Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 205 (2021) 108904

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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/petrol

Forecasting the evolution of chaotic dynamics of two-phase slug

flow regime
Naseem Ali a, Bianca Viggiano a, Murat Tutkun b, Raúl Bayoán Cal a, *
a
Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, Portland State University, Portland, OR, 97207, USA
b
Department of Flow and Environmental Technology, Institute for Energy Technology, PB 40, 2027 Kjeller, Norway

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Presenting a predictive model through handling of the dynamical system is critical for modern technologies and
Slug flow industrial application. Here, Hankel-based dynamic mode decomposition is used to generate a predictive model
Chaos for the slug flow regime. Flow dynamics are split into linear and nonlinear parts; the latter of which is responsible
DMDc
for intermittency phenomena. The proposed model shows the ability to predicts the time evolution of phase
Koopman operator
Prediction
fraction. Forecasting of slug flow systems is achieved with no a priori knowledge of the equations of motion. The
percentage of the variation between the actual states and predicted states is approximately 20%.

1. Introduction created a simplified model predicting the pressure gradient originating

Slug flow is one of the most vital and often experienced flow patterns
(Dukler and Hubbard, 1975; Fabre and Liné, 1992; Ibarra et al., 2019;
Ayati and Carneiro, 2018; Jaeger et al., 2018; Gao and Jin, 2012). It
exists over a wide range of mass flow rates, and is inherently unsteady
and characterized by large variations in liquid holdup and pressure
gradient (Dukler and Hubbard, 1975). Slug flow has a considerable
number of degrees of nonlinearity which lead to significant uncertainty
in parameters for analysis, modeling, and in turn, difficult problems for
infrastructure design (Ayati et al., 2018; Soedarmo et al., 2018; Viggiano
et al., 2018). Finding a deterministic illustration is formidable, espe­
cially for the evolution between flow phases due to its robust nonline­
arity (Ayati and Carneiro, 2018; Jaeger et al., 2018; Gao and Jin, 2012).
The deduction of multiphase flow pattern, liquid holdup and pressure
drop is a valuable problem to solve (Hernandez et al., 2019). From the
physical point of view, the distinguishing characteristic of slug flow is its
intermittency. Thus, any attempt to model the flow by a classical
time-averaging procedure is restrictive. Slug flow modeling demands a
more thorough analysis, taking into account the intermittent action. The
space-time event of long bubbles and liquid slugs needs closure models
used for both separated and dispersed flow (Fabre and Liné, 1992).
Initially, the slug is modeled based on physical observations, and by
reducing intermittency to periodicity. The actual extremely convoluted
flow structure of the slug is simplified to a counterpart cell consisting of
a long bubble and a liquid slug (Griffith and Wallis, 1961). Wallis (2020)
from the liquid slug, the ends of the long bubble, and the main body of
the slug. These approaches are conceptually limited due to the fact that
the governing equations are applied in a frame of reference moving
relatively with the cell, and for this reason the flow seems steady (Fabre
and Liné, 1992). The conditioned averaging applied to intermittent
turbulence in single-phase flows is used to refine the statistical cellular
model (Fabre et al., 1983). In the literature to achieve better prediction
accuracy for multiphase flow patterns, mechanistic models are used (Xie
et al., 2004; Amaya-Gómez et al., 2019; Cozin et al., 2016; Hernandez
et al., 2019) which rely on theoretical equations to derive flow param­
eters. These models can predict both the flow pattern and flow features.
However, a central drawback is their difficulty in the selection of proper
equations that describe the closure relationships (Hernandez et al.,
2019). Mechanistic models for multiphase flow in pipes employed
mathematical modeling methods to account for the mechanisms of the
flow regimes to predict the liquid holdup and pressure gradient (Taitel
et al., 1980; Ansari et al., 1990). Mechanistic models are conditional on
some empirical parameters as closure relationships, and then evolve
somewhat similar to the empirical models. These models also have a
restricted range of applications in which they furnish reliable results (Qi
et al., 2018). Bendiksen et al. (1991) developed a complete model
named OLGA, which is widely used in multiphase modeling in the oil
and gas industry. This mechanistic model consists of the conservation of
mass, energy, and momentum principles to predict pressure drop, liquid
holdup, and flow regimes in pipes. However, this model has not been

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: naseem@pdx.edu (N. Ali), viggiano@pdx.edu (B. Viggiano), murat.tutkun@ife.no (M. Tutkun), rcal@pdx.edu (R.B. Cal).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2021.108904
Received 14 October 2020; Received in revised form 27 April 2021; Accepted 29 April 2021
Available online 12 May 2021
0920-4105/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
N. Ali et al.
extensively validated for downward flow in pipes.
Discovering the physical laws from data-driven approaches pre­
sented a promising pathway for many applications (Cui et al., 2020; Ali
et al., 2021a, 2021b). Without characterizing the governing equations,
forming a flow model from a collection of measurements is of central
importance. This approach estimates a dynamical system to predict the
future states. Reduced-order and data-driven modeling showed great
development recently (Brunton et al., 2017). For example, Giannakis
and Majda (2012) and Giannakis (2017) linked the delay-embedded
data onto the Koopman eigenvector to present model reduction for
forecasting of time series for dynamical systems. Arbabi and Mezic
(2017) connected the Hankel based dynamic mode decomposition
(DMD) to the Koopman operator. They confirmed that conforming DMD
to Hankel format of observation matrices generates the real Koopman
eigenfunctions and eigenvalues. Later, Korda and Mezic (2018) used
Hankel-DMD for short term forecasting. Giannakis et al. (2018) utilized
a Koopman operator to explore the growth of the Rayleigh–Bénard
convection. Their determinations showed that the dominant-scale cir­
culation is recaptured by the Koopman modes. Brunton et al. (2017)
instructed Hankel alternative view of Koopman to comprehend quanti­
tatively the randomness of chaotic systems. Kim et al. (2020) proposed a
prediction methodology and model for slug parameters using machine
learning techniques (random forest) and deep neural network (DNN)
methodologies. They found that the DNN methodology is unsuitable in
cases of limited data length. Miah et al. (2020) used multilayer
perception artificial neural network (MLP-ANN) and kernel
function-based least-squares support vector machine (LS-SVM) methods
to develop predictive models for water saturation. Their results showed
that the model can capture the non-linear behavior with an acceptable
accuracy. Temirchev et al. (2020) presented a novel technique for
determining the dynamics of multiphase fluid flow in the oil reservoir.
They used a projection of the system dynamics into a latent variable
space, using the Variational Autoencoder model, where Recurrent
Neural Network predicts the dynamics. Their model was high-level
structure containing methods of reduced order modeling (ROM) and
the data-driven forecasting tool. Their model presented forecasting the
flow rates from the wells, the dynamics of pressure, and fluid saturations
within the reservoir. The power of data-driven models to train data
independently of the flow regime can potentially enhance the prediction
of the pressure gradient (Xavier, 2020).
The classical paradigm to investigate the evolution of states through
the dynamical system is assuming the knowledge about the form of the
mathematical governing equations (Champion et al., 2019). In many
applications, however, the measurements of the different states are
available but not the form of governing equations. Despite the clear
potential for applications mentioned above, the data-driven approach
for predictive modeling for multiphase flow has not been done previ­
ously, which herein provides the motivation of the current work of slug
flow implementation. Therefore, the main goal of the current study is to
discover the form of the governing equation from measurements and
present a predictive model for slug flow regime using Koopman operator
and control concept. Identifying the nonlinearity of the slug holdup
enables the possibility of producing the same second-order statistics
which is related to the fluctuating liquid holdup as the given time-series
observation. This work introduces a short presentation of data-driven
forecasting for slug flow, although the theory is applicable for other
kinds of two phase flow regimes. The work is organized as follows:
Section 2 summaries the Hankel-based dynamic mode decomposition;
section 3 presents brief details about experimental set up; section 4
provides a discussion of the finding. Conclusions are presented in section
5.
2. Theory
Dynamical systems are mathematical frameworks which provide the
ability to analyze, predict, and understand the behavior of the differ­
2
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 205 (2021) 108904
ential equation that governs the flow system. One of the modern
dynamical systems, the data-driven approach, is derived without any
knowledge of the governing equation or system properties and is used to
build knowledge about any system solely from collected data. The main
concept of the dynamical system is to describe the nonlinear dynamics of
the flow through linear presentation. The solution of the linear
dynamical system has a closed solution and the dynamics of the flow will
then be evaluated through analysis of the eigenvalues and eigenvectors.
However, the degree of nonlinearity of individual system is a challenge
in terms of analysing and controlling. Here, a linearity of Koopman
operator is used to deal with a nonlinearity of slug flow. The main step of
the current approach includes building the snapshot matrix similar to
the form of the Hankel matrix as (Brunton et al., 2017; Khodkar et al.,
2019; Ali and Cal, 2020)
⎡ t1 ⎤
φ φt2 ⋯ φtN− q+1
⎢φ2 φ3
t t
⋯ φ N− q+2 ⎥
t
H=⎢ ⎣⋮
⎥,
⎦ (1)
⋮ ⋱ ⋮
φtq
φ tq+1
⋯ φ tN
where φ is the fluctuating liquid phase fraction, N is the number of
observations, q is the delay-embedding dimension and tn is the time
where n = 1, 2, …, N. The Hankel matrix is symmetric and the eigen­
values are real. The matrix H has a rank (the number of independent
rows) that is equal to q with a largest possible rank of N/2. The char­
acteristics matrices are formed as
D = H(:, 1:N − q),
(2)
W = H(:, 2:N − q + 1).
Here, an alternative perspective for dynamical system is preserved
through defining a linear operator acting on, for example, Hilbert space
of state of the system. To achieve that, the singular value decomposition
(SVD) of the characteristic Hankel matrix can assess the embedding
dimension (the smallest dimension) for time-delay coordinates,
D = USV T , (3)
where the columns of U and V are the eigen time series. The evolution of
the measurements is approximated through invariant eigenspaces, i.e.,
invariant subspace spanned by a set of eigenfunctions. Delay embedding
is a classical strategy for enriching the details included in the system
state by supplementing it with the state history. The delay embedded
theory through Hankel representation is connected to Koopman theory
(Brunton et al., 2017; Kamb et al., 2020). Through the linear regression
the principle component of the right singular vectors can be modeled.
However, a linear regression model fails to capture the chaotic feature of
the nonlinear system and therefore, the linear model will cover only the
part of the right singular vectors. Following the approaches that are
introduced in Brunton et al. (2017) and Khodkar et al. (2019), the
addition of a forcing term to the linear model is applied to correspond to
the nonlinear dynamics with higher accuracy. This allows a future
observable which is beyond the training observations to be forecasted as
φt+1 = Aφt + Bf t , (4)
where f is the form of chaotic nonlinear forcing (Ali and Cal, 2019; Ali
et al., 2019). Through this step, the system dynamics are approximated
by linear system. This is the goal of the system identification, where the
forcing term and collected observations can present a low order model.
This is accomplished by identifying the dynamics that fulfill in contin­
uous system
dφ
= F (φ, f ). (5)
dt
For the discrete system, as the case in the current work, the problem
can be framed as
φt+1 = M (φt , f t ). (6)
N. Ali et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 205 (2021) 108904

where F is a nonlinear vector-valued smooth function, and M is a systems, due to a substantial association between DMD and Koopman
function that defines the dynamics of the system in discrete-time form operator theory (Proctor et al., 2016). The spectral view of the Koopman
(Arbabi and Mezić, 2017). Arbabi and Mezic (2017) highlighted that operator leads to linear expansions for data obtained by nonlinear
using DMD to Hankel matrices of infinite-time observations generates dynamical systems. The perspective of the Koopman operator is as a
the true Koopman eigenfunctions and eigenvalues. This encloses the mapping of the dynamics from the state space to the space of obtained
classical measure-preserving systems and those have attractors that data. It is always useful to look at their eigenvalues and eigenvectors
sustain a physical measure. To fulfill the system presented in equation since they provide sufficient information of how they operate in the
(4), the forcing terms will be updated when the predicted state becomes space of observation. Koopman modes of observation present the spatial
known. The augmented matrix containing both the characteristic Han­ pattern (Arbabi, 2018).
kel matrix and forcing term is built as
3. Experimental setup
[D , f ]T = ​ U
̃̃ ̃T .
SV (7)
Experiments are carried out in the Well Flow Loop of the Institute for
Dynamic mode decomposition with control (DMDc) is employed to Energy Technology (IFE) in Kjeller, Norway. The test section is a hori­
evaluate the finest fit linear operators A and B using the minimization zontal pipe of 50 m in length with an inner diameter of 0.1 m and is
approach as (Proctor et al., 2016; Arbabi and Mezić, 2017; Bai et al., assembled of transparent Polyvinyl chloride (PVC). A schematic repre­
2019; Khodkar et al., 2019), sentation is presented in Fig. 2. A static mixer is located at the inlet to
̂ TW V − 1 ∗ improve mixing of the phases. Gamma densitometers, denoted as G1-G4,
A=U ̂̂S U ̃ U, (8)
1
located at various locations along the horizontal pipe, are utilized to
− 1 T document streamwise variations of holdup. Flow control valves, FCV,
̂ TW V
B=U ̂̂S U ̃2 . (9) pressure transducers, dP, are placed at intermittent locations as pre­
Here, the truncated output matrix W is determined as sented in Fig. 2. For detailed phase fraction fields, a system of X-ray
⎡ ⎤ computed tomography is implemented to quantify images correspond­
̃
U ing to liquid holdup magnitudes. The system, consisting of two trian­
(10)
T
W = U S V = ⎣ ̃ 1 ⎦̂
̂ ̂ ̂ ̂T,
U2
SV gular formations of three point sources and corresponding detectors,
produces six profiles of the liquid holdup, represented by X-ray Cam 1–3
and X-ray Cam 4–6 in Fig. 2. An algorithm is then implemented to
̂ ∈ Rnq×r , V
where U ̂ ∈ R(N− q)×r
,Ũ 1 and U
̃ 2 are constructed from the first
reconstruct a two-dimensional picture of the phase fraction at a pro­
qt and the remaining rows of U, respectively, and r is the leading singular
̃ vided instance in time (cf. Hu et al. (2005)) The profiles are created by
vector. The minimization approach is achieved as (Khodkar et al., 2019) the intensity of the X-ray as it passes through the fluid inside the hori­
||W − AD − Bf ||. (11) zontal pipe. Calibration is performed by running the system on a flow
consisting of pure oil or pure gas to create a baseline pixel value of the
Fig. 1 outlines the principal steps of the current method. The training camera that corresponds to a phase content percentage value. Uncer­
observations, which are experimentally collected, are provided into the tainty is within ±4% for the measured holdup values (cf. Viggiano et al.
DMDc algorithm to evaluate the benchmark operators. The forecasting (2019)).
stage is presented in equation (4). The main goal of the current approach The two-phase slug flow is comprised of Sulfur Hexafluoride gas
is to provide a dynamical linear model framework, which identifies (SF6) and Exxsol D60 oil. The data is taken at a temperature of 20∘ and
unknown dynamics of slug flow from collected data, to predict the pressure of 8 bar. Details of the flow conditions are compiled in Table 1.
subsequent phase fraction of the system. DMDc assists in finding the The dataset contains 1250 snapshots in time is recorded at a rate of 50
underlying dynamics of a system via measurements of both the state and Hz, giving a total record length of 25s. More details regarding the system
external inputs, and quantify the influence of control inputs on the setup, resolution of the data and uncertainties of the experiment can be
system. In general, DMD has gained popularity to deal with nonlinear found in (Viggiano et al., 2018, 2019; Ali et al., 2020). For reference,

Fig. 1. Schematic of the applied approach. The training data are taken from the cross-section variation of phase fraction with time.

3
N. Ali et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 205 (2021) 108904

Fig. 2. A representative diagram of the experimental setup (Viggiano et al., 2018).

the slug flow regime is proposed. The ability of the Koopman operator to
Table 1
linearize the nonlinear dynamics makes it an efficient tool for data-
Slug flow regime test conditions.
driven approaches. The global description of current approach is pres­
Case Usg [m/ Uso Umix ρo [kg/ μo [mPas] ently practical for turbulent processes of the slug flow. Here, the state of
s] [m/s] (m/s) m3]
the system is the cross-section of fluctuating phase fraction. More, the
Slug (Oil-Gas 0.6 0.9 1.5 812 1.42 (± dependent variable is time t, and the dynamics of the system are gov­
flow) 0.02) erned by a nonlinear force. The coordinate systems are projected by the
eigenfunctions of Koopman operator to make the dynamics of slug flow
regimes appear linear. It is of most importance here to identify a low-
Fig. 3 shows the cross section of phase fraction as its measured with order model that presents a good approximation for the solution of the
time. The figure exhibits the structure of the fluid holdup within the full state dynamical system. To achieve this goal, it is critical to recog­
pipe. nize a low-order model from the nonlinear forces, that are considered
here as an actuation term. It should be emphasized that the nonlinear
4. Results force is an additive that does not change the linearity of Koopman
eigenfunctions.
From the SVD of the Hankel matrix, a dynamical system model for Fig. 4 presents the first thirty eigenvectors of the dynamic mode

Fig. 3. The cross-section of the liquid phase fraction as a function of time.

Fig. 4. The eigenvectors of the dynamic mode decomposition with control.

4
N. Ali et al.
decomposition with control. These eigenvectors quantify the spatial
coherent features of the system. Also, these modes are computed from
the transformation of eigenvectors to dynamic modes of operator A.
Within this intermediate step in the process, it is observed that the dy­
namic modes are highly related with the flow phenomena such as a
pronounced interface and the cyclical development of gas bubbles and
subsequent liquid slugs.
Fig. 5 shows the comparison between the training set and actual
observation. Before the experimental phase fraction data were used to
train the model, they were split into a training set and a test set. The
observations were split by allocating the first 80% to the training dataset
and the last 20% to the testing dataset. The data-driven model requires a
large amount of data to train the model. Hence, 80% of the data set
(1000 snapshots) is used to train the model. The training set captures the
growing modes of the liquid holdup robustly and integrates dynamical
system. The mean square error value which measures the strength of the
relationship between the training and actual observation sets is less than
3%. Fig. 6 shows a good agreements between the real fluctuating phase
fraction and the one created from the training model.
Fig. 7 displays the ability of the current approach to forecast the
holdup event of the slug flow, where the model accurately predicts two
successive slugs. The training and prediction steps were executed on a
personal computer with a 2.7 GHz Intel Core i5 CPU and 8 GB RAM. The
run time for the completed process was about 40 s. Fig. 7 also includes
the actual cross-sectional liquid phase fraction, and the prediction of the
time-evolution of the cross-sectional slug flow regime by the developed
Hankel-DMDc method. Importantly, the DMDc constructs the low-order
structures of the system and nonlinear term to build the linear model
operator A and identify the force operator B. The forcing terms are
generated from the quadratic form using 〈φ ⋅φ〉, where the brackets
indicate the time average. According to the work of Viggiano et al.
(2018), the second order statistics captured the dynamics of the liquid
holdup well. For this reason, the quadratic form is selected to speculate
the form of the forcing term. The forcing terms are updated as the pre­
dictions of the future state become available (Khodkar et al., 2019). The
forecasting step starts after the period of training, where the elements of
Equation (4) become available. The predicted phase fraction field re­
flects the main skeleton of the original signal, thus producing similar
features.
To further validate the effectiveness of the proposed method,
Fig. 5. The training performance of liquid holdup model.
5
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 205 (2021) 108904
multiple time steps are selected to display contours of the fluctuating
phase fraction. The selected times are marked as colored dots in Fig. 7.
The color bar presents the fluctuations of the liquid phase fraction.
Feature extraction is another crucial step in the proposed model, which
requires the identification of the coherent structures and their dynamics.
The flow is distinguished by the recurrent growth and formation of the
slug through modes. The evolution of the gas bubble is correctly
captured in the horizontal centerline of the pipe with quiet evolving. The
time evolution contains one main feature in the bottom half of the pipe
and the horizontally-oriented structures. The model accurately predicts
location of the liquid holdup achieving the extreme value for the slug
passage. This data-driven predictive framework accurately forecasts the
spatial-temporal evolution of phase fraction. Thus, the data-driven
model forecasts the transition limits between gas and oil phase frac­
tion as well as dispersed bubble flow on the growth boundary.
There are three distinguished trends that are relevant for adaptive
dynamics including slow external disturbances, medium perturbation,
and fast chaotic dynamics. The formation of the slug presents the tran­
sient fast dynamics that are rapidly quieten to the equilibrium manifold.
The relaxation from the abrupt changes of the slug shows the medium
disturbance and then slow disturbance. The dynamics of medium dis­
turbances form due to the semi-quieten slug exciting the dynamics of a
neighborhood of the equilibrium state. The slow dynamics evolve in the
direction of the quasi steady state characteristics. The learning processes
sufficiently capture the underlying dynamics of the fast transient of slug
holdup in the training progresses due to the fact that the system dy­
namics evolve on a fast time scale. The excitation of slug passing is
proportionally shorter than the adjustment periods and can be consid­
ered as an impulse force. The medium and slow dynamics equilibrate
rapidly due to the time scale being controlled by small gain. It is noticed
that slow disorders are approximately constant in the pertinent time
scale of the swift dynamics. Also, there is no mixing in the flow fre­
quencies, i.e., the pertinent frequencies of the fast dynamics are segre­
gated from that of the gradual dynamics. This is due to the orthogonality
property of the decomposition. The model predicts the main trend of the
learning dynamics of medium and slow perturbations.
The accurate representation of the underlying nonlinear processes
using a linear model indicates that the underlying dynamics can be fully
discovered. The mean relative errors that are integrated over the full
domain are approximately 20%, where less precise prediction is
N. Ali et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 205 (2021) 108904

Fig. 6. The training performance for the model. The real fluctuating liquid phase fraction (top) and training model (bottom).

Fig. 7. Forecasting time profiles for the cross-sectional holdup. The color dots present a random selected time that are used to display the actual and predicted phase
fraction. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

delivered with growing advective timescales, i.e., the evolution is
exponentially unbounded. The highest variations between the actual
and predicted states are observed after the formation of the second slug.
The model parameters should be updated to force the error to be within
the margins of the uncertainties. This step must be applied to improve
model description. Based on the current approach, the calibration is
applied when the condition of the flow is drastically changed.
The current data-driven model can be nested for flow pattern
determination using the eigenvectors of the decomposition output.
Meaning that one may also consider incorporating data-driven algo­
rithms into a mechanistic model. The predicted flow state for example,
could be used to calculate the interfacial friction factor, which is an
crucial closure relation. The advantage is the number of input parame­
ters is decreased as they implant in the collected data. The physics is
apprehended by the model formulation and not simply dimensionless
quantities (Kanin et al., 2019).
5. Conclusion
The dynamics of a nonlinear system of slug flow are projected on
suitably constructed linear operators from measurements to introduce a
predictive model for the dynamical system generating the flow regime.
Hankel-based dynamic mode decomposition approach solely identifies
the information with regard to the order of nonlinearity of the slug flow
and treats it as an actuation force. Here, the nonlinear force is intro­
duced from the quadratic form of the fluctuating phase fraction. This
data-driven predictive framework is shown to accurately forecast the
spatial-temporal evolution of the phase fraction. The flow condition and
fluid pipe properties are implicitly embedded in the collected data and
the data-driven model is completely derived from that data. This is the
advantage of the current technique, it presents the variation through
characterizing the input data regardless of knowledge of the initial
condition or pipe properties. The machine learning approaches such as
regression and model selection frameworks revolve around optimization
to provide computationally inexpensive and interpretable models for
data. Curve fitting is the most basic of regression procedures, with
polynomials and exponential fitting resulting in a solution that obtains
from unraveling the linear system. The optimization methods are used to
select the best model. On the other hand, the Hankel-based dynamic
mode decomposition is an alternative perspectives for dynamical system
in terms of the evolution of the measurements. The current approach has
ability to quantify the linear dynamics from the nonlinear force. The

6
N. Ali et al.
statistical uncertainty is presented as the mean variation between the
actual and predicated phase fraction. The uncertainty is integrated over
the full domain and is less than 20%. The current approach identifies the
dynamical modes of slug flow and can be recommended for other well-
known chaotic dynamics of multiphase flow. The trend of the dynamical
system deviates from the actual captured system as the time evolution
increases, the liquid holdup will be captured with high relative error.
Therefore, a modification to the current method will be approached as a
future work to include employing additional control inputs that can
reduce the time of training and increasing prediction time.
In many oil pipeline networks, trying to formulate a mathematical
model of the plant is acknowledged as a hard task, which demands effort
and time for the process and control engineers. This problem can be
overcome by data-driven methods, which permit fitting a system model
to the experimental data collected, choosing it in a specific model class.
The direct data-driven methods enable tuning a controller, belonging to
a given class, without the necessity for a distinguished model of the
system. Also, data-driven models can predict the transient flow and be
used for developing dynamic simulator of operating states. Data-driven
models are getting attention and have now become involved in different
industries. The current techniques can be used, for example, as an in­
tegral part for a proportional–integral–derivative controller or an
alternative to the CFD model.
CRediT author statement
Naseem Ali: Methodology, writing & analysing. Bianca Viggiano:
Methodology, writing & analysing. Murat Tutkun: Methodology,
Writing – review & editing. Raúl Bayoán Cal: Methodology, Writing –
review & editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
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