Chapter Four:

Review of Related Literature

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
Topics
• Introduction
• Need of Review of Literature
• Objectives of Literature review
• Principles and Procedure for the review of
literature
• Steps in conducting literature review
• Sources of Review of literature
By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 According to John W. Best
• “Practically all human knowledge can be
found in books and libraries . Unlike other
animals that must start a new with each
generation , man builds upon the
accumulated and recorded knowledge of
the past . His/her constant adding to the
vast store knowledge makes possible
progress in all areas of human endeavor.”
By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Introduction
A literature review is a survey and
discussion of the literature in a given area of
study.
It is a concise overview of what has been
studied, argued, and established about a
topic, and it is usually organized
chronologically or thematically.

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Needs of Review of Literature
A. To review research done previously in the particular
area of interest and relevant area quantitative and
qualitative analysis of this research usually gives the
researcher an indication of the direction.

B. It is very essential for every investigator to be up-to-

date in his/her information about the literature ,
related to his/her own problem already done by
others. It is considered the most important pre-
requisite to actual planning and conducting the study.

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Cont..
C. It avoids the replication of the study of findings to take an advantages from
similar or related literature as regards , to methodology , techniques of
data collection, procedure adopted and conclusions drown. He/she
can justify his own endeavor in the field.

D. It provides as source of problem of study , an analogy may be drawn for

identifying and selecting his/her own problem of research

E. The researcher formulates his/her hypotheses on the basis of the

review of literature .

F. It also provides the rationale for the study .

G. The results and findings of the study can also be discussed at length.

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Objectives of Literature Review
 It provides theories ,ideas, explanations or hypotheses which
may prove useful in the formulation of a new problem.

 It provides the sources for hypotheses . The researcher can

formulate research hypotheses on the basis of available studies.

 It locates comparative data and findings useful in the

interpretation and discussion of results. The conclusions drown in
the related studies may be significantly compared and may be
used as the subject for the findings of the study.

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Cont..
It indicates whether the evidence already available
solves the problem adequately without requiring
further investigation or not . It avoids the replication.

It enable the researcher to locate his/her project

within current debates and viewpoints;

It help you to analyze your findings and discuss

them with rigor and scholarship.

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Functions of the review of literature
1. The conceptual frame of reference for the contemplated
research.

2. An understanding of the status of research in problem area.

3. Clues to the research approach , method, instrumentation and

data analysis.

4. An estimate of the probability of success of the contemplated

research and the significance or usefulness of the findings and ,
assuming the decision is made to continue and

5. Specific information required to interpret the definitions ,

assumptions, limitations and hypotheses of research.
By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Principles and Procedures for the Review of
Literature

 It is generally advisable to get first and overall view by consulting

a general source ,i.e. text book which is more likely to provide
the meaning and nature of the concepts and variables or
theoretical framework of the field.

 The investigator should review the empirical researches of the

area. The best reference for this phase is the handbook of
research. Encyclopedia of business research, the review of
business research and international abstract for more up to-
date findings.

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Cont..
The researcher should take note
systematic and through. The
investigator generally should start by
collecting his/her references from
books and internet.

The investigator should take as

complete notes as he might need . The
useful and necessary material should
be recorded precisely .

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Cont..
 Surveying the literature for the purpose of conducting
research is precise and extracting task of locating
specific information for the specific purpose.

 The actual note taking process is always a difficult task

for the researcher. He/she has to spend long hours in
the library taking notes by hand . It is very tedious job .
He/she should make use of the facilities available in
the library for this purpose.

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 STEPS IN CONDUCTING A LITERATURE REVIEW
• A literature review for a proposal or a research study
means locating and summarizing the studies about a topic.
Often these summaries are research studies , but they may
also include conceptual articles or thought pieces that provide
fireworks for thinking about topics.

• There is no one way to conduct a literature review, but

many scholar proceed in a systematic fashion to capture,
evaluate and summarize the literature.

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Step1:
• To identify key words useful in locating
material in an academic library at a college or
university. These key words may emerge in
identifying and topic, or they may result
from preliminary readings in the library.

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Step 2:
• Next go to the library and begin searching the library
catalog for holdings (i.e. journals and books).

• The researcher should focusing initially on journals

and books related to the topic and also beginning to
search the computerized databases typically reviewed
by business researcher. These databases are available
online using the library’s Web site, or they may be available
on CD-ROM in a library.

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Step 3:
• The researcher initially try to locate about reports of
research in article or books related to research on his/her topic,
set a priority on the search for journal article and books
because they are easy to locate and obtain.

• He/she would determine whether these articles and books

are held in academic library or whether he need to send for
them by interlibrary loan or purchase them through a
bookstore.

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Step 4:
• Using this initial group of articles, He/she would
then look at the articles and photocopy those that
are central to the topic. In the selection process,
He would look over the abstract and skim the
article or chapter.
• Throughout this process, He/she would try
simply to obtain a sense of whether the article or
chapter will make a useful contribution to his
understanding of the literature.

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Step 5:
• As identify useful literature, he/she should
designing his/her literature map, a visual picture
of the research literature on the topic. Several
possibilities exist for drawing this map. This
picture provides a useful organizing
device for positioning his/her study within the
larger body of the literature on a topic.

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Step 6:
• Researcher should begin to draft
summaries of the most relevant articles.
These summaries are combined into the
final literature review that he/she need for
proposal or research study.

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Step 7:
• After summarizing the literature, assemble the literature review,
in which researcher structure the literature thematically or
organize it by important concepts addressed in the study.

• he/she would end his literature review with a summary of the

major themes found in the literature and suggest that he need
further research on the topic along the lines of his/her proposed
study.

• To build on key points in these seven process steps,

researcher will first consider techniques useful in accessing the
literature quickly through databases.
By Dr. Fekadu Y.
Sources of Review of literature

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
1. Books and Text books material

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 2. Periodicals
I. A periodical is defined as a publication issued in
successive parts ,usually at regular intervals, and as a
rule ,intended to be continued indefinitely .
II. These includes Yearbook, Documents , Almanacs, The
Cumulative Books Index, International Abstracts,
Journals, Newspapers, Magazines, International index to
periodicals.
III. Periodicals are generally placed in open shelves in the
periodical room. Their effective use is predicted on the
use of an index to identify the articles on subject matter
under the study.

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 3. Abstracts

 one of the most important reference guide is abstracts, review ,or

digest. In addition to provide a systematized list of reference
sources, it includes a summary of the contents.
 Usually the brief summaries of research studies are given in the
form of abstract i.e. Business Abstracts , Educational Abstracts

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 4.Encyclopedias

 Encyclopedias provides concise information

on a number of subjects written by specialists.
They provide a convenient source of
information , and often includes illustrations
and bibliographies.
 Only specialized encyclopedias deal with
restricted area of knowledge.

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
5. Specialized Dictionaries

6. Dissertations and Theses

7. Newspaper

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Chapter Five

Research Design

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
Topics
• What is Research design?
• Need for Research Design
• Features of a Good Research Design
• Important Concepts and Components Related
to Research Design

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 What is Research design?
• The formidable problem that follows the task
of defining the research problem is the
preparation of the design of the research
project, popularly known as the “research
design”.
• Decisions regarding what, where, when, how
much, by what means concerning an inquiry
or a research study constitute a research
design.
By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 …cont’d
• “A research design is the arrangement of
conditions for collection and analysis of data
in a manner that aims to combine relevance to
the research purpose with economy in
procedure.”
• In fact, the research design is the conceptual
structure within which research is conducted;
it constitutes the blueprint for the collection,
measurement and analysis of data.

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Cont’d
More explicitly, the design decisions happen to be
in respect of:
• What is the study about?
• Why is the study being made?
• Where will the study be carried out?
• What type of data is required?
• Where can the required data be found?
• What periods of time will the study include?
• What will be the sample design?
• What techniques of data collection will be used?
• How will the data be analysed?
• In what style will the report be prepared?
By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 ….cont’d
In brief, research design must, at least, contain:
• (a) a clear statement of the research problem;
• (b) procedures and techniques to be used for
gathering information;
• (c) the population to be studied; and
• (d) methods to be used in processing and
analysing data.

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN
• it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various
research operations, thereby making research as
efficient as possible yielding maximal information
with minimal expenditure of effort, time and
money.
• stands for advance planning of the methods to
be adopted for collecting the relevant data and
the techniques to be used in their analysis,
• helps the researcher to organize his/her ideas in
a form whereby it will be possible for him/her to
look for flaws and inadequacies.
By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 An efficient and
appropriate design must
be prepared before
starting research
operations.
By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 FEATURES OF A GOOD DESIGN
• The design which minimises bias and maximises
the reliability of the data collected and analysed
is considered a good design.
• The design which gives the smallest experimental
error is supposed to be the best design in many
investigations.
• A design which yields maximal information and
provides an opportunity for considering many
different aspects of a problem is considered most
appropriate and efficient design in respect of
By Dr. Fekadu Y.
many research problems.
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING
TO RESEARCH DESIGN
1. Dependent and independent variables
2. Extraneous variable: Independent variables that are
not related to the purpose of the study, but may
affect the dependent variable are termed as
extraneous variables.
3. Control: One important characteristic of a good
research design is to minimise the influence or effect
of extraneous variable(s). The technical term ‘control’
is used when we design the study minimising the
effects of extraneous independent variables.
By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 ….cont’d
4. Confounded relationship: When the
dependent variable is not free from the influence
of extraneous variable(s), the relationship
between the dependent and independent
variables is said to be confounded by an
extraneous variable(s).
5. Research hypothesis
6. Experimental and non-experimental
hypothesis-testing research

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 ….cont’d
7. Experimental and control groups: In an
experimental hypothesis-testing research when a
group is exposed to usual conditions, it is termed
a ‘control group’, but when the group is exposed
to some novel or special condition, it is termed an
‘experimental group’.
8. Treatments: The different conditions under
which experimental and control groups are put
are usually referred to as ‘treatments’.

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 ….cont’d
9. Experiment: The process of examining the
truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some
research problem, is known as an experiment.
10. Experimental unit(s): The pre-determined
plots or the blocks, where different treatments
are used, are known as experimental units.

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Types of Research Design
• Exploratory Research Design
• Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Design
• Hypothesis-Testing Research Design

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Exploratory Research Design
• The major emphasis in such studies is on the
discovery of ideas and insights.
• This research design is for formulating a
research problem for an in-depth or for more
investigation, or for developing a working
hypothesis from an operational aspect.

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 ….cont’d
• As such the research design appropriate for
such studies must be flexible enough to
provide opportunity for considering different
aspects of a problem under study.

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Descriptive and Diagnostic
Research Design
• Descriptive research studies are those studies
which are concerned with describing the
characteristics of a particular individual, or of a
group, whereas diagnostic research studies
determine the frequency with which something
occurs or its association with something else.
• the researcher must be able to define clearly,
what he/she wants to measure and must find
adequate methods for measuring it along with
a clear cut definition of ‘population’ he/she
By Dr. Fekadu Y.
wants to study.
 ….cont’d
• The research design must make enough
provision for protection against bias and must
maximize reliability, with due concern for the
economical completion of the research study.

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Hypothesis-Testing Research
Design
• Hypothesis-testing research studies (generally
known as experimental studies) are those
where the researcher tests the hypotheses of
causal relationships between variables.
• Such studies require procedures that will not
only reduce bias and increase reliability, but will
permit drawing inferences about causality.
• Hence, when we talk of research design in such
studies, we often mean the design of
experiments. By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Chapter Six

Sampling Design

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
Topics
• Census and Sample Survey
• Steps in sample design
• Characteristics of a Good Sample Design
• Classification of Sample Design

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Census and Sample Survey
• All items in any field of inquiry constitute a
‘Universe’ or ‘Population.’
Census Survey
• A complete enumeration of all items in the
‘population’ is known as a census inquiry.
• It can be presumed that in such an inquiry,
when all items are covered, no element of
chance is left and highest accuracy is
obtained.
By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Sample Survey
• Is the selection of only a few items from
population.
• The respondents selected should be as
representative of the total population.
• let the population size be N and if a part of
size n (which is < N) of this population is
selected according to some rule for studying
some characteristic of the population, the
group consisting of these n units is known as
‘sample’. By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Sampling Design
• Researcher must prepare a sample design for
his study i.e., he must plan how a sample
should be selected and of what size such a
sample would be.
• A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining
a sample from a given population.
• It refers to the technique or the procedure the
researcher would adopt in selecting items for
the sample.
By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 ….cont’d
• Sample design may as well lay down the
number of items to be included in the sample
i.e., the size of the sample. Sample design is
determined before data are collected.

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Steps in sample design
• While developing a sampling design, the
researcher must pay attention to the following
points:
• Type of universe: The universe can be finite or infinite.
• In finite universe the number of items is certain: The population
of a city, the number of workers in a factory and the like are
examples of finite universes,
• In case of an infinite universe the number of items is infinite, we
cannot have any idea about the total number of items. The
number of stars in the sky, listeners of a specific radio
programme, are examples of infinite universes.

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 ….cont’d
• Sampling unit: A decision has to be taken
concerning a sampling unit before selecting
sample. Sampling unit may be a geographical
one such as state, district, village, etc
• Source list: It is also known as ‘sampling
frame’ from which sample is to be drawn. It
contains the names of all items of a universe
(in case of finite universe only). If source list is
not available, researcher has to prepare it.

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 …cont’d
• Size of sample: This refers to the number of
items to be selected from the universe to
constitute a sample.
• Parameters of interest: In determining the
sample design, one must consider the question
of the specific population parameters which are
of interest.
• Budgetary constraint: Cost considerations, from
practical point of view, have a major impact
upon decisions relating to not only the size of
the sample but also to the type of sample.
By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Cont’d
• Sampling procedure: Finally, the researcher
must decide the type of sample he/she will
use i.e., he/she must decide about the
technique to be used in selecting the items for
the sample.

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 CRITERIA OF SELECTING A
SAMPLING PROCEDURE
• Two costs are involved in a sampling analysis:
• the cost of collecting the data
• the cost of an incorrect inference resulting from the data.
• Researcher must keep in view the two causes of
incorrect inferences:
–systematic bias
–sampling error.

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 1. systematic bias
• A systematic bias results from errors in the
sampling procedures, and it cannot be
reduced or eliminated by increasing the
sample size.
A systematic bias is the result of one or more of the following
factors:
• Inappropriate sampling frame: If the sampling frame is
inappropriate i.e., a biased representation of the universe,
• Defective measuring device: In survey work, systematic bias
can result if the questionnaire or the interviewer is biased.
Similarly, if the physical measuring device is defective there
will be systematic bias
By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 ….cont’d
• Non-respondents
• Indeterminancy principle: Sometimes we find
that individuals act differently when kept
under observation than what they do when
kept in non-observed situations.
• Natural bias in the reporting of data:
Eg. Tax reporting

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 2. Sampling errors
• Sampling errors are the random variations in the
sample estimates around the true population
parameters.
• Sampling error decreases with the increase in the
size of the sample, and it happens to be of a
smaller magnitude in case of homogeneous
population.

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 ….cont’d
• Sampling error can be measured for a given
sample design and size. The measurement of
sampling error is usually called the ‘precision of
the sampling plan’. If we increase the sample
size, the precision can be improved.
• while selecting a sampling procedure,
researcher must ensure that the procedure
causes a relatively small sampling error and
helps to control the systematic bias in a better
way.
By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Characteristics of a Good Sample Design
• Sample design must result in a truly representative
sample.
• Sample design must results in a small sampling
error.
• Sample design must be viable in the context of
funds available for the research study.
• Sample design must be such so that systematic bias
can be controlled in a better way.
• Sample should be such that the results of the
sample study can be applied, in general, for the
universe with a reasonable level of confidence.
By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Classification of Sample Design
Sample designs are basically of two types:
1. Probability sampling
2. Non-probability sampling

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Probability Sampling
• when every items of the universe has an equal chance
of inclusion in the sample.

• Probability sampling is also known as ‘random

sampling’ or ‘chance sampling’.
• It is, so to say, a lottery method in which
individual units are picked up from the whole
group not deliberately but by some mechanical
process.

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Random sampling from a finite
population:
• Gives an equal probability of being picked up.
• This applies to sampling without replacement
i.e., once an item is selected for the sample, it
cannot appear in the sample again.
• Randomly each of the NCn possible samples
has the same probability, 1/NCn, of being
selected.

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Example
• Take a certain finite population consisting of six
elements (say a, b, c, d, e, f ) i.e., N = 6.
Suppose that we want to take a sample of size
n = 3 from it. Then there are 6C3 = 20 possible
distinct samples of the required size, and they
consist of the elements: abc, abd, abe, abf,
acd, ace, acf, ade, adf, aef, bcd, bce, bcf, bde,
bdf, bef, cde, cdf, cef, def.
• If we choose one of these samples in such a
way that each has the probability 1/20 of being
chosen, we will then call this a random sample.
By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 …cont’d
• By drawing as a lottery either blindfolded or
other means
• use of random number tables

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 RANDOM SAMPLE FROM AN INFINITE
UNIVERSE
• It is relatively difficult
• The selection of each item in a random sample
from an infinite population is controlled by the
same probabilities and that successive
selections are independent of one another.
• Sample with replacement from a finite
population and our sample would be
considered as a random sample if in each draw
all elements of the population have the same
probability of being selected and successive
draws happen to be independent.
By Dr. Fekadu Y.
By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Types of Probability Sampling
• Simple random sampling: each element in
the population will have an equal chance of
being included in the sample

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
Systematic sampling: A sampling procedure in which a
starting point is selected by a random process and then
every nth number on the list is selected.

Systemized sample is selected with 3rd unit

that is selected randomly from 1st set of 5
and continued to next

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
Stratified sampling: using strata (sub-division of the population
and take sample from each)

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
Cluster sampling: the total population is divided into a
number of relatively small subdivisions which are
themselves clusters of still smaller units and then some of
these clusters are randomly selected for inclusion in the
overall sample

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Non probability Sampling:
• when items of the sample are selected deliberately by
the researcher.
• Non-probability sampling is also known by
different names such as deliberate sampling,
purposive sampling and judgement sampling.
• In this type of sampling, items for the sample
are selected deliberately by the researcher;
his/her choice concerning the items remains
supreme.

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
• Convenience sampling: The sampling procedure of
obtaining those people or units that are most conveniently
available.

• Judgment sampling: A nonprobability sampling technique in

which an experienced individual selects the sample based on
personal judgment about some appropriate characteristic of
the sample member.

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
Quota sampling: A nonprobability sampling procedure
that ensures that various subgroups of a population
will be represented on pertinent characteristics to the
exact extent that the investigator desires.

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
• Snowball Sampling: A sampling procedure in
which initial respondents are selected by
probability methods and additional
respondents are obtained from information
provided by the initial respondents.

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Sample Size Determination
• Sample size is the number of items selected
from the total population to comprise a sample.
• A sample size should be carefully set it should
be adequate to draw suitable and generalized
conclusions.
• If the sample size (‘n’) is too small, it may not
serve to achieve the objectives and if it is too
large, we may incur huge cost and waste
resources.

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 ….cont’d
Size of the sample should be determined by a
researcher keeping in view the following points:
• Nature of universe: Universe may be either homogenous or
heterogeneous in nature.
• Number of classes proposed: class-groups (groups and sub-
groups)
• Nature of study
• Type of sampling
• Standard of accuracy and acceptable confidence level
• Availability of finance:
• Other considerations: Nature of units, size of the population,
size of questionnaire, availability of trained investigators,
By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 …cont’d
• Yemane (1967) formula:

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
 Sample Size Table
Krejcie & Morgan, 1970

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
SAMPLE SIZE

By Dr. Fekadu Y.
Sample should always be representative of the target population

By Dr. Fekadu Y.