts.
Globally, students from many countries, excluding some East Asian countries,
such as China, Japan, Singapore, and South Korea, have struggled to perform at
or above international benchmarks in most of the international assessments that
have been administered to date (Echazarra & Radinger, 2019; Gronmo et al.,
2016). According to Mollah (2017), students face failure and difficulties in
mastering mathematics content. These difficulties affect students' attitudes
toward mathematics and the nature of mathematics negatively, discourage them
from learning, their enjoyment of mathematics (Jackson, 2008), and the teaching
approaches used (Oberlin, 1982). Brady and Bowd (2005), in a study on
mathematics anxiety, prior experience, and confidence of pre-service education
students to teach mathematics, claim that students struggle to understand
because they are taught mathematics with inappropriate methods; therefore,
teachers should create a good teaching environment by applying practical ways
of teaching and learning mathematics (Brady & Bowd, 2005).
Length (2013) and Majerek (2014) in their studies argued that geometry has
been found to be an interesting and valuable branch of mathematics. This in
agreement with Le and Kim (2017) and Ibrahim and llyas (2016 ) whose study
findings confirmed the importance of geometry in our daily life and this deals
with the properties of lines, angles, curves, shapes, and so on. Geometry helps
students associate patterns in mathematics and equips them with the ability to
apply the acquired knowledge when solving real-life problems (Kutluca, 2013).
Traditionally, geometry concepts are taught using chalk, pencil, and paper,
resulting in students finding it difficult to produce geometrical representation
correctly (Sariyasa, 2016). The traditional teaching approach has been found
lacking in providing opportunities for students to develop their understanding
of geometry concepts and develop a positive attitude towards geometry (Jelatu,
2018). As a result, the traditional approach is less effective in helping students to
develop their level of thinking. For instance, students recall geometry
experiences as unpleasant and often consider geometry to be a challenging topic
in mathematics (Le & Kim, 2017). This was also revealed by Uwurukundo et al.
(2022) when conducting a study on students’ achievement and attitudes toward
geometry (Niyukuri et al., 2020). GeoGebra has been recognized as one of the
teaching and learning tools that offers support for enhancing students’
understanding of geometry-related topics (Doğan & İçel, 2010; Hanč et al., 2011;
Murni et al., 2017).
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In accordance with current Rwandan education policies, information and

communication technologies (ICTs) are considered important tools for
improving students’ attitudes and performance at all levels of education
(Rwanda Education Board [REB], 2016). ICT tools and software have changed
the ways people communicate and have enhanced significant transformations in
a variety of fields, including industry, agriculture, medicine, and many other
sectors. The REB (2016) recommends that ICT tools are integrated into the
learning of mathematics in secondary schools, due to the importance of
mathematics for several technology and science domains. In a review of
literature, Uwurukundo et al. (2020) explain that mathematics domains include
geometry, algebra, calculus, and trigonometry, and argue that students can
explore the software and acquire mathematics knowledge more independently
than students who are subjected to traditional learning methods. The
expectation is that exposing students to new technology for teaching and
learning of mathematics improves their competencies and achievement, both in
the classroom and in their daily lives (Mathevula & Uwizeyimana, 2014).
GeoGebra, which is rapidly gaining popularity in education worldwide, has

been found effective in enhancing the teaching and learning of mathematics.
Almost two decades ago, GeoGebra was already available in 52 languages, used
in 190 countries, and downloaded 300,000 times a month (Hohenwarter &
Lavicza, 2003). Abu et al. (2010) found that GeoGebra increased students'
confidence in mathematics; students become motivated when they used
GeoGebra while learning mathematics. GeoGebra can help students grasp
experiments, solve mathematics problems, and do research, either in the
classroom or at home. Similarly, GeoGebra can develop visualization and
understanding of different mathematical topics, including geometry (Akkaya et
al., 2011; Majerek, 2014). Using a computer algebra system and an interactive,
dynamic geometry system is likely to enhance students' cognitive abilities and
interest in learning mathematics (Bye et al., 2007; Diković, 2009; Uwurukundo et
al., 2020).
Insight into students' attitudes and beliefs is important if teachers are to

understand the learning environment of mathematics, which has been affected
by the introduction of computers and other technologies (Ukobizaba et al., 2019).
GeoGebra has the potential to shape learners' knowledge acquisition and change
teachers' teaching practices – teachers need to accept learners' autonomy
(Uworwabayeho, 2009). In line with this perspective, teachers' awareness of
students' attitudes towards geometry is useful, as teachers can identify those
students who have negative attitudes towards geometry and take adequate
precautions (Aktas & Aktas, 2012).
Saha et al. (2010), in a study that examined the effects of GeoGebra on the
learning of coordinate geometry by students, found that the use of GeoGebra
increased students' performance, and they argue that using GeoGebra might
influence students to have positive attitudes towards the subject. For this reason,
integrating ICT tools in the teaching and learning of mathematics using
computer software (Fančovičová & Prokop, 2008), such as GeoGebra, appears to
289
motivate students to access their resources, construct new ideas, and improve
their competencies, thereby overcoming the challenges inherent in traditional
teaching methods. As an example of a mathematics instruction technology tool,
GeoGebra software has different effects on students' achievement, depending on
how it is integrated into teaching and learning (Uwurukundo et al., 2020).
Uwurukundo’s study (2022) focused on the effect of GeoGebra software on
secondary school students’ achievement in 3-D geometry and found using
GeoGebra improved students’ performance. Therefore, there is a need to
evaluate students’ attitudes and the correlation between attitude and
performance when learning with GeoGebra.
Because of the emphasis on the need to integrate ICT in the teaching and
learning of mathematics, and other subjects, Nzaramyimana (2021) conducted a
study to explore the effectiveness of GeoGebra for enhancing students’ active
learning, performance, and interest in learning mathematics. In turn,
Uwurukundo et al. (2022) investigated the effect of GeoGebra software on
secondary school students ‘achievement in 3‑D geometry – no other studies
conducted in Rwanda have attempted to establish (statistically) the effectiveness
of ICT tools such as GeoGebra on improving students’ attitudes towards 3-D
geometry in Rwandan secondary schools, or determine teachers‘ views on using
GeoGebra when teaching mathematics. In that respect, the present study sought
answers to the following research questions: How does GeoGebra software affect
students’ attitudes about learning geometry? Is there a correlation between learners’
performance and attitude scores?
2. Methodology
This research adopted a quasi-experimental research approach and a non-
equivalent group design (Fraenkel et al., 2012). A total of 84 students
participated in the research and were allocated to either a control or
experimental group. We purposively selected four schools: two in Northern
Province (one boarding and one day school), and two in Kigali city (one
boarding and one day school). We wished to conduct the research in schools
with Mathematics Physics, and Computer (MPC) and Mathematics, Computer
and Economics (MCE) subject combinations, because we wanted to include
students with ICT backgrounds and who, thus, learned mathematics as their
main subject. The schools that were selected had common characteristics. A
second reason for selecting these four schools was that we had limited time and
money to conduct the research. We decided to conduct the research with these
subject combinations, as we wanted to control certain variables, including
student ICT background. Intact classes were used, to avoid inconveniencing the
schools’ academic programs. Before data collection, the researchers submitted
the research proposal to the University of Rwanda College of Education (URCE)
and was accepted and approved in relation to ethics by the research and
innovation unit. The ethical clearance was used to seek permissions at the
district level; letters were provided for presentation to selected schools.
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Research instruments, reliability, and validation

The researchers administered a questionnaire for an attitude test, which
comprised 34 statements answered by a 5-point rating scale (Strongly disagree,
Disagree, Undecided, Agree, and Strongly Agree). The questionnaire was
adopted from various articles and books (Abdullah & Zakaria, 2011; Andamon
& Tan, 2018; Baya’a & Daher, 2013; Ndibalema, 2014; Semerci & Aydın, 2018),
and modified. Researchers at university level and mathematics teachers at
secondary levels provided their their inputs, and it was piloted with students at
other schools with the same characteristics as those selected for the study.
Collected data were entered and analyzed using SPSS 23.0 to determine reliable
validity. A principal component analysis (PCA) was conducted to assess the
number of factors to be extracted. An Eigenvalue of 1 was set as the minimum
cut-off point for extracting several factors. Prior to PCA, an assessment was
conducted to qualify the data for PCA. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin of sampling
adequacy (KMO) indicated that the sample size was not sufficient (0.318).
However, Berlet’s test of sphericity was significant (Chi-square=496.878, df=435,
Sig.=0.021), indicating that the data were fit for PCA with an unrotated solution.
Varimax solution was then used to extract five factors with a minimum loading
value of 0.30. All the items except item 14 met the minimum loading value,
ranging from 0.311 (item 13) to 0.839 (item 25). Internal reliability consistency
was then determined using Cronbach’s alpha of coefficient and corrected item-
total correction. An item is considered to be reliable if it meets minimum values
of Cronbach’s alpha of 0.70 or higher, and a corrected item to the total
correlation of at least 0.30. Four additional items did not comply with reliability
levels, and they were removed from further analysis. In addition, factor 5 had
the lowest reliability value, suggesting that it needed further investigation. After
checking for instrument validity, we made some modifications based on the
analysis done on the attitude questionnaire. We remained with 30 statements
that were used to collect data on students' attitudes towards the learning of
geometry, their interests, and the benefits of using ICT tools before and after
learning 3-D geometry. The study was conducted from December 2020 to June
2021.
A researcher determined whether all schools that were selected had the same
characteristics, such as availability of computer labs, internet connection, and
teachers who could use computers in the teaching process, especially at the
schools in the experimental group, and a calendar that was flexible enough so
that 3-D geometry could be taught. After checking these variables,
questionnaires for the pre and post attitude tests (assessment) were
administered in English, which is the language of instruction in the Rwandan
education system. After giving the pre-assessment to all students from both
groups, the control group was subjected to conventional teaching and learning
methods, such as blackboard and chalk, and groupwork and discussion by
students, while the experimental group integrated the use of GeoGebra in the
teaching and learning process of 3-D geometry, using computers and projectors.
The first author presented a four-day workshop on the use of GeoGebra for
291
teaching 3D geometry. After completing the workshop’s activities, we requested

all teachers of the experimental group to start teaching the 3-D geometry.
During the intervention, the corresponding author assisted teachers in the

experimental group to download and install GeoGebra software and to conduct
an introductory session to let students feel welcome; the students’ first reactions
to the tool were observed. The researchers visited both groups to observe how
the process was proceeding, and to ensure that the methodology to be used for
particular groups had been mastered. After the experiment, the post assessment
questionnaire (the same instrument as the pretest) was administered for both
control and experimental groups, to determine whether the methodology used
during the teaching process of 3D geometry had affected student attitudes and
performance. This study formed part of a large project that was undertaken for
the first author's doctoral research. This article represents a follow-up of a
previously published performance-based article (Uwurukundo et al., 2022).
Thus, the present study reveals the attitude enhancement due to GeoGebra
integration; the previous article had revealed its effect on student performance.
Readers are referred to Uwurukundo et al. (2022) for a detailed description of
the performance test that was used.
Final geometry attitude scale

After gathering data with a 30-item attitude scale, we reanalyzed the items and
removed ten items that were duplicates or which investigated the same
construct. This helped us to present valid and reliable data. The final twenty
items were analyzed by grouping items or statements, and eight themes were
formulated: Prerequisite knowledge (one item), Enjoyment in learning geometry
(one item), Confidence (four items), Teaching method (four items), Resources
(one item), Learning supporter (two items), ICT (four items), and Real life (three
items). Then, four factors were formulated from these eight themes. Pre-requisite
knowledge, Enjoyment in learning Geometry, and Confidence formed the
Confidence (with six items) factor. Teaching method, Resources, and Learning
supporter formed the Learning support (with seven items) factor. ICT and Real-
life remained as they were as themes (see Table 1).
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Table 1: Four factors and their corresponding items

Attitude statements Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
disagree agree
Confidence 1 My foundation in mathematics in primary school affects my performance in
secondary school
2 I enjoy learning geometry
3 I am sure that I can learn geometry better
4 I feel confident when studying geometry
5 I can get good grades in geometry
6 It is very difficult to perform other mathematics topics except for geometry
Learning 7 Teaching methods of geometry contribute to my performance
support 8 Memorization helps in the learning of geometry
9 I do solve geometry problems at home because there is somebody to guide me
10 In the classroom, we have mathematical instruments and tools for drawings in
geometry
11 My teacher is competent in teaching geometry
12 Students should be more involved in practical work than theoretical work
13 Working in groups improves my performance in geometry
ICT 15 The use of computers in the teaching of mathematics affects my performance
positively
15 Interactive websites make me perform better in geometry
16 Geometry is better when taught using ICT tools like software, computers,
projects, the internet, etc.
17 ICT can facilitate me to learn geometry
Real-life 18 Geometrical topics in schools are related to real-life situations
19 Knowing geometrical concepts will help me earn a living
20 I study geometry because I know how useful it is
293
Analysis and Data presentation

We used an MS Excel 2016 spreadsheet to record and analyze data. In the first phase, we
cleaned the data by removing records of students who did not complete both pre and post
assessments. We also matched each student on performance to attitude scores, since we needed
to collate the attitude results to our previously published performance scores (Uwurukundo et
al., 2022). Thus, three students (one on the performance test and two on the attitude scale) in the
control group were removed from the analysis. Similarly, two students in the performance test
and four students on the attitude scale were filtered out of the experimental group. Therefore,
this analysis comprises 84 students: 44 in the control and 40 in the experimental group.
In the second phase, we computed descriptive statistics, such as the percentage of students who
chose a certain scale. COUNTIF functions were used to determine who had selected each
response on the Likert scale. Table 2 presents the results of the geometry learning attitude scale.
The table has four main columns: The first column has four factors depicted in the scale; the
second column shows the number of items (from 1 to 20), and the third shows the number of
students in the control group (as percentage, %) who selected one of the five Likert scale
responses (strongly disagree, SD; disagree, D; undecided, U; agree, A and strongly agree, SA).
The fourth main column shows the number of students in the experimental group who agreed
or disagreed with the attitude statements. Both control and experimental columns have two
columns that present the number of students at pre and post attitude assessment. All numbers
of students on each scale (from SD to SA) are rounded to add up to 100%. For instance, on
item_1 [My foundation of mathematics in primary school affects my performance in secondary
school], 7% of students in the control group strongly disagreed with the statement at the pre
assessment stage, 16% disagreed, 14% were not sure (undecided), 35% agreed, and 28% strongly
agreed with the statement.
294
Table 2. Results of the attitude scale for two groups (control and experimental) on pre and post assessment
Factors Items Control group Experimental group
Pre-assessment (%) Post-assessment (%) Pre-assessment (%) Post-assessment (%)
SD D U A SA SD D U A SA SD D U A SA SD D U A SA
Confidence 1 7 16 14 35 28 9 14 5 58 14 18 10 5 44 23 18 10 5 44 23
2 21 28 14 28 9 0 2 2 57 39 18 35 28 20 0 3 10 0 43 45
3 7 0 30 48 16 2 7 5 45 41 5 3 8 40 45 5 3 5 40 48
4 20 25 20 23 11 14 25 18 32 11 18 53 15 10 5 0 8 3 39 50
5 18 23 18 30 11 11 16 14 39 20 13 28 40 20 0 0 8 10 30 53
6 30 39 11 16 5 7 20 11 43 18 23 13 10 28 26 23 13 10 28 26
Learning 7 18 45 2 27 7 0 0 7 61 32 15 18 23 30 15 0 0 3 48 50
support 8 14 57 11 14 5 5 16 11 48 20 0 20 23 40 18 3 10 5 45 38
9 20 43 18 14 5 9 50 9 27 5 13 18 3 46 21 10 21 3 46 21
10 27 27 16 25 5 20 20 7 43 9 10 33 33 20 5 10 10 5 43 33
11 2 11 18 34 34 5 0 9 34 52 10 30 28 23 10 3 5 3 43 48
12 2 7 5 44 42 5 5 5 39 48 8 40 20 28 5 0 13 8 33 46
13 5 20 16 23 36 2 2 0 51 44 0 0 3 33 65 0 0 3 33 65
ICT 14 41 23 16 20 0 32 39 5 11 14 23 33 23 18 5 23 5 0 20 53
15 36 41 16 5 2 25 41 14 9 11 13 58 30 0 0 0 0 5 63 33
16 44 42 5 7 2 43 27 11 14 5 25 38 23 13 3 18 8 0 28 48
17 25 30 18 18 9 43 27 18 7 5 25 35 30 10 0 5 10 10 20 55
Real life 18 9 9 20 45 16 7 12 21 58 2 10 10 15 35 30 10 10 13 35 33
19 5 16 32 32 16 7 14 20 39 20 5 0 8 61 26 5 0 8 61 26
20 9 25 25 30 11 7 9 16 47 21 0 8 5 58 30 0 8 5 55 33
295
In the third phase of analysis, we wanted to answer the first research question
about whether GeoGebra enhanced students’ attitudes towards learning
geometry. First, we averaged strongly disagree and disagree into a single
disagree theme, undecided remained an undecided theme, and agree and
strongly agree were combined into an agree theme. Secondly, we analyzed
control and experimental groups regarding attitude factors, such as confidence,
learning support, ICT, and real life. We then checked the pre and post
assessment of each group and computed the differences. This difference allowed
us to generate inferential statistics between these two groups. Thus, we first
averaged the scores along with all 20 items for each of the students; then, we
measured the difference between post and pre attitude scores in the control and
experimental groups. The experimental and control groups were exposed to a
pre attitude questionnaire before the start of the treatment to ascertain whether
the students who had been selected to participate in the study had comparable
characteristics before the study. The independent samples t-Test was used to
analyze whether there were significant differences in the mean attitude scores of
the experimental and the control group. Before measuring this significance, we
first presented a descriptive analysis.
In the fourth and last phase, we took average scores from each student's
performance test and attitude scale and then computed the correlation between
pre-tests (performance versus attitude) of control and experimental groups and
between post-tests of the same groups.
3. Findings
Figures 1, 2, and 3 present the number (in %) of students who fall into three
categories of an attitude scale. Figure 1 shows two parts, the left side shows
results from pre assessment (before learning geometry) and the right side shows
results from post assessment (after learning geometry using the traditional
teaching method). For instance, on item_2 [I enjoy learning geometry] under the
confidence factor, the attitude score increased from 37% to 95% of students from
the pre to the post assessment.

296
Real-
life
19
17
ICT
15
13
Learning support
11
7
Confidence
1
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Pre-assessment [Disagree] Pre-assessment [Undecided] Pre-assessment [Agree]

Post-assessment [Disagree] Post-assessment [Undecided] Post-assessment [Agree]
Figure 1. Percent of students in the control group from pre to post assessment
Figure 2 also comprises two parts. The left side shows results from the
assessment before learning geometry, and the right side shows results from the
assessment after learning geometry using GeoGebra software. For instance, the
attitude toward learning on item_3 [I am sure that I can learn Geometry better]
increased from 85% to 88% of students from pre to post assessment under the
confidence factor.
88 88
Real-
life
19 87 87
65 68
17 10 75
ICT
15 75
15 0 95
23 73
13 98 98
33 79
Learning
support
11 33 90
25 75
9 67 67
58 83
7 45 98
54 54
Confidence
5 20 83
15 89
3 85 88
20 88
1 67 67
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

Figure 2. Percent of students in the experimental group from pre to post assessment
Figure 1 and Figure 2 seem to indicate a similar number of students who agreed
and disagreed with the attitude items in both groups before learning. However,
after learning, both groups of students seem to shift from disagreement to
http://www.ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter
297
agreement. Although both groups seem to shift to agreement with statements,

which indicates improved attitudes toward learning geometry, the two figures
display a difference on most items, especially relating to the ICT factor, in favor
of students who learned with GeoGebra. For instance, in Figure 1, on items 14,
15, 16, and 17, control group students still disagreed with the statements, even
after learning. This proves that GeoGebra enhances students’ attitudes towards
learning geometry.
Figure 3 conglomerates all 20 attitude items into four factors. The figure has two
sides; the left side shows pre assessment, while the right side shows post
assessment. Each factor is presented by six bars: the first three bars are pre
assessment, while the last three bars present post assessment. Except for the ICT
factor, other factors show a more positive attitude, as students agreed with
statements after learning (green color). Sixty-nine percent (69%) of students in
the control group exhibited a negative attitude (disagreed) that ICT (yellow
color) could enhance the learning of geometry.
90
80
70
60
50
%
40
30
20
10
0
Confidence Learning ICT Real-life Confedence Learning ICT Real-life
support support
Control group Experimental group

Figure 3. Control and experimental groups vis-à-vis attitude factors
To establish whether these differences in attitudes between the control group

and the experimental group are significant, an independent samples t-Test was
performed. Results displayed in Table 3 confirm that there was a significant
difference in students’ attitudes between the experimental and the control
groups [t (59) = -3.85, p < .001, d = .89], in favor of the students who learned via
GeoGebra.
Table 3. Results from t-Test of Two-Sample Assuming Unequal Variances attitude

scale
Sample Mean SD Df t-Stat t-Crit p D
Control group 44 9.59 11.75 59 -3.85 1.67 <.001 .89
Experimental 40 17.07 4.99
group
298
Table 3 shows that the difference between mean scores of the experimental
group in post and pre assessment of attitude was (M=17.07), with a standard
deviation (SD= 4.99), while the difference between post and pre assessment
attitude scores of the control group was (M=9.59) with a standard deviation of
(SD=4.99). This demonstrates that the groups' attitude means were different, and
this difference was statistically significant. This indicates that using GeoGebra
had greater effects on students’ attitudes toward geometry than the conventional
teaching method had, as the effect size (d) was large (.89).
We finally checked the correlation between students’ performance and their

attitudes towards learning geometry through either traditional or GeoGebra
software. The results in Table 4 show that the correlation was low before and
after learning geometry in both control and experimental groups. Students in the
experimental group showed a negative correlation in pre assessment, though
this was low.
Table 4. Correlation between performance and attitude scores

Pre-assessment Post-assessment
Performance vs. Attitude Performance vs. Attitude
Control group 0.060 0.166
Experimental group -0.015 0.004
4. Discussion
Integrating technology in the teaching process of mathematics has been found to
be effective. Using dynamic software such as GeoGebra is recommended as a
supporting tool to facilitate the teaching and learning of mathematics, especially
in geometry, algebra, and statistics (Tamam & Dasari, 2021; Khoza & Biyela,
2020; Ocal, 2017; Saha et al., 2010). This is in line with the findings of Murni et al.
(2017), who found that students who are taught using a discovery learning
model with GeoGebra media develop greater problem-solving abilities and
more positive attitudes toward mathematics than students who are taught using
a traditional learning model. Teaching senior five (S5) students with GeoGebra
for learning geometry was found to be effective (Uwurukundo et al., 2022), and
the present study proved that students' attitudes improved, although their
attitudes did not correlate strongly with improved performance. It is likely that,
if students perform well in a certain subject, they will then have a positive
attitude toward it, or vice versa. However, our unique finding is that students
performed well due to GeoGebra, and improved their attitudes due to
GeoGebra, but the scores were not correlated. The finding may be the result of
the nature of the performance test used (see Box 1 in Uwurukundo et al., 2022)
or the attitude scale used (see Table 1 in the methods section). The
corresponding author recommends that more studies are conducted to
determine whether there is a strong relationship between improving
performance and, at the same time, attitude when GeoGebra is integrated in
For the confidence factor, attitude items exposed a link between the foundation
of mathematics acquired in primary school and students' performance in
299
secondary school, their enjoyment of learning geometry, their confidence

regarding learning geometry in a better way and getting good grades, and their
performance in geometry and the difficulty of other mathematics topics.
Students who were taught using the traditional teaching method gained 70%
while those who were taught using GeoGebra gained 78%. Thus, 8% of students
enhanced their confidence attitude due to GeoGebra. Regarding learning
support, such as teaching methods (memorization, problem-solving, drawing
tools, practical work, groupwork), and support from elders, parents, and
teachers, students reported feeling more supported in the experimental class.
This is shown in Figure 3, which indicates that only 73% of students in the
control group agreed with given statements (positive attitude) against 84% of
students in the experimental group. Similarly, for the real-life factor, only 62% of
students in the traditional agreed (had positive attitude), compared to 81% of
students in the experimental group. Therefore, whether geometry topics taught
in schools are related to real-life situations, whether knowing geometry concepts
will help students earn a living, and whether students studied geometry because
they realized how useful it was, students taught via GeoGebra lead to a more a
positive attitude than teaching students in the traditional way did. Eventually,
regarding the ICT item (investigating whether the use of computers in the
teaching of mathematics affected students' performance positively, whether
interactive websites helped them to perform better in geometry, whether
learning geometry is easier when it is taught using ICT tools such as software,
computers, projects, internet and so on, or whether ICT can help them to learn
geometry) students in the experimental group responded more positively, and
this indicates that GeoGebra as an ICT application enhances students’ attitudes
towards learning.
Our study also reveals similar results regarding students’ attitudes toward
confidence, learning support, and real-life attitude factors. Results show that
GeoGebra is extremely effective in improving students' attitudes toward
learning geometry using ICT. However, this improvement may depend on the
teaching method. This finding is in agreement with Arbain and Shukor (2015),
Mathevula and Uwizeyimana (2014), Niyukuri et al. (2020), Ocal (2017) and
Uwurukundo et al. (2020), whose studies found that ICT, in general, could
improve the way students perform in geometry, and that GeoGebra software is
effective in improving students’ achievement and attitudes towards geometry.
In this study, the ICT factor had improved attitude scores in the experimental
group, because the teachers of this group used GeoGebra in lessons, while the
traditional class did not use this ICT-based software and showed no
improvement in attitude. Future research could investigate this finding further.
Authors such as Edmunds et al. (2012) and Zhang and Liu (2016) confirm that
the usefulness and ease of use of ICT are key dimensions of students’ attitudes
towards technology. Research by Saha et al. (2010) found that students who had
learned coordinate geometry using GeoGebra performed significantly better
than students who had learned the traditional way. Nzaramyimana et al. (2021)
conducted research on the effectiveness of GeoGebra on students’ active
learning, and their performance and interest in learning mathematics in
Rwandan secondary schools using a quasi-experimental method, and found
300
GeoGebra was effective in boosting students' active learning, performance in,

and enthusiasm for mathematics.
5. Conclusion
The aim of our study was to investigate the effect of GeoGebra software
integration on students' attitudes towards 3D geometry. We involved 84
students from four schools in Rwanda. We assigned 44 students to a control
group and asked their teachers to teach using traditional teaching methods; the
other 40 students were assigned to an experimental group, and we asked their
teachers to teach geometry with GeoGebra. Students studied 3D geometry, and
their attitudes were measured before and after they had been taught. We found
a statistically significant difference in attitudes in the two groups, in favor of the
group taught by GeoGebra. We conclude that GeoGebra has the potential to
improve students’ attitudes towards learning 3D geometry, although the
correlation between students’ performance in geometry and their attitudes
towards learning it through either traditional methods or GeoGebra software
was low. Therefore, we recommend that educators adapt their teaching methods
to GeoGebra, not only in S5, but at all levels of secondary school, and not only
for geometry, but also for other domains of mathematics. The Rwanda Basic
Education Board should train teachers to use ICT tools such as GeoGebra in the
education system. Since our sample size was limited, further studies could
investigate the effects of gender differences, school environments, student
achievement, and teachers’ appreciation of the use of GeoGebra.
6. Acknowledgement
Our special thanks go to the students who participated in this study. The study
received financial support from the African Center of Excellence for Innovative
Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS).
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Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 304-323, June 2022
Received Mar 15, 2022; Revised Apr 18, 2022; Accepted May 30, 2022
Pre-Service Teachers' Perspectives towards the

Use of GammaTutor in Teaching Physical
Sciences in South African Secondary Schools
Sakyiwaa Boateng* , Jogymol Kalariparampil Alex , Folake Modupe

Adelabu , Thamsanqa Sihele and Vuyokazi Momoti
Walter Sisulu University
Mthatha, South Africa
Abstract. This paper reports on introducing a techno-blended model for

science teaching in South African senior secondary schools.
Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework
was used as a lens for the interpretation of pre-service science teachers'
use of the GammaTutor tool in the classroom for collaboration and
creativity. The study employed an interpretivist multi-case design that
purposefully sampled ten pre-service science teachers. Data were
collected through non-participatory classroom observation and
interviews. Data were then analysed qualitatively using deductive
approaches with a modified version of TPACK as an analytical
framework. The study found that pre-service science teachers were
enthusiastic about using the GammaTutor tool because they believed it
engaged their learners in the teaching-learning process and facilitated
the assessment of tasks. The pre-service teachers felt that the
GammaTutor tool enhanced their instruction by expanding their access
to teaching-learning resources and personalising instruction.
Additionally, the pre-service teachers discussed their concerns,
particularly in assisting underperforming learners and effectively
utilizing inquiry-based instruction using the GammaTutor tool.
Notwithstanding certain apparent drawbacks, the study contributes to
our understanding of how the TPACK concept might be employed as a
framework for analysis in a particular situation. More crucially, teaching
and learning are founded on the thorough integration of technological
tools in day-to-day classroom activities.
Keywords: GammaTutor tool, pre-service, science teachers, secondary

schools, techno-blended tool, TPACK
*
Corresponding author: Sakyiwaa Boateng, sboateng@wsu.ac.za
©Authors
305
1. Introduction
Learner performance in physical sciences over the years has not been
encouraging. Both the National Senior Certificate Examination (NSC) and the
international Trends in Mathematics and Science Study (TIMMS) have evidence
of the poor learner performance in this subject (Department of Basic Education
[DBE], 2018, 2019). Studies by Danso (2020), Mosiane (2019), Ogegbo and
Ramnarian (2022) and Ramnarian and Hlatswayo (2018) have identified many
factors that may hinder the performance of learners. These factors include
teachers’ teaching styles (Orhun, 2012), gaps in teachers’ content knowledge
(Mosiane, 2019; Sondlo & Ramnarain, 2019), learners’ learning styles (Danso,
2020), teachers' lack of competency in the use of information and communication
technology for teaching and learning, values and attitudes that influence their
choice of instructional strategies (Jarosievitz, 2017; Ramnarain & Hlatswayo,
2018) and learners’ attitudes towards physical science (Aslan, 2017). However,
the teachers’ ability to translate their content knowledge into a learning
experience for students to learn effectively using technology is crucial (Van Driel
& Berry, 2010; Luft et al., 2015). Specifically, the teachers' professionalism
(Anderson & Barnett, 2011; Reddy et al., 2012) includes teachers' subject content
knowledge, teacher effectiveness, teacher competence through teacher
instructional strategies and teachers’ proper execution of laboratory activities
(Ogegbo & Ramnarain, 2022). Therefore, the teachers' role in teaching and
learning is crucial to addressing learners' poor physical sciences performance.
The use of techno-blended methodologies has been extensively reported in

science education literature (Fernandes et al., 2020; Walan, 2020) as a powerful
tool that articulates and portrays aspects of the implicit, inherent, effective and
individualised component of teachers' professional knowledge. According to
Bingimlas (2017) and Waghid and Waghid (2018), numerous studies have
reported positive outcomes in education using a technological tool for teaching
and learning. A cursory review of the literature indicates that technological tools
in education motivate learners, improve teachers' skills and promote
collaborative and creative teaching (Postholm, 2007; Baidoo et al., 2022; Gershon,
2017). Al-Balushi and Al-Hajri (2014) contend that these assist learners in
visualising abstract scientific phenomena and provide them with meaningful
contexts which improve their retention and academic achievements.
Chao et al. (2016), Hochberg et al. (2018), Walan (2020) and Zhang et al. (2015)
agree that there are numerous studies about the integration of technological
tools in science education literature; however, there have been few studies that
specifically use science technological tools as a teaching resource to foster
creative and collaborative teaching. In addition, few studies have reported on
how science teachers, specifically pre-service teachers, used and reflected on the
use of innovative software in science teaching in science classrooms when
teaching is entirely techno-blended based (Santos & Castro, 2021).
Hence, this study aims to implement a techno-blended tool in the physical

science classroom and further investigate how pre-service teachers reflect on
their teaching when implementing an innovative technological tool in their
physical sciences classrooms during teaching practice.
306
The following research questions guided the study:

1. How do pre-service science teachers reflect on the use of GammaTutor in
the physical sciences classroom during teaching practice?
2. What are the challenges experienced by pre-service teachers when using
GammaTutor in the physical sciences classroom during teaching
practice?
2. Literature studies
2.1 The use of a technological tool in teaching and learning
There has been considerable debate in education regarding integrating
technological tools into daily practice. The necessity of employing technological
tools in teaching and learning has been widely publicised (Koopman et al., 2020;
Santos & Castro, 2021; Walan, 2020). According to Goldin and Katz (2018),
technological tools enable learners to work at an appropriate level for their
learning needs and cooperate more efficiently. Goldin and Katz (2018) further
assert that learners become empowered in a technological environment because
they are isolated from teachers and less fearful of social interaction. This implies
that technological tools are helpful in the teaching-learning process because they
enable learners to organise information into distinct cognitive structures. As
Abboud and Rogalski (2017) mentioned, technological tools directly influence
learners' attention, motivation, autonomy, and academic achievement. However,
other studies show that using technological tools in education does not
continuously improve teaching and learning processes (Cope & Kalantzis, 2009;
Pineida, 2011). Nevertheless, technology can positively impact the teaching and
learning process if used appropriately. Finger et al. (2013) and Sweeney and
Drummond (2012) state that it is necessary to consider teachers' pedagogies,
knowledge, and beliefs in instruction when examining the integration of
technology in the classroom.
2.2 Preparation of pre-service science teachers for technology-enhanced

instruction
Pre-service teachers’ preparation for classroom technology use has long been a
priority of teacher education institutions in several countries (Agyei & Voogt,
2011; Robinson & Aronica, 2015). In South Africa, the Higher Education White
Paper 3 (1997), the National Plan, the National Research and Development
Strategy (2002), and the Foresight ICT report (1999) emphasise the importance of
information and technologies (ICTs) for education, particularly for teaching and
learning. These documents relate the need for ICT-related graduate
competencies to economic change in an information economy. However, there is
a lack of coordination regarding ICTs in higher education across relevant policy
papers, which leaves the door open for critical issues to be disregarded while
other relevant issues are prioritised (Czernjewicz et al., 2004).
Despite this, research shows that technology receives scant emphasis in teacher
education programmes, either as a tool for secondary education or support for
pedagogy in teacher education programmes (Chien et al., 2012). Bekele (2021)
states that there has been a rise in technology integration in higher education
due to the Covid-19 pandemic. Recent demands indicate that to enhance pre-
service teachers' knowledge of technology integration effectively, teacher
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education programmes must assist them in connecting their knowledge of

technology, pedagogy, and content (Sun et al., 2017). Koehler and Mishra (2009)
suggest that teachers must be competent in all three domains of knowledge to
be able to incorporate technology effectively. However, more significantly, they
must integrate technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge to enhance
classroom instructions. While pre-service teachers in some South African
institutions appear to have adequate technological abilities acquired through
their first-year university modules and personal lives, they demonstrate minimal
access to computers and occasionally ineffective use of technology in the
classroom (Jerrim, 2018). The reason was that their expertise was limited to the
operation of technology rather than integrating these technologies into the
science classroom instructions. Santos and Castro (2021) argue that there is a
critical need for equipping pre-service teachers to be able to integrate technology
within a pedagogical context and in accordance with the subject they teach.
Moreover, research (Walan, 2020) has demonstrated the value of collaborative
teaching techniques to increase classroom instruction by teachers who utilise
technological tools to encourage active and collaborative learning.
2.3 The GammaTutor Tool

The GammaTutor device was developed by the Govan Mbeki Mathematics
Development Centre (GMMDC) at Nelson Mandela University in Eastern Cape
Province, South Africa. It comes pre-installed with customised software that
includes the complete TouchTutor® Mathematics and Sciences interactive digital
package for learner support (Grades 8-12) (see: https://mbeki-maths-
dev.mandela.ac.za). It is introduced as an educational project using the
GammaTutor software package that runs on the Gamma Android teaching and
learning device, a plug-and-play pocket-sized gadget. It is a complete
mathematics and science teaching and learning centre that may be connected to
a data projector, television, or screen. The GammaTutor can help teachers,
learners, and homeschoolers alike. It contains the entire South African
mathematics and science curricula presented in animated PowerPoint
presentations, videos, and tutorials. Moreover, it does not require a connection
to the Internet. Aimed at non-native English speakers in the country, it provides
a wide range of support services for both teachers and learners (Engineering
News, 2020). This research is based on pre-service teachers' comments on the
GammaTutor training program and how they used the device in the classroom,
as well as observations of pre-service teachers' teaching methods during school-
based experiences (SBEs).
3.1 Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK)
This study is situated within the broad field of the Technological Pedagogical
Content Knowledge model of TPACK by Valtonen et al. (2017). This model
(TPACK-21) focuses on presenting a validated instrument for measuring pre-
service teachers' TPACK based pedagogically on twenty-first-century skills, as
Voogt and McKenney (2017) mentioned in their work. TPACK is a theoretical
framework for documenting and studying teachers' professional knowledge.
According to Koehler et al. (2013), TPACK consists of three components, namely
content, pedagogy, and technology, and is the core of effective teaching. The
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TPACK framework is based on Shulman's (1986) framework for pedagogical

content knowledge (PCK). PCK refers to the body of knowledge required for
teaching, which requires a combination of content and pedagogical skills, as
described below (Shulman, 1987):
• Content knowledge (CK): This relates to understanding the central theories
and concepts of the concepts being taught. In addition, CK demands a
comprehension of the nature of the knowledge and the means through
which it is acquired in the field (e.g., physical sciences).
• Pedagogical knowledge (PK): This refers to a comprehension of learning
processes and the ability to exert control over those processes and direct the
learning environment. PK is a generalised form of information concerning
cognitive, social, and developmental learning theories.
Technical pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) adds a technological layer to

the pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) framework. TPACK denotes
knowledge of ICT applications suitable for use in teaching in terms of pedagogy
and content (Koehler et al., 2013). Koehler et al. (2013) describe the following as
components of TPACK:
• Technological knowledge (TK): This refers to an understanding of the
capabilities and limitations of technology and the abilities necessary to utilise
technology effectively. Knowledge of technology also implies an interest in
tracking the progression of emerging technology.
• Technological content knowledge (TCK): This relates to an understanding of
the relationship between content and technology and how content and
technology impact and constrain one another. TCK refers to understanding
the technologies utilised within the content field (e.g., physical sciences).
• Technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK): This is an understanding of the
nature of teaching and learning using technology in the classroom. It
comprises utilising technology and gaining knowledge of the advantages
and downsides of various technologies for specific pedagogical practises.
Based on these elements, the TPACK framework describes the seven areas of
teacher knowledge that serve as the core of effective teaching (Koehler et al.,
2013). According to Dietrich (2018, p. 9), "TPACK refers to the knowledge and
competencies at work within the complex teaching profession, examined
through the lens of the Technological, Pedagogical and Content Knowledge
infrastructure". In other words, TPACK is a theory developed to explain the set
of knowledge that teachers need to teach their learners effectively and use
technology (McGraw-Hill, 2019).
Hence, in this study, the TPACK framework is used as an analytical tool to

explore how pre-service teachers reflect on their teaching in authentic physical
science lessons with the GammaTutor tool in senior secondary schools during
the school-based experience (SBE).
4. Methodology
This study originated from a research project undertaken by the Mathematics
Education and Research Centre (MERC) team in a rural higher education
institution (HEI) in the Eastern Cape. This paper reports GammaTutor as an
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emerging technological tool for teaching and learning physical sciences. The
study is situated within the interpretivist paradigm and employs a multi-case
qualitative research design (Yin, 2018) to determine the behaviours,
interpretations of situations, and viewpoints on specific subjects as well as
exploring the use and integration of technology (GammaTutor) tools in physical
sciences classroom instruction.
4.1 Sample
Purposeful sampling was used to select ten pre-service teachers majoring in
physical sciences and mathematics who have an in-depth knowledge of the
GammaTutor tool (Kumar, 2019). The pre-service science teachers were in the
undergraduate programme in physical science education at a rural South
African HEI. These pre-service teachers entered the four-year Bachelor of
Education (BEd) programme to become physical science teachers in secondary
schools across South Africa.
4.2 Study instruments

Data were collected using in-depth semi-structured interviews and classroom
observation schedules documented with field notes to describe all relevant
aspects of the use of GammaTutor in the physical science classroom. This
enabled the authors to participate in an engaging discourse with the
participants. Eleven open-ended items with probes constituted the interview
questions. The questions were developed following a review of related literature
and were validated by experts. The open-ended questions allowed the
participants to share additional information from their perspectives within the
context of the study.
A twelve-section observation guide (schedule) was created from the model of

TPACK (Valtonen et al., 2017) to collect data. The observation schedule was
prepared using the TPACK construct.
4.3 Data collection procedures

Ten pre-service physical science teachers on SBEs (teaching practice)
participated in the study. Each participant was observed twice during the study
for five weeks during SBE. A pre-observation interview was held before the
actual classroom observations, and the participants were instructed on
constructing a lesson plan and teaching in the classroom. The purpose of the
pre-observation interview was to orient the pre-service teachers and determine
their degree of comprehension regarding integrating technology (GammaTutor)
in the classroom. Classroom interactions, pre-service teacher activities, and
learner behaviours, including using technology (GammaTutor) in the classroom,
were documented as field notes.
Semi-structured interviews were also conducted with the participants after the
classroom observation. The one-on-one interviews lasted approximately 45
minutes. Intermingling, questioning, probing, listening, writing and audio
recording data were used to engage participants (Kivunja & Kuyini, 2017).
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Data triangulation was performed using two data sources to establish a

complete understanding of the phenomena. All instruments for data collection
were piloted. This helped clarify the research concept and improved the
observation schedules and techniques. The use of semi-structured approaches
improved the validity of the content, as participants were unrestricted in their
discussion of concerns and constraints. Validity was ensured by gathering data
from ten pre-service teachers in ten different schools and using the same tool.
All transcribed interview data were returned to participants for member
checking.
The study was authorised by the Walter Sisulu University Human Research
Ethics Committee (Ethical Clearance Number: FEDSRECC001-06-21). As a result,
all participants signed a written informed consent form, which included
permission to capture audio data during the research procedure. To establish the
participants' trust, issues of anonymity and confidentiality were addressed.
4.4 Data analysis

All transcripts were captured and coded manually. The transcribed interviews
and classroom observation data were deductively analysed. The data were read
and reread to understand the data and establish a coding scheme in an Excel
spreadsheet. To track general classroom interactions, engagement, and
interventions, the coding scheme was established using a priori codes (Johnson
& Christensen, 2019). The components and codes for TPACK are listed in Table
1:
Table 1: TPACK components and codes

TPACK components Codes
TPACK Pre-service science teacher's knowledge of GammaTutor
PK How the pre-service teacher handles the lesson

Overall classroom interactions/engagement and
TCK intervention
TK Challenges of using GammaTutor
The description of how student teachers mediate

TPK learning with GammaTutor
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5. Results
5.1 Pre-service teachers’ use of GammaTutor in the physical science
classrooms
The demographic characteristics of the pre-service science teachers (PSSTs) are
presented below (n=10):
Table 2: Demographic characteristics of pre-service science teachers

Subjects Gender Age Grades No of
Taught Learners
in Class
PSST 1 male 22 10 20
PSST 2 female 22 11 50
PSST 3 male 21 10/11 41
PSST 4 male 31 10/11 50
PSST 7 female 21 10/11 44
PSST 10 female 22 10/11 46
Table 2 reveals that, of the 10 pre-service physical sciences teachers who

participated in the study, 50% were males and 50% were females. All these pre-
service teachers taught Physical Sciences with the GammaTutor tool.
It was observed that the pre-service science teachers used the GammaTutor tool
daily in their classrooms. In addition, participants gave clear instructions during
lessons and promoted interaction with learners in the classroom. One pre-service
teacher narrated as follows:
“I was trained to teach Physical Sciences with a special tool known as
the GammaTutor device and I use it every day in my physical sciences
classroom instructions. This tool enhances my interaction with my
students and engages them actively in the lesson” (PSST 2).
The pre-service physical science teachers received training on GammaTutor tool

integration in their classroom instructions before they embarked on the SBE. As
a result, these pre-service science teachers were motivated to use the tool in their
respective classrooms for assessment purposes. This finding is in line with the
finding of a study conducted by Pima (2019), namely that teachers in high
schools are ready to use ICT in teaching and learning.
It was observed that the pre-service teachers used the GammaTutor tool to
facilitate their instructions, ensuring that their learners understood the concepts
taught in the classrooms. Thus, the GammaTutor is mainly used for content
delivery and assessment. This supports the reasons for using a technological tool
given by Lim and Hang (2003), who found that science teachers use
technological tools for curriculum and assessment, as learning resources, for
teachers' development, and as physical and technological infrastructure. In
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South African classrooms, the pre-service teachers also used the GammaTutor
tool for assessment purposes. One pre-service teacher commented as follows:
“Using the GammaTutor for assessment motivates learners to set their
own goals and evaluate their work. One thing that is so fascinating
about the assessment resources is that every question given has
procedures to solve the question. In addition, there are so many different
forms of assessments that you can give your learners. For example, there
are higher-order questions and low order questions.” (PSST 1).
This means learners were exposed to a variety of assessment strategies which

presented them with different kinds of information to build their confidence in
the challenging concepts.
The outcome in the TPACK model is required for pre-service teachers to operate
the GammaTutor tool with confidence to engage learners collaboratively (Santo
& Castro, 2021). Evidence from the classroom observations established that the
participants were technologically competent (TK). They never struggled with
controlling the projectors and the whiteboards they used to project their lessons
during the teaching and learning of physical sciences to promote collaboration
and creativity. According to Ghavifekr and Rosdy (2015), one of the most critical
variables in technology-based teaching and learning effectiveness is teachers’
being well-equipped with ICT tools and facilities. They frequently augmented
the technology (GammaTutor) tool with additional resources and practical
exercises to aid in acquiring a particular content (TCK).
A mix of presentations, individual and group work, group discussions, and

practical questions were part of the classroom instructions. The authors
observed that the participants engaged their learners in various tasks to increase
learner retention and achievement in the subject. As a result, learners were
offered the opportunity to work with tasks of varying difficulty. They appeared
to be inspired to seek out answers about the content relating to the tasks, thereby
accelerating learners' learning in physical science.
5.2 Pre-service teachers’ perspectives on their reflections on the use of

GammaTutor in the physical science classroom
5.2.1 Perspective on technological knowledge
Several sub-themes arose from this perspective, including attitudes toward
technology and the time it takes to learn and prepare lessons. All pre-service
teachers said they possessed a high degree of technological understanding and
were enthusiastic about their classroom instructions, including the use of the
GammaTutor tool. Hence, they had no difficulty navigating the GammaTutor’s
technical capabilities. Two pre-service teachers narrated as follows:
“I am familiar with and proficient in the use of this interactive
technology. I have no difficulty operating this equipment” (PSST7).
“I received training on how to utilise the GammaTutor tool in my

classroom instructions, and I must say that teaching with this
technology is much more fun. It alleviates the stress associated with
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lesson preparations and notes written on the chalkboard during the

teaching-learning process.” (PSST5).
A few participants mentioned initial technological difficulties; however, these

were solved within a few minutes of the start of the first lessons. This sentiment
is shared by one pre-service teacher who said:
“I initially encountered some technical difficulties, possibly because I
could not return to the main application after opening it and navigating
through the other lessons” (PSST2).
The participants knew that navigating the resources and searching for other
items to augment the planned lesson take time. One pre-service teacher had this
to say:
“While it takes time to navigate the GammaTutor tool, it is still helpful
to have all resources handy, and while preparations with additional
resources take time, I save a lot of my time when I have all those
resources I will be using in my classroom for my lesson” (PSST10).
When asked whether the use of the GammaTutor tool necessitates more
preparation by participants prior to entering the classroom, one pre-service
teacher shared this sentiment:
“Indeed. I needed more preparation before entering the classroom.
Sometimes, I practise the entire lesson in my room…just you know. to
be sure of myself…hahaha…if I would be able to deliver my lesson. I
even practise solving all the learner practice activities to ensure that I do
not miss anything” (PSST3).
5.2.2 Perspectives toward technological pedagogical knowledge

When data were triangulated, two sub-themes arose, namely available time and
the social milieu of the classroom. The pre-service teachers asserted a high level
of technical and pedagogical knowledge and were critical of their use in
classroom instruction. It was observed that all learners were active and involved
in the teaching-learning process since using the GammaTutor tool supported a
particular pedagogical principle. However, evidence from the classroom
observations shows that little time was available to the pre-service teachers to
assist each learner in the classroom. One participant corroborated this:
“The GammaTutor assisted me a lot in my instructions. Indeed, most of
my learners love this teaching method, especially when simulation
videos assist them in understanding a particular concept which often
seems too abstract to grasp” (PSST10).
When the participants discussed the consequences of the social milieu in the
classroom, one pre-service teacher had this to say:
“Most often, I put learners into mix-ability groups so that they could
interact with each other as they share ideas and thoughts. However, I do
not do much group works. Still, I was considering the possibility of
making learners work alone sometimes. I fear that if I let my learners
work alone, there will be fewer social interactions” (PSST2).
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5.2.3 Perspective on technological content knowledge

The authors observed this perspective in the classrooms and during the
interviews. The GammaTutor tool was beneficial for both participants'
instruction and learner comprehension of the physical science content given by
pre-service teachers during the study. The GammaTutor tool's planned exercise
was sufficient to engage learners in inquiry-based problem-solving activities as
described in the Curriculum and Assessment Policies Statement (CAPS)
guidelines for physical sciences. Two pre-service science teachers contended as
follows:
“GammaTutor is my everything. To be precise, all the information on
the GammaTutor tool is very detailed and covers the content of the
CAPS curriculum. All the practice activities are aligned with the
examination guidelines and the content” (PSST2).
“The GammaTutor's study material is quite fully packed…My learners

are always engaged in the projected activities, making my work as a
teacher quite easy. This assists me in reflecting on my lesson and
knowing how individual learners are progressing” (PSST1).
5.2.4 Perspectives toward pedagogical knowledge

The authors observed pre-service teachers as they taught lessons, incorporated
instructional strategies, and managed their classrooms. Evidence from the lesson
observations indicates that participants possess a high level of expertise in
guiding learners' discussion in classroom activities. Most of the participants
observed showed an in-depth knowledge of using differentiated instruction in
their classroom. Additionally, it was observed that pre-service teachers assisted
learners in developing their problem-solving aptitudes and motivated them
regarding steps to take in approaching a problem in physical sciences. This
indicates that pre-service teachers have a firm grasp of fostering learners'
problem-solving abilities through their classroom instruction, which is widely
recognised as a crucial component of pre-service teachers' pedagogical
knowledge development.
To capture learners' interest in the teaching-learning process, the pre-service

teachers varied their teaching strategies and activities, making their lessons
more learner-centred as they managed their classrooms.
5.2.5 Perspectives toward technological pedagogical content knowledge

The sub-themes under this perspective are pre-service teachers' preparation
prior to lessons, learners' comprehension, and learners' assessment. This point of
view was also emphasised in the interviews. Concerning the pre-service
teachers’ preparation for teaching before going to deliver each lesson, two pre-
service teachers reported as follows:
“My lesson plans are often completed prior to the actual lessons with my
learners. I make certain that I have all the materials necessary for the
lesson. I prepare additional notes as my lesson summary which I provide
[sic] the learners during the lesson. I practise my lesson notes with the
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GammaTutor tool and go over all the activities before going to my class”
(PSST8).
“I devote much of my time to planning well before my lesson. I ensure

that everything needed during my lesson is included in the preparation
book ahead of my lesson” (PSST6).
In response to the issue of whether GammaTutor improves learners'

comprehension of content, pre-service teachers stated that the tool increased
learners' creativity in the teaching-learning process, connected learners'
conceptions to the topic, and helped them rejuvenate their attitude. One pre-
service teacher narrated as follows:
“I begin my lesson by recapping the previous lesson, creating links
between learners' previous knowledge and real-world experiences, and
inviting them to share their views during the teaching-learning process
and how it relates to the content” (PSST 3).
The authors observed that learners often responded admirably throughout the
teaching-learning process and their responses were quite creative.
Regarding whether GammaTutor supports the assessment of learner knowledge,

pre-service teachers expressed optimism about how the integration of the
GammaTutor tool supported the assessment of learner knowledge of the
content. One pre-service teacher had this to say:
“Assessments are so much easier to manage now that I am not required to sit
down and create questions for learners to practice with. Each concept I teach in
the classroom has its own set of prepared activities that encourage learners'
creativity and teamwork. Additionally, learners receive feedback much more
quickly. Just a flip into the next slide…and there we are... solutions to all the
activities” (PSST2).
The authors’ views were shared by some participants. Indeed, the integration of
GammaTutor in classroom instruction was unquestionably beneficial to both the
pre-service teachers and the learners at large.
5.3 Challenges experienced by pre-service teachers when using GammaTutor

in the physical sciences classroom
This research question sought to ascertain the difficulties faced by pre-service
physical science teachers when implementing the GammaTutor tool in physical
sciences classrooms. The pre-service teachers acknowledged that they initially
encountered difficulties with the tool, while the challenges stem from school-
level and classroom-level challenges.
5.3.1 Challenges at the school level

Some of the challenges experienced at the school level included limited access to
projectors and computer monitors. One school had only one data projector
placed in the laboratory. This laboratory is used as a classroom under the same
arrangement. As a result, pre-service teachers needed to negotiate with other
teachers before using the data projector. One pre-service teacher complained:
“Even though I now possess this GammaTutor tool, I must still
negotiate with other teachers to teach using this technology. This is
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because my school only has one data projector placed in the laboratory.
Also, the laboratory serves as a classroom. I am continually negotiating
with other teachers to relocate their classes to my classroom so that I can
bring my learners to the laboratory for my lesson” (PSST 8).
Similarly, pre-service teachers' reflections highlighted that some pre-service

teachers had to borrow data projectors or computer monitors from another
school to enable them to use the GammaTutor tool in their classroom
pedagogies.
Support constraints were another challenge that surfaced from the field notes
and interviews. The pre-service teachers commented that during the early stages
of the commencement of SBE, they needed technical support simply to use the
GammaTutor tool, which might have been avoided had educational institutions
provided technology and information technology experts. One pre-service
teacher expressed regret:
“Occasionally, I wanted to flip back to the previous slide in the
classroom, or I needed to close the screen and proceed to the slide…"
labelled activities... However, navigating to other activities becomes
difficult, and this alone waste my time since... occasionally, I grab my
phone from the staffroom and call a peer from another school to assist me
in navigating to the content I desire” (PSST 2).
Another challenge identified in the field notes was an intermittent electrical

power supply. The pre-service teachers expressed regret that they sometimes
prepared thoroughly for their lessons only to discover that there was no
electricity available, forcing them to revert to traditional teaching methods. The
following is the comment expressed by one pre-service teacher:
“… Due to power interruptions, I was unable to utilise my
GammaTutor tool for three consecutive periods. When I organised my
lesson on Tuesday, I was able to acquire all the additional resources I
needed. I entered the classroom for my lesson and immediately noticed
that the electricity had gone out...I was very disappointed” (PSST 10).
5.3.2 Challenges at the classroom level

The challenges included time and large class sizes at the classroom level. Similar
constraints were also reflected in the field notes derived from observations. It
was revealed that pre-service teachers were not time conscious in ensuring that
their lessons were completed within a given period. One pre-service teacher
lamented:
“I actually do not have enough time in the day for me to complete my
lesson… My lesson is not well-planned. There is always the possibility
that my lesson will extend into the following period. Teachers are
constantly at the entrance of my classroom, waiting for me to leave so
they can conduct their own lessons” (PSST 7).
Another pre-service teacher, on the other hand, believed that the activities
undertaken by the learners were time-consuming. He recounted:
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“It takes time to prepare assessment activities and worksheets for

learners to complete in class. I'll need to schedule additional time for the
learners to finish these activities” (PSST 9).
This means that pre-service science teachers required additional time to create
handouts, print assessment activities, mark learners' exercises and provide
feedback to learners.
A further challenge encountered by pre-service teachers was the huge class sizes
in most practising schools. Pre-service teachers claimed that too many learners
in their classrooms made it impossible for them to provide equal opportunity to
all learners, perform learner activities, and provide timely feedback on learners'
assessments. In other words, they were unable to provide feedback on some
assessments since it took an excessive amount of time to complete the marking
before they could provide feedback to the learners.
One pre-service teacher had this to say:

“It's quite tough for me to provide timely feedback and comments on my
learners' assessments. My time is completely consumed by marking of
learner's activities which often take more than the one hour allocated to
me” (PSST 3).
The outcome of this study indicates that large class sizes have a detrimental
influence on the effectiveness of physical science instruction. This is consistent
with Commeyras’s (2000) study which revealed that successful teaching appears
impractical for teachers with large class sizes.
6. Discussion
This research study aimed to determine how pre-service physical science
teachers use technology in the classroom. The observation and semi-structured
interview showed that the pre-service teachers had a good level of technological
knowledge, and they were excited about using the GammaTutor technological
tool in the classroom lessons. The results also demonstrated that pre-service
teachers had a high degree of technical and pedagogical understanding and
were critical users of the technological tool (Gamm Tutor) in the classroom. In
addition, the GammaTutor tool's information is extensive and covers the entire
CAPS curriculum. Therefore, the GammaTutor tool was found to be helpful for
both participant instruction and learner comprehension of the science topics
presented by pre-service teachers (Engineering News, 2020). These results
encourage and develop the pre-service teachers' TPACK to integrate technology
such as GammaTutor in their classroom.
This finding aligns with Martin's (2018) conclusion that endless possibilities for
technology integration in teacher preparation programmes could improve,
hence increasing the chances of successful technology integration in teacher
education settings. Therefore, Thompson and Mishra (2007) posited that in order
to be a superior teacher, every teacher should have a strong command of
technology knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, content knowledge,
technological pedagogical knowledge, technological content knowledge,
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pedagogical content knowledge, and technological pedagogical content

knowledge. According to Joo et al. (2018), TPACK indirectly influenced teachers'
intentions to use technology since high-TPACK teachers spent more time
dealing with learners' unexpected behaviour than performing an anticipated role
in a technology-integrated class. Furthermore, for teachers to integrate
continuous technology teaching, teacher educators must look into strategies to
support and model the use of technology in the classroom for pre-service
teachers. This will aid teacher educators in assisting our country's teachers in
moving beyond familiarity with and utilisation of technology into full
integration of technology into classrooms so that 21st-century learners can
benefit from the full impact of current technologies (Smith & Greene, 2013).
The findings also indicated that pre-service teachers encountered difficulties in

using technology (GammaTutor) in the physical sciences classroom. The survey
showed that projectors, whiteboards (or smart boards), and computer displays
are in short supply. There is inadequate technical assistance and peer support,
poor electricity supply, and large class sizes. Furthermore, according to Joshi
(2017), technical factors are one of the elements that affect ICT (GammaTutor)
integration in teaching and learning. The researcher went on to say that
constructivist teaching and learning beliefs have a considerable beneficial impact
on class computer use.
In contrast, traditional views have a detrimental impact on integrated classroom

computer use. In their study, Smith and Greene (2013) found that pre-service
teachers did not have access to the appropriate ICT tools. Dalal et al. (2017)
learnt that teachers are concerned about Internet access issues, insufficient
technology resources such as laptops and projectors, and weak network signals.
However, teachers' ICT skill development has a favourable impact on ICT tools
(GammaTutor) integration in teaching and learning (Joshi, 2017). According to
Thompson and Mishra (2007), teachers' experience, pedagogical and
technological knowledge, pedagogical beliefs, access to resources, institutional
support, institutional culture, curriculum and assessment requirements,
perceived abilities, motivation, and behaviours of students, preservice education
programme, practicum, and professional development of teachers all influence
how useful the ICT tool (GammaTutor) is when used in teaching.
7. Conclusion
The TPACK of pre-service teachers in physical science has been influenced by
the inclusion of GammaTutor in their teaching. The findings demonstrated that
pre-service teachers' use of the GammaTutor device in the classroom was
associated with learners' content comprehension (TPACK). This indicated that
the pre-service teachers could successfully implement the teaching strategies
and manage the classroom (PK). Incorporating GammaTutor also signifies
interactive technology and engagement to help learners understand physical
science concepts (TCK). Furthermore, the integration of the GammaTutor tool in
science teaching (TK) mediates learning and supports specific pedagogy for a
specific situation in the science classroom (TPK). Pre-service teachers can obtain
fresh insights into planning and organising, pedagogical strategies, content
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delivery, content knowledge, and classroom management by incorporating

GammaTutor into physical science classes. Moreover, pre-service teachers were
inspired to learn more about using various applications and new teaching
strategies in technology-integrated classes because of their use of GammaTutor.
Therefore, this study recommends that incorporating technology into classroom

practices will allow pre-service teachers to address the learners' needs
effectively, increase learners learning, better prepare learners for future studies
in science-related fields and further prepare learners for digital society in their
future practices.
8. Implications of the study

The findings have implications for both student teachers and teacher educators
in HEIs. Both should be able to integrate technology into their classroom
teaching. In-depth research should be carried out with a more significant
number of student teachers since teaching and learning science with technology
is rapidly gaining attention.
9. Limitation of the study

The findings from this study are not generalisable owing to the limited number
of physical science student teachers who participated in this study. The study
was conducted in a rural province, which might have contributed to some of the
difficulties the pre-service teachers encountered while using technology
(GammaTutor) in the physical sciences classroom.
Acknowledgement
GammaTutorTM is an innovative, recently introduced mobile presentation
system for education. It consists of a mini-PC device called Gamma and
accompanying mathematics and science software developed by the Govan
Mbeki Mathematics Development Centre (GMMDC), Nelson Mandela
University, Eastern Cape, South Africa. The research team in the Mathematics
Education and Research Centre gratefully acknowledges the innovative
GammaTutor device developed by the GMMDC. More research is being carried
out and it is also acknowledged that the collaborative partners are publishing
articles based on the device. In addition, the generous funding from the Walter
Sisulu University is gratefully acknowledged for the purchase of the
GammaTutor devices.
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Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 324-344, June 2022
Continuing Professional Development of the

Teacher Education Faculty among Philippine
State Universities and Colleges
Ninez B. Tulo
Tarlac State University, Tarlac, Philippines
Jiyoung Lee
Tarlac State University, Tarlac, Philippines
Abstract. Continuing professional development (CPD) is widely

regarded as extremely important in a university's life, contributing to
both professional and personal development and improving teaching
and learning. This study looks at the CPD availed by the teacher
education faculty, their motives for doing so, and the challenges they
have faced in CPD programmes. The researchers designed a
questionnaire survey following the New NBC 1 461 CCE2 Guidelines for
the 222-teacher education faculty. The questionnaire included the
following sections: the CPD pursued, their reasons for obtaining the
CPD programmes, and the challenges encountered. The modified NBC
461 CCE Guidelines provided the basis for the point system. This study
employed a mixed method. The study findings are as follows:
engagement among teacher education faculty members is still low;
though there may be law mandates for all professionals to avail
themselves of CPD units, the faculty remained unresponsive in their
CPD engagement; more participation is expected from teacher education
faculty members with higher academic ranks; teacher education faculty
members believe that CPD will help improve their academic status,
knowledge, and financial stability; and finally, personal issues hamper
the CPD of a faculty. The study calls for the participation of the faculty
in the planning, implementation, and evaluation of the CPD
programmes.
Keywords: challenges; development
1 NBC – National Budget Circular
2 CCE – Common Criteria for Evaluation
©Authors
325
1. Introduction
Brilliant educators produce brilliant students. One essential school-related factor
that stimulates student achievement is an inspired and informed educator. It is
therefore critical how state universities and colleges (SUCs) support and train
both novice and experienced teachers for their continuing professional
development (CPD) (Beşken Ergişi, 2021).
A current critical challenge for educational institutions is ensuring that students

acquire the skills and competencies required to prosper in today's society. This
endeavour is challenging in the fast-changing world, where labour instability,
mobility, demographic transition, and the globalized economy continuously
redefine society's needs and aspirations (Ahmad et al., 2021). In the face of these
changes, teachers must constantly validate and update their abilities to assist
students in becoming capable, competitive, and socially integrated individuals
(Valiandes & Neophytou, 2017). Education systems have attempted to help their
teachers by developing, administering, and promoting various types of CPD
(Paliwal, 2016).
Competent faculty significantly influence student achievement throughout the

school year and beyond life (Middleton & Perks, 2014). However, educators in
low- and middle-income nations frequently lack the necessary abilities to teach
students effectively. Across seven African nations, some educators fared
appallingly poorly in pedagogical expertise—their ability to plan a course, create
questions that successfully extract student knowledge, and perform in the
classroom (Bold et al., 2017). An inspired and informed educator is an essential
school-related factor that stimulates student achievement. It is therefore critical
how SUCs support and train both novice and experienced teachers for their CPD
(Elayba, 2020).
CPD was defined in the 2013 PRC Resolution No. 2013-774 series as installing
innovative knowledge, competencies, and professional ethics in a post-licensure
specialized or inter- or multidisciplinary field of study for integration into
professional practice, self-directed research, and lifetime education. The CPD's
overarching aim is the improvement of the community's common welfare and
the interest in offering professional services for that purpose. CPD will make
every effort to improve the performance of the Philippines' pool of registered
practitioners by keeping them up to date on the current educational,
technological, ethical, and other related trends in the regional and global
exercise of the professions for the greater good of the country and global
affiliation and innovativeness.
According to Glatthorn et al. (2018), through the escalated experience in one's

role in teaching, educators automatically acquire more experience in their
professional development by developing their skills and facilities in teaching.
Seminar workshops and other conventions related to education are also
considered as part of the CPD undertaking. CPD is extensive since the progress
happens throughout the educators' professional cycle. In addition, CPD is
326
created to nurture the progress of the educators, which may be valuable for their
further professional advancement.
CPD and other forms of educators' advancements are based on the evolution in
teaching practices; thus, educators across all disciplines are expected to
comprehend and apply the finest instructional strategies, materials, and
methodologies that lead to the best results in teaching. Even though faculty
members at the university level are labelled as experts in their field of
specialization, many may not have been competent in teaching effectively. They
may be experts but do not know how to impart their knowledge or upgrade
their teaching skills. Faculty members' coaching and mentoring are disregarded
in higher education. However, many faculty members admit to their struggle
with their classroom teaching. The creation and assessment of CPD in the
universities may benefit the development of better instructional practices. They
may improve the capability of the faculty in dealing with the barriers to
imparting knowledge to the students. Facilitating the faculty members to
understand their roles as educators and boosting their confidence that they can
be effective educators are the fundamental aspects of CPD (Spoors, 2018).
The faculty’s credentials, skills, and proficiency are essential to quality

education. Given the educators’ significant role in driving positive results in
education, the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) stipulates that faculty
at the higher education level acquire a master's degree in their field of
specialization as a minimum teaching requirement, as stated by its CHED
Memorandum Order (CMO) No. 52, s. 2007. However, temporary appointments
are provided until the requisite master's degree is met or satisfied within a year
if there are no available professors in the region, place, or locale, as attested by
the appointing authorities. The temporary appointment made in the absence of a
competent faculty member may be renewed only five times, beginning with
issuing the first temporary appointment (Civil Service Commission, 2016).
The CPD is essential for constructing a solid base for an educational institution
to achieve quality education. CPD has constantly appeared as an urgent concern
in past and present research. The Philippines are incapable of competing with
other Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) heading to offering
innovative programmes and state-of-the-art technology unless the country
capitalizes on generating a pool of education experts (Education issues in the
Philippines: The ongoing struggle, 2021). This group of specialists will then be
able to impart knowledge and prepare the students for notable and rewarding
careers internationally. Based on the 2018 Programme for International Student
Assessment, the country ranked last in reading comprehension (340) and
second-lowest in mathematics (353). Among socioeconomically challenged
students, the country has the highest rate of low reading and mathematics
achievers (PISA, 2019). Currently, the faculties of more than 70,000 higher
educational institutions (HEIs) need to enhance their credentials and
competencies to upgrade the quality of teaching. Most student populations are
taught by faculty who have no more than the degree of qualifications they are
327
pursuing. Logically speaking, if the faculty credentials are low, it creates below
academic achievement standards among the students.
According to the LKMco and Pearson poll, the potential of making a difference
in the lives of students inspires 92 per cent of teachers to continue in the
classroom; thus, any additional opportunities to engage in refining and
expanding their CPD to maximize their effect in the classroom are likely to be
welcomed (Menzies et al., 2015). It was during the assessment year (AY) 2011-
2012 when the CMO No. 52, s. 2007 was fully employed. This CMO mandates all
HEI faculties to have a master's degree as a minimum requirement in teaching.
Therefore, it is necessary to encourage and assist the faculty in their obtaining
this CMO requirement.
Furthermore, the Professional Regulation Commission (PRC) of the Philippines

reinforces the CPD of CHED. In 2016, the requirement of CPD for the renewal of
Professional Regulation Commission (PRC) licenses was implemented. This new
recommendation is based on the approved Republic Act (RA) 10912 or CPD Act
of 2016, which requires all PRC-regulated license holders to earn CPD units
before ID renewal (PRC, 2016). The CPD seeks to upgrade the credentials and
skills of licensed professionals continually to sustain their competencies in their
field of expertise (Philippine Business School, 2018).
Even though the objective of the provision is excellent, there has been weight to
utilize CPD as an instrument to ensure that faculty adopts the government-
initiated reform. What educators are expected to perform as state employees, on
the other hand, frequently contradicts concepts of teaching as a profession
connected with academic independence, ethical norms, and shared knowledge.
One source of the issue is the disparity between educators' teaching philosophy
and government regulation (Umil, 2017).
There is a petition in the House of Representatives and the Senate of the

Philippines by the Alliance of Concerned Teachers (ACT) to abolish Republic
Act 10912 or the CPD Law. The petition is in support of "The Act Repealing
Republic Act 10912. The appeal was filed in Congress in February 2018
(Teachers Push for Abolition of CPD Law, 2018). The group intensely appeals to
the urgent extraction of the CPD Law for several sensible arguments that mirror
professionals' intelligent judgment, especially educators. Primarily, the group
claims that CPD is an unessential law. There is no need to fix something that is
not broken. Abolishing the CPD Law will immediately return things to a better
state. Backlogs in the PRC central office are time-consuming. There are high fees
for CPD accreditation applications and exorbitant expenses for self-directed CPD
activities. The CPD Law merely facilitates the system of renewing licenses more
costly (Casayuran & Terrazola, 2018).
Teachers must do significantly more work-related preparation before being

employed. Over-regulation may hamper the educational system. The senators
and members of Congress must focus on more critical problems of the country.
The additional assignment of the PRC to examine CPD activities is a misuse of
328
government funds. Most of the time, CHED and the Department of Education
regulate seminars and training for teachers without any charge.
Some Canadian states, such as Alberta and Manitoba, the state of New Jersey in
the US, and Hong Kong, grant teaching licenses without requiring necessary
CPD paperwork or processing costs to approve CPD activities. Their
governments justify that CPD activities are already part of the educational
system, which is true in the Philippines (San Juan et al., 2020). If the Philippine
government seeks quality education, the Senate and the Congress must consider
the following: higher salaries for teachers to appeal to more qualified teachers;
adequate funds for teacher education and institutionalization; and enhanced
systems for teacher engagement in curriculum development, budgeting, and the
appointment of administrators and officials, among others, from the ground up
(Rabacal et al., 2020).
According to the researchers, little attention has been dedicated to this

profession, and little empirical information is directly concerned with the
professional learning of 'this distinct occupational group' (Murray & Harrison,
2008). Teacher educators build and create their professional learning
opportunities and activities as part of their self-initiatives for CPD. Several
variables negatively impact teacher educators' attitudes and ability to undertake
CPD activities. These are the reasons why the current study sought to
investigate teacher educators' self-initiative in CPD and the problems they
confront along the way.
2. Method
2.1 Research Design
Systems for facilitating data collection were planned based on the study's
objective and scope. The descriptive study method was used to collect relevant
data from respondents using a validated and reliable questionnaire to determine
the teacher education faculty's CPD activities. The method is thought to be
reasonable for characterizing the nature of the phenomena using the observed
state and status of a few simple observable scenarios (Miksza & Elpus, 2018).
The descriptive cross-sectional design was used explicitly in the study. Marks
(2020) stressed that descriptive-cross-sectional design entailed gathering data to
answer questions about the subject's current status.
2.2 Respondents and Sampling Procedures

The Teacher Education faculty in Region 3 of the Republic of the Philippines
during the AY 2018- 2021 was taken as the study population. There were 521
teacher education faculties in the eleven (11) state universities and colleges used
in the study. The researcher employed Slovin's formula to identify the sample
size. With a 5% margin of error and 95% confidence level, 222 teachers became
the research respondents. The following are the numbers of respondents
grouped according to their ranks.
329
Table 1: Distribution of the respondents according to their academic ranks

Category N %
Academic Ranks Instructor 94 42.3
Assistant Professor 73 32.9
Associate Professor 55 24.8
Gender Male 98 44.1
Female 124 55.9
Ages 20s 15 6.8
30s 65 29.3
40s 75 33.8
50s 59 26.6
Over 60s 8 3.6
Total 222 100.0
2.3 Research Instrument

Following the New NBC 461 CCE Guidelines, the researchers created a
questionnaire survey. It is subdivided into three areas of investigation, and the
respondents were asked to rate the statements using a rating scale. Related
literature and studies also served as guides in developing the research
instrument. The variables in the New NBC 461 CCE Guidelines gave pertinent
and significant information that shed light on the study. The survey's questions
were appropriately structured in order for it to be both trustworthy and valid.
Questions were worded in straightforward, easy-to-understand sentences.
Answers to the survey were confirmed and enriched through informal
interviews. Three experts validated this. The first validator has a doctorate in
Educational Management and has been a part of the administration of a
university for ten years. The second validator taught in academia for 30 years
and holds a full professor academic rank. The last validator has been assigned to
evaluate the NBC of faculty members internally in their university.
The questionnaire's sections were as follows: the CPD pursued or availed by the
teacher education faculty; the reasons for pursuing or availing the CPD
programmes; and the challenges encountered by the teacher education faculty
on the CPD programs. In addition, the point system in the new NBC 461 CCE
Guidelines for Professional Development (Department of Budget and
Management, 2012) was adopted as follows:
Table 2: CPD programme points

Category Point
N
1. Innovations and inventions Educational 7
Technical 7
Scientific 7
Cultural value 7
2. Book publication part As original author 7
As reviewer 4
As editor 3
As co-author 3
As translator 4
330
As compiler 2
3. Scholarly research publications International 5
National/Regional 3
Local 2
4. Development of instructional manual and audio-visual materials 1
5. Training course with at least one year duration International 5
National/ Regional 3
Local 2
6. Participation in conferences seminars, and International 0.6
workshops National/ Regional 0.4
Local 0.2
7. Short-term consultancy or expert services in an International 5
activity of an educational, technological, National/ Regional 3
professional, scientific, or cultural nature sponsored Local 2
by the government or other agencies
8. Coordinator, lecturer, resource person, or guest International 5
speaker in conferences, workshops, and training National/ Regional 3
courses Local 2
9. Adviser to dissertation and thesis candidates Doctoral dissertation 1
Master’s thesis 0.5
Undergraduate thesis 0.25
10. Services in accreditation work membership Board of Directors 1
Technical Committee 1
Consultant group 1
11. Service in trade skill certification 1
13. Membership of relevant professional Learned Society 1
organizations Honours Society 1
Scientific Society 1
Professional 0.5
organization
14. Scholarship/Fellowship degree Doctorate (National/ 3
Regional)
Master’s (National/ 2
Regional)
Non-degree 1
15. Awards of distinction in recognition of International 5
achievement in areas of specialization National/ Regional 3
Local 2
16. Participation in community outreach or extension programme 1
17. Professional examination Teacher’s board 5
Other trade skills 1
certificate
2.4 Data Gathering Procedure

The researchers asked the help of the deans and department chairpersons to
administer the instrument to the respondents. An online survey was conducted
among the faculty, and a total of 230 copies were distributed. A total of 222
copies, excluding questionnaires with missing values, were used for analysis.
The data for the investigation was analyzed using the SPSS 22.0 statistic
software. Likewise, a one-way analysis of variance was performed to examine
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the difference in CPD points according to frequency analysis and teacher

education faculties' academic ranks.
2.5 Ethical Consideration

The respondents' consent was obtained, and the necessary authorization was
sought to use their provided data. The confidentiality of the replies was strictly
protected to safeguard the privacy of personal data. In addition, using any
secondary data from any source was recognized with proper reference. As a
result, the ethical element of the research was closely adhered to in this study.
3. Results
This section presents the data gathered through the faculty's questionnaire
responses. Data were tabulated, analysed, and interpreted according to the
statements of the problem.
3.1 Continuing Professional Development Availed by the Teacher Education

Faculty
CPD refers to developing extensive knowledge, ethical standards, and further
competencies in a post-licensure specialization for professional practice
integration, self-directed research, and lifelong learning. CPD programmes, on
the other hand, pertain to a range of undertakings recognized by the
Professional Regulation Commission (PRC) that mandates all regulated
professions, including the teacher profession, to earn CPD units before renewing
a professional license following Section 10 of the Republic Act No. 10912.
According to the regulation, all qualified educators should obtain 45 credit units
per three (3) years.
The NBC 461 Guidelines for Common Criteria for Evaluation (CCE) cites
examples of CPD programmes, namely innovations and inventions; book
publication; scholarly research publications; development of instructional
manual and audio-visual materials; training courses; participation in
conferences, seminars, and workshops; short-term consultancy or expert services
in a government and perhaps other agency-sponsored academic, technical,
professional, scientific, or cultural initiatives. In addition, CPD programmes also
include being a facilitator, lecturer, or resource person at conventions, seminars,
and training events; being an adviser to dissertations and theses; rendering
services in accreditation works; service in trade skill certification; being a coach,
sports trainer or adviser to academic papers; providing assistance with
accreditation projects or with trade skill certification; and being trainer, sports
coach, or adviser to a student association; affiliation in pertinent professional
societies. Furthermore, CPD criteria also include scholarship or fellowship;
awards of distinction in acknowledgement of accomplishments in areas of
expertise; participation in community outreach or extension programmes; and
professional examination (Department of Budget and Management, 2012).
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Table 3: Summary of the continuing professional development availed by the Teacher

Education Faculty
CPD Programmes Instructors Assistant Associate f Rank
Professors Professors
Participation in conferences, 477 417.6 394 1288.6 1
seminars and workshops
Professional examination 521 456 311 1288 2
Scholarly research publications 237 300 489 1026 3
Book publication 138 390 330 856 4
Participation in community 282 219 165 666 5
outreach or extension
programme
Membership in relevant 157 78 93 328 6
professional organizations
Adviser to theses 53.25 77 129 259.25 7
Coordinator, lecturer, resource 40 56 126 222 8.5
person or guest speaker in
conferences, workshops
and/or training courses
Services in trade skill 33 141 48 222 8.5
certification
Awards of distinction in 0 108 108 216 10
recognition of achievement in
areas of specialization
Scholarship/fellowship 0 63 21 84 11
Training course with at least 0 0 9 9 12
one year duration
Among all the CPD programmes for teacher education faculty, the most
frequently availed activities are participating in conferences, seminars, and
workshops with a total frequency of 1288.6. Second in rank is the professional
examination which obtained a 1288 frequency. Scholarly research publication is
also an area of high participation since it ranked third in the availed CPD
programmes.
However, opportunities to be recognized for the respondents' achievements in

their areas of specialization were scarce with only 216 frequencies. The
respondents did not take the risk of throwing their dice in scholarship or
fellowship. They are afraid of not finishing on time and suffering the
consequence of payback should their education not be completed in the given
time frame (Podolsky et al., 2016). Finally, the least popular among the CPD
programmes is a training course for at least one year. Growing professionally
but apart from their family is not one of their priorities (Tyagi & Misra, 2021).
3.2 Difference of the Teacher Education Faculty Members' Persistence in

Pursuing Continuing Professional Development among the Academic Ranks
Table 4 presents the overall summary of the result in pursuing or availing CPD
among the teacher education faculty.
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Table 4: Summary of the difference in persistence to avail CPD among the academic
ranks by ANOVA
CPD Programme Academic N M SD F p
Ranks (Sheffe)
Book publication A 94 1.47 3.36 19.946 .000
B 73 5.34 5.94 (A<B,C) Significant
C 55 6.00 5.48
Scholarly research A 94 2.52 3.32 52.920 .000
publication B 73 4.11 4.10 (A<B<C) Significant
C 55 8.89 3.70
Participation in A 94 5.07 1.09 34.2053 .000
conferences, seminars B 73 5.72 0.69 (A<B<C) Significant
and workshops C 55 7.16 2.52
Coordinator, lecturer, A 94 0.43 1.27 21.8245 .000
resource person or (A,B<C) Significant
B 73 0.77 0.98
guest speaker in
conferences, C 55 2.29 2.77
workshops, and/ or
training courses
Adviser to dissertation A 94 0.57 0.83 33.4981 .000
and thesis candidates B 73 1.05 1.47 (A,B<C) Significant
C 55 2.35 1.64
Service in trade skill A 94 0.35 0.48 41.4620 .000
certification B 73 1.93 1.45 (A<C<B) Significant
C 55 0.87 1.38
B 73 3.00 .00
C 55 3.00 .00
Membership of relevant A 94 1.67 .60 5.9930 .003
professional B 73 1.07 1.29 (B<A,C) Significant
organizations C 55 1.69 1.81
Scholarship/ A 94 .00 .00 16.6219 .000
fellowship B 73 0.86 1.43 (A,C<B) Significant
C 55 0.38 1.01
Awards of distinction A 94 0.00 0.00 30.0014 .000
in recognition of B 73 1.48 1.56 (A<B,C) Significant
achievement in areas of C 55 1.96 2.77
specialization
Participation in A 94 3.00 .00 0 Not
community outreach or B 73 3.00 .00 Significant
extension programme C 55 3.00 .00
Professional A 94 5.54 0.91 13.7097 .000
examination B 73 6.25 0.66 (A,C<B) Significant
C 55 5.65 1.11
Note: A: Instructor, B: Assistant Professor, C: Associate Professor
The research found significant differences among the academic ranks and in
most of the CPD programmes they have pursued. Furthermore, the highest
computed F value is 52.9198 in terms of the scholarly research publications. In
this programme, it was found that the number of publications significantly
increased in the order of associate professor, assistant professor, and instructor.
Among those CPD programmes with a significant difference, the lowest
computed F value is 5.9930, namely membership of relevant professional
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organizations. Only two CPD programmes do not have a significant difference

among the academic ranks. They are coaching, sports training or advising
student organizations, and participating in community outreach or extension
programmes.
3.3 Reasons for the Teacher Education Faculty’s Pursuing Continuing

Professional Development
Table 5 reveals the teacher education faculty members’ reasons for pursuing
CPD programmes. From the twelve (12) cited reasons, four (4) statements stood
out. They are that CPD programmes will enable the enhancement of their
employability; will promote people's confidence in individual experts and the
sector overall; will lead to better preservation and quality of life, the ecology,
stability, ownership, and commerce; and will allow them to renew professional
license to practice their academic profession. The teacher education faculty
members considered that these are the most essential reasons why they pursue
various different CPD programmes.
Table 5: Reasons for the Teacher Education Faculty for pursuing or availing
continuing professional development
Continuing professional development will… F Rank
enhance my employability. 222 2.5
increase my public confidence and 222 2.5
professionalism
contribute to improved protection and quality of 222 2.5
life, the environment, sustainability, property,
and the economy.
allow me to renew my license to practise my 222 2.5
profession.
ensure that I and my knowledge stay relevant 206 5.5
and up to date.
help me to stay interested and interesting. 206 5.5
maintain and enhance the knowledge and skills I 202 7
need to deliver a professional service to my
students and the community.
allow me to make meaningful contributions to 186 8
my institution.
deliver a deeper understanding of what it means 176 9
to be professional, along with a greater
appreciation of the implications and impacts of
my work.
enable me to evaluate my learning and recognize 155 10
its real value.
help advance the body of knowledge and 115 11
technology within my profession.
ensure my capabilities to keep pace with the 112 12
current standards of others in the same field.
CPD is an investment in career and development as a professional. Applying a

“return on investment” attitude to planning CPD is significant because it
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concentrates the faculty's thinking on the possible returns in terms of career

benefits from an investment of time, effort and funding. Keeping pace with
standards is a challenge. By correctly understanding and applying standards,
the group can face opportunities to create and uphold a competitive gain in the
educational sector.
However, it could be gleaned from the results that the least among the priorities
of the teacher education faculty members are the use of technology and pressure
to keep pace with the current standards of other fellow educators. One factor
that contributes to the skills gap for instructors is age. There is a substantial
disparity in how many recently trained instructors utilize ICT when matched for
anyone over 35. Compared to 68%of instructors over 45, 92% of post-primary
educators under the age of 35 reported using technology for planning. Teachers
are inhibited from enhancing their digital abilities for various reasons, including
age and a paucity of everyday practice. The obstacle might stem from a lack of
confidence in utilizing ICT for learning. This deviates from one of the critical
benefits of ICT skills for educators: the capacity to conduct classes more
effectively via digital tools.
Nevertheless, not all instructors agree that it may be beneficial to teaching. The
classroom has been slower to adapt to technological changes than other sectors.
Puttnam (2015) once stated that if one takes a brilliant surgeon from 1913 and
places him in an operating theatre today, there is nothing he could do but
contribute from his skill base. However, if a school places a 1913 educator in a
modern classroom, he or she could deliver something people will indeed all
acknowledge as a lesson throughout many areas of study (Comi et al., 2017).
3.4 Challenges Encountered by the Teacher Education Faculty in the

Continuing Professional Development Programmes
The challenges experienced by the faculty of teacher education are categorized
in four areas: challenges in the quality of CPD, work-related challenges, personal
challenges, and financial challenges.
Table 6: Challenges in the quality of CPD

Challenges in the Quality of CPD % Mean Verbal Description
Lack of high-quality external expertise Moderate
70.61 2.82 challenge
Limited authorized CPD providers Moderate
Poorly designed professional development Minor challenge
programmes 49.89 2.00
Too many one-off activities 53.94 2.16 Minor challenge
Too much listening/ no collaboration 61.15 2.45 Minor challenge
Grand Mean Average 2.47 Minor challenge
Table 6 presents the challenges of the teacher education faculty members

regarding the quality of the CPD component. The limited number of authorized
CPD providers reflected the highest mean of 2.92 (72.97%), with a verbal
description of the moderate challenge. The same verbal description applies to
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the lack of high-quality external expertise among trainers of the CPD

programmes, the mean of which is 2.82 or 70.61 %. The rest of the statements
under this area appeared to be minor challenges to the teacher education faculty
members. Overall, this component seems to pose a slight problem for the
respondents, for they only obtain a grand mean of 2.47 which represents a minor
challenge.
Professional growth is sporadic rather than consistent. This is typically due to

lack of qualified instructors, insecurity, and logistical difficulties. It might result
from policymakers’ misperception of who educators are and how they must
advance professionally. Educators with broad teaching experience might take it
out. Not coincidentally, instructors frequently believe the CPD is of poor quality
and unimportant – to be endured instead of appreciated.
Table 7: Work-related challenges

Work-Related Challenges % Mean Verbal Description
Conflicts with work schedule 100.00 4.00 Serious challenge
Lack of information dissemination about the 46.62 1.86 Minor challenge
CPD in the institution
Accountability pressures 50.68 2.03 Minor challenge
Lack of employer support Moderate
Bias of officials during the selection of 74.44 2.98 Moderate
participants challenge
Grand Mean Average 2.75 Moderate
challenge
In work-related challenges, the 222 teacher education faculty members (100%)

consider conflicts with work schedules a severe challenge in pursuing CPD.
However, the least among the challenges is the lack of information
dissemination about the CPD in their institutions. This garnered a computed
mean of 1.86 or 46.62% with a verbal description of the minor challenge. Another
difficulty for CPD for inclusive education in inclusive schools is a heavy
workload. Excessive duties in school restrict educators from the opportunity to
provide inclusive education. Teachers have much administrative work apart
from their role of teaching.
Table 8: Personal challenges

Personal Challenges % Mean Verbal Description
Not enough time for professional learning 100.00 4.00 Serious challenge
Conflicts with family responsibilities 100.00 4.00 Serious challenge
Feeling of drawbacks to change 45.95 1.84 Minor challenge
Obstacle on how to practically make the change 52.59 2.10 Minor challenge
Lack of self-motivation in career plan 52.25 2.09 Minor challenge
Grand Mean Average Moderate
2.81 challenge
Table 8 depicts the personal challenges of the teacher education faculty

members. This area consisted of two challenges that are considered severe by the
respondents. The insufficient time for professional learning and conflicts with
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family responsibilities are issues that prevent them from pursuing CPD. It is
correct to claim that time is "free," though it is challenging to have. Demands
imposed by different roles result in time conflict. Conflict emerges from role
friction when the stress caused while executing one task affects how a person
meets the demands of other responsibilities. Workplace stress can impact family
life at home and vice versa. Researchers recognize the connection between work
and family and consider two forms of conflict, namely work-family conflict and
family-work conflict. Despite being associated, the research findings reveal that
each has its causes and consequences. According to Mansour and Tremblay
(2016), individuals feel more work-family conflict than family-work conflict. As
a result, professional duties significantly impact family life more than family life
being affected by work demands. Defining features in the workplace may
conflict with the demands of families. The challenge of adjusting to these many
expectations might lead to conflict.
Table 9: Financial challenges

Financial Challenges % Mean Verbal Description
Costly registration fee 94.48 3.78 Serious challenge
Costly transportation expense 59.80 2.39 Minor challenge
Costly accommodation expense 47.41 1.90 Minor challenge
Lack of source of subsidy Moderate
Additional cost for PRC’s evaluation of 47.75 1.91 Minor challenge
certificates
Grand Mean Average 2.57 Moderate
challenge
Financial challenges are discussed in Table 9. The number one problem that the
teacher education faculty experienced is the costly registration fee of the
available CPD programmes with a 3.78 computed mean (serious challenge).
Accommodation expense is a lesser concern as it only gained a mean of 1.90 or
47.41%.
Respondents unanimously agreed that teachers' salaries should be addressed as

a vital component of the reform programme while examining the issues of
teacher professional development. The respondents reported that fundamental
survival requirements were not being satisfied, which harms the quality of
education they offer and ultimately undermines teaching sustainability. The
government spoke much about the education reform plan. Teachers, on the
other hand, were totally neglected (Lynch, 2020). Their concerns, anxieties, and
struggles went unnoticed. The financial situation of teachers is a complex one.
students have negative perceptions of the education sector when they watch
educators go hungry and look physically unattractive. Teachers do not intend to
remain in the profession because of low compensation the way in which the
profession is demeaned (With, 2017). Owing to this, most instructors are seeking
new careers and prospects. The objective of developing schools will not be
accomplished until the government reassesses the remuneration package for
teachers and provides economic and physical support to them. If teachers’
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wages are lower than those of other government employees, it is difficult to

recruit better applicants for the teacher education programme.
Table 10: Summary of challenges encountered by teacher education faculty in

continuing professional development programmes
CPD Challenges Mean Verbal Description
Challenges in the Quality of CPD 2.47 Minor challenge
Work-Related Challenges 2.75 Moderate challenge
Personal Challenges 2.81 Moderate challenge
Financial Challenges 2.57 Moderate challenge
As revealed in Table 10, the most troublesome among the challenges of the
teacher education faculty members pursuing CPD are the personal challenges
which obtained a mean of 2.81. This was followed by work-related challenges
with a mean of 2.75. The financial challenges came in at the third place the mean
of which is 2.57. All three areas were verbally described as moderate challenges.
On the other hand, the CPD programmes' quality is only a minor challenge to
the respondents. It only obtained a computed mean of 2.47. In 2015 the National
Teacher Enquiry Network received CPD practice audits and shared the same
issues with the present study. Their respondents complained about the
inadequate time for professional development, lack of collaboration with school
officials, and lack of qualified experts (Weston, 2015).
3.5 Proposed Action Plan to Address the Challenges Encountered by the

Teacher Education Faculty with Continuing Professional Development
Programmes
Table 12 presents the action plan that may be used to address the teacher
education faculty's challenges in the CPD programmes.
Table 11: Action plan to address challenges encountered by Teacher Education Faculty
with continuing professional development programmes
Expected
Persons
Objectives Strategies Outcomes/
Involved
Benefit
Challenges in the Quality of CPD
➢ To elevate the ➢ Categorize the needs of ➢ CHED ➢ Improved
quality standards the audience ➢ SUCs quality
of external ➢ Identify speakers who ➢ CPD standards of
experts have spoken at similar providers external
seminars and check their experts
curriculum vitae well
➢ Watch recordings of their
talks and compile a list of
ideal options
➢ To increase the ➢ Offer online format CPD ➢ CHED ➢ Increased the
number of courses ➢ SUCs number of
educational ➢ Encourage more CPD ➢ CPD educational
institutions providers to localize their providers institutions as
qualifying as training and seminars authorized
authorized CPD ➢ Post on the CHED CPD providers
providers website not only the
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topics, venue, and dates

of the CPD programmes
but also the cost of the
activity for options of the
teacher education faculty
Work-Related Challenges
➢ To strategize the ➢ Assign the teachers a ➢ CHED ➢ Strategized
schedule for maximum of two ➢ SUCs schedule of
work and CPD preparations in teaching ➢ College of work and
their subjects. Education CPD
➢ Lessen/Reduce? paper Deans
work of the faculty and
members Chairpers
➢ Avoid giving tasks to be ons
accomplished in a short ➢ Faculty
period (i.e., preparation members
for accreditation)
➢ To create ways ➢ Recognize and take pride ➢ SUCs ➢ Evident
on how SUCs in the efforts of the ➢ College of support of
will support their faculty pursuing or Education the SUCs in
faculty in their availing of CPD Deans the faculty's
pursuit of CPD programmes. and pursuit of
Chairpers CPD
ons
➢ Faculty
members
➢ To eliminate bias ➢ Create institutionalized ➢ SUCs ➢ Impartial
among officials CPD programme policies ➢ College of selection of
during the in consultation with the Education participants
selection of faculty members for Deans
participants equal access for everyone and
➢ Design innovative Chairpers
feedback mechanisms ons
➢ Faculty
members
Personal Challenges
➢ To gain time for ➢ Electronic online of ➢ CHED ➢ Appropriated
professional delivering CPD courses ➢ SUCs time for
learning professional
learning
➢ To avoid conflict ➢ Provide child care centres ➢ SUCs ➢ Balanced
with family among the institutions ➢ College of work and
responsibilities ➢ Management of work Education family
in pursuit of schedules Deans responsibiliti
CPD ➢ Plan and do things in and es
advance Chairpers
ons
➢ Faculty
members
Financial Challenges
➢ To eliminate the ➢ Deliver CPD in a flexible ➢ CHED ➢ Reasonably
costly form through online priced
340
registration fee learning ➢ SUCs registration

➢ Decrease the number of ➢ College of fees
required CPD credit units Education
➢ Establish or strengthen Deans
professional development and
services programme in Chairpers
the institution and ons
provide training and ➢ Faculty
consultations free of members
charge
➢ To find source of ➢ Reinforce solicitation ➢ SUCs ➢ Increased
subsidy from established ➢ College of subsidized
institutional linkages Education CPD
Deans opportunities
and
Chairpers
ons
➢ Faculty
members
CPD is an essential mechanism through which all new plans must work
effectively to become rooted rather than superficial. The traditional notions of
CPD and the contemporary preparations for categorizing and assessing the
programmes must reinforce the emergent compromise about the nature of a
proactive and up-to-date profession where faculty are considered one of the
essential resources in sustaining the professional development of their
colleagues.
The main target of CPD is to ensure that faculty are effective in their classroom
teaching to improve the students' learning outcomes. CPD is also necessary to
respond to the changing needs of the community. Based on the research of
Melesse and Gulie (2019) heightened professionalism among teachers through
CPD increases their overall morale as their teaching competence is enhanced.
The school administrators and CPD organizers must consider focusing on the
potentisal benefits of collaboration as they try to meet the demands and needs of
indifferent and discouraged faculty. Correspondingly, CPD must suit the
interests of the faculty to develop personalized learning. Ensuring collaboration
is present in curriculum planning and opening opportunities for team teaching
and debriefing are a few suggestions the administration may study.
The SUCs may want to evaluate CPD plans and prospects to safeguard the
opportunities among their faculty. After all, the success of the faculty is the
success of the institution. CPD is effective when the accountability is
collaborative. The initiative and the desire to learn continually must begin with
the educators themselves. Of all the professions, the educators must be the
principal advocates of lifelong learning, whether or not continuing education is
required.
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4. Conclusions and Implications

The following conclusions were developed based on the study findings. Firstly,
the participation of teacher education faculty members remains short in
advancing professionally. Secondly, although there may be law mandates for
all professionals to avail themselves of of CPD units, the faculty remained
unresponsive in their CPD engagement. More participation is projected from
teacher education faculty members with higher academic ranks. Thirdly, teacher
education faculty members believe that CPD will help improve their academic
status, knowledge, and financial stability. Finally, personal issues hinder a
faculty from advancing professionally.
The research implicates CPD's positive outcomes to the attitudes of the teacher
education faculty to regular evaluation of their profession on a sustained basis.
The research has shown that the faculty must be trained as educators. However,
many felt unprepared regarding field expertise, funding restrictions, and
evaluation of the efficacy of the CPD programmes. Where possible and
appropriate, the bulk of requirements and expenditures must be assessed so that
the faculty will not feel that complying with CPD is an additional burden. The
faculty with little or no interest in availing themselves of CPD should consider
creating opportunities to work with colleagues to participate in CPD
programmes. The buddy system is an excellent resource to encourage others to
improve professional development. The SUCs should consider harnessing the
available opportunities and resources in school for professional learning.
Research about CPD and associated interventions should consider integrating

and structuring pedagogy and CPD literature. Research in a similar field must
assess the programmes of the CPD and focus on the nature of the alterations in
pedagogic practices and the processes in CPD to provide research users with the
data required to operationalize the conclusions and recommendations.
Furthermore, the accountability of the programmes of the CPD should be
collective among all stakeholders.
5. Limitations
First, this study was difficult to generalize because it targeted only the state
universities and colleges of Region III. As a result, broadening the area of study
in follow-up studies is essential. Second, this study focused on the actual
situation of professional reinforcement of faculty and staff. In a follow-up study,
it is necessary to verify the differences in expertise according to the demographic
characteristics of the study subjects. Furthermore, it is necessary to conduct a
comparative study on the professional development of university faculty and
staff in each country in the follow-up study.
6. Recommendations
This study is significant since it examined the CPD of the teacher education
faculty. Thus, it is recommended to have a specific CPD programme execution
plan. Quality improvement should be a key focus and a core component of any
CPD programme. Teachers are continually improving their practice to optimize
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new technology and knowledge. CPD should allow them to evaluate their
practice (preferably using their practice data), make improvements based upon
standard practice guidelines or best evidence, and implement remedies to
identified needs into their everyday practice. The entire CPD process should
attest to the satisfactory maintenance of all core competencies deemed necessary
for an individual to practise as a specialist in education. Ultimately, it should
attest to the teacher's commitment to improving practice and professional
responsibilities.
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IJLTER.

Society for Research and Knowledge Management

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational

Aims and Objectives

The main objective of this journal is to provide a platform for educators,

Indexing and Abstracting

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational

We are very happy to publish this issue of the International Journal of

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational

We are grateful to the editor-in-chief, members of the Editorial Board

The Editorial Board is composed of renowned people from across the

We will endeavour to ensure the reputation and quality of this journal

Editors of the June 2022 Issue

Mental Health and Wellbeing of Secondary School Teachers in Malaysia ................................................................... 50

E-learning Outcomes during the COVID-19 Pandemic ................................................................................................. 160

A Survey of Teachers’ Perceptions of a Learning Portfolio in Lesotho Classrooms .................................................. 194

Entrepreneurship Education in Ghana: A Case Study of Teachers’ Experiences ....................................................... 270

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

Effectiveness of Virtual Laboratories in Teaching

Albert Paulo Tarmo

Abstract. Scholars have debated whether virtual laboratories are

Keywords: Biology topics; computer simulations; learning outcomes;

Virtual lab technologies were proposed by the National Science Foundation’s

1. In which topics of biology are virtual laboratories the most useful?

1.2 Theoretical Context

2.1. Literature Search

2.2 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

Table 1: Inclusion and exclusion criteria used to select relevant studies

The screening of titles and abstracts yielded 38 publications. The publications

Figure 1: PRISMA diagram of the selection process of the reviewed studies

3. Results and Discussion

17 Muhamad et al. Cell division Student understanding of cell

3.2. Topics in Which Virtual Labs are the Most Useful

It is not by coincidence that the identified topics in Figure 2 employ virtual

3.3. Learning Outcomes Enhanced by the Use of Virtual Laboratories

Lea rning o ut co me Numbe r o f rev iew ed studies

Motivation, perceptions, and attitudes 5

Laboratory skills, knowledge transfer, and self

Knowledge/ conceptual understanding 21

Figure 3: Learning outcomes identified in the reviewed studies

3.3.1 Knowledge and conceptual understanding

Furthermore, biology is a molecular science; most of its topics require

3.3.2 Laboratory skills, knowledge transfer, and self-efficacy in laboratory activities

4. Conclusion and Recommendation

Griffin, J. D. (2003). Technology in the teaching of neuroscience: Enhanced student

Biology Education, 10(1), 51-57.

laboratory class. Evolution: Education and Outreach, 10(1), 1-16.

for pedagogy. Research in Science Education, 44(2), 307-333.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

Mindset and Levels of Conceptual Understanding in

Abstract. Mindset plays a vital role in tackling the barriers to improving

solving in an online environment where PMTs with a growth mindset

Keywords: conceptual understanding; growth mindset; mathematics

TEIs in the locality suspended face-to-face classes and limited academic

As an academic institution that trains and prepares preservice teachers, Central

4. Is there a significant difference in the PMTs’ levels of conceptual

PMT's conceptual understanding of problem-solving also has implications for

The socio-demographic characteristics such as sex, number of siblings, birth order,

mindset and conceptual understanding are essential in mathematics education,

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework of the Study

3.2. Participants and Sampling Procedure

Table 1: Participants’ socio-demographic characteristics (n = 45)

3.3. Research Instrument