1st Lesson - Introduction - Structural analysis is the prediction of the

Structural Engineering performance of a given structure under

prescribed loads and/or other external effects,
- The science and art of planning, designing,
such as support movements and temperature
and constructing safe and economical
changes.
structures that will serve their intended
purpose. - The performance characteristics commonly of
interest in the design of structures are:
Phases of a Typical Structural Engineering
Project (1) Stresses or stress resultants such as axial
forces, shear forces and bending moments
1. Planning Phase
(2) Deflections, and
2. Preliminary Structural Design
(3) Support Reactions
3. Estimation of Loads
Structure - refers to a system of connected
4. Structural Analysis
parts used to support a load. Important
(Are they safely and serviceability requirement
examples related to civil engineering include
satisfied?)
buildings, bridges, and towers;
5. Construction Phase
When designing a structure to serve a
Flowchart: specified function for public use, the engineer
must account for its safety, esthetics, and
serviceability, while taking into
consideration economic and environmental
constraints. Often this requires several
independent studies of different solutions
before final judgment can be made as to which
structural form is most appropriate. This design
process is both creative and technical and
requires a fundamental knowledge of material
properties and the laws of mechanics which
govern material response. Once a preliminary
design of a structure is proposed, the structure
must then be analyzed to ensure that it has its
required stiffness and strength.

Classifications of Structures
Structural Analysis
1. Tension Structures - Compression structures develop mainly

- The members of tension structures are compressive stresses under the action of

subjected to pure tension under the action of external loads.

external loads. - Two common examples of such structures

- Tension structures composed of flexible steel are columns and arches.

cables are frequently employed to support

bridges and long-span roofs.

4. Columns

- Members that are generally vertical and resist

2. Tie Rods axial compressive loads are referred to as

- Structural members subjected to a tensile columns, Fig. 1–4. Tubes and wide-flange

force are often referred to as tie rods or cross sections are often used for metal

bracing struts. Due to the nature of this load, columns, and circular and square cross

these members are rather slender, and are sections with reinforcing rods are used for

often chosen from rods, bars, angles, or those made of concrete. Occasionally, columns

channels. are subjected to both an axial load and a

bending moment as shown in the figure. These
members are referred to as beam columns.

3. Compression Structures
5. Cables and Arches
- Two other forms of structures used to span
long distances are the cable and the arch.
Cables are usually flexible and carry their
loads in tension The Arch achieves its strength
in compression, since it has a reverse
curvature to that of the cable. The arch must be
rigid, however, in order to maintain its shape,
and this results in secondary loadings involving
shear and moment, which must be considered
in its design. Arches and cables are frequently
used in bridge structures.
6. Trusses
- Trusses are composed of straight members
connected at their ends by hinged connections
to form a stable configuration.
- Such structures are used in a variety of
applications, ranging from supporting roofs of
buildings to serving as support structures in
space stations
- When the span of a structure is required to be
large and its depth is not an important criterion
for design, a truss may be selected. Planar
trusses are composed of members that lie in
the same plane and are frequently used for
bridge and roof support, whereas space
trusses have members extending in three
dimensions and are suitable for derricks and
towers. Due to the geometric arrangement of
its members, loads that cause the entire truss
to bend are converted into tensile or
compressive forces in the members.
7. Shear Structures
- Shear structures, such as reinforced concrete
shear walls, are used in multi story buildings to
reduce lateral movements due to wind loads
and earthquake excitations.

- Shear structures develop mainly in-plane

shear, with relatively small bending stresses
under the action of external loads

9. Beams

- Beams are usually straight horizontal

members used primarily to carry vertical loads.
Quite often they are classified according to the
way they are supported, as indicated in Fig. 1-
2.

8. Bending Structures

- Bending structures develop mainly bending

stresses under the action of external loads.

- Some of the most commonly used structures,

such as beams, rigid frames, slabs and plates,
can be classified as bending structures.
- When the material used for a beam is a metal
such as steel or aluminum, the cross section is
most efficient when it is shaped as shown in
Fig. 1–3. Here the forces developed in the top
and bottom flanges of the beam form the
necessary couple used to resist the applied
moment M, whereas the web is effective in
resisting the applied shear V.

10. Frames

Frames are often used in buildings and are

composed of beams and columns that are
either pin or fixed connected, Fig. 1–7. Like
trusses, frames extend in two or three
dimensions. The loading on a frame causes
bending of its members, and if it has rigid joint
connections, this structure is generally
“indeterminate” from a

standpoint of analysis. The strength of such a

frame is derived from the moment interactions
between the beams and the columns at the
rigid joints.
 for the design lies with the structural
engineer.

(Refer to CHAPTER 2 – Minimum Design

Loads of NSCP 2015 for the parameters and
Specifications used by Structural Engineers in
the Philippines)

Gravity Loads - The vertical loads, due mainly

to the occupancy, self-weight and snow or rain,
are commonly referred to as gravity loads.

Dead Loads - consist of the weights of the

various structural members and the weights of
any objects that are permanently attached to
the structure. The values for dead loads are
2nd Lesson – Loads of Structures
shown in NSCP Section 204, Tables 204-1 and
- Once the structural form has been 204-2 for common material densities and
determined, the actual design begins with minimum design dead loads for common
those elements that are subjected to the components.
primary loads the structure is intended to carry,
Live Loads - can vary both in their magnitude
and proceeds in sequence to the various
and location. They may be caused by the
supporting members until the foundation is
weights of objects temporarily placed on a
reached. Thus, a building floor slab would be
structure, moving vehicles, or natural forces.
designed first, followed by the supporting
NSCP Section 204, Table 205-1 provides
beams, columns, and last, the foundation
recommended design live loads depending on
footings. In order to design a structure, it is
the use of the space.
therefore necessary to first specify the loads
that act on it.

National Structural Code of the Philippines

2015

Design codes

- provide detailed technical standards and are

used to establish the requirements for the
actual structural design. It should be realized,
however, that codes provide only a general
guide for design. The ultimate responsibility
 Lateral Loads - the horizontal loads, induced
mainly by wind and earthquake are called
lateral loads.

Wind Loads - When structures block the flow

of wind, the wind’s kinetic energy is converted
into potential energy of pressure, which causes
a wind loading. The effect of wind on a
structure depends upon the density and
velocity of the air, the angle of incidence of the
wind, the shape and stiffness of the structure,
and the roughness of its surface.

Earthquake Loads - Earthquakes produce

loadings on a structure through its interaction
with the ground and its response
characteristics. These loadings result from the
structure’s distortion caused by the ground’s
motion and the lateral resistance of the
Gravity Loads
structure.
Snow and Rain Loads - In some parts of the
Example 1. The W8x15 steel floor beam (self weight =
country, roof loading due to snow or rain can
15 lb/ft) in the figure is used to support the 6-ft width of
be quite severe, and therefore protection
a reinforced concrete slab having a thickness of 4 in.
against possible failure is of primary concern.
The slab serves as a portion of the ceiling for the floor
Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure - When
below, and therefore its bottom is coated with plaster.
structures are used to retain water, soil, or
Furthermore, an 8-ft-high, 12- in.-thick clay brick wall is
granular materials, the pressure developed by
directly over the top flange of the steel beam.
these loadings becomes an important criterion
Determine the loading on the steel beam measured per
for their design.
foot of length of the beam.
Impact Loads - When live loads are applied
rapidly to a structure, they cause larger
stresses than those that would be produced if
the same loads would have been applied
gradually. The dynamic effect of the load that
causes this increase in stress in the structure is
referred to as impact.