Sindir, Kamil O. 2006. Section 6.1 Farm and Crop Management Systems, pp.

355-367 of Chapter 6
Management and Decision Support Systems, in CIGR Handbook of Agricultural Engineering Volume VI
Information Technology. Edited by CIGR--The International Commission of Agricultural Engineering;
Volume Editor, Axel Munack. St. Joseph, Michigan, USA: ASABE. Copyright American Society of
Agricultural Engineers.

6 Management and Decision

Support Systems
6.1 Farm and Crop Management Systems
K. O. Sindir
Abstract. Knowledge is becoming the new jewelry of life and there is an ongoing
change towards knowledge-based societies and economies in which research, innova-
tion, and knowledge are the major components. Knowledge-based agricultural pro-
duction, through the adoption of information and communication technologies, is be-
coming necessary in order to respond to numerous challenges of consumer demands
on food safety and security, sustainable development, environmental protection, sus-
tainability of farmers’ revenues, and a competitive advantage and power in both do-
mestic and global markets. Farm and crop management integrated with information
systems will allow farmers not only to maximize profits or minimize costs, but also to
deal with issues surrounding quality and the value of production.
Keywords. Farm management, Crop management, Information systems, Decision
support systems.

6.1.1 Introduction
The world is currently encountering a revolution in information and communica-
tion technology, which could bring significant changes to human life. Knowledge is
becoming the new jewelry of life and there is an ongoing change towards knowledge-
based societies and economies in which research, innovation, and knowledge are the
major components. Knowledge-based agricultural production, through the adoption of
information and communication technologies, is becoming necessary in order to re-
spond to numerous challenges of consumer demands on food safety and security, sus-
tainable development, environmental protection, maintenance of farmers’ revenues,
and competitive power both in domestic and global markets. Some of the develop-
ments in attaining a knowledge-intensive agriculture include use of models on PCs or
on the Internet, electronic data interchange which facilitates data exchanges between
farmers’ management systems and their partners, multimedia tools (such as the Inter-
net and CD-ROMs), and e-commerce [1].
This chapter provides a brief description of information systems in agriculture and
their roles in farm and crop management.
356 Chapter 6 Management and Decision Support Systems

6.1.2 Definition of Farm Management

The major task of farm managers is to allocate resources, mainly in order to maxi-
mize the farm’s profit or minimize the costs of doing work. However, problems of
environmental pollution, sustainability, globalization of trade, increase in consumer
demands on food safety, and recent developments on information and communication
technologies have all made management of farms a highly complex issue.
Challenges and opportunities on and off the farm generate a changing agenda for
farm business management and farm families in the rural sector. Conceptualizing farm
businesses as a mix of management, resources, and family strengthens appreciation of
new structures and strategies, ties in with “triple bottom line” thinking, and reflects the
shift from farm policy to an array of policies focusing on social, environmental, and
economic aspects of contemporary rural life [2].
Competitiveness on both domestic and global markets requires farmers to manage
their productive resources more efficiently, and to become more effective business
managers.
On the one hand, increasing consumer demands for safer and more secure food, and
public and regulative pressure to protect the environment, has brought new concerns in
farm management. Access to timely, proper, and correct information on activities and
the inputs and outputs of farm businesses also must be of utmost importance, not only
for farmers, but also for agro-traders, agro-industrialists, and consumers. Growers are
required to keep up-to-date records to demonstrate that all production activities com-
ply with food safety regulations and to help trace the history of products from farm to
final consumer. These have all become increasingly complex issues for farms in a rap-
idly changing business environment which includes their competitors, customers,
wholesalers, and suppliers.
On the other hand, policies, regulations, rules, and any other legislative arrange-
ments also affect their decisions on farm and crop management.
Since farms are not the same size and type, there is no typical model for manage-
ment. A farmer essentially has five main basic management functions to achieve the
goals and objectives of his farming business [3]:
1. Planning—Setting daily priorities and schedules, recognizing problem areas and
looking for alternative solutions, making financial plans, looking for alternative
cropping plans, establishing the overall enterprises for the business, and devel-
oping the farming business;
2. Organizing—Establishing an internal structure of the roles and activities re-
quired to meet the farm’s goals, coordination of efforts among people, deciding
who reports to whom, determining the functions and authorities of positions, es-
tablishing the work routines and standard operating procedures (SOPs);
3. Managing human resources (staffing)—Recruiting and/or hiring workers, train-
ing and evaluating workers;
4. Directing—Delegation of authority, assigning responsibilities to workers, moti-
vating the workers, establishing good communication with workers, dealing
with workers’ concerns;
6.1 Farm and Crop Management Systems 357

5. Controlling—Keeping track of expenses and income, monitoring the records

and accounts of operations within the business, comparing rates of production
and levels of performance or productivity, monitoring production processes and
making changes as necessary, keeping track of work routines.
Directing and controlling anything implies that there are options open and that deci-
sions to be taken. Organizing and operating a farm business requires a manager to
make and carry out numerous decisions of various kinds. Making decisions is not dif-
ficult if all options are well-identified and known. That means correct, meaningful,
informed, realistic, realizable decisions must always be based on information. The
major function of a farm manager is to process this information in terms of translation,
coordination, recording, digestion, correlation, and reproduction. However, informa-
tion has no merit in itself; that is, it may be of interest but it serves a purpose only if it
is used. Its main use is in the decision-making process.
6.1.3 Data, Information, and Knowledge
It is usually difficult for many to differentiate between the terms “data,” “informa-
tion,” and “knowledge.” According to Russell Ackoff, a systems theorist and professor
of organizational change, the content of the human mind can be classified into five
categories [4]:
• data, or symbols;
• information, which is data that are processed to be useful; provides answers to
“who,” “what,” “where,” and “when” questions;
• knowledge, which is the application of data and information; answers “how”
questions;
• understanding, which is the appreciation of “why;” and
• wisdom, or evaluated understanding.
Ackoff indicates that data is raw; it simply exists and has no significance beyond its
existence (in and of itself). Data can exist in any form, usable or not, and does not
have meaning of itself, whereas information is data that has been given meaning by
way of relational connection. This meaning can be useful, but does not have to be.
Knowledge, on the other hand, is an appropriate collection of information, such that its
intent is to be useful and it is a deterministic process.
Managers usually need information of the following types [5]:
• summaries from the routine processes of the enterprise (operational staff need
continuous and detailed information, whereas managers need only a summary of
operational data);
• information on exceptional events;
• facility to find ad hoc information;
• time series information, concerned with the past and the future;
• comparative external information, focusing on information not only from inter-
nal sources of the enterprise but also external sources; and
• contextual or environmental information.
358 Chapter 6 Management and Decision Support Systems

Information System

Process
Input (Classify, Arrange, Output
Calculate)

Feedback

Figure 1. Structure of an information system.

6.1.4 What Is an Information System?

Laudon and Laudon [6] define the information system technically as a set of inter-
related components that collect (or retrieve), process, store, and distribute information
to support decision making and control in an organization. In addition to supporting
decision making, coordination, and control, information systems may also help man-
agers and workers analyze problems, visualize complex subjects, and create new
products.
The components of an information system are input, processing, and output. Input
activity captures or collects the data as a source of raw information within the farm or
its environment. Processing is the activity of giving meaning to this raw data, i.e.,
converting it into information which is useful and meaningful to the farmer. Output, as
the final stage of the information system, transfers the processed and meaningful in-
formation to the people who require it or to the appropriate activities. Output returned
to appropriate people within the farming business for evaluation and correction is
called feedback.
Information systems are part of an organization, in this context a farming enter-
prise. Organizations usually have a structured hierarchy and formal standard operating
procedures (SOPs), i.e., formal rules for accomplishing tasks that have been developed
to cope with expected situations.
Powerful computers, software, and networks, including the Internet, have helped
organizations become more flexible, eliminate layers of management, separate work
from location, and restructure work flows, giving new powers to both line workers and
management.
Information systems in a farm enterprise can be classified mainly into four major
types:
1. Transaction processing systems—Sorting, listing, merging, and updating all
kinds of transactions, invoices, records of daily farming activities and events.
Transaction processing systems perform and records the daily routine transac-
tions necessary to conduct the farming business.
2. Farm automation systems—Document management, scheduling, communica-
tion, including computer systems, such as word processing, electronic mail sys-
tems, and scheduling systems, which are designed to increase the productivity of
farmers in the office. All farm automation systems could help farmers keep in
6.1 Farm and Crop Management Systems 359

contact with their suppliers, information providers, and agricultural research in-
stitutes, and follow up with recent developments in their field of business.
3. Management information systems (MIS)—Information systems at the manage-
ment level that serve the functions of planning, controlling, and decision making
by providing routine summary and exception reports. They are systems designed
to provide daily production information at the individual animal level or crop
production level that is of potential value in making management decisions [7].
4. Decision support systems (DSS)—Information systems that combine data and
sophisticated analytical models or data analysis tools to support semi-structured
and unstructured decision making for farm managers for a wide range of appli-
cations including business and organizational management, health, water re-
sources, environment, crop/animal production, transportation systems, etc., e.g.,
decisions on feed mixture, when to apply pesticide for various crops, how to re-
alize a competitive advantage.
Numerous MIS and DSS have been developed to help farmers improve their manage-
rial decision making. The value of these systems is affected by goals and competence
of the farmer(s), and characteristics of the farm, such as the size of the farm. Several
are discussed below.
6.1.5 Farm Management Information Systems (FMIS)
Information and decision making are inseparable [8]. A system for providing in-
formation is vital to a business decision-making process [9]. Farm decision-makers
use information from a wide range of sources, but one of the most valuable sources of
specialized information about the farm operation is provided by a farm record system
(FRS) [10,11]. An FRS can include financial and production record types [12]. The
system may be as simple as a cash book, or so large and complex that it requires the
processing capabilities of a computer to maintain it efficiently. Information provided
by an FRS can be passed on to individuals or organizations outside the farm business,
such as accountants to prepare tax returns and bankers to support loan applications, or
used within the farm gate to support the business decision-making process [13,14].
A farm management information system (FMIS) is conceptualized as an FRS that
provides information to support farm business decision making [14]. If an FRS only
provides information to individuals or organizations outside the farm business, then it
is not a FMIS. Record-keeping methods are defined as those bookkeeping or account-
ing skills that are needed to set up and operate a variety of financial and production
accounts or report types common to farm businesses.
A computer is conceptualized primarily as a management tool. It is a system of
hardware and software elements capable of supporting a farm record system and per-
forming analysis on the data. The adoption and use of a computer enables farm busi-
nesses to operate with a larger number of record types and perform more extensive
and complex analyses than would be possible using manual procedures alone. The
adoption of record keeping methods (i.e., establishment of a farm record system) is
seen as the first level of sophistication and the first step toward establishing a FMIS.
The use of information provided by a farm record system is seen as the second level of
360 Chapter 6 Management and Decision Support Systems

sophistication and defines a manual FMIS. The adoption and use of a computer in
support of a FMIS adds another layer of sophistication. The increase in sophistication
of the FMIS is a contiguous process. Each step upwards in the level of sophistication
is the next stage in the evolution of FMIS. Using the concept of levels of sophistica-
tion in FMIS, it is possible to segment farm businesses into four groups [14]:
1. No farm record system—All farm businesses have some compulsory reporting
requirements, such as taxation. A farm record system is defined as maintenance
of at least a basic cash book. Farm businesses in this category do not operate a
farm record system, but are presumed to keep at least a box of check stubs and
receipts to pass on to their accountants at the end of the financial year.
2. Farm record system (FRS)—Farm businesses in this segment do operate a man-
ual farm record system, but information provided by it is not used to support de-
cision making.
3. Manual FMIS—In this segment information from a farm record system is used
in farm business decision making. The farm record system is maintained and
data analysis is performed using predominantly manual methods, but may be as-
sisted by some type of electronic calculator or other items of basic office equip-
ment.
4. Computer-supported FMIS—It is not presumed that the farm record system will
be maintained solely on computer. Most farm businesses in this segment will
use a combination of computer and manual methods.
As mentioned before, information systems, comprising hardware and software, in-
volve the use of digital information and control systems which collect (or retrieve),
process, store, and distribute information to support decision making and control, to
reduce risk and uncertainty, and to assist with the implementation and evaluation of
improved business management strategies. As Blackmore [15] defines, information
technology improves the knowledge base and increases the ability to control the pro-
duction system in order to reduce risk and uncertainty, better identify the extent of
variation in the system, and thereby formulate strategies that explicitly address this
variation and support the processes to implement these strategies. In this respect, in-
formation technology is essentially concerned with risk management.
From a management point of view, [15] classifies information technology into two
broad categories: (1) information management and decision support, including meth-
ods for the collection, assembly, logging and retrieval of data, and methods for data
analysis, interpretation and decision making; and (2) implementation, i.e., monitoring
and control systems.
It has become necessary for farm managers to implement information systems and
the relevant technology on their farms in order to survive and be a partner of their sec-
tor, and to carry on with their profitable cost-effective business.
Relative to other business activities, the manager of a farm contends not only with
the risks of the marketplace, but also with the uncertainties of the production system,
given its reliance on natural and biological processes. There are a large number of ex-
ternal, uncontrollable factors that influence the technical and economic performance of
the farm system, such as prevailing weather conditions or the incidence of pests and
6.1 Farm and Crop Management Systems 361

diseases. Decisions on cropping practices are required “up front” without full knowl-
edge of future events and resultant outcomes. Furthermore, the response of the system
to actions taken cannot be predicted for sure, and decisions made at one point in the
production cycle have considerable, albeit uncertain, influences on later outcomes and
decisions [15].
6.1.6 Decision Support Systems (DSS)
There are many definitions of DSS, but they usually fall into one of two categories:
narrow or broad [16]. The narrow definition takes the view that DSS are interactive
computer programs that use analytical methods and models to help decision-makers
formulate alternatives for large unstructured problems, analyze their impacts, and then
select appropriate solutions for implementation [17]. The DSS will essentially solve or
give options for solving a given problem. The decision process is structured in a hier-
archical manner, the user inputs various parameters, and the DSS essentially evaluates
the relative impact of doing x instead of y.
The broader definition incorporates the narrow definition above but also includes
other technologies that support decision making, such as knowledge or information
discovery systems, database systems, and geographic information systems (GIS) [18].
With a broader perspective DSS: (a) are computer-based, (b) are an information and/or
technology transfer agent, (c) contribute to option selection, and (d) aid decision mak-
ing irrespective of whether the solution is generated by the system itself or independ-
ently deduced by the user from the information provided.
Decision support systems, which process information, estimate the efficiency of
possible decisions and reduce uncertainty in management, can help farmers in evalua-
tion and selection of the best possible decisions. DSS provide the farmer or consultant
a possibility to choose proper variants of farm management by evaluating dynamically
changing weather conditions, new technologies, changes in fields, and general agricul-
tural policy.
Table 1 provides some examples of decision support systems in use. There are nu-
merous other DSS models in use. A list of models with their descriptions and links to
their sources can be found at http://www.wiz.uni-kassel.de/model_db/models.html.
However, many of those IT-based decision support systems have difficulty in reaching
high user numbers. One reason may be that the developers lack a user perspective, and
also that majority of farmers make decisions intuitively [19,20].
Farmers’ decision making is mostly viewed as a series of linear steps. Johnson et
al. [21], for instance, identify six steps of decision making: (1) problem definition, (2)
observation, (3) decision, (4) analysis, (5) action, and (6) bearing responsibility. Öhl-
mer and Öhlmer et al. [19,20] identify four separate functions of decision making: (1)
problem detection, resulting in detection of a problem or not; (2) problem definition,
resulting in choice of options for further development; (3) analysis and choice, result-
ing in choice of one or more options; and (4) implementation, resulting in output con-
sequences and responsibility bearing. Each of the four functions has four sub-
processes: (a) searching information and paying attention to relevant information; (b)
362 Chapter 6 Management and Decision Support Systems

Table 1. Some types of agricultural DSS currently in use or under development (compiled from [18]).
Target Audience
DSS and Environment DSS Category Description
CABI Compendium Scientists, researchers, Database- and Pest management for
and extension staff; knowledge-driven various crops
worldwide
CROPWAT Scientists and irrigation Model- and Irrigation management
engineers; worldwide database-driven
DSSAT Scientists and researchers; Database-driven, For various crops,
(Decision Support worldwide model-driven analyzes and displays
System for (CERES, outcomes of simulated
Agrotechnology CROPGRO, and agronomic experiments
Transfer) CROPSIM systems)
HOWWET Researchers, extension Database-driven Plant-water interactions
agents, and growers;
Australia
MAS Scientists, researchers, Model-driven Uses CORMAS
(Multi-Agent and extension workers; programming software
System for Natural worldwide for simulations of
Resource various natural resource
Management) management outcomes
NuMass Scientists and researchers; Model- and Soil nutrient
(Nutrient worldwide database- driven management for various
Management crops including rice,
Support System) maize, cassava, etc.
WEPP Scientists, researchers, Model-driven WEPP is a process-
(Water Erosion and extension workers; based, distributed
Prediction Project) worldwide parameter, continuous
simulation, water erosion
prediction model for use
on a PC

planning (which was included only in the analysis and choice phase) and forecasting
consequences of the new information; (c) evaluating consequences and choosing al-
ternatives; and (d) bearing responsibility of the choice. A farmer uses more or less
intuition and analysis in his decision making. Regardless of whether he uses intuition
or analysis, he goes through all four of the functions listed above. The difference is in
how he performs these functions.
Simulation-based models are one of the most commonly used among the systems
of supporting decision making of farmers. Simulation can be defined as a process of
building, analyzing, and using theoretical and experimental results in order to summa-
rize a body of knowledge, to make predictions, or to understand system dynamics. The
stage of building consists of defining the problem and the system, collecting knowl-
edge (processes, parameters, and direct observations), developing a model concept,
translating it into a mathematical model, and converting this into a computer program
[22]. It is essential that there are two sources of information about the system at hand:
6.1 Farm and Crop Management Systems 363

direct measurements (observations) and indirect statements on the system, produced

by the model.
Simulation models have been developed in almost all aspects of agricultural pro-
duction. However, a model is useful only if it accurately represents some of the system
behavior, and useless if it does not. Many simulation models in agriculture, econom-
ics, environmental science, and ecology are based on a body of knowledge which con-
sists of theories that are not generally accepted, debatable or controversial hypotheses,
questionable simplifications, and a bundle of implicit or ambiguous assumptions. The
problems with insufficient and imprecise system knowledge cause model uncertainty,
which can be traced back to model structure, uncertain inputs, and uncertain parame-
ters [23].
6.1.7 Record Keeping and Traceability of Farm Products
The recent concerns about the risk of food safety and food contamination have also
increased the necessity of investing in information systems in order to keep records of
the foodstuff’s past and the methods applied during the production process. Traceabil-
ity, in this respect, can be defined as the ability to trace the history, application, or
location of any entity by means of recorded identifications. It the possibility to ensure,
at any stage of the food chain, that the path of a food and the relevant information
about it are known. The types of information required for the tracing of the product
involve:
1. Product identification—A unique means, as simple as possible, to identify a
food or batch thereof;
2. Product information—The raw materials used, how it was produced and
changed (if appropriate), where and when it came from, and where and when it
was sent (one step backward and one step forward); and the controls to which
the product has been subject (if relevant); and
3. Linkages—Between product identification and product information.
This information is generated for the purpose of food safety and/or of fair practices in
food trade, and may be used, as appropriate, by industry, government and other third
parties. It is recorded by each business involved and stored, within an appropriate time
frame, in a way making fast and easy retrieval possible. Information systems have an
important role in collecting, retrieving, storing, and distributing the product informa-
tion and identification.
6.1.8 Information Technology in Agricultural Mechanization
Until the last decade, depending on the power source and the stage in the mechani-
zation process, there have been mainly three levels of technology considered for use in
agriculture: hand-tool technology, animal-draught technology, and mechanical-power
technology. Voss [24] elucidated the following four stages in the mechanization proc-
ess:
1. Hand tools are used with a very little capital investment;
2. Human labor is supplemented by animal power for primary and secondary till-
age and for pumping water;
3. Mechanical power is introduced to some but not all operations; and
364 Chapter 6 Management and Decision Support Systems

4. All operations in the crop production are completely mechanized with power
equipment (no electronic components are included).
However, none of the above-mentioned technologies and the stages of the devel-
opment of agricultural mechanization could have dealt with in-field variability of crop
and soil conditions. Today, technology has reached a level that allows a farmer to
measure, analyze, and deal with in-field variability that previously was known to exist
but wasn’t manageable. The ability to cope with variations in productivity within a
field and maximize yields has always been a desire of the farmer, especially the farmer
with limited land resources. The recent development of microprocessors and other
electronic technologies are new tools available to help all farmers reach this goal. This
new approach of farming is called precision farming (or precision agriculture) and the
technology behind it is called variable rate application technology.
In accordance with these recent developments in information and communication
technologies (ICT), the following two stages of mechanization can be added to those
listed above:
5. Intermediate level of information systems (IS) and information technology (IT)
use in agricultural production. At this level, a farm owns a personal computer
and software capable of supporting stock keeping, historical records, and analyz-
ing what-if models. A monitoring system is installed on a farm tractor to display
the forward speed, PTO speed, distance traveled, fuel consumption, and work
rate. In addition, sprayers may have a control and data logging facility. No spa-
tial information is required or used.
6. Precision farming as an advanced level of ICT application in agriculture. This
level comprises the IT components of the fifth level but with enhanced capabili-
ties, providing full spatial understanding and treatment of agricultural opera-
tions, e.g., soil and yield mapping, tractors equipped with agricultural bus sys-
tems, GPS-based instrumentation systems, and variable rate application tech-
nologies. The major concerns of this level of technology use are increases in
yield, reduction of inputs and their costs, and the environment.
Farms, especially in developing countries, are generally small in scale, which
causes low productivity and inefficient use of production inputs. The precision farm-
ing approach, with its potential for reducing environmental impacts and increasing
productivity, is being considered a new revolution in agriculture. Precision farming
takes the variability of the field into account in terms of soil fertility, yield, pest distri-
bution, soil compaction, etc., and allows the application of the right amount of the
right inputs at the right location. However, in order to benefit from this advanced
technology to save inputs, energy and environmental impacts, some extra investments
should be made which require an appraisal study for various farming conditions.
However, it is also important to know that information technologies, in terms of
hardware and software and information systems, are in a very dynamic state, and
therefore the information provided here is a picture of the past and current time, not
necessarily the future.
6.1 Farm and Crop Management Systems 365

6.1.9 Conclusion
Knowledge-based agricultural production, through the adoption of information and
communication technologies, is becoming necessary in order to respond to numerous
challenges of consumer demands on food safety, security and traceability, productiv-
ity, sustainable development, environmental protection, maintenance of farmers’ reve-
nues and competitive power both in domestic and global markets.
According to Gelb [25], adoption of information and communication technologies
as a unique challenge in rural areas has long been a specific public concern with re-
gional, national, and international strategic significance. However, the rate, efficiency,
and scope of ICT adoption are slower than expected. This could be expressed in re-
duced farmer profitability, an under-utilized contribution by extension, and reduced
consumer welfare. Relevance, various human-element issues, an “immature” infra-
structure, and proficiency in information systems seem to be common major adoption
constraints, besides the individual impediments and unrecognized benefits and cost of
ICT
Acknowledgements
There is considerable cited information provided within this text which is compiled
from books or papers of various scientists dealing with farm management and/or in-
formation technology in agriculture. I express my acknowledgments to all those cited
in the text and listed within the references without whom this article could not be writ-
ten.

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6.2 IT for the Design of Animal Husbandry Buildings

J. Gartung, W. Hartmann, F. Preiß,
K. Uminski, and E. Witzel
Abstract. Due to the continually increasing number of design drafts required for
building permits, construction planning has become much more complicated. In con-
trast, the time available for planning is being constantly reduced. For this reason, the
use of information technology in construction and cost calculation has been a focus
for a long time. Routine tasks can be easily completed and information rapidly ex-
changed with networks of partners and databases.
Methods developed in Germany in the area of cost calculation for agricultural
buildings are described. They primarily address documentation, preparation, and
processing of building cost data according to a construction cost network system.
Linked methods and classification systems allow construction costs to be managed
from the detailed level of unit prices for construction services, to the building ele-
ments, through to the generally classified steps of cost blocks. Construction cost data
for selected farm buildings has been documented and is available via the Internet and
CD-ROM, including a database that includes 107 barn models.
Keywords. Construction costs, Building software, Computer planning, CAD sys-
tems, Construction cost network system, Construction cost database BAUKOST, Cost
blocks, Barn, Slurry, Auxiliary facilities, Animal housing, Dairy cattle, Barn.

6.2.1 Construction Planning

Although the buildings and permanent structures needed by farms are special struc-
tures, they are built by planners and construction companies in Germany based on the
same principles, laws, regulations, codes, and guidelines as other buildings. Building
planning has become increasingly complex through the constantly increasing number
of requirements to have a plan approved, but the planning time should be constantly
shortened. That is why efforts have concentrated on using information technology to
help in planning.
As in all areas of daily life, the electronic media have proven themselves a help.
Routine tasks, in particular, can be easily and quickly fulfilled with the support of in-
formation technology. Through networks with partners and databases around the
world, information of almost every type can be exchanged in a very short time.