UNIT 4

Building materials: Methods to reduce embodied energy in building materials: (a) Use of local building materials (b) Use of
natural and renewable materials like bamboo, timber, rammed earth, stabilized mud blocks, (c) use of materials with recycled
content such as blended cements, pozzolana cements, fly ash bricks, vitrified tiles, materials from agro and industrial waste. (d)
reuse of waste and salvaged materials
Waste Management: Handling of construction waste materials, separation of household waste, on-site and off-site organic waste
management.

Methods to reduce Embodied energy

Embodied energy is one part of a building material’s overall environmental impact.

 reasons to reduce embodied energy

 how embodied energy is measured
 reducing embodied energy

Embodied energy is the total energy required for the extraction, processing, manufacture and
delivery of building materials to the building site. Energy consumption produces CO2, which
contributes to greenhouse gas emissions, so embodied energy is considered an indicator of the
overall environmental impact of building materials and systems.
Unlike the life cycle assessment, which evaluates all of the impacts over the whole life of a
material or element, embodied energy only considers the front-end aspect of the impact of a
building material. It does not include the operation or disposal of materials.

Why reduce embodied energy?

Energy consumption during manufacture can give an approximate indication of the
environmental impact of the material, and for most building materials, the major environmental
impacts occur during the initial processes.

The total amount of embodied energy may account for 20% of the building’s energy use, so
reducing embodied energy can significantly reduce the overall environmental impact of the
building.

Embodied energy must be considered over the lifespan of a building, and in many situations, a
higher embodied energy building material or system may be justified because it reduces the
operating energy requirements of the building. For example, a durable material with a long
lifespan such as aluminum may be the appropriate material selection despite its high embodied
energy.
 As the energy efficiency of a building increase, reducing the energy consumption, the embodied
energy of the building materials will also become increasingly important.

How is embodied energy measured?

Embodied energy is measured as the quantity of non-renewable energy per unit of building
material, component or system. It is expressed in mega joules (MJ) or gigajoules (GJ) per unit
weight (kg or tonne) or area (m2) but the process of calculating embodied energy is complex and
involves numerous sources of data.

Reducing embodied energy

Buildings should be designed and materials selected to balance embodied energy with factors
such as climate, availability of materials and transport costs.

Lightweight building materials often have lower embodied energy than heavyweight materials,
but in some situations, lightweight construction may result in higher energy use. For example,
where heating or cooling requirements are high, this may raise the overall energy use of the
building.

Conversely, for buildings with high heating or cooling requirements but where there is a large
diurnal (day/night) temperature range, heavyweight construction (typically with high embodied
energy) and the inclusion of high levels of insulation can offset the energy use required for the
building.

When selecting building materials, the embodied energy should be considered with respect to:

 the durability of building materials

 how easily materials can be separated
 use of locally sourced materials
 use of recycled materials
 specifying standard sizes of materials
 avoiding waste
 Selecting materials that are manufactured using renewable energy sources.

Methods to reduce embodied energy in building materials

10 steps to reduce embodied carbon

  Reuse buildings instead of constructing new ones: Renovation and reuse projects
typically save between 50 and 75 percent of the embodied carbon emissions compared to
constructing a new building. This is especially true if the foundations and structure are
preserved, since most embodied carbon resides there.
 Specify low-carbon concrete mixes: Even though emissions per ton are not relatively
high, its weight and prevalence usually make concrete the biggest source of embodied
carbon in virtually any project. Design lower carbon concrete mixes by using fly ash,
slag, calcined clays, or even lower-strength concrete where feasible. Though access to
these materials varies across the country, with an increasing number of options there is
almost always something that can reduce the carbon footprint of your concrete mix.
 Limit carbon-intensive materials: For products with high carbon footprints like
aluminum, plastics, and foam insulation, thoughtful use is essential. For instance, while
aluminum may complement the aesthetics of your project, it is still important to use it
judiciously because of its significant carbon footprint.
 Choose lower carbon alternatives: Think about the possibilities. If you can utilize a wood
structure instead of steel and concrete, or wood siding instead of vinyl, you can reduce
the embodied carbon in a project. In most cases, it’s probably not possible to avoid
carbon intensive products altogether metals, plastics, aluminium but you can review
Environmental Product Declarations and look for lower carbon alternatives.
 Choose carbon sequestering materials: Using agricultural products that sequester carbon
can make a big impact on the embodied carbon in a project. Wood may first come to
mind, but you can also consider options like straw or hemp insulation, which, unlike
wood are annually renewable.
 Reuse materials: Whenever possible, look to salvage materials like brick, metals, broken
concrete, or wood. Salvaged materials typically have a much lower embodied carbon
footprint than newly manufactured materials, since the carbon to manufacture them has
already been spent. With reclaimed wood in particular, you not only save the energy that
would have been spent in cutting the tree down, transporting it to the mill, and processing
it, but the tree you never cut down is still doing the work of sequestering carbon.
 Use high-recycled content materials: This is especially important with metals. Freshly
manufactured steel, for example, can have an embodied carbon footprint that is five times
greater than high-recycled content steel.
 Maximize structural efficiency: Because most of the embodied carbon is in the structure,
look for ways to achieve maximum structural efficiency. Using optimum value
engineering wood framing methods, efficient structural sections, and slabs are all
effective methods to maximize efficiency and minimize material use.
 Use fewer finish materials: One way to do this is to use structural materials as finish.
Using polished concrete slabs as finished flooring saves the embodied carbon from carpet
or vinyl flooring. Unfinished ceilings are another potential source of embodied carbon
savings.
 Minimize waste: Particularly in wood-framed residential projects, designing in modules
can minimize waste. Think in common sizes for common materials like 4 x 8 plywood,
12-foot gypsum boards, 2-foot increments for wood framing, and pre-cut structural
members.

Guidelines for reducing embodied energy

Lightweight building construction such as timber frame is usually lower in embodied energy
than heavyweight construction. This is not necessarily the case if large amounts of light but high
energy materials such as steel or aluminium are used.

There are many situations where a lightweight building is the most appropriate and may result in
the lowest life cycle energy use (e.g. hot, humid climates; sloping or shaded sites; sensitive
landscapes).

In climates with greater heating and cooling requirements and significant day–night temperature
variations, embodied energy in a high level of well-insulated thermal mass can significantly
offset the energy used for heating and cooling.

There is little benefit in building a house with high embodied energy in the thermal mass or other
elements of the envelope in areas where heating and cooling requirements are minimal or where
other passive design principles are not applied.

Each design should select the best combination for its application based on climate, transport
distances, availability of materials and budget, balanced against known embodied energy
content.

The guidelines:

Design for long life and adaptability, using durable low maintenance materials.

Ensure materials can be easily separated.

Avoid building a bigger house than you need and save materials.

Modify or refurbish instead of demolishing or adding.

Ensure construction wastes and materials from demolition of existing buildings are reused or
recycled.

Use locally sourced materials (including materials salvaged on site) to reduce transport.

Select low embodied energy materials (which may include materials with a high recycled
content), preferably based on supplier-specific data.

Avoid wasteful material use: For example, specify standard sizes wherever possible (windows,
door, and panels) to avoid using additional materials as fillers. Some energy intensive finishes,
such as paints, often have high wastage levels so try to buy only as much as you need.

Ensure off cuts are recycled and use only sufficient structural materials to ensure stability and
meet construction standards.
Select materials that can be reused or recycled easily at the end of their lives using existing
recycling systems.

Give preference to materials that have been manufactured using renewable energy sources.

Use efficient building envelope design and fittings to minimise materials (e.g. energy efficient
building envelope can downsize or eliminate the need for heaters and coolers, water-efficient
taps can allow downsizing of water pipes).

New materials: Reducing building's embodied energy

The construction industry is one of the biggest consumers of energy and raw materials, and a
major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions. EU research into innovative new building
materials is helping the industry reduce its carbon footprint

CO2 emissions from making concrete account for a staggering 5% of greenhouse gas emissions
worldwide. Other building materials such as steel, brick and plastic need a lot of energy to
manufacture, and the minerals and ores used in them must all be mined, quarried and drilled for
in energy-intensive processes to extract them from the earth. To tackle this issue, EU research is
being conducted to develop new technologies and materials that minimise what is known as
‘embodied energy’ – the sum of the energy needed to produce a material, including its sourcing
and manufacture – in order to make construction more sustainable. There are many ways that this
can be done, as a raft of EU projects in the field is demonstrating. Concrete, for instance, can be
made partly from secondary raw materials such as municipal solid waste, old plastic and
electrical equipment or polyurethane foam, as one project shows. Concrete may also in
some cases be replaced by bio-composite materials and resins produced from agricultural
waste and feedstock, and the stems of tough plants like flax and jute. New kinds of cement
are being developed, based on low-carbon binders to replace those used traditional
varieties such as Portland. CO2 emissions for the new binders are lower since they use less
calcium, and hence less limestone is needed. A new generation of concrete-based construction
materials based on these binders could reduce embodied energy by 30%, lower costs by
15% and improve insulation properties by 20%. The beauty of these new components is that
they do more than reduce the building industry’s carbon footprint. They are indeed proving to be
cheaper and better performing than, and as strong as, traditional materials – and may be more
fire-resistant, impermeable, provide better noise and heat insulation, and offer a cleaner indoor
air environment due to the absence of volatile compounds.

Inorganic polymers bring insulation to the next level

A new generation of inorganic, insulating and incombustible building materials has been tested
at pilot scale and has shown commercial promise.
The EU-funded LEEMA (Low Embodied Energy Advanced (Novel) Insulation Materials and
Insulating Masonry Components for Energy Efficient Buildings) project, due for final
completion at the end of December 2015, has developed and tested novel inorganic polymer
materials suitable for insulating both new and retrofitted buildings. The objective has been to
offer a sustainable, cost-effective and healthier alternative to traditional insulation materials,
which are sometimes highly combustible, can easily shrink and can contain volatile compounds
that contaminate the indoor building environment.

Local building materials:

Whether you are a contractor, a realtor or a resident, chances are you must have heard the term
sustainable building or green building. Environment-friendly practices are the need of the hour
and the construction industry is no different. Conventional buildings employ resources, generate
waste and emit harmful greenhouse gases. Hence, you need to switch to sustainable buildings
and work towards saving our planet Earth.

Here is the list of top 7 green structural materials that are used for safe, eco-friendly construction
& sustainable construction.

1. Engineered wood

Known to all, wood is one of the most common building materials used across the globe.
However, when we start to process raw timber into wooden planks and boards, we tend to lose a
good percentage of wood. In turn, this wastage can be used to create structural portions, such as
boards, walls and doors in the form of engineered wood. The latter contains several layers of
wood, unlike solid wood.

2. Structural Insulated Panels (SIPS)

They are made up of two sheets of flake board or oriented strand boards with a foam layer in
between them and are available in bigger sizes. Thus, they are mostly used as walls for structural
support. They also offer good insulation. However, because of their sheer size, they require
heavy equipment for installation.

3. Earthen materials

For quite some time now, earthen materials, such as slammed earth and adobe blocks are used
for decoration. Slammed earth is a composition of synthetic shake and is shaped using a blend of
rock, soil, sand, sediment and mud. It is mostly used to decorate your place, whereas adobe
blocks are chiefly composed of soil, made of mud and straw.

4. Straw bale

This is another very effective green building material used as a framing material during
construction of buildings. Courtesy: amazing insulating and sound-proof properties. Generally,
straw bale is made up of rice, wheat, oats, rye and grain and it has amazing protecting properties.
As air cannot pass through them, they are well resistant to fire.

5. Slate roofing

Slate is a natural rock and is used to create tiles. These tiles, in turn, boast of high durability and
are used on the building roofs. Slate roofing is mostly preferred when it is available locally or at
cheap prices.

6. Grass crete

Nowadays, Grass Crete structures are quite in news. Who knows, you might have seen it too.
Basically, Grass Crete is a strategy in which contractors lay a solid ground surface, like
walkways in a way so as to make sure there are ample open spaces on which green patches can
be grown. Such initiatives are environment-friendly and help in improving tempest water
ingestion.

7. Steel

Shingles and steel roof panels are extremely durable. The best part is, however, that they can be
recycled every now and then. So, if you are interested in green roof materials, you can consider
them. Talking of steel, we cannot leave without mentioning best TMT bar manufacturers India.
TMT bars lend strength and durability to the buildings. MSP Steel is one of the leading TMT bar
manufacturers specializing in a diverse array of industrial products.

Use of natural and renewable materials like bamboo, timber rammed earth, stabilized mud
blocks, etc.

A number of hidden factors, including the transportation involved and how they hold up in
certain climates, contribute to materials' eco-friendliness.

Environmental impact is a wide topic that more people and sectors of the economy are paying
attention to when making daily living and business decisions. Information on the issue is
particularly coming to light in the construction industry, which traditionally is known for its
harsh impacts on natural resources and environments.

Numerous eco-friendly building materials have emerged in the marketplace to reduce the
environmental impact of building construction and operations. But identifying the world's most
eco-friendly building materials can be a bit tricky because different people have different
definitions of sustainability.

Embodied energy examines both obvious and hidden factors that contribute to a material's
sustainability or lack thereof. It is "the sum of all the energy required from extracting a material
— like granite or stone or ore out of the ground — all the way until its end of life".
That includes anything a material requires for growth, production and transportation, including
the water and other resources needed to grow natural items as well as the gas consumed during
product transportation. "People are starting to think about this more and more".

Sustainable construction also takes into consideration a material's appropriateness for the climate
in which it is used. Some materials hold up well in arid, cool environments but degrade in humid,
hot areas. Degradation and replacement frequency need to factor into an item’s overall eco-
friendliness.

"There’s no material that’s perfect," but some are more sustainable than others. "There are some
common characteristics of materials that have low embodied energy," he said, such as being
lightweight and locally sourced.

5 of the world's most eco-friendly building materials

This is a list of five materials that frequently make experts’ lists of eco-friendly building
components.

1. Bamboo

Sustainability experts nearly universally agree bamboo is one of the best eco-friendly building
materials on the planet. Its rate of self-generation is incredibly high, with some species growing
up to three feet in 24 hours. Bamboo technically is a perennial grass, not a wood, and it continues
spreading and growing without having to be replanted after harvest. It is prevalent around the
world and can be found on every continent except Europe and Antarctica.

Bamboo has a high strength-to-weight ratio and exceptional durability — even greater
compressive strength than brick or concrete — so it can take a beating without being replaced
very often, which is not necessarily the case with other fast-growing, sustainable items such as
hemp. That makes bamboo a viable choice for flooring and cabinetry.
Because it is lightweight, bamboo is less energy intensive to transport than many other materials
of comparable durability. A drawback is that it requires treatment to resist insects and rot;
untreated bamboo has a starch that insects like, and it can swell and crack when it absorbs water.

2. Cork

Like bamboo, cork is a fast-growing resource. It earns bonus points for its ability to be harvested
from a living tree that will continue to grow and reproduce cork, which is a tree bark.

Cork is flexible and resilient, reverting to its original shape after sustaining pressure. Its
resilience and resistance to wear make it a common element in floor tiles. Its noise absorption
abilities also make it perfect for insulation sheets, and its shock absorption qualities make it well-
suited for sub-flooring. If left uncoated, cork is naturally fire resistant and it doesn't release toxic
gases when it does burn. This also makes cork a good thermal insulator.

Cork is nearly impermeable so it does not absorb water or rot. Over time however, cork does
become more brittle. Cork loses a few sustainability points because it is primarily found in the
Mediterranean, and shipping cost ends up being a considerable factor. However, cork also is
extremely light so it requires less energy to ship, thus salvaging its embodied energy score.

"There’s no material that’s perfect. There are some common characteristics of materials that
have low embodied energy."

3. Reclaimed or recycled metal and wood

Aluminum and steel are high embodied energy materials due to the energy required to produce
them, such as mining the ore, heating and shaping products, and transporting a relatively heavy
material. But each time the metal is properly and efficiently reused or recycled into new
products, its embodied energy lowers and makes the material more sustainable because "you're
not extracting raw aluminum,". "If you think of the whole thing like a cycle from the raw
extraction to the processing to the installation to the demolition to the disposal, when you get to
recycling you basically cut out the whole raw extraction and processing."

Recycled metal is a long-lasting material that does not need frequent replacement. It tends not to
burn or warp, making it a viable option for roofing, structural supports and building façades. It's
also water and pest resistant.

Reclaimed metals, such as plumbing components, sometimes can be used in their existing forms
instead of having to be recycled and manufactured into a new product.

Like recycled metal, reclaiming and reusing wood reduces its embodied energy, which already is
lower because of its light weight. Wood does have less strength though, so each piece's integrity
should be assessed and chosen for an appropriate project.
Reclaimed wood can be used for a plethora of building purposes, including structural framing,
flooring, siding and cabinetry. Density varies by the type of wood and some stand up better over
time. However, most wood is susceptible to insects and degradation, reinforcing the need to
thoroughly inspect each reclaimed piece.

4. Rammed Earth and Embodied Energy:

Rammed earth is a technique for constructing sustainable buildings, with a low energy demand
encompassing the whole life cycle of buildings. In order to reduce the energy demand for the
entire life cycle of buildings, the embodied energy must be taken into account.

The embodied energy of rammed earth is low to moderate. Composed of selected aggregates
bound with cementitious material, rammed earth can be thought of as a kind of ‘weak concrete’.
It may help to understand cement and earth products as being at different points on an energy
continuum, with earth at the low end and high strength concrete at the high end. Its cement and
aggregate content can be varied to suit engineering and strength requirements.

Although in principle it is a low greenhouse gas emission product, transport and cement
manufacture can add significantly to the overall emissions associated with typical modern
rammed earth construction. The most basic kind of traditional rammed earth has very low
greenhouse gas emissions but the more highly engineered and processed variants may be
responsible for significant emissions in their manufacture. For example, a 300 mm rammed earth
wall with 5% cement content has the equivalent of 15mm thickness of cement, equivalent to over
100 mm of concrete (which mainly comprises sand and aggregate).

5. Mud brick

The ideal building material would be ‘borrowed’ from the environment and replaced after use.
There would be little or no processing of the raw material and all the energy inputs would be
directly, or indirectly, from the sun. This ideal material would also be cheap and would perform
well thermally and acoustically. If used carefully, mud bricks come close to this ideal.
Basic mud bricks are made by mixing earth with water, placing the mixture into moulds and
drying the bricks in the open air. Straw or other fibres that are strong in tension are often added
to the bricks to help reduce cracking. Mud bricks are joined with a mud mortar and can be used
to build walls, vaults and domes.
Mud bricks could have the lowest impact of all construction materials. Mud brick should not
contain any organic matter — the bricks should be made from clays and sands and not include
living soil. They require very little generated energy to manufacture, but large amounts of water.
Their embodied energy content is potentially the lowest of all building materials but the use of
additives such as cement, excessive transport and other mechanical energy use can increase the
‘delivered’ embodied energy of all earth construction (see Embodied energy).
In a similar way, the greenhouse gas emissions associated with unfired mud bricks can (and
should) be very low. To keep emissions to an absolute minimum, the consumption of fossil fuel
and other combustion processes have to be avoided. If, say, 5% cement is added to a 300mm
mud brick wall, it makes a fairly high energy/high emission building material, close to the
embodied energy of a 125mm unreinforced concrete wall.

Other materials that frequently make experts’ lists of eco-friendly building components are:

Precast concrete slabs

This concrete slab is formed at a manufacturer's site and shipped in whole sections to
construction sites. The outer layers often envelop a lightweight filler, like foam insulation. Other
versions are made entirely of concrete but have large, hollow air spaces, like concrete blocks.
Precast concrete slabs commonly are used for walls and building facades because they hold up
well to all kinds of weather, but certain types can be used for floors and flat roofs, especially roof
decks.
"Concrete is actually pretty good because even though it's heavy, it requires little processing,".
"Its embodied energy is really decent."

Precast concrete slabs’ sustainability factor is even higher than many traditional poured concrete
options because the slabs often take much less energy to produce and assemble. Plus, precasting
concrete provides the opportunity to properly cure the material in a controlled environment,
instead of potentially exposing it to a variety of unfavorable conditions while curing it at a
construction site. Improper curing can lead to cracks and structural faults within the concrete
and, in the worst cases, the need to demolish the new concrete and start over.

Concrete serves as an excellent way to control heat within a building, plus it is a highly
affordable building material.

Sheep’s wool insulation

Unlike the commonly used fiberglass insulation or polyurethane spray foam, sheep’s wool is all
natural. "There's a huge push for alternatives where you can replace something that's synthetic or
processed with something that's natural".

The material doesn't degrade nearly as quickly as other natural insulation materials, like straw.
And compared with some natural insulators like cotton, sheep’s wool is more
prevalent, regenerates faster and can be harvested more easily.

One drawback is that sheep's wool isn't always the most affordable insulator. The material is
"taken up by early adopters who can pay a little more or who are interested in how sustainable
they are. But slowly those [materials] are moving to more mainstream viability".

Sustainability experts raise an important point to consider when seeking eco-friendly building
materials: Incorporating just one material in a limited manner will not render an entire building
project eco-friendly or sustainable.

"All these elements interact with each other" as well as with a building's operating systems like
lighting, heating and cooling. "We usually look at it from a systems-level perspective, not
individual materials," he said. "How do the combination of materials and equipment and
techniques and policies influence the performance and livability of a building?"

"That's the big shift we've seen in the past 10 years in the green building movement, away from
this focus on individual components and toward system thinking, whole building modeling and
importantly, performance tracking".

The use of agricultural waste in concrete industry:

Concrete occupies a particularly important place in the construction industry, being used
frequently and in high amounts, but its production has negative environmental effects, starting
with the extraction of raw materials and finishing with its high embodied energy. This has led
specialists to search new solutions of recipes and technologies for the manufacture of concrete.
The study is aimed at finding new solutions for reducing the use of natural resources (reuse of
waste), as well as fossil fuels, through the wide use of alternative energy sources.

Aggregate substitutes Some natural products and waste resulting from the primary processing
of agricultural products may be used for the manufacture of ecological concrete as aggregate
substitutes.

Sawdust is abundantly available and is used for the manufacture of light concrete, subjected to
moderate strain. Sawdust contains considerable amounts of water soluble impurities that delay
the hydration and setting of the cement paste. In order to neutralize sawdust impurities, physical-
chemical treatments are necessary, which considerably increase the price of concrete. In order to
make sure that auxiliary sawdust materials will not affect the setting of concrete, sawdust can be
pretreated by water soaking and washing before mixing, with the addition of calcium oxide or a
magnesium oxide and dolomite powder mixture.

Rice husks can be used as an aggregate for the production of concrete blocks and prefabricated
elements for floors. The rice husk contains a relatively small amount of water soluble impurities
compared to sawdust and has a low bulk density, 100 – 150 kg/m3. The apparent density of rice
husk concrete is about 600 kg/m3 or higher, depending on the proportion of husks, cement and
the degree of compaction. Compressive strength is between 3 and 12 N/mm2.

Coconut kernel is waste in the form of granules and dust resulting from the separation of the
coconut fruit from the husk. In this way, large amounts of kernel are obtained, which can be used
as a light aggregate in concrete. Storage in a wet state destroys the active ingredients from the
kernel by solubilization and bacterial action. The melted kernel obtained as waste in coconut
fiber industry has a mild reactivity with Portland cement. The bulk density of coconut kernel
granules ranges between 80 and 90 kg/m3 and the resulting concrete has densities ranging
between 432 and 768 kg/m3. The concrete obtained using coconut kernel has a low thermal
conductivity, varying between 0.052 and 0.110 W/mK, which makes it adequate for thermal
insulation. The small fissures resulting in concrete prepared in this way, due to contraction
during drying, can be repaired without significantly affecting its thermal insulating properties.
Cork granules resulting from packages can be used to produce light concrete. Depending on the
proportion of cement and the amount of cork granules, compressive strengths varying between
4.2 and 12.0 N/mm2 for an apparent density of 475 up to 890 kg/m3 were obtained. Cork granule
concrete can be used to replace earth fillings above buried pipes, for embankments adjacent to
water retention constructions, sound proofing screens, etc

Portland cement substitutes – rice husk ash: The reduction of Portland cement production
would result in a significant reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. The waste used as cement
replacement additions consists of minerals in the form of fine powder derived from other
production processes. In combination with water, these have the property to set and harden very
slowly, which is significantly accelerated by the presence of cement. As cementitious additions,
besides power station ash and some types of blast furnace slag, rice husk ash can also be
successfully used. Rice husk ash can partially replace Portland cement in the composition of
concrete. 85% up to 97% of rice husk ash is amorphous silicon, whose reactivity depends on the
burning process used. The quality of the rice husk ash depends on the burning temperature, the
duration of burning, the air supply requirement during burning, the cooling rate of the resulting
hot ash, and the grinding time. From a cement mixture containing 20% rice husk ash and 80%
cement, a mortar with a compressive strength of 61.3 N/mm2 at 28 days was produced, compared
to 43.6 N/mm2 for standard mortar, without rice husk ash addition. Interestingly, even when the
mixture contained up to 70% rice husk ash, the mortar produced was more resistant than standard
mortar, regardless of duration.

UTILIZATION OF RECYCLED WASTE AS IN-GRADIENTS IN CONCRETE MIX:

Laboratory experimentation was carried out to analyze the performance of M25 concrete made
by partially replacing aggregates with waste materials like construction debris, PVC scrap and
leather waste. The resultant concrete was tested for parameters like weight, compressive
strength, slump and workability and compared with conventional plain cement concrete. It has
been observed that the use of waste materials results in the formation of light weight concrete.
There is a considerable increase in the compressive strength of concrete when the coarse
aggregates are fully or partially replaced with construction debris. However a minor reduction in
workability of the concrete mix was observed. When the coarse aggregates were replaced
with PVC scrap in small percentage by weight, the resultant concrete shows fair value of
compressive strength and the workability. But with the partial introduction of leather
waste in place of sand in concrete, the concrete passed workability test but it failed completely
in compressive strength test and gave almost zero strength. Hence, except leather waste other
materials like construction debris and PVC scrap performed well as full or partial replacement
for concrete aggregates and can find suitable application in construction industry as alternative to
conventional materials. Uses of such waste materials will not only cut down the cost of
construction, but will also contribute in safe disposal of waste materials. Apart from the
environmental benefits, the addition of such wastes, also improves certain properties of resultant
concrete. In table, the mix proportions are considered for further tests. We have calculated their
embodied energy for each mix and try to find out best mix proportion for green building
material. After calculating the embodied energy for each mix, we can consider that mix no 4
have less embodied energy compare with other. And remaining results which are given in
research paper shows that mix no 4 is superior to other mix

Materials with recycled content such as blended cements, pozzolana cements, fly ash
bricks, vitrified tiles, materials from agro and industrial waste:

Blended Cement: The construction industry is one of the fastest growing and a major energy
consuming sector. As a result large numbers of buildings are built for residential, commercial
and office purposes every year all over the world. Construction industry, along with its support
industries, is one of the largest exploiters of natural resources, both renewable and non-
renewable.
Concrete is widely considered as the backbone of the construction industry, with a
current consumption of 1 cubic meter per person per year. Ordinary Portland cement (OPC)
has been used for around 200 years now as a binder material. However OPC has high embodied
energy of 4.2 MJ/kg. The contribution of OPC is approximately 5–7% of global man made CO2

emissions. High CO2 emissions arising from OPC manufacturing are from calcinations of

limestone, and high energy consumption during manufacturing.

The following are some alternatives to OPC concrete have been proposed to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions:
Blended Cement Concretes, comprising OPC that has been partly substituted by
supplementary cementitious materials, are used as binders for concrete. Commonly used
substitutes include fly ash, a fine waste residue that is collected from the emissions
liberated by coal burning power stations, and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS),
a waste by-product from steelmaking. According to Flower and Sanjayan use of blended cements
results in reduction of CO2 emissions by 13–22%. These estimates vary according to the local

conditions at the source of raw materials, binder quantity and amount of OPC replacement, type
of manufacturing facilities, climate, energy sources, and transportation distances.
Geo-polymer Concretes, comprising of an alkali-activated fly ash, has been considered as a
substitute for OPC. Geo-polymers were described as inorganic materials rich in silicon (Si) and
Aluminium (Al) that react with alkaline activators to become cementitious. Alkaline activators
used for geo-polymers are usually a combination of a hydroxyl, usually sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) or potassium hydroxide (KOH), and a glassy silicate, consisting of sodium silicate or
potassium silicate, with NaOH and sodium silicate being the most common due to cost and
availability. To achieve comparable strength to OPC concrete, it is necessary to provide
geo-polymer concrete with elevated temperature curing between 40 and 80 C for at least 6 hours.

Reuse of waste and salvaged materials:

a) Handling of construction & demolition waste materials

Construction and Demolition Waste Management Rules 2016

The construction and demolition waste generated is about 530 million tonnes annually. The
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change notified the Construction & Demolition
Waste Management Rules, 2016 on 29 March 2016. The rules are an initiative to effectively
tackle the issues of pollution and waste management.
1. Application
o Applies to everyone who generates construction and demolition waste.
2. Duties of waste Generators
 o Every waste generator shall segregate construction and demolition waste and
deposit at collection centre or handover it to the authorised processing facilities
o Shall ensure that there is no littering or deposition so as to prevent obstruction to
the traffic or the public or drains.
o Large generators (who generate more than 20 tons or more in one day or 300 tons
per project in a month) shall submit waste management plan and get appropriate
approvals from the local authority before starting construction or demolition or
remodelling work,
o Large generators shall have environment management plan to address the likely
environmental issues from construction, demolition, storage, transportation
process and disposal / reuse of C & D Waste.
o Large generators shall segregate the waste into four streams such as concrete, soil,
steel, wood and plastics, bricks and mortar,
o Large generators shall pay relevant charges for collection, transportation,
processing and disposal as notified by the concerned authorities;
3. Duties of Service providers and Contractors
o The service providers shall prepare a comprehensive waste management plan for
waste generated within their jurisdiction, within six months from the date of
notification of these rules,
o Shall remove all construction and demolition waste in consultation with the
concerned local authority on their own or through any agency.
4. Duties of State Government and Local Authorities
o The Secretary, UDD in the State Government shall prepare their policy with
respect to management of construction and demolition of waste within one year
from date of final notification of these rules.
o The concerned department in the State Government dealing with land shall
provide suitable sites for setting up of the storage, processing and recycling
facilities for construction and demolition waste with one-and-a-half years from
date of final notification of these rules.
 o The Town and Country planning Department shall incorporate the site in the
approved land use plan so that there is no disturbance to the processing facility on
a long term basis.
o Shall procure and utilize 10-20% materials made from construction and
demolition waste in municipal and Government contracts.
o Local Authority shall place appropriate containers for collection of waste,
removal at regular intervals, transportation to appropriate sites for processing and
disposal.
o LA shall seek detailed plan or undertaking from large generator of construction
and demolition waste and sanction the waste management plan;
o Seek assistance from concerned authorities for safe disposal of construction and
demolition waste contaminated with industrial hazardous or toxic material or
nuclear waste if any;
o LA shall give appropriate incentives to generator for salvaging, processing and or
recycling preferably in-situ;
o LA shall establish a data base and update once in a year,
o Million plus cities (based on 2011 census of India), shall commission the
processing and disposal facility within one-and-a-half years from date of final
notification of these rules
o 0.5 to 1 million cities, shall commission the processing and disposal facility
within two years from date of final notification of these rules
o for other cities (< 0.5 million populations), shall commission the processing and
disposal facility within three years from date of final notification of these rules

5. Duties of Central Pollution Control Board, State Pollution Control Board or

Pollution Control Committee
o The Central Pollution Control Board shall prepare operational guidelines related
to environmental management of construction and demolition waste.
o SPCB shall grant authorization to construction and demolition waste processing
facility
o Monitor the implementation of these rules by the concerned local bodies
 o Submit annual report to the Central Pollution Control Board and the State
Government.
6. Standards for products of construction and demolition waste
o The Bureau of Indian Standards need to prepare code of practices and standards
for products of construction and demolition waste
o Indian Roads Congress needs to prepare standards and practices pertaining to
products of construction and demolition waste in roads construction.
7. Duties of Central Ministries
o The Ministry of Urban Development, and the Ministry of Rural Development,
Ministry of Panchayat Raj, shall facilitate local bodies in compliance of these
rules;
o The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change shall review
implementation of these rules as and when required.
8. Facility for processing / recycling facility
o The operator of the facility shall obtain authorization from State Pollution Control
Board or Pollution Control Committee.
o The processing / recycling site shall be away from habitation clusters, forest areas,
water bodies, monuments, National Parks, Wetlands and places of important
cultural, historical or religious interest.
o The processing/recycling facility exceeding five Tones per day capacity, shall
maintain a buffer zone of no development around the facility.

b) Separation of house hold waste

Waste sorting is the process by which waste is separated into different elements. Waste sorting
can occur manually at the household and collected through curb side collection schemes, or
automatically separated in materials recovery facilities or mechanical biological treatment
systems.
Waste separation, also known as waste classification or waste segregation, is the process by
which waste is separated into different elements operated manually at the household or through
curb side collection schemes.
Waste sorting is the process by which waste is separated into different elements. Waste sorting
can occur manually at the household and collected through curb side collection schemes, or
automatically separated in materials recovery facilities or mechanical biological
treatment systems. Hand sorting was the first method used in the history of waste sorting.
Waste can also be sorted in a civic amenity site.
"Waste segregation" means dividing waste into dry and wet. Dry waste includes wood and
related products, metals and glass. Wet waste typically refers to organic waste usually generated
by eating establishments and are heavy in weight due to dampness. Waste can also be
segregeconomic concern.
Waste is collected at its source in each area and separated. The way that waste is sorted must
reflect local disposal systems. The following categories are common:
 Paper
 Cardboard (including packaging for return to suppliers)
 Glass (clear, tinted – no light bulbs or window panes, which belong with residual waste)
 Plastics
 Textiles
 Wood, leather, rubber
 Scrap metal
 Compost
 Special/hazardous waste
 Residual waste
Organic waste can also be segregated for disposal:
 Leftover food which has had any contact with meat can be collected separately to prevent the
spread of bacteria.
o Meat and bone can be retrieved by bodies responsible for animal waste.
o If other leftovers are sent, for example, to local farmers, they can be sterilised before
being fed to the animals.
 Peels and scrapings from fruit and vegetables can be composted along with other degradable
matter. Other waste can be included for composting, such as cut flowers, corks, coffee
grounds, rotting fruit, tea bags, eggshells and nutshells, and paper towels.
Chip pan oil, used fats, vegetable oil and the content of fat filters can be collected by companies
able to re-use them. Local authority waste departments can provide relevant addresses. This can
be achieved by providing recycling bins.

c) Handling e-waste:

The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change notified the E-Waste Management
Rules, 2016 on 23 March 2016 in supersession of the e-waste (Management & Handling) Rules,
2011.
1. Manufacturer, dealer, refurbisher and Producer Responsibility Organization (PRO) have
been introduced as additional stakeholders in the rules.
2. The applicability of the rules has been extended to components, consumables, spares and
parts of EEE in addition to equipment as listed in Schedule I.
3. Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL) and other mercury containing lamp brought under the
purview of rules.
4. Collection mechanism based approach has been adopted to include collection centre,
collection point, take back system etc for collection of e - waste by Producers under
Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR).
5. Option has been given for setting up of PRO, e - waste exchange, e - retailer, Deposit
Refund Scheme as additional channel for implementation of EPR by Producers to ensure
efficient channelization of e - waste.
6. Provision for Pan India EPR Authorization by CPCB has been introduced replacing the
state wise EPR authorization.
7. Collection and channelisation of e - waste in Extended Producer Responsibility -
Authorisation shall be i n line with the targets prescribed in Schedule III of the Rules. The
phase wise Collection Target for e - waste, which can be either in number or Weight shall
be 30% of the quantity of waste generation as indicated in EPR Plan during first two year
of implementation of rules followed by 40% during third and fourth years, 50% during
fifth and sixth years and 70% during seventh year onwards.
8. Deposit Refund Scheme has been introduced as an additional economic instrument
wherein the producer charges an additional amount as a deposit at the time of sale of the
 electrical and electronic equipment and returns it to the consumer along with interest
when the end - of - life electrical and electronic equipment is returned.
9. The e - waste exchange as an option has been provided in the rules as an independent
market instrument offering assistance or independent electronic systems offering services
for sale and purchase of e - waste generated from end - of - life electrical and electronic
equipment between agencies or organizations authorised under these rules.
10. The manufacturer is also now responsible to collect e - waste generated during the
manufacture of any electrical and electronic equipment and channelize it for recycling or
disposal and seek authorization from SPCB.
11. The dealer, if has been given the responsibility of collection on behalf of the producer,
need to collect the e - waste by providing the consumer a box and channelize it to
Producer.
12. Dealer or retailer or e - retailer shall refund the amount as per take back system or
Deposit Refund Scheme of the producer to the depositor of e - waste.
13. Refurbisher need collect e - wastes generated during the process of refurbishing and
channelize the waste to authorised dismantler or recycler through its collection centre and
seek one time authorization from SPCB.
14. The roles of the State Government has been also introduced in the Rules in order to
ensure safety, health and skill development of the workers involved in the dismantling
and recycling operations.
15. Department of Industry in State or any other government agency authorised in this regard
by the State Government is to ensure earmarking or allocation of industrial space or shed
for e - waste dismantling and recycling in the existing and upcoming industrial park,
estate and industrial clusters.
16. Department of Labour in the State or any other government agency authorised in this
regard by the State Government need to ensure recognition and registration of workers
involved in dismantling and recycling; assist formation of groups of such workers to
facilitate setting up dismantling facilities; undertake industrial skill development
activities for the workers involved in dismantling and recycling; and undertake annual
monitoring and to ensure safety & health of workers involved in dismantling and
recycling.
 17. State Government to prepare integrated plan for effective implementation of these
provisions, and to submit annual report to Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
Change.
18. The transportation of e - waste shall be carried out as per the manifest system whereby
the transporter shall be required to carry a document (three copies) prepared by the
sender, giving the details.
19. Liability for damages caused to the environment or third party due to improper
management of e - waste including provision for levying financial penalty for violation of
provisions of the Rules has also been introduced.
20. Urban Local Bodies (Municipal Committee/Council/Corporation) has been assign the
duty to collect and channelized the orphan products to authorized dismantler or recycler.

Salient Features of the E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2016 and its likely implication:
The amendment in rules has been done with the objective of channelizing the E-waste generated
in the country towards authorized dismantlers and recyclers in order to formalize the e-waste
recycling sector. The collection targets under the provision of Extended Producer Responsibility
(EPR) in the Rules have been revised and targets have been introduced for new producers who
have started their sales operations recently.
Some of the salient features of the E-waste (Management) Amendment Rules, 2018 are as
follows:

1. The e-waste collection targets under EPR have been revised and will be applicable from 1
October 2017. The phase-wise collection targets for e-waste in weight shall be 10% of
the quantity of waste generation as indicated in the EPR Plan during 2017-18, with a 10%
increase every year until 2023. After 2023 onwards, the target has been made 70% of the
quantity of waste generation as indicated in the EPR Plan.
2. The quantity of e-waste collected by producers from the 1 October 2016 to 30 September
2017 shall be accounted for in the revised EPR targets until March 2018.
3. Separate e-waste collection targets have been drafted for new producers, i.e. those
producers whose number of years of sales operation is less than the average lives of their
products. The average lives of the products will be as per the guidelines issued by CPCB
from time to time.
 4. Producer Responsibility Organizations (PROs) shall apply to the Central Pollution
Control board (CPCB) for registration to undertake activities prescribed in the Rules.
5. Under the Reduction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) provisions, cost for sampling and
testing shall be borne by the government for conducting the RoHS test. If the product
does not comply with RoHS provisions, then the cost of the test will be borne by the
Producers.

d) On-site and off-site organic waste management:

Discussing the pros and cons of on-site segregation versus off-site segregation

It has been identified in recent government statistics, that the construction industry is the UK’s
largest producer of waste. It is estimated that the construction industry alone produces
around 109 million tonnes of waste, which equates to 24% of the total waste produced in the UK.
Worryingly 13% of this waste is due to over ordering on site (but this is the subject for another
discussion). Of the 109 million tonnes of waste produced, it is estimated the around 36 million
tonnes is sent to landfill. These are still shocking statistics at a time when the target for us all
should be zero waste to landfill.
Of course, one effective way that we can reduce the amount of waste that has to be sent to
landfill is to be efficient and economical when ordering materials for site, reducing the volume of
materials that have to be sent to landfill unnecessarily, and in instances where materials have
been ‘over ordered’ ensure that they are reused. The same principle can be applied to waste that
has been produced; where possible it should always be reused, diverting it from landfill.
So what does all this have to do with waste segregation? Waste segregation whether on-site or
off-site can facilitate the reuse philosophy, further reducing the volume of waste to be sent to
landfill. For projects where space is limited, full on site waste segregation can be a problem. In
this situation it is important to use a reputable waste carrier, who will take the waste to a waste
transfer station, with a materials recovery facility (MRF) for off-site segregation.
Below we discuss the pros and cons for both on-site segregation and off-site segregation.
On-Site Segregation
Pros
 Minimising the overall volume of waste
Separating different waste streams and effectively storing them (compacting or crushing
packaging and light mixed wastes) due a smaller volume of waste, could lead to a reduction in
your collection costs. You could fit more waste into the units that you have on site.
 Ensuring your team on site take responsibility helps you recycle more
Your team on site will know better than anybody what materials they are disposing of. Working
with them to take responsibility to for ensuring materials that could be reused aren’t thrown
away, could avoid higher landfill and disposal costs
 Reduces your carbon footprint whilst driving up your credit credentials
Differentiate yourselves from your competitors; promoting yourselves as a company that is
working towards zero waste to landfill, could be beneficial
 Safer working practices
Segregating and storing waste streams properly minimises the risk of accidents and improves
site health and safety
Cons
 Training
Training your staff on site can initially take time; however once established this approach to
waste can be mirrored on other sites
 Initial Costs
The outlay for hiring more skip to site initially will be greater, before cost savings will be
realised
 Space on site
Having more skips on site takes significantly more room which on a small site may be a problem
 Change Culture
Unless all staff and contractors on site work towards the change, cross contamination can still
occur
Off-Site Segregation
Pros
 Less room needed on site
One massive benefit to passing the control of your waste segregation to a waste company is that
you don’t require space on site for multiple skips; which on a small site where space is at a
premium it could be a problem.
 Lower costs initially
You don’t have the outlay of hiring multiple skips to site at once. Instead just having ‘a skip’ on
site which requires multiple collections.
 Specialists on site at the MRF
At the MRF staff there is specialists; they will ensure that the waste streams collected are
efficiently identified and sorted prior to recycling
 Relives time pressure for staff
Having the waste segregated off-site means that your staff on-site doesn’t have to spend time
sorting waste when placing it in the skip
Cons
 Not all materials could be reused efficiently
Your staff on site knows the materials that they are disposing; they could be disposing of
materials that could be used on another site
 More collections may be necessary on the single skip
Although you may have a lower outlay initially because of only ordering one skip to site; you
may need more collections arranged for it. This can result in additional costs.
 Higher landfill tax expenditure
Some MRF’s are more efficient than others, so more of your waste might end up in landfill;
resulting in the extra landfill tax charge
 Fines or additional costs for contaminated skips
Hazardous or specialist waste may end up being disposed in the skip, which has to be treated
separately incurring additional charges
Whilst SWMP’s are no longer a legal requirement, 83% of participants in a recent WRAP
survey said that having a SWMP encouraged them to segregate waste on site. At Nat Waste, we
still offer a complete waste management ‘cradle to grave’ service, where our staff will visit site
and work with your staff to identify waste streams, and how they can be efficiently segregated
and diverted away from landfill.
Click here to find out how the Nat Waste team can help you:-
 Divert waste away from landfill
 Reduce your carbon footprint
 Potentially reduce your on-site costs
Checklist: Organic Waste Management - Composting
 Follow all state and local regulations regarding composting. Contact Massachusetts
Department of Agricultural Resources Composting Program for more information Mass Gov
Agricultural Composting Program.
 Most organic waste materials generated by a greenhouse can be composted.
 Avoid composting grass clippings that has been treated with herbicides.
 Compost piles should always be distant and downwind from sensitive neighbours and not
sited close to residential property.
 Piles should be protected from surface water and storm water runoff.
 Proportions of carbon to nitrogen are critical to successful composting. The materials being
composted will determine the exact recipe for any given operation. Materials with high
carbon to nitrogen ratios, such as 100:1, should be balanced with materials having low carbon
to nitrogen ratios, e.g. 15:1.
 Regular turning of the pile will mix the nutrients and re-establish pile structure.
 Moisture content can be adjusted during turning.
 After the compost has gone through several heating and cooling cycles and the original waste
has decomposed, the compost process should slowly finish in a curing pile.
 Activities that tend to release odours should be scheduled to minimize negative impacts.
 Consider wind conditions before opening compost piles. Stronger winds can disperse odours
but also create dust concerns. Care should be taken to control dust when grinding and turning
piles.
 Most odour problems can be avoided, controlled, or minimized by keeping the compost pile
aerobic, porous, well aerated, and well mixed. Odour problems are most likely when
anaerobic decomposition is occurring.
Organic Waste Management

Composting is a managed process which utilizes microorganisms naturally present in organic

matter and soil to decompose organic material. These microorganisms require basic nutrients,
oxygen, and water in order for decomposition to occur at an accelerated pace. The end-product,
compost, is a dark brown, humus-like material which can be easily and safely handled, stored,
and used as a valuable soil conditioner. The composting process is dependent upon several
factors, including: the population of microorganisms, carbon to nitrogen ratio, oxygen level,
temperature, moisture, surface area, pH, and time.

WASTE MANAGEMENT:
Construction and demolition (C&D) materials are generated when new building and civil-
engineering structures are built and when existing buildings and civil-engineering structures are
renovated or demolished (including deconstruction activities). Civil-engineering structures
include public works projects, such as streets and highways, bridges, utility plants, piers, and
dams.
C&D materials often contain bulky, heavy materials such as:

 Concrete
 Wood (from buildings)
 Asphalt (from roads and roofing shingles)
 Gypsum (the main component of drywall)
 Metals
 Bricks
 Glass
 Plastics
 Salvaged building components (doors, windows, and plumbing fixtures)
 Trees, stumps, earth, and rock from clearing sites

Benefits of construction waste management / recycling

Environmentally Sustainable -preserves natural resources, landfill capacity, and energy

consumption

Reduces Construction Costs - 60% to 80% landfill disposal fee avoidance

Improves Safety & Workmanship -materials collection, shrinkage, reuse of waste

TYPES OF WASTES DIGESTION

Following are the types of digestion of wastes,

 Aerobic Digestion: A treatment that break down biodegradable waste in the presence of
oxygen, producing a renewable energy (biogas) that can be used to generates electricity and heat.
It has been successfully used in several European and Asian countries to stabilize food wastes
and to provide beneficial end products.

1. Composting

2. Compostable Bags
 Anaerobic Digestion: A treatment that breaks down biodegradable waste in the absence of
oxygen, producing a renewable energy (biogas) that can be used to generates electricity and heat.
It has been successfully used in several European and Asian countries to stabilize food wastes
and to provide beneficial end products.

SEGREGATION OF WASTE AT SOURCE Waste segregation at source will reduce the

segregation load at dumping yard. Green building certification agency proposed to segregate the
waste as Degradable and Non degradable waste. Kitchen waste comes under the degradable
waste. Depending on the calorie content of kitchen waste energy can be generated from the waste
using various techniques.

TREATMENT AND DUMPING OF SOLID WASTE The main objective of treatment and
disposal is to clear waste from the disposal site in an environment friendly manner with little/
non serious implication on the health and hygiene of the micro and macro environment. The
urban local bodies have generally adopted dumping as method of the disposal of the waste as on
today. Currently the waste is not treated in systematic and scientific manner. As a result the
whole area in and around the disposal site has become unhygienic and posing serious threat to
the public health.

JOBSITE SORTING
Efficient identification and sorting of materials is an important factor in managing the economic
viability of diverting construction debris from disposal. Jobsite protocols are identified in
contracts and subcontracts, and implemented at the project level by superintendents and project
managers. Superintendents and project managers utilize project specifications prepared by
architects and engineers for information on diversion target rates, and general performance
requirements. Building owners and contractors may have corporate guidelines and policies which
improve upon project specific requirements. Materials may be sorted into a number of containers
provided by service companies that specialize in management of specific types of waste at the
jobsite. Generally the least number of containers is desirable both to keep container volumes
high to reduce transportation trips and costs, and to keep the jobsite clear of obstructions.

COLLECTION AND HAULING

Containers containing construction and demolition waste are collected and transported to
diversion facilities via truck. Light and medium duty trucks are most commonly used for this
purpose in the US and Canada. Trucks and containers of various types are mated to allow for
maneuverability and modular interoperability.

TIPPING
Identification of loads on arrival at construction and demolition debris diversion facilities is an
important step in ensuring materials is appropriately handled. Facility management plans
typically describe materials that can be accepted. Loads which contain materials that are not
accepted may be turned away, in which case the materials likely will be disposed in a sanitary
landfill. The four hazardous waste characteristics are: corrosivity, ignitability, reactivity, and
toxicity.

PICKING
Materials are typically handled with equipment specifically designed to support heavy loads and
resist abrasion. Materials are discharged from containers onto a tipping or receiving floor,
usually beneath a roof cover or inside an industrial building. Once on the floor, a wheel loader
operator will stockpile materials which will be picked through with a hydraulic excavator or a
grapple. Materials such as steel reinforcing bar, carpeting, large pieces of wood, concrete and
materials with dimensions greater than 3 feet are usually picked before the sorting process can
begin in earnest.

SORTING
Sorting generally involves loading materials onto an inclined metal belt—a chain belt—and
passed across a manual sort line consisting of a flexible rubber belt and integral sort stations
providing a place for several workers to stand, usually opposite from one another down the
length of the belt. Materials are identified, grabbed, and deposited in vertical openings at each
sort station. The effectiveness of the manual sort line is largely determined by the performance of
the picking operation which precedes it; for example large materials on the belt can be difficult
to manage and or obstruct recoverable materials passing by on the belt beneath.

CONTAINERIZATION AND TRANSPORT

Picked and sorted materials are deposited by means of equipment and manual labor into
industrial containers of various types. Combination compactor-balers are used in some
applications to produce dense bales of materials which are then loaded into intermodal shipping
containers for transport. Heavy interstate trucks are an important part of the transportation
system. Containers of all types are destined for transport locally, regionally, nationally and
internationally via road, rail, or barge via intermodal facilities such as rail yards and ports. Once
containerized, recyclable materials are commoditized and traded in the global marketplace.

DIVERSION OR DISPOSAL
Diverted materials are destined for incorporation in new products as recycled material, or are
processed for reuse. Materials destined for disposal in landfills include refuse, materials
contaminated with waste or which have been ruined, and materials for which markets do not
exist.

G. Prevalence of Common Materials

Constituent proportions of materials culled and sorted in the construction and demolition waste
stream shows a high degree of correlation with local priorities and economic trends at a given
time. For example, communities with a preponderance of 19th century buildings and undergoing
gentrification tend to have a larger proportion of masonry waste as contrasted with a suburban
neighborhood undergoing renovations and additions to lightly-built wood frame structures.
Diversion performance over a two year period (2009-10) processing 20,000 tons of construction
and demolition waste generated in an urban area in the US (2010) demonstrates the following
proportions:
Ferrous and non-ferrous metal—9%: Ferrous and non-ferrous metals are among the most
valuable materials in the construction and demolition waste stream. Ferrous metals are extracted
from bits of concrete with hydraulic excavating equipment, and deposited into containers. Small
bits of ferrous metal are collected with electromagnets positioned over the sortline belt, and
grabbed manually. Non-ferrous metals, predominantly aluminum, are collected with a reverse
magnet known as an Eddy current separator, and grabbed manually. Metals consistently
demonstrate the highest diversion rate of all the recoverable materials.

Cardboard and Paper—3%: Cardboard and paper recovered from construction and demolition
debris waste have value as recyclable materials, however are generally of a lower grade than
cardboard collected at curbside, as a result of consequential exposure to water, and
contamination with dusts. Cardboard and paper are usually baled for economical transport to
paper and cardboard mills.

Plastic—1%: Post-consumer plastics 1 (PET) & 2 (HDPE) are valuable commodities. Plastics 3
through 7 are generally recyclable but have less value. Generally plastics are not recycled into
material of the same type and grade (down cycled). PET is readily converted into a wide variety
of products. HDPE is down cycled into plastic lumber, trash receptacles, etc. Plastic film is a
nuisance material that impedes efficient picking and sorting of all other materials. When prices
of the recycled commodities are low, plastic materials may be exported and or combusted for
their energy-producing potential. Plastic may be granulated or chopped into flakes and placed in
industrial tote bags for transport.

01:Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)

02: High-density polyethylene (HDPE)
03: Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
04: Low-density polyethylene (PE-LD)
05: Polypropylene (PP)
06: Polystyrene (PS)
07: Other (O)

Wood—30%: Wood is a predominant material for waste streams in North America, and is highly
useful in a wide variety of industrial processes including manufacturing of high recycled content
products. Wood is a valuable commodity and merits diversion. Wood waste can also be
processed to make feedstock for biomass and combined heat and power plants.

Concrete—5%: Concrete is crushed, and embedded metals removed for recycling. Rock and
cement pieces are crushed, screened and separated to produce useful aggregates of various
dimensions. It is advisable to characterize painted concrete and concrete which has been
contaminated with wastes before recycling.
Industrial Waste Stabilizer (IWS)—25%: IWS is a form of diversion or disposal in some parts of
North America whereby materials with no economic value between 0.75 to 8 inches dimension
are disposed in industrial waste landfills, to promote physical stabilization of the landfill.
Gravel, aggregate and fines—20%: Gravel, small stones, concrete chips and similar materials
can be diverted from disposal with trammel screens positioned before the inclined chain belt, or
debris roll screens positioned at the end of the sort line belt.

Disposal as refuse—5%: Refuse passes off the end of the sort line belt. Generally the proportion
of refuse should be less than 10%.

Window glass—0.15%: Window glass is a nuisance material with a nominal value as a

recyclable commodity. Its relatively high weight per volume is a factor in restricting economical
transport. Window glass usually ends up in a landfill unless a recycler is located in the vicinity of
the diversion facility.

Carpeting—0.85%: Diversion of carpet from the landfill is very significant in reducing

greenhouse gas emissions associated with manufacture of new carpet. Carpeting is a nuisance
material in the picking and sorting process, complicating the efficient recovery of materials with
higher values. Carpeting is generally picked from stockpiles on the receiving floor, and deposited
in containers for transport to manufacturers who can make use of the fiber materials to make new
products.

Drywall—3%: Drywall is 100% recyclable. Gypsum is a nuisance material in picking and

sorting operations, producing dust which discomforts labor, and reduces the value of recyclable
materials through contamination. Gypsum may be incorporated into new drywall, or used as a
soil amendment.

Asphalt roofing—5%: Asphalt roofing shingles may be ground, sized and graded for re-melting
in asphalt paving applications, road base, new roofing, and fuel oil. Asphalt shingles consist of
felt saturated with asphalt, and with mineral stabilizers and rock granules added. Asphalt
constitutes 20 to 35% of the product weight. Contaminants including metal items and any wood
waste must be removed.

Usually destined for other facilities: Appliances, equipment, tires, electronics, plumbing fixtures,
asphalt, non-ferrous materials including copper, brass and stainless steel, land clearing debris.
These materials may have value in secondary markets when one is available, or require special
handling and management such as is the case with tires and appliances. Tires must be shredded
in order to reduce the likelihood of being disposed of in unmanaged tire landfills. Appliances
may contain refrigerants and other materials which pose environmental hazards.
Usually destined for reuse: Doors, windows, hardware: these materials often have value in a
secondary market when one is available.

Nuisance materials: Sheet plastic, carpeting, drywall each require specific handling procedures
to promote efficient handling of the rest of the waste stream. When commingled with other
construction and demolition waste, these materials are generally picked with hydraulic
excavating equipment or grapples—a costly and time-consuming process - before the bulk of
waste is loaded onto a chain belt and passed across a manual sort line.

JOBSITE WASTE REDUCTION

There are a variety of ways a Contractor can divert construction waste or demolition debris at the
jobsite. The following general practices are common:

1. Up to 10-12% of a project's construction waste stream can be cardboard alone. While

protecting new materials is necessary, the Contractor can direct their subcontractors and
suppliers to reduce extraneous packaging and packing.
o Purchase materials in bulk where possible. Avoid individual packaging for
volume purchases.
o Use returnable containers and packing materials
o Reuse non-returnable containers on the jobsite to the maximum extent possible.
Develop one-hundred-and-one-uses for plastic barrels, buckets, and tubs.
o Give away non-returnable containers. Contact local and community organizations
(schools, youth groups, community service groups, Habitat for Humanity, others
similar).
2. Use scrap in lieu of cutting full new materials. Direct subcontractors and trades to collect
and keep scrap at cutting and fabricating locations. Collect paints and liquids from
almost-empty containers; avoid disposing of useable materials simply because there is
not enough in one container to finish a job.
3. For materials that are heated, mixed, exposed to environmental conditions, or otherwise
subject to spoilage, limit preparation of these materials to quantities which can be
installed within their expiration times. Working in smaller batches will reduce the
necessity to throw out expired or spoiled materials. Ensure volatile materials, and
materials that degrade when exposed to heat, cold, or moisture are protected from
spoilage and are not wasted.
4. Recycle damaged components, products, and materials, or disassemble them into their
constituent materials for recycling.
5. Establish a return or buy-back arrangement with suppliers. Alternatively, unused, or used
but serviceable materials and products can be sold to architectural salvage or used
materials retail outlets. Donations to a non-profit outlet, such as a Habitat for Humanity
(HfH) ReStore, are usually tax-deductible.
 C&D recycling pick line

6. The Contractor may contract with a C&D recycling firm who accepts commingled debris.
At the recycling site, concrete and masonry rubble are separated out of the debris for
crushing into aggregate products. The remaining debris is typically crushed or shredded,
then conveyed along a pick line for sorting and recycling. Recycling commingled debris
and waste off-site requires virtually no adjustment in practice on the Contractor's part.
C&D waste recyclers generally describe their fees as "competitive" with landfill disposal,
which means a modest savings over prevailing landfill tipping fees. This method
typically achieves a very high diversion rate. However, clean wood is frequently sold for
boiler fuel, and some agencies do not allow incineration to be counted as diversion.
7. The Contractor may contract with individual recycling firms who deal in specific
materials, in addition to a general waste hauler. This requires the Contractor,
subcontractors and tradespersons to segregate waste, deposit it in the appropriate
receptacles, and guard against contamination by other materials. The key to effective
jobsite segregation is to place receptacles in the path of least resistance to the workforce,
training the workforce to observe segregation practices, and policing the jobsite to
prevent contamination. The construction process lends itself to on-site segregation. As
trades enter and leave the jobsite, each generates a relatively homogeneous waste stream,
given the specific tasks and the materials with which they work. As the recyclable
materials are segregated, the recycling firms generally offer a higher price for the
material (if the contractor hauls), or a lower hauling rate (if the recycler hauls).
Alternatively, the Contractor can contract with a waste hauler who provides receptacles
for recyclable materials and debris, and hauls all materials as a one-stop service. While
some contend site separation increases the cost of construction, efficient materials
movement and site layout should minimize any increased effort.

"Wood only" receptacle "Metals only" receptacle with steel deck trimmings

8. The waste diversion potential in a demolition scenario is considerable. The building's

construction type and project schedule are the two primary factors in determining what
and how salvage, reuse, and/or recycling can be accomplished. Consider the following:
o Develop the project schedule to accommodate salvage, reuse, or recycling. The
quality and quantity of materials salvaged is a direct function to the time available
for salvage.
o Prior to demolition, salvage as much useable material and components as the
schedule will allow. Windows and doors, wood flooring, cabinetry, architectural
millwork, electrical fixtures, plumbing fixtures, mechanical equipment …
anything that can be detached and removed … can be usually be salvaged and
reused. When developing the C&D Waste Management Plan, identify the most
accessible and valuable materials, thereby optimizing the application of resources
to this task.
o Concrete and masonry materials can be recycled to produce aggregate. This may
be accomplished on-site with mobile equipment, or rubble can be hauled to a
permanent recycling facility. Preferences vary among demolition contractors and
recyclers about whether the building should be gutted prior to demolition, leaving
only concrete and reinforcing to be crushed, or demolished intact, and the debris
sorted as part of the concrete crushing process. Consider how the recycled
concrete aggregate (RCA) will be used, what RCA products are most useable, and
how the rubble should be processed to produce these products. If aggregate
materials are required for the project, on-site recycling can provide these materials
at a reduced net cost. The Construction Materials Recycling Association (CMRA)
can provide information on methods and service providers.
o Landscape materials and wood that is not painted with lead-based paint, treated
with an arsenic-based preservative, or otherwise contaminated with a hazardous
or toxic material can be shredded into mulch, composted, or chipped for boiler
fuel. This can be accomplished on-site or off-site. If mulch or compost is required
for the project, shredding on-site can provide these materials at a reduced net cost.
o Structural steel and metals are almost universally recycled. This should be
standard practice with any demolition contractor.
o Old growth timber is a valuable material and will usually justify the time required
for a more delicate removal process. Timbers are generally sold through timber
brokers to be cleaned and resold for timber framing, or as feedstock for high
quality architectural millwork.
o Some species of dimensional lumber can also be quite valuable. Wood framed
buildings can be partially or totally deconstructed. While this is often a more labor
intensive approach, cost avoidance and the value of the materials can offset initial
cost. The Building Materials Reuse Association (BMRA) can provide information
on deconstruction contractors and used building materials retail businesses.
o If none of the alternative salvage, reuse, or recycling options are possible, mixed
demolition debris can be hauled to a C&D debris recycling facility, as described
above.
 Segregated piles Concrete recycling

Wood building deconstruction Salvaged lumber at the jobsite