ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

Addis Ababa Institute of Technology

Center of Ethio-Mine Development

Assignment of petroleum geophysics

Assignment three (3)

Prepared by: yimam ali

ID No: GSR/4388/14

Submitted to: Dr.Ketsela Tadesse

2022

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

 The assignment questions of petroleum geophysics with answers

1. Explain the similarities of Gravity and Magnetic methods. List three

similarities

 Geophysical investigations employing observations of the earth's magnetic field have much

in common with those employing observations of the earth's gravitational field. Thus, you

will find that your previous exposure to, and the intuitive understanding you developed from

using, gravity will greatly assist you in understanding the use of magnetics. In particular,

some of the most striking similarities between the two methods include:

 Geophysical exploration techniques that employ both gravity and magnetics are

passive. By this, we simply mean that when using these two methods we measure a naturally

occurring field of the earth: either the earths gravitational or magnetic fields. Collectively,

the gravity and magnetics methods are often referred to as potential methods, and the

gravitational and magnetic fields that we measure are referred to as potential fields*.

 Identical physical and mathematical representations can be used to understand

magnetic and gravitational forces. For example, the fundamental element used to define

the gravitational force is the point mass. An equivalent representation is used to define the

force derived from the fundamental magnetic element. Instead of being called a point mass,

however, the fundamental magnetic element is called a magnetic monopole. Mathematical

representations for the point mass and the magnetic monopole are identical.

 The acquisition, reduction, and interpretation of gravity and magnetic observations are

very similar.Both gravitational and the magnetic forces are known as conservative forces.

This property relates to work being path independent. 

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2. The magnetic field can be broken into three separate components. List and
explain them.

Magnetic field components can be obtained by calculating the projection of the magnetic field

H(r,θ,z)along the three defined axes ur, uθ and uz. We obtain the magnetic components Hr(r, θ,

z), Hθ(r, θ, z) and Hz(r, θ, z). It is noted that the azimuthal component Hθ(r, θ, z) is fully

analytical whereas the radial and axial components use elliptic integrals.

1) Radial Component Hr(r, θ, z)

2) Azimuthal Component Hθ(r, θ, z)

3) Axial Component Hz(r, θ, z)

Fig: Representation of the geometry considered. The tile inner radius is r1; the tile outer radius is

r2; its height is h = z2 −z1 and its angular width is θ2 − θ1.

Radial Component Hr(r, θ, z)

The radial component Hr(r, θ, z) is given by:

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Where:

The function f(a, b, c, u) verifies:

With:

And the special functions E∗, F∗ and Π∗ are the elliptic functions

Azimuthal Component Hθ(r, θ, z)

The azimuthal component Hθ(r, θ, z) is given by:

Axial Component Hz(r, θ, z)

The axial component Hz(r, θ, z) is given by:

With:

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3. Explain the advantages of Aeromagnetic survey.

 An aeromagnetic survey is a common type of geophysical survey carried out using a

magnetometer aboard behind an aircraft. The principle is similar to a magnetic survey

carried out with a hand-held magnetometer, but allows much larger areas of the earth’s

surface to be covered quickly for regional reconnaissance.

 An aeromagnetic surveys, in conjunction with other geophysical methods, are used to help in

geological mapping, structural geology mapping, environmental and groundwater studies,

3D geological modeling, mineral exploration, and petroleum exploration.

 The surveying is developed in 1930’s after the development of flux gate magnetometers.

 It requirements:

1. Continuously measuring and highly sensitive instruments

2. Positioning of the readings (Aerial photography, GPS, etc.)

3. Magnetic effects of the air craft (generated in the engine & other moving part must be

avoided.

4. Flight altitude

 50 to 75 m => for mineral exploration

 up to 2 kms => for oil exploration

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5. Flight pattern

 The flight lines are closed contour loops.

 Their spacing depends on the coast and scale of the survey (detail or regional surveys).

Advantages of Aeromagnetic surveys

 The following are some of the advantages of aeromagnetic surveys;

1. Large area coverage in a relatively short time; rapid coverage of a large area, if the area is

large and ground access difficult, less affected by ferrous objects, anomalies are smaller and less

sharp.

 By the use of the aeromagnetic survey the data can be interpreting and analyzing in the short

period of time for the given huge area, which is important to minimize the cost of the

professional works.

 The method is allows much larger areas of the earth’s surface to be covered quickly for

regional reconnaissance.

 The air craft typically flies in a grid like pattern with height and line spacing determining the

resolution of the data (and cost of the survey per unit area).

2. For extensive areas, the field cost compared to ground magnetic surveys is less (cheap):

 The aeromagnetic survey is less costly than the other geophysical methods such as gravity

and magnetic methods.

 It is also less expensive, which is relative to the other geophysical surveys.

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 This method has its own role for the decrement of the level of costs relative to the ground

magnetic surveys, so that costs are lower than those of any geophysical land survey for a

large area.

3. Survey over inaccessible areas like dense forests, swamps, etc can be carried out

 These survey make it possible to effectively cover large areas that may be inaccessible or

even dangerous without requiring any line cutting, there by dramatically reducing overhead

so that costs are lower than those of any geophysical land survey for a large area.

 How ever, the resolution they provide is lower than that of terrestrial geophysical survey.

4. Near surface artificial features like buildings, pipes don’t produce anomalies (noises) in

the records

 In this case, there is no the gravity difference between the geological formation materials

around the features and the magnetic susceptibility between the materials are also not

observed.

 There is no the formation of the positive and the negative charged poles between the

materials around the features.

 The density difference between the artificial features are form the gravity anomalies.

4. Define induced magnetization.

 When a magnetic material, say iron, is placed within a magnetic field, H the magnetic
material will produce its own magnetization. This phenomenon is called induced
magnetization.
 In practice the induced magnetic field (that is the one produced by the magnetic
material) will look like it is being created by a series of magnetic dipoles located

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 within the magnetic material and oriented parallel to the direction of the inducing
field.
 The strength of the magnetic field induced from the magnetic material by the
inducing field is called the Intensity of Magnetization (I).
 The intensity of magnetization is related to the strength of the inducing magnetic field
through a constant of proportionality known as the Magnetic Susceptibility.

I = M/V where I is intensity of magnetization, M is magnetic moment, and V is

volume.

 The intensity of magnetization (I) is related to the strength of the inducing magnetic
field (H) through a constant of proportionality (k) known as the Magnetic Susceptibility.
I = KH

Where (H) can be changed by Varying the coil current (i ) Values of I corresponding to Small changes in
H are plotted along a straight line.

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  The magnetic susceptibility (K) of the substance indicates the materials capacity to
acquire magnetism.

 From the graph, by reducing H to zero, I also become zero.

 This implies no permanent magnetism is retained.
- This kind of magnetism, which is directly proportional to the magnetizing field is called
Induced Magnetism.
 Induced magnetism is the process used to induce magnetism in ordinary pieces of magnetic
material by external influence. It is one of the ways used to turn magnetic materials such as
iron and steel into magnets.
 This magnetic character is induced on the objects and it is removed when the permanent
magnet is removed.
 It is the temporary magnetism acquired by a magnetic material when it is placed near a
magnet.
Mechanisms for induced magnetization

The nature of magnetization material is in general complex, governed by atomic properties, and
well beyond the scope of this series of notes. Suffice it to say, there are three types of magnetic
materials: paramagnetic, diamagnetic, and ferromagnetic.

 Diamagnetism -This form of magnetism is a fundamental property of all materials and is

caused by the alignment of magnetic moments associated with orbital electrons in the
presence of an external magnetic field. For those elements with no unpaired electrons in

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 their outer electron shells, this is the only form of magnetism observed. The susceptibilities
of diamagnetic materials are relatively small and negative. Quartz and salt are two common
diamagnetic earth materials.

 Paramagnetism - This is a form of magnetism associated with elements that have an odd
number of electrons in their outer electron shells. Paramagnetism is associated with the
alignment of electron spin directions in the presence of an external magnetic field. It can
only be observed at relatively low temperatures. The temperature above which
paramagnetism is no longer observed is called the Curie Temperature. The susceptibilities
of paramagnetic substances are small and positive.

 Ferromagnetism - This is a special case of paramagnetism in which there is an almost

perfect alignment of electron spin directions within large portions of the material referred to
as domains. Like paramagnetism, ferromagnetism is observed only at temperatures below
the Curie temperature. There are three varieties of ferromagnetism.

 Pure Ferromagnetism - The directions of electron spin alignment within each domain are
almost all parallel to the direction of the external inducing field. Pure ferromagnetic
substances have large positive susceptibilities. Ferromagnetic minerals do not exist, but iron,
cobalt, and nickel are examples of common ferromagnetic elements.

 Antiferromagnetism - The directions of electron alignment within adjacent domains are

opposite and the relative abundance of domains with each spin direction is approximately
equal. The observed magnetic intensity for the material is almost zero. Thus, the

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 susceptibilities of antiferromagnetic materials are almost zero. Hematite is an
antiferromagnetic material.

 Ferromagnetism - Like antiferromagnetic materials, adjacent domains produce magnetic

intensities in opposite directions. The intensities associated with domains polarized in a
direction opposite that of the external field, however, are weaker. The observed magnetic
intensity for the entire material is in the direction of the inducing field but is much weaker
than that observed for pure ferromagnetic materials. Thus, the susceptibilities for
ferromagnetic materials are small and positive. The most important magnetic minerals are
ferromagnetic and include magnetite, titanomagnetite, and ilmenite.

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 5. List the five basic magnetic interpretation approaches.

Interpretation of magnetic anomalies

 The interpretation of magnetic anomalies is similar in its procedures and limitations to

gravity interpretation as both techniques utilize natural potential fields based on inverse
square laws of attraction.

Data interpretation

 Problems and errors in interpretation

1. Magnetisation

 Large anomalies tend not to reflect major lateral changes in structure, as they do in gravity,
rather lateral changes in rock susceptibility.

 The basement ridge is important for assessing the oil potential of the sedimentary basement,
but the change in susceptibility is of no consequence.

2. Ambiguity

 The ambiguity problem is the same for magnetic surveying as it is for gravity.

 There is ambiguity between size and distance. In the case of magnetic the problem is much
worse, as there are many other ambiguities, e.g., between the direction of the body
magnetization and the dip of the Earth’s field.

Approaches to interpretation
 There are five basic approaches:

1. Qualitative

2. Parametric

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3. Forward modelling

4. Inverse methods

5. Data enhancement

1. Qualitative interpretation

 It is important to be careful not to intuitively assume that magnetic topography equates to

physical topography.

 Magnetic topography reflects the lithology, not the dimensions of bodies, Because there are
positive and negative poles, and also because the magnetic field is a vector field, there are
positive and negative parts of magnetic anomalies.

2. Parametric interpretation

 The method is based on defining the anomaly value at the origin and the characteristic points
and their corresponding distances on the anomaly profile.

 In both cases, the method parameters obtained by the present method particularly the shape
and depth of the buried structures.

3. Forward modelling

 Is the methods that used to predict what would observe and use a comparison of those
predictions to the magnetic data to infer the model parameters.

4. Inverse methods

 Is the method where it use the features of the magnetic data to estimate a set of underlying
the parameters of the physical model of what is going on.

5. Data enhancement

 The enhancements of magnetic field data are processing operations designed to

preferentially accentuate the expression of a selected magnetization at the expense of others.

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