Piping Systems

TPC Ttaining Systoms 750 Lake CooK Road Buffalo Grove, Illinois 60089 U.S.A 847/808-4000
'his material is niotoc tori by U.S. copyright laws. If this text does not appear in coror. this clocuniont has bron il!sn.-ay crpic ri
Piease coniart legalmtejomediainr c'.'-i oi o00-B37-o87? - l.oga! Affairs, rytrn-^on -hi r i
Table of Contents

Lesson One Introduction to Piping Systems 3

Lesson Two Metal Piping 19

Lesson Three Nonmetallic Piping 35

Lesson Four Tubing 51

Lesson Five Hoses 67

Lesson Six Fittings 83

Lesson Seven Common Valves 101

Lesson Eight Specialized Valves 117

Lesson Nine Strainers, Filters, and Traps 133

Lesson Ten Accessories 149

© Copyright 1974, 2001 by TPC Training Systems, a division of Teiemedia, inc.

Ail rights reserved, inciuding those of transiation.
Printed and videotaped courseware are subject to the copyright laws of the United States. You are not autho
rized to make any copies of this materiai. If you do, then you are subject to the penalties provided under the
copyright law, which include statutory damages up to $50,000 for each infringement of copyrighted materiai, and
also recovery of reasonable attorneys' fees. Further, you could be subject to criminal prosecution pursuant to 18
U.S.C. §2319.
 Lesson One

Introduction to
Piping Systems

TPC Training Systems

This maleria) is protected by U.S. copyiigh! lav/s. If this text does net cppooi in color, this document h?<s ill;:
Please contact leqai(f-'tolemediainc,com or £00 837-087? - Legal Affairs, extension 4041
Lesson

Introduction to Piping Systems

TOPICS

Piping Systems Pipe Hangers and Supports

Fluids Temperature Effects
Protecting Steam Lines Piping Insulation
Keeping Fluids Clean and Moving Typical Piping Systems
Piping System Maintenance Maintenance Considerations
Valves and Fittings

OBJECTIVES

After studying this lesson, you should be able to...

• Describe what typical piping systems consist of,
and explain their importance to plant operations.
• Identify common valves and fittings, pipe hangers
and supports.
Describe the effects of temperature on piping
system components, and explain the need for insu
lation.
List routine maintenance considerations for piping
systems.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Fluid 1.09 any substance that flows through a
piping system
Condensate 1.12 a liquid formed by the cooling
of a gas or vapor
Blow-off valve 1.32 a valve that can be opened
to blow out any foreign material in the line
Clean-out plug 1.33 a threaded plug that pro
vides access to the inside of a pipe for cleaning
Expansion joint 1.44 a coupling that allows
joined sections of rigid pipe to expand and con
tract with changes in temperature
As a maintenance technician, you must be familiar with piping, piping sys
tems, and the many components that make piping systems function. You will
be directly concerned with various forms of piping, tubing, hose, and the fit
tings that connect these components into workable systems.

As you study the lessons In this course, you will gain important, practical
knowledge about the piping systems that are a vital part of your plant opera
tion and essential to the success of its total activity. Skilled maintenance tech
nicians perform the important function of preventive maintenance to avoid
major trouble, and they are depended on to handle the needed repairs when
breakdowns occur.

Every occupation and profession has its own specialized vocabulary, and so
does piping. You will find each new term explained as you progress through
this course.

Piping Systems 1.04 A familiar example of a piping system is the

1.01 As a maintenance technician, you should
know that the term "piping system" refers to a com
plete network of pipes, valves, and other components,
all designed to perform a specific job in your plant.
This lesson introduces you to piping systems and
explains how to maintain them. Many plant opera
tions are so closely tied to the piping system that a
piping or valve breakdown in one part of the plant can
bring operations in another part of the plant to an
immediate halt.
1.02 Piping systems are necessary for the success
ful operation of the modem plant facility. Wherever
fluids and gases are used in processing operations,
they usually move through pipes. Piping carries fuel
oil to heating plants, steam to steam turbines (which
power the generators and alternators used for generat
ing electricity), and lubricants to a wide variety of
equipment. Piping delivers the plant's water supply
and removes its liquefied wastes. Hoses supply fluids
in hydraulic systems and compressed air in pneumatic
systems (to air-powered tools, for example).
1.03 The materials moved through piping systems
include acids, paints, oils, chemicals, liquefied gases,
pulp, and many others. Because of the wide variety of
materials, the components of piping systems are
themselves made of different materials. Pipes and fit
tings, for example, can be made of brass, stainless
steel, plastic, and even glass, as well as lead, cast iron,
and steel. All components are furnished in many
sizes, in order to accommodate the requirements of
numerous applications.
network of water pipes in your home. The whole
group of components—pipes, fittings, valves, and
faucets—working together for one purpose makes up
a system. The system has a definite purpose, which is
to bring water into your home and to distribute it.
1.05 A plant has many piping systems. One pro
vides hot and cold water. Another system helps heat
the plant, while still another may be used for air con
ditioning. Other systems may supply steam, com
pressed air, or chemicals to the equipment where they
are to be used or processed. Examples are given later
in this lesson.
1.06 In piping system maintenance work, only the
fluid transfer systems themselves are important to
you, not the units that the piping serves or supplies.
For example, if a steam boiler is used to provide
steam to an enclosed vat or tank in your plant, you
need be concerned only with the piping.
1.07 The maintenance of the boiler itself or of the
vat is not a consideration. For your purposes, only the
piping system used to circulate the steam is of inter
est. That interest begins where the steam outlet is con
nected to the boiler, and it continues to the point
where the pipe is connected to the vat or tank. The
piping, fittings, and valves of the pipeline definitely
are very important to you.
1.08 Traps, expansion joints, and other fittings
help ensure the effective flow of steam through the
lines. You will find many of them as you trace a
pipeline through the plant. They are important

This matei ial is protoLlcd by U.S. copyrigtit laws. If this text does no' ii[)pear in color, this ciocumnnt has been is
Please contact legal<li>telemediaii'C.cujTi or 800-037-8872 - Legal Affairs, extension t
Fig. 1-1. Valves and piping in a low-pressure steam line
Steam and Bypass
; I condensate globe valve
Gate valve
Strainer
Blow-otf valve
because they are directly related to the operation of
the system. And piping system maintenance, of
course, is concerned with keeping the system closed,
leakproof, and functioning properly.
Fluids
1.09 As you have learned, piping carries fluids
from one part of the plant to another. According to the
dictionary, a fluid is any substance—like a liquid or a
gas—that flows. (Air is a good example of a gas.)
Some of the fluids carried by piping systems include
thick, viscous mixtures, .such as concrete in a semi
fluid state. Although such materials would seem to be
more solid than liquid, they do flow, and so are con
sidered to be fluids.
1.10 In addition to carrying liquids, such as
hydraulic fluids and oils, piping systems carry steam
and compressed air, which also are considered to be
fluids because they flow. Fluids travel through a sys
tem at various temperatures, pressures, and speeds.
Protecting Steam Lines
1.11 Before looking at more involved networks of
pipes, first consider one section of a typical system.
Figure 1-1 shows a common arrangement of pipes,
valves, and fittings in a low-pressure steam line. This
part of the system happens to be built around a steam
Return
I I
Bypass
Gate valve
trap. The valves control the flow of steam through the
piping. The fittings connect the sections of pipe. In an
actual installation, the length of piping between
valves would be greater, depending on the application
and its requirements.
1.12 The purpose of this section of the steam line
is to direct the steam to the trap, which bleeds the hot
water out of the system so that only the steam is car
ried through the piping. The hot water collected by
the trap is produced when, for any number of reasons,
steam in the piping condenses. That is, the steam
cools enough so that some of it becomes water again.
This water is called condensate. The trap is construct
ed in such a way that the water is caught, but the
steam remains in the sy.stem.
1.13 To trace the steam line, begin at the upper
left-hand comer of Fig. 1-1, where you will see a fit
ting that connects three pipes. (The dotted lines show
where a fourth pipe could be added, if necessary.)
This is where the steam and condensate enter this sec
tion of the system.
1.14 With the blow-off and globe valves closed,
steam passes through the open gale valve and the
strainer to the trap. When the blow-off valve is
opened, accumulated debris is blown out of the strain
er. With the valve closed, the steam continues through
the line to the trap.

1.15 To permit the pipeline to make a turn, a fit
ting called an elbow is used. Short lengths of pipe
known as nipples are used to connect the inlet and
outlet of the trap to the rest of the system. Condensate
left behind in the trap drains to the atmosphere
through the bottom outlet of the trap.
1.16 You will note another fitting called a tee,
because it resembles the letter "T." When it is neces
sary to test the steam for any reason, the gate valve
is closed, the test valve is opened, and the steam
passes through the test valve for sampling. When no
testing is being done, the steam passes straight
through the open gate valve and returns to the steam
line.
1.17 When the trap in a functional system similar
to the one shown in Fig. 1-1 must be disassembled for
inspection or repairs, the globe valve is opened first to
let the steam bypass the trap. Then the gate valves are
closed to block passage through the trap.
1.18 Pipe fittings (like elbows) are the parts that
connect sections of pipe, sections of hoses, and sec
tions of tubing. Those shown in Fig. 1-1 are threaded
fittings. When the system is first set up, the pipe sec
tions are cut to the proper lengths. Then the ends of
the pipes are threaded to accommodate the appropri
ate fittings.(Valves and fittings are covered in greater
detail in later lessons.)
1.19 The system-within-a-system represented by
Fig. 1-1 shows one part of a more extensive piping
system that carries steam from a boiler to a steam
turbine, which generates electricity. The boiler and
the turbine themselves are not parts of the piping
system. The fittings, valves, and trap, however, are
necessary to the operation of the piping system.
1.20 This section of a piping system is a good
illustration of the fact that a piping system performs
a particular job. The whole purpose of the piping
leading to and from the trap is to collect the conden
sate, which is undesirable. Regardless of how com
plicated the system may seem to be, it is simply a
network of components that carries a liquid or a gas
from one point to another. Actually, it is not that the
system is more complicated, it is just that it may
have many elements in it in order to accomplish its
function.
This niateriri! rjiotcc by U.S. copyright laws, li tnia text does oot appear in color, this docum-r;! has be
Piense contact legalU tolernediainc.rom or &00-RT7-3872 -- Legal Affairs, pyt'^ns'on -U : l
Introduction to Piping Systems 7
Keeping Fluids Clean and Moving
1.21 The components of piping systems have two
purposes:
• to help keep the fluid moving freely and
smoothly through the system
• to help keep the system itself and the fluids
that flow through it in good condition.
The steam trap is one example, and filters are another.
1.22 Your automobile engine has an oil filter to
clean the oil running through the engine. Impurities
such as pieces of metal and dirt can damage engine
components and cause excessive wear. To help pre
vent that wear, the oil is run continuously through a
filter designed to trap and clean out the impurities.
1.23 Because piping systems need similar protec
tion, they include traps, strainers, and filters. Such
units are especially important because the fluids car
ried through a system may be damaging to the pip
ing, valves, and fittings. Steam under pressure, acids,
various types of waste products, and paint—all are
good examples of such potentially damaging fluids.
The filters and strainers keep those fluids free from
sludge and sediment in order to protect both the pip
ing system and the equipment that the piping system
serves.
1.24 Figure 1-2 on the following page shows
what can happen to a piping system if adequate pro
tection is not provided. The sludge and corrosion in
the pipe shown in the photograph continued to build
up over time because impurities in the water that the
line was carrying reacted chemically with the walls
of the pipe. This picture emphasizes the necessity
for providing maximum protection in a piping sys
tem.
1.25 As an example of the effect of such condi
tions, consider what happened in this piping system,
which was designed to operate at a pressure of 80 psi
(pounds per square inch). Because the sludge and cor
rosion reduced the inside diameter of the pipe so
much, the actual pressure dropped to only 35 psi. As a
result, much of the equipment in the rest of the sys
tem was not operating properly.
8 Lesson One

1.26 Originally, positive-displacement pumps Fig. 1-2. Corrosion and clogging in a water pipe
pumped a given volume of water at 80 psi through the
clean pipe. After the clogging took place, the pumps
continued trying to force the .same volume of water
through the system at 80 psi, but the pressure had
dropped. Obviously, if the pumps continued to run,
something else had to be wrong.

1.27 Why did the choking up of the pipe lower the

effective pressure? The answer is a familiar one—
friction. The reduction of the inside diameter of the
pipe increased the friction between the fluid and the
lining or inside wall of the pipe. It is a basic principle,
applying to all fluids flowing through pipes, that pres
sure is affected by friction. In other words, the greater
the friction, the greater the loss of pressure.

1.28 It is also a rule that if the speed of the fluid is

doubled, the friction is increa.sed four times what it
was before. Or, to put it another way, you can say that
the amount offriction increases as the square of the
velocity. (Technically speaking, speed and velocity
are not the same, but it is common practice to refer to piping. As you can imagine, the job of cleaning the
the "velocity" of a fluid.) So, if the velocity is multi piping system was a major operation and a real chal
plied by three, the amount of friction is multiplied by lenge. It was complicated by the fact that it had to be
nine. If the velocity is multiplied by five, the friction done with a minimum disruption of normal plant
is multiplied by 25, and so on. activity.

1.29 The water had to run faster, in this example,

in order to move through the pipe. Because the veloci
ty of the water pushed by the pumps had to increase Fig. 1-3. Routine inspection of a section of a
to four times what it was when the pipe was clean, specialized piping installation
the friction increased to 16 times what it was before.
The friction loss was the reason that a pressure of
only 35 psi reached the far end of the piping system.
The equipment designed to operate at a pressure of 80
psi could not work on the 35 psi of pressure being
supplied.

1.30 Why couldn't the pumps be .slowed down so

that the water could pass more slowly through the
system, thus avoiding the effect of increased friction?
The answer is that when pump speed is reduced,
lower pressure results. In addition, if pumps run at a
speed other than that for which they are designed,
they do not operate as efficiently.

1.31 There were only two practical solutions to the

problem described in this example—either replace the
piping or clean it. The company decided to clean it.
This particular installation had three miles of such

Piping System Maintenance
1.32 Well-planned piping systems have various
features designed to minimize wear and tear and,
therefore, the amount of maintenance required. One
such protective feature is a blow-off valve, which you
saw in the steam line in Fig. 1-1. A blow-off valve can
be opened to blow out any foreign material in the line.
1.33 Piping systems may also be equipped with
clean-out plugs, inserted in the line at intervals. A
clean-out plug is a thick, threaded, round unit that can
be screwed into the side of the pipe. With the plug
removed, you have access to the inside of the pipe and
can clean it out for some distance on each side of the
plug. Before that is done, of course, pressure must be
cut off from the system, or at least from the section of
the system that is to be cleaned. You can do this either
by shutting down the system or by using valves and
auxiliary piping to bypass that section of the line.
1.34 The piping shown in Fig. 1-2 could have been
cleaned either by running chemical solvents through
the lines or by using mechanical clean-out devices.
The solvents dissolve the sludge and corrosion, thus
freeing the line so that it can once again supply the
needed pressure. The clean-out devices do the same
This material is proteeted by U.S. copyright laws, if tliis text does not appear in color, this ciocumeot has boco illcgailv copied
Please contact legai@toloinGdiamc.com or 800-037-8872 • Legal Affairs, extension 401 i
Introduction to Piping Systems 9
job mechanically. One type of clean-out device has
steel scrapers that clean the sludge out as the tool is
drawn through the section of pipe. Rubber squeegee
disks at the end of the tool wipe the material out of
the pipe after it has been freed by the scrapers.
1.35 Routine preventive maintenance would have
detected the problem long before it reached the stage
it did. Figure 1-3 shows a two-man team checking a
section of piping and tubing. Such inspections at suit
able intervals are one of the best means of preventing
trouble before it occurs. If you look closely at the
illustration, you will note a wide variety of pipes,
valves, and fittings. All of them are necessary parts of
the total system which, in this case, is located in a
plant that converts salt water into fresh water. Because
of the corrosive effects of salt water, much of the pip
ing and tubing that you see in the picture is made of
stainless steel.
The Programmed Exercises on the next page will
tell you how well you understand the material you
have just read. Before starting the exercises,
remove the Reveal Key from the back of your
Book. Read the Instructions printed on the Reveal
Key. Follow these Instructions as you work
through the Programmed Exercises.
10 Programmed Exercises

1 -1. A fluid is defined as any substance or

material that .

Is compressed air considered to be a

fluid?

The flow of fluids through a piping

system is controlled by .

When steam cools, the resulting water

is called .

The fitting normally used to allow a

pipeline to make a turn is called
a(n) .

Sections or lengths of pipe are

connected with .

A common cause of pressure loss in a

piping system is between
the fluid and the Inside wall of the pipe.

As friction increases in a piping system,

the output pressure .

Valves and Fittings
1.36 Piping systems have many components, all of
them related to the single function of moving fluids
from one point to another for a particular purpose.
The ways in which such components are designed and
installed depend on the fluids themselves, and on the
pressures and temperatures expected in the system.
1.37 Remember that the purpose of the steam trap
shown in Fig. 1-1 was to collect condensed hot water
while keeping the steam in the system. Other compo
nents include devices designed to regulate pressure.
Some are protective devices, such as valves that open
automatically to vent fluid out of the pipe when the
pressure in the lines gets too high. In lines that carry
liquids, you will often see relief valves, preset to open
at a given pressure. When liquid flows through the
open valves, excessive pressure in the main pipeline is
relieved. Protective devices are designed to operate
automatically.
1.38 The gate valves and globe valves that you saw
earlier are operated by hand, as a rule. That is an
important distinction between protective valves, or
safety valves, and control valves. You will also find
pressure gauges that show what the pressure in the
pipeline is. Many lines include temperature indicators
as well.
1.39 To keep fluids clean and free from impurities,
piping systems use many types of filters and strainers.
Common types include oil bath filters and fine-mesh
Fig. 1-4. Pipe hangers and supports
Single hook
Standard ring
and bolt hanger
Spring hangers
Adjustable
pipe roll
'S stand
Anchor cha r
This matei ial Is protectod by U.S. copyriglit laws. If this text does not appear iri color, this documrnt ho.s been illcri:
Please contact leflai<d)teLernediamc.cpm or 800-B37-8872 - Lecial Affairs. n-dcri?e:in 4041
Introduction to Piping Systems 11
screens. Oil baths and water sprayers can be used to
remove particles of dust and dirt from pneumatic
lines. If such particles are not removed, they can
cause damage and excessive wear to air-driven tools
and motors.
1.40 Even a very small particle of dirt in a high-
pressure air system can be destructive when it passes
through an air turbine. You have probably seen build
ings being cleaned by sandblasting. On a smaller
scale, dust particles "sandblast" air-powered equip
ment. This is why they must be removed from the
line. Filters and strainers in a liquid-carrying pipeline
help prevent the condition illustrated in Fig. 1-2.
Pipe Hangers and Supports
1.41 Piping must be supported in order to keep the
line straight and prevent sagging. A rigid pipe that
sags excessively will strain its connecting fittings,
which will probably cause leakage. Some pipelines
are designed to run at a slight angle, and they too
must be supported at suitable intervals.
1.42 To some extent, rigid piping is self-supporting
because it has a certain amount of built-in mechanical
strength. However, in a long run, rigid piping must be
supported and fastened to the floor, walls, ceiling, or
pillars. Figure 1-4 shows a number of common types
of pipe hangers and supports. Spring hangers help
absorb vibration. The roll types permit the pipe to
move as it grows or shrinks in length as a result of
temperature variations.
Adjustable
clevis and
) band hanger
-Adjustable
swivel
pipe roil
Fig. 1-5. Common kinds of pipe insulation
Metal band
Second
layer has
staggered
^joints
Jacket(canvas or First layer
other material)
Two-layer minerai-wool covering
1.43 Routine preventive maintenance includes
checking to be sure that hangers and supports remain
properly fastened. This is especially important in
pipelines affected by vibration. Vibration may be
caused by the activity of the fluids being carried, or
by machinery to which the pipes are attached.
Temperature Effects
1.44 Nearly all materials, and metals in particular,
expand (become larger) as the temperature increases
and contract (become smaller) as the temperature
decreases. To allow for this expansion and contraction
in piping systems, expansion joints must be included
in the line between sections of rigid pipe. As those
sections expand or contract with the temperature, the
expansion joint expands or compresses accordingly.
This eliminates strain on the pipes.
1.45 Not all materials expand or contract at the
same rate. In applications where pipes and fittings are
made of different materials, each pipe and fitting will
expand or contract at a different rate. Difficulties
result if provision for expansion is not made.
1.46 A familiar example of this kind of difficulty
is a glass bottle filled with water, capped, and then
left out to freeze. It happens that water expands as it
freezes, and glass contracts. The result? If the cap
does not give way, the bottle breaks.
1.47 A large building may be heated by circulating
hot water, and cooled by circulating chilled water.
,Water jacket
Treated paper
Sealing
-compound Jute twine
on all edges
Pipe Hair felt
'covering
Joints lapped
downward
Insulation for^
Weatherproof covering cold-water line
through the same pipes. During the winter, the pipes
will expand because of the heat, but they will contract
in the summer when the air-conditioning system is
turned on. This can strain the pipe fittings. Most con
nections have seals or caulking to make them tight.
Strains can squeeze the caulking from the Joints and
cause leakage. Proper maintenance includes recogniz
ing such possibilities and preventing them wherever
possible.
Piping insulation
1.48 Pipes frequently are covered with layers of
piping insulation, as you have probably observed
when walking through your plant. Piping insulation
amounts to wrapping the pipe in a blanket of insulat
ing material. The thickness of the blanket of insula
tion depends on the application. It is a natural law
that heat passesfrom a hot or warm surface to a cold
or cooler one. Insulation helps prevent hot fluid from
cooling as it passes through the system. And if the
piping is carrying a cold fluid, insulation helps keep
the fluid cold. For example, steam pipes are insulated
to help keep the heat in the pipes. If a steam pipe
were not insulated, lower temperatures would cause
the steam to condense. Also, by keeping the heat in,
steam lines do not add heat to the areas through
which they pass.
1.49 Materials used for insulation vary, and they
are selected according to the requirements of the
application. Typical insulating materials include poly
styrene foam, fiberglass, hair felt, and mineral wool.
 Introduction to Piping Systems 13

As shown in Fig. 1-5, insulating layers are applied to
pipe in several ways. An outer wrapping may be used
to protect the insulating material against the effects of
water, chemicals, and mold or other damaging condi-
1.50 Condensation is a common problem when a
pipe carries a cold fluid. The difference in tempera
ture between the cold pipe and the warmer room air
causes water droplets to form on the pipe. The con
densation then drips from the pipe. This is the reason
why drip pans are commonly installed beneath unin
sulated pipes in office areas where circulating cold
water is used in the air-conditioning system.
1.51 When several buildings are heated or cooled
from a central source, the piping is often buried
underground. The piping insulation is further protect
ed with some kind of wrapping. The insulation pre
vents cooling fluids from absorbing ground heat and
prevents warm air from becoming cool, depending on
the season of the year.
1.52 Insulation also protects underground piping
against possible rusting and corrosion caused by
exposure to water and chemicals in the soil. For addi
tional protection, the outer sheathing is usually cov
ered with a layer of a waterproofing or cement-like
material called mastic.

Fig. 1-6. Piping network used in the lubrication-oil purification system of a diesel engine

■ Used-oi

Ciean-oil
supply
Used-oil

Used-oil Two-compartment
pump <+> I tank Ot fi ter
Cooling warm water
water to discharge Clean-oil
cooler tank

Used Oil to Strainer Clean-Oil

purification pump
system , ^ To dram
Thermometer

Hnt nil in • Water and

Oil heater
Centrifuge

Steam
supply line
Strainer

Steam trap Condensate

return line

This inalei ial is piotcuieU by U.S. copyi ighi iaws. If this text does not ap[3oai in color, this documenl has been iiiegally copied
Please contact iegal'/-' iolGmediaine.com or 800-037-8872 - Legai Affairs, extension 4041
14 Lesson One
Typical Piping Systems
1.53 Figure 1-6 on the previous page shows a pip
ing system used to purify the lubrication oil of a large
diesel engine. Although it seems more complicated
than the system used in your automobile engine, the
principle is exactly the same. That is, dirty oil is
cleaned for recirculation to the engine.
1.54 This is how the system works. The oil drains
out of the engine into the "used-oil" side of a two-
compartment tank. Part or all of the used oil is
pumped to a heater, which raises the oil temperature
to 180°F (the temperature level considered best for
cleaning impurities from oil). The heated oil then
goes to a centrifuge, a unit that spins the oil around to
separate it from water and solid impurities heavier
than the oil itself. Next, the partially cleaned oil pass
es through a filter, which removes smaller impurities.
From the filter, the oil is pumped back to the "clean-
oil" side of the tank for reuse. On its way back to the
engine, the clean oil goes through a cooling unit to
bring its temperature down to the proper level for use
in the engine.
1.55 This type of system is quite common. Note
that it has elements that carry oil, and other elements
that carry steam. System components include valves,
fittings, and gauges.
1.56 As you trace the line, you will find references
to nearly every term covered so far in Lesson One.
This is an actual working system, a piping system that
is typical of those with which you will work.
Maintenance Considerations
1.57 The maintenance of piping systems involves
more than making emergency repairs when a break
down in the system occurs. It is true that accidents
can and do happen, and that unexpected component
failures can and do take place at any time without
warning. However, the real secret of successful main
tenance lies in knowing what the various parts of a
piping system are, where they are located, and how
they work. Preventive maintenance is the key to keep
ing any piping network operating smoothly and effi
ciently. By knowing the system completely, and by
making routine, scheduled inspections, you will find
that your job as a maintenance technician is much
easier and far more satisfying. You will be heading off
trouble before it happens.
1.58 The major problems in piping systems are
caused by leakage and corrosion. One may cause the
other. The nature of the materials being carried has an
influence, of course, but you will usually find that the
system has been designed to provide maximum pre
cautions, including ample safety margins for exces
sive pressures and dangerous fluid leakage.
1.59 The following list includes the points with
which you, as a maintenance technician whose
responsibility is the maintenance of piping systems,
will be concemed:
checking for corrosion and leakage
checking to be sure that valves are in good
working order
repacking valves, maintaining and replacing
gaskets(covered in a later lesson)
checking insulation and installing or replac
ing it as needed
installing new sections of piping, tubing, and
hose (covered in a later lesson)
installing, inspecting, and replacing fittings as
needed
checking hangers and pipe supports
cleaning piping as required
extending existing systems as needed
reporting anything of an unusual nature.
In short, it will be up to you to help make certain that
the vital pipelines with which you are concemed will
continue to function smoothly and well. Yours can be
one of the most critically important jobs in the whole
plant. And that is only one of its advantages. You will
also have the personal satisfaction that comes from
knowing your job and doing it well.
 \ Introduction to Piping Systems 15

This material is protected by U.S. copyright laws. If this text does not appear in color, this document has been illegally copied.
Please contact leaal@telemediainc.com or 800-837-8872 - Legal Affairs, extension 4041
16 Programmed Exercises

1-9. Relief valves are designed to open 1-9. AUTOMATICALLY

Ret: 1.37

1-10. To keep a pipeline in position and 1-10. HANGERS,SUPPORTS

prevent sagging, pipe and
are used. Ref: 1.41,1.42

1-11. Spring hangers in piping systems help 1-11. VIBRATION

absorb .
Ref: 1.42

1-12. To compensate for the expansion 1-12. EXPANSION JOINTS

and contraction of piping caused by
changes in temperature, Ref: 1.44
are used.

1-13. What is used to help keep the fluids 1-13. INSULATION

carried in piping systems hot or cold?
Ref: 1.48

1-14. Heat passes from a(n) 1-14. HOT(WARM): COLD(COLDER)

surface to a{n) surface.
Ref: 1.48

1-15. The key to keeping a piping system 1-15. PREVENTIVE

operating properly is
maintenance. Ref: 1.57

1-16. The major problems in piping systems 1-16. LEAKAGE, CORROSION

are caused by and
Ret: 1.58
 Self-Check Quiz 17

Answer the following questions by marking an"X"

in the box next to the best answer.

1 -1. Any substance or material that flows is 1-6. Which of the following is designed to
defined as a operate automatically?

□ a. fluid □ a. Gate valve

□ b. gas □ b. Globe valve
□ 0. liquid □ c. Relief valve
□ d. vapor □ d. Test valve

1-2. A steam trap is used in a steam line to 1-7. Expansion joints are installed in a pipeline in
order to
□ a. bleed excess steam from the system
□ b. collect condensate □ a. absorb vibration
□ c. prevent excess steam from forming in □ b. allow for expansion and contraction
the line of the piping
□ d. store steam for reserve use □ c. make shifting the line easier
□ d. permit turns in the line
1-3. To make a turn, a pipeline is fitted with a(n)
1-8. What keeps the fluids in a piping system from
□ a. bypass valve decreasing in temperature?
□ b. coupling
□ c. elbow □ a. Controi valves
□ d. spring hanger □ b. Heat exchangers
□ c. Insulation
1 -4. If sludge or corrosion reduce the inside □ d. Recirculation
diameter of a pipe, the pressure
1-9. The most important factor in keeping a piping
□ a. increases system operating efficiently is
□ b. decreases
□ c. drops to zero □ a. choice of insulation material
□ d. remains the same □ b. correct installation of pipe supports
□ c. proper valve selection
1 -5. If the speed of fluid in a pipe is doubled, the □ d. routine preventive maintenance
friction is
1-10. Most piping system problems are caused by
□ a. doubled
□ b. increased three times □ a. excessive pressure
□ c. increased four times □ b. improper pipe selection
□ d. reduced □ c. leakage and corrosion
□ d. variations in temperature

Tiiis material is protected by U.S. copyright laws, if this text does not appear in color, this document has beer; i i ic<
Please contact I e ci a 10- t e I e m e d i a i i' c. c o m or 800-837-8872 - l.ecjal Affairs, exien.sion AC.i1
 18 Lesson One

SUMMARY

A piping system is made up of pipes, valves, and
other parts, and is designed to do a specific job in
your piant. Because piping systems carry such a
wide variety of fluids, the piping systems them
selves are made of many different materials. The
components of piping systems have two purpos
es—to help keep the fluid moving freely and
smoothly through the system, and to help keep
the system Itself and the fluids that flow through
It in good condition.
Some of the components of piping systems dis
cussed in this lesson include: traps, filters, strain
ers, elbows (fittings that allow pipelines to make
turns), pipe hangers and supports, and various
kinds of valves. Gate valves and globe valves
usually are operated by hand, but relief valves are
designed to open automatically when the pres
sure In a line reaches a preset limit. Piping sys
tems also may be equipped with such protective
features as blow-off valves, clean-out plugs, and
expansion joints (couplings that allow for the
expansion and contraction of piping caused by
variations In temperature). Piping Insulation helps
keep hot fluids hot and cold fluids cold, and also
protects piping against rust and corrosion.
As a maintenance technician, you will find that
the most important part of your job is preventive
maintenance. Developing a comprehensive pre
ventive maintenance program and making regu
larly scheduled Inspections will help you identify
possible trouble spots and take action before they
turn into major problems.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

1-1. a. Fluid. Ref:1.09 1-6. c. Relief valve. Ref:1.37

1-2. b. Collect condensate. Ref:1.12 1-7. b. Allow for expansion and contraction
of the piping. Ref; 1.44
1-3. c. Elbow. Ref: 1.15
1-8. c. Insulation. Ref: 1.48
1-4. b. Decreases. Ref: 1.25
1-9. d. Routine preventive maintenance.
1-5. c. Increased four times. Ref: 1.28 Ref: 1.57

1-10. c. Leakage and corrosion. Ref: 1.58

Contributions from the foliowing sources are appreciated:

Figure 1-3. American Iron and Steel Institute

Figure 1-4. Crane Company
 ^'I'o
O - \

TPC Training Systems

This rnateria! is prolct.ted by U.S. copyrighl iav/s. It this text does not cipponr in coioi, this document has been illegaliv opif-d
Please contact leciala^'ieiemcdiair-r com oi fjQn-837-S872 - Legal Affairs, extension 4011
 Lesson

Metal Piping

Pipes Behavior of Fluids in Piping

Pipe Schedules Piping Applications
Other Pipe Codes Steam Piping
Types of Systems Water Piping
Metal Piping Maintenance Considerations
Characteristics of Metals Joining Pipe
Pipe-Manufacturing Methods

OBJECTiVES

After studying this lesson, you should be able to...

• Explain how metal pipes are sized and designated
according to standard codes and schedules.
• identify the characteristics of metals that make
them suitable for a variety of piping applications.
• Discuss the major considerations involved in the
maintenance of metal piping.
Describe the different methods of connecting
sections of metal pipe, including bell-and-spigot
joints, weided, soidered, or brazed joints, screwed
or threaded joints, and flanged joints.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Alloy 2.20 a substance composed of two or more Viscosity 2.33 a liquid's "thickness" or resistance
metals to flow
Ferrous 2.21 a term applied to a metal that Tuberculation 2.42 the formation of corrosive
contains Iron compounds on the inner lining of a pipe
Ductile 2.23 a term applied to a metal that can be Water hammer 2.49 the concussion of moving
fashioned into a new form without breaking water against the sides of a pipe, caused by a
Anneai 2.24 to heat and then cool a metal In sudden change in the rate of flow or stoppage of
order to make it softer and less brittle flow in the line
 21

The modern plant facility has a number of piping systems made up of different
sizes and materials. In this lesson, you will learn about pipes made of cast iron,
steel, copper, and other metals. You will also learn about the behavior of fluids
in a piping system and about the methods of connecting sections of pipe.

Knowledge of the basic characteristics of the metals used for piping will provide
clues to the uses of the pipelines with which you work. Such knowledge will be
extremely helpful to you by making your job much easier and more interesting.

Pipes numerous, greater variation was needed. As a result,

2.01 Pipe sizes are standardized and are usually
expressed in inches or fractions of inches. As a rule,
the size of a pipe is given in terms of its outside diam
eter or inside diameter. Figure 2-1 shows the termi
nology that applies to a section of pipe. The principal
dimensions are as follows:
piping today is cla.ssified according to schedule, the
most common schedule numbers being 40, 80, 120,
and 160. In diameters ranging from Vs to 10 in., the
dimensions of standard steel pipe correspond to
Schedule 40 sizes. From 12 to 24 in. in diameter, wall
thickness is 0.375 in. (Vs in.) for the standard or
Schedule 40 pipe.

• outside diameter(O.D.) 2.04 The dimensions of extra-strong steel pipe are

the same as Schedule 80 sizes for piping ranging from
• inside diameter (I.D.) Vs to 8 in. in diameter. From 10 to 24 in. in diameter,
extra-strong steel pipe has a wall thickness of 0.500
• wall thickness in. ('/2 in.) in accordance with Schedule 80 specifica
tions. The double extra-strong pipe has no exact
• length. equivalent schedule number.

Another consideration is weight per foot, which
varies according to the pipe's wall thickness and
material.
2.02 As a rule, pipe sizes are designated by diame
ter. Commercial pipe sizes 12 in. and less are usually
designated by their inside diameters. Above 12 in., a
pipe is ordinarily designated by its outside diameter.
The nominal (approximate) diameter of a pipe is gen
erally somewhat different from its actual diameter. For
example, the pipe you refer to as a "4 in. diameter
pipe" has an actual O.D. of 4'/2 in., while the actual
O.D. of a "10 in. pipe" or a "12 in. pipe" may be V4 in.
greater than the nominal diameter. A pipe 14 in. or
greater in diameter, however, has an actual O.D. very
close to the nominal size. In all cases, whether the O.D.
is small or large, the dimensions must be within certain
tolerances in order to accommodate various fittings.
2.05 Schedule numbers range from 10 to 160, the
difference being the wall thickness. For example, a
Schedule 40 pipe with a 3 in. nominal diameter (an
actual O.D. of 3.500 in.) has a wall thickness of 0.216
in. The same pipe in a Schedule 80 (extra strong)
would have a wall thickness of 0.300 in. When the
wall thickness of any given size of pipe is increased,
the inside diameter decreases. You will often hear pip
ing referred to either in terms of its diameter or sched
ule number.
Fig. 2-1. Pipe size terminology
Wa thickness

Pipe Schedules

2.03 At one time, all piping was designated as

standard, extra strong, and double extra strong. That
Length
system allowed for no variation in wall thickness,
however, and as pipe requirements became more

fi'V,- 1 n::l
22 Lesson Two
Other Pipe Codes
2.06 Because of the increasing variety and com
plexity of requirements for piping, a number of engi
neering societies and standards groups have devised
codes, standards, and specifications that meet most
applications. The codes that determine pipe sizes are a
good example.
2.07 Some codes provide formulas for determining
the minimum pipe size and wall thickness to use in a
given application. Codes provide such information as
pipe material, method of manufacture (seamless or
welded), the ASTM (American Society for Testing
and Materials) specification number, the grade of pipe
(when several types are available), and the stress to
which the pipe can be subjected at various pressures
and temperatures. Other tables provide recommenda
tions for the correct pipes to use for many different
fluids.
2.08 By consulting such codes, a designer can
determine exactly what piping specification should be
used for any application. Since pipelines often carry
dangerous materials and fluids under high pressures,
following a code helps ensure the safety of personnel,
equipment, and the piping system itself.
2.09 Selecting a pipe according to code recom
mendations is something like the procedure followed
by an automobile mechanic who checks the service
manual to see what type of oil filter should be used
for a particular year and model of car.
2.10 A well-designed network of piping includes
the right types of pipes, fittings, and valves. Other
considerations include the selection and spacing of
hangers and supports, adequate safety precautions,
proper insulation, and ease of maintenance.
Types of Systems
2.11 Piping systems fall into either of two main
categories:
• process lines
• utility or service lines.
2.12 Process lines. Process lines carry the fluids
used in a manufacturing process. For example, one of
the first operations in a paper mill is the reduction of
incoming logs to chips of wood. The chips are then
"cooked" in a unit called a digester, which contains a
chemical solution of sodium sulfide and caustic soda
pumped through pipes. Because it is a processing
operation, these pipes are called process lines.
2.13 Utility or service lines. Utility or service
lines carry steam, gas, water, compressed air, and air-
conditioning fluids. All are part of the general support
system of a plant's operation. Service lines help heat
and cool the plant, provide water wherever it is need
ed, and carry the air which drives air tools and equip
ment.
2.14 Steam lines, for instance, are used for general
heating, and they furnish the energy to drive steam
turbines. Steam is also used to heat many chemical
solutions in process applications. This can be done by
circulating the steam through coils of pipe submerged
in the chemical solution. The steam itself does not
come in contact with the solution, even though its
heat does help the process. Such a line is classified as
a utility or service line.
2.15 ANSI (the American National Standards
Institute) has established a code for the identification
of pipelines. This code involves the use of legends,
nameplates or tags, and colors. The code states that
"identification of the contents of a piping system shall
be by lettered legend giving the name of the contents
in full or abbreviated." The code goes on to say that
the legend should include "sufficient additional
details such as temperature, pressure, etc., as are nec
essary to identify the hazard." This identification may
be accomplished by the use of stencils, tape, or mark
ers. Color should be used to identify the characteristic
hazards of the contents, but its use must be in combi
nation with legends.
2.16 As shown in Table 2-1, the use of color pro
vides a general indication of the type of material car
ried in a pipe. Pipes carrying fire-quenching material
are painted red. This classification includes sprinkler
systems and other piped fire-fighting or fire protec
tion equipment. Pipes carrying inherently hazardous
materials are colored yellow. This classification
includes materials that are flammable or explosive,
chemically active or toxic, at high temperature or
pressure, or radioactive. Materials indicated by either
green or blue are not inherently hazardous by nature.
 Metal Piping 23

Characteristics of Metals
Table 2-1. Color identification code
(American National Standards 2.20 Different metals have different characteris
Institute A 13.1-1981) tics, which make them usable in a variety of applica
tions. An alloy is a metal made up of two or more
Color of
letters for metals that dissolve into each other when melted
Classification Color field legends together. An alloy can also be formed by mixing a
Fire-quenching material Red White metal and a nonmetal. Brass is an example of the first
Inherently hazardous mateilals Yellow Black type because it is an alloy, or blending, of two metals,
copper and zinc. An example of the second type is
Inherently low-hazard materials
Uquid Green White steel, which is a mixture of iron (a metal) and carbon
Gas Blue White
(which is not a metal).
Size of color field and lettering
2.21 Metals are referred to as being ferrous or non-
Length of Height of
Outside diameter of color field letters ferrous. A ferrous metal is one that contains iron,
pipe or covering (in.) (In.) (In.) while a nonferrous metal, such as brass, does not You
3/4 to IV4 8 1/2 will be working with both ferrous and nonferrous
11/2to 2 8 3/4 metals.
2i/2to6 12 11/4
Stoic 24 21/2
Over 10 32 31/2
2.22 Piping is commonly made of wrought iron,
cast iron, or steel. The difference among them is
largely the amount of carbon that each contains.
Wrought iron, for example, has only a small percent
2.17 Familiarize yourself with the pipe codes used age of carbon. Cast iron is an alloy of iron, carbon,
in your plant. Not all plants follow the same code rec and silicon cast in a mold. It is hard and brittle. Steel,
ommendations, which can be confusing if you are not one of the basic production materials of modern
familiar with the system used. industry, has less carbon than cast iron. Each of the
three is made by a different process.
Metal Piping
2.23 A ductile metal is one that can be fashioned
2.18 Human beings have worked with metals for into a new form without breaking. For instance, it can
several thousand years, making tools, swords, armor, be drawn or pulled out into wire. Copper is a good
and pipes. Until recent times, however, metallurgy example of a ductile metal. A malleable metal can be
(the science and study of metals) was more an art than extended or formed readily, usually by heating and
a science. The information needed to assure maxi then hammering or rolling it.
mum strength of metals and minimizing their failures
was unknown. Metalworkers and blacksmiths knew 2.24 Annealing is the common process of heating
that certain processes worked, but were not able to a metal and permitting it to cool gradually to make it
say why. softer and less brittle. Annealing also relieves internal
stresses or strains present in the metal.
2.19 Fortunately, as new requirements and applica
tions for chemicals developed, so did scientists' under 2.25 In addition to the more common ferrous and
standing of the composition, behavior, and structure of nonferrous metals, there are special pipe materials
metals. The result has been the development of new for special applications. Aluminum pipe is light
metals and the improvement of those already in use. weight and corrosion-resistant, although its strength
Piping systems and components can now be designed decreases as temperature increases. Lead pipe has
to handle more materials efficiently. An increased considerable resistance to corrosive materials. Tanta
knowledge of metallurgy has made it possible to lum pipe is highly resistant to acids such as
devise new pipe materials to meet the requirements of hydrochloric acid. Titanium pipe and zirconium pipe
newly developed chemicals. Other benefits include also handle corrosive materials. Piping made from
greater pipe reliability and easier maintenance. special materials is more expensive, of course, than

'his inater ir;! :s piotccJ.MJ by U.S. copytighl iav/s. If this text docs not appear in coloi. tiiis lioeuiiief-it iias been iHcga
Plonso contact [ogaltelcleinediair r-.roni or 000-637-0872 - Legal Allans,(.•xtenrien 404 1
24 Lesson Two
piping made from more common materials. On the
other hand, special materials are needed to carry
highly corrosive fluids.
2.26 Stainless steel, a ferrous metal, is an alloy of
steel and chromium. Other materials may be included
to make up the variety of stainless steels used where
rust and other kinds of corrosion pose particular prob
lems. When piping is made of stainless steel, it is
identified by an "S" after the schedule number.
Pipe-Manufacturing Methods
2.27 Metal piping is made by many different
processes. The four major ones produce wrought
seamless pipe, forged seamless pipe, welded pipe, and
cast pipe. Within each process, there are other
processes that are convenient variations.
2.28 Wrought seamless carbon steel and alloy pipe
are made in diameters of up to 26 in. The basic
process and its variations begin with a round billet or
block of steel. The steel is heated, and a hole is driven
through it. Successive operations form it to the
desired diameter and length.
2.29 Forged pipe is made in larger diameters and
heavier wall thicknesses for applications where other
seamless types are not readily available. In this
process, a steel billet is heated and then is lengthened
by forging hammers until it is stretched out to a diam
eter about 1 in. greater than that of the finished pipe.
The O.D. and I.D. are then machined to size.
2.30 Welded pipe ordinarily begins as a flat sheet
or strip of steel which, after a number of successive
rolling operations, forms a tube. The seam is then
welded. Cast pipe is made by pouring molten metal
into a mold where it is allowed to cool. Practically all
metal piping is made by a variation on one of these
four processes.
2.31 Once manufactured, piping may be subjected
to a number of tests. Depending on its intended use,
the pipe may be tested for its resistance to chemical
corrosion as well as for its mechanical strength. It
may also be tested for its ability to accommodate the
speed and pressure of the fluids it will carry. In such
cases, an adequate safety factor is allowed for. Tests
must be carried out according to specified codes to
meet required standards.
 Programmed Exercises 25

2-1. Pipe sizes above 12 in. are usually 2-1. OUTSDE

designated by diameter.
Ref: 2.02

In diameters ranging from Ve to 10 in.,

standard pipe dimensions correspond
to Schedule sizes. Re : 2.03

The difference In schedule numbers 2-3. WALL THICKNESS

represents the difference in the
of pipes. Ref: 2.05

2-4. When pipe wall thickness increases, 2-4. DECREASES

the I.D.
Ref: 2.05

2-5. Name the two main classes of PROCESS LINES and UTILITY or
piping system. SERVICE LINES

Ref: 2.11

A yellow color code on a pipeline 2-6. HAZARDOUS

indicates that the line Is carrying
materials. Ref: 2.16. Table 2-1

A ferrous metal contains 2-7. IRON

Ref: 2.21

2-8. A Schedule 40S pipe is made of 2-8. STAINLESS STEEL

Ref: 2.26

This niat&i ial is piolcL.ied by U.S. copyright laws. II this icxl does not appear m coloi, this ciocuirtont lui.s bi 'M- lilcrp'hy coinc
Please contact legaI;'.;ite[etnodi.'itn('-.rofTi oi B00-t^37-3B72 Lf-c]al Affairs pxtf^ns:-. n -ini i
26 Lesson Two
Behavior of Fluids In Piping
2.32 An understanding of how fluids behave in
piping will be useful to you. You already know that
fluids are divided into liquids and gases. A liquid,
like water or oil, cannot be compressed. You cannot
squeeze a quart of water, for example, into a pint
container. Although a gas is compressible, it will
expand to fill any container in which it is placed. If
you were to release a quart container of steam into
an empty gallon container, the gas would expand to
fill it. When liquid does not fill a pipe completely, it
has a top surface, like that of a creek or river. But in
the same pipe, gas expands to fill all of the available
space. It is common to speak of gases and vapors, the
distinction being that vapors are materials in a
gaseous state which can easily condense back into a
liquid. Both steam and ammonia are vapors. Oxygen
is not.
2.33 Liquids and gases have a property known as
viscosity, which is a measure of the thickness of a liq
uid or the density of a gas or vapor. A thin liquid is
said to have a low viscosity, while a thick liquid, like
molasses, has a high viscosity rating. The viscosity of
a liquid goes down as the temperature increases—that
is, the liquid becomes thinner. On the other hand, the
viscosity of a gas goes up (the gas gets heavier) as the
temperature increases. Whenever a liquid or gas gets
thicker or denser, it flows more slowly in a piping
system.
2.34 What effect does the viscosity of the fluid
have on piping? As viscosity rises, so does friction in
the pipes. This in turn requires more effort by the
pump. In a compressed-air line, friction causes the
pipes to heat up, which results in expansion and strain
on the piping.
Piping Applications
2.35 Piping applications are usually described in
general terms. When you need more detailed informa
tion about what kind of pipes to use for carrying spe
cific materials, you should consult the piping manu
facturer. Welded or seamless steel pipe is used in
plumbing and heating applications for water, gas, and
air lines. For high-temperature applications and for
applications in which pipe must be bent or shaped to
allow for connections, seamless carbon-steel pipe is
used. Special steel welded pipe is used for gas, liquid.
and vapors. Welded wrought iron pipe is common for
the condensate return lines of steam systems. Heavy-
wall alloy steel pipe is also used for high-temperature
applications. Because ductile iron pipe can readily be
formed into special shapes, it is also used in such
cases.
2.36 Cast iron pipe is used for water and gas dis
tribution systems and for sewage lines. Because of its
heavy walls and good resistance to both internal and
external corrosion, it has a relatively long life. Cast
iron is being used increasingly in systems carrying
both natural gas and dry manufactured gas. It is also
used in oil refineries and in some process industries,
because cast iron is more corrosion-resistant than
most steels.
2.37 When the liquids to be carried are strong pro
cessing solutions, which would react with ferrous
piping or injure it, nonferrous piping is commonly
used. Good examples are red brass and copper pipes,
which are frequently used in chemical plants.
Although such piping may be more expensive than
ferrous piping initially, it may actually be more eco
nomical to use in the long run. It has a longer life in
corrosive situations, which means less downtime,for
maintenance.
Steam Piping
2.38 An example of a piping system that carries
gases and vapors is a steam line. In addition to its
value in heating systems, steam is extremely impor
tant to industry because it drives the steam turbines
that generate electricity.
2.39 Steam is commonly classified according to
three ranges of pressure. The steam used in heating
systems is in the pressure range from 0 to 15 psi.
Steam with a pressure from 50 to 150 psi is com
monly used in a variety of industrial processes.
Heavy industrial applications, such as the driving
of large steam turbines, use steam rated at 200 psi
and up.
2.40 Many kinds of steam pipe are required to
meet these various needs. Advances in metallurgy
have produced piping to meet those needs. Steam
pipe includes welded and seamless steel pipe, welded
wrought iron pipe for condensate lines, heavy-wall
alloy steel pipe, and ductile iron pipe.

Water Piping
2.41 The many types of water carried by piping
systems include service water, city water, treated or
processed water, and distilled water. Service water,
used for cooling and flushing purposes, is untreated
water that may have been strained, but is otherwise
just as it comes from a river, lake, or deep well. City
water is drinkable, like that in your own home. Treat
ed water has been processed to remove minerals that
might cause corrosion or sludge in piping. Distilled
water is specially purified.
2.42 Water pipes are subject to the formation of
scale from minerals and rusting. Water pipes also may
be affected by iiiberculation, which is the formation
of corrosive compounds on the inner lining of the
pipe. Such compounds are the result of bacterial
action in the water, and they cannot be dissolved by
water.
Maintenance Considerations
2.43 Maintenance of metal piping is determined in
part by the characteristics of the metal, but also
includes the kinds of maintenance common to all
piping systems. The major considerations are:
• the effect of temperature changes
• outside material in the lines (dirt, scale, sand,
rust, metal chips, and other impurities)
• shifting of pipe supports
• corrosion
• water hammer.
2.44 Temperature, Because metal piping is rigid
and laid out in specified lengths, it is especially sub
ject to the effects of temperature changes. You have
learned that metals expand or contract according to
temperature variations. Over a long run (length of
pipe), the effects can cause considerable strain on the
lines. If the piping is bent out of shape becau.se of
those strains, damage and failure may result.
2.45 Impurities. When fluids move through pipes
at high speed, solid impurities in the fluid have an
abrasive effect on the inner surface or wall of the
Metal Piping 27
pipe, and score it. Impurities can also build up inside
the pipe and slow down the fluid flow.
2.46 Rust is a good example of such an impurity.
Rust is iron oxide. An oxide is a compound formed by
the reaction of oxygen with another element or mater
ial. You might say that iron has an appetite for oxy
gen, but needs water or some other liquid to start the
reaction going—which is why a ferrous pipe carrying
water and air will rust. The rust weakens the pipe, and
particles of rust also get into the fluid, where they are
carried through the system.
2.47 Pipe supports. Pipe supports may loosen in
time and, therefore, they require periodic inspection.
Vibration, as well as expansion and contraction in the
metal piping, can cause the supports to loosen. Fluids
traveling at high speeds and pressures are one cause
of vibration. Water hammer is another.
2.48 Corrosion. All metal pipes are subject to cor
rosion. Many materials react chemically with metal
piping to produce scale, rust, and other oxides. Caus
tic solutions, acids, and similar materials are typical
causes of pipe corrosion.
2.49 Water hammer. Water hammer can damage
or destroy piping, valves, fittings, and equipment.
Usually noisy, water hammer happens when a moving
column of water in a pipe is suddenly stopped or
slowed. When the water (or other liquid) hits the
blocking point, the shock caused as a result passes
back through the system in waves, producing a ham
mering noise. At times, the shock can be severe
enough to rupture the pipe.
2.50 Figure 2-2 illustrates water hammer condi
tions in a steam condensate line. The two waves
(called "slugs") coming together under the pockets of
steam may meet with a considerable impact. The
Fig. 2-2. Water hammer
 Fig. 2-3. Common pipe joints and symbols
Actual connection
Bell-and-spigot
Screwed (threaded)
Welded
Soldered
Steam will compress enough to absorb some of the
shock, but the wave action will continue back and
forth through the system, gradually diminishing.
2.51 Except to repair any damage that results,
there is not much you can do about water hammer.
You should report it, however, if you hear water ham
mer in a pipeline.
Joining Pipe
2.52 Metal pipes can be connected or joined in a
number of ways. The method used depends on:
• the nature of the metal sections being joined
(ferrous, nonferrous)
• the type of fluid to be carried by the system
(what kind of liquid or gas)
• pressure and temperature in the line
• the need to provide access to sections of the
line.
2.53 A joint is the connection between elements in
a piping system. The five major types of joints used
for joining metal pipe are:
Symbol
bell-and-spigot joints
welded joints
soldered or brazed joints
screwed or threaded joints
flanged joints (flanged joints will be covered
in a later lesson).
Each type of joint is used for a special purpose, and
each has a different outward appearance, as shown in
Fig. 2-3. The illustration also shows the symbols used
to represent the different kinds of joints in piping
system diagrams.
2.54 Bell-and-spigot joints. Bell-and-spigot joints
are used for connecting lengths of cast iron water
pipe. The enlarged section at one end of the pipe is
the bell, the plain end is the spigot. This kind of pipe
and joint is used in wastewater systems, which are not
under pressure. The plain end is fitted into the bell,
and the joint is sealed. One of the common ways to
make a watertight seal is by filling or caulking the
joint with a material called oakum. Molten lead is
then poured over the oakum and solidifies, making
the seal.
 Metal Piping 29

2.55 Welded joints. Welding is the process of heat Fig. 2-4. Three kinds of welded pipe Joints
ing materials to such a high temperature that the sec
tions to be joined melt and blend together. A basic Weld metal

advantage of welding is that the pieces joined become

one continuous piece. A properly welded joint is as
strong as the piping itself. Welded joints are chosen for Backing
ring
applications involving high pressures and temperatures.

2.56 A number of welding processes can be used

to provide the needed heal. All methods rapidly heat
the area to be welded in such a way that the heat is Butt weld

confined to the area close to the joint. Heating a larger

section would probably cause deformation of the
metal.

2.57 The three basic welded joints are:

• the butt weld, in which the sections to be

welded are placed end-to-end
Fillet or socket weld

• the socket ovfillet weld, in which one pipe fits

inside the other, the weld being made on the
outside of the lap

• the sleeve weld, in which the sections of pipe

are placed end-to-end inside a sleeve and a
weld is then made at both ends of the sleeve.
Sleeve weld

All three are illustrated in Fig. 2-4.

2.58 Figure 2-5 shows the shape of a correctly

prevents the formation of an icicle and keeps splatter
made butt weld. Note that the edges to be joined are
from getting into the line. After you finish welding
any pipe joint, it is good practice to clean out the line.
beveled, which leaves a space shaped like a "V"
between them. The V-shaped space is filled when the
2.61 Soldered or brazed Joints. Soldered or
weld is made. Figure 2-5 also shows what is called an
icicle, which is a piece of weld metal that projects brazed joints are two types of joints used primarily
into the area inside the pipe. Icicles are undesirable,
for joining nonferrous metals. A major difference
because they can break off and get into the flow of
fluid.
Fig. 2-5. How to make a butt weld correctly
2.59 If the weld is not carefully made, fragments
of weld metal may also get into the pipe. Such loose
fragments are sometimes called splatter. Both icicles
and splatter must be avoided. In a high-speed, high-
pressure line, the fragments act like small bullets,
Pipe wall
causing damage to valves and fittings, as well as to
the pipe itself.

2.60 In a typical pipe-welding operation, a backing Correct weld contour Weld metal Icicles
ring is used inside the joint to provide a surface on
which to build up the metal. The backing ring also

icuv-,. I( iliij U'xi iluc;, in coloi. this docuinf:'i".l iiiis been illcgrill\ cn'
lemei^rMrrxori-; r.'i oOf' r>j7-G37.' - Legal Affairs, extension •1041
 Fig. 2-6. Front view of the head,showing position of chasers
between welding and brazing is that brazing is done
at far lower temperatures. Brazing, in turn, requires
higher temperatures than soldering. Brazing is some
times referred to as hard soldering, because it is done
at higher temperatures than soft soldering, the process
used in wiring electrical connections.
2.62 In brazing, the joint is heated and kept clean
by applying a Hux that prevents oxides from forming.
The clean, hot joint is then filled with brazing rod to
form the connection.
2.63 Screwed or threaded joints. Screwed or
threaded joints are commonly used to join sections of
Fig. 2-7. Pipe thread fits
Effective length of thread engagement
Engagement when tightened threads^*
Engagement by hand
Diehead
Front of chaser
Chaser or Die
smaller-diameter pipe that carry fluids at low pres
sures and normal temperatures. Diameters of pipe
joined by threading range from '/s in. up to 8 in. Both
ferrous and nonferrous pipes are joined in this way.
Most couplings have threads on the inside surface.
The pipe is threaded on the O.D. The correct class,
form, and type of thread for various pipe diameters
and uses are specified in established codes. You prob
ably will work most often with threads covered by the
American Pipe Thread Standards code.
2.64 Pipe ends are threaded with dies or chasers,
either by hand with diestocks or by die heads,
which can be either hand- or power-operated. A
pipe die can be solid, or it can include a number of
dies or chasers, which are mounted in a die head, as
shown in Fig. 2-6. Become familiar with the equip
ment used in your plant.
2.65 It is essential for threads to be smooth, clean,
and properly cut if they are to provide the correct fit.
Thread cutting is considered a precision operation.
2.66 Figure 2-7 shows a profile of pipe threads.
Note that the end section is labeled "imperfect
threads." They are imperfect because the first three or
more threads on the chaser are cut away to permit the
pipe to enter the die. In cutting threads, a thread-
cutting oil provides cooling action, lubricates the dies
or chasers, and assists in chip removal. After the
threads have been cut, clean them with a wire brush to
remove dirt and metal chips, as shown in Fig. 2-8.
 Metal Piping 31

Fig.2-8. Cleaning and doping newly cut pipe threads

2.67 Because pipe threads may not be perfect, a
pipe compound (or "dope") is then applied to the
threads (male threads only) to ensure a good fit and
help lubricate the threads while the joint is being
tightened. Compounds used depend on the kind of
piping involved.
2.68 The joining is usually begun by hand to deter
mine if the thread engagement is right. The joint is then
tightened with a wrench. Avoid excessive tightening,
which can damage both the threads and the coupling.
Again, it is good practice to clean the piping out to
make sure that no chips remain and that no compound
is inside the pipe to cause possible contamination.

Tills iria'ei ial is protccTed by U.S. copyriglu kiws. If this text does net ajDpear in coioi. Ibis ciorumeiit has beer, i l
Please contact lecjaiiUfbolcinedioi i c.corri or 6rjl)-B37-oS72 - Legal Affairs, exten's.on i
32 Programmed Exercises

2-9. As temperature increases, the viscosity 2-9. DECREASES

of a liquid .
Ret; 2.33

2-10. Iron oxide is another name for 2-10. RUST

Ref: 2.46

2-11. Sections of cast iron water pipe are 2-11. BELL-AND-SPIGOT

usually connected with a(n)
joint. Ref: 2.54, Fig. 2-3

2-12. A common method of making a water

2-12. OAKUM
tight seal is first to caulk the joint with a
material called .
Ref: 2.54

2-13. What kind of joint is used for high- 2-13. WELDED

temperature and high-pressure
applications? Ref: 2.55

2-14. Name the three basic types of welded 2-14. BUTT WELD,SOCKET or FILLET
joints. WELD, and SLEEVE WELD

Ref: 2.57, Fig. 2-4

2-15. Nonferrous metals are usually 2-15. SOLDERING OR BfWING

connected by .
Ref: 2.61

2-16. Brazing is sometimes known as 2-16. HARD

soldering.
Ref: 2.61
 Self-Check Quiz 33

Answer the following questions by marking an

in the box next to the best answer.

2-1. A pipe smaller than 12 in. in diameter is 2-6. The pressure of steam used in typical
normally designated by its industrial processes ranges from to
psi.
□ a. I.D.
□ b. length □ a. 0;15
□ c. O.D. □ b. 25; 50
□ d. wall thickness □ c. 50; 150
□ d. 200; 500
2-2. The wall thickness of a Schedule 80 pipe
12 in. in diameter is in. 2-7. Water hammer in a piping system occurs
when the
□ a. 1/4
□ b. 3/8 □ a. flow is suddenly slowed or stopped
□ C. 1/2 □ b. lines have too many turns
□ d. 3/4 □ c. rust gets too thick
□ d. steam condenses too rapidly
2-3. What class of pipeline is used to carry
compressed air? 2-8. Welded joints are preferred for applications
that involve temperatures and
□ a. Circulating pressures.
□ b. Compression
□ c. Process □ a. high; high
□ d. Service □ b. high; low
□ c. low; high
2-4. A ferrous metal always contains □ d. low; low

□ a. brass 2-9. The kind of joint in which two sections of pipe

□ b. copper are placed end-to-end and welded directly
□ c. iron together is called a weld.
□ d. tin
□ a. butt
2-5. As fluid viscosity decreases, friction in □ b. fillet
a pipeline □ c. sleeve
□ d. socket
□ a. causes heat buildup
□ b. decreases 2-10. One way to avoid icicles and splatter in a pipe
□ c, increases weld is to use a
□ d. remains the same
□ a. backing ring
□ b. butt weld
□ c. low temperature
□ d. nonferrous metal

Tliis inaterial is proteciod by U.S. copyi iplit lav.'s. If 'dir. lexl does not n[5pGa tn roioi , th's fiocuincnl has b
Plo.'iso contact legaly; teiemcdiai r r.com oi G0G'-B37-8872 Lfcial Aflaas. extrav 'c; !
 SUMMARY

Pipes are usually identified by size, the most
important dimensions for designation purposes
being outside diameter (O.D.) and inside diameter
(I.D.). Pipes are also classified according to
schedule numbers, which refer to wail thickness.
ANSI, ASTM,and other standards organizations
have devised pipe codes that provide specific
Information, including the material from which a
pipe is made and the method of manufacture. In
addition, color codes may identify the type of
material that the pipe is carrying.
Metal pipes may be made of cast iron, stainless
steel, brass, copper, and various alloys. As a
maintenance technician who works with metal
piping, you must be knowledgeable about the
characteristics of individual metals as well as
the kinds of considerations common to all piping
systems. These considerations include the effect
of temperature changes, impurities in the line,
shifting of pipe supports, corrosion, and water
hammer.
You should be familiar with the various meth
ods of joining pipe. The five major kinds of
joints used for joining metal pipe are bell-and-
spigot joints, welded joints, soldered or brazed
joints, screwed or threaded joints, and flanged
joints. This lesson pays particular attention to
the three basic welded joints called the butt
weld, the socket or fillet weld, and the sleeve
weld.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

2-1. a. I.D. Ref:2.02 2-6. c. 50; 150. Ref: 2.39

2-2. c. 1/2. Ref: 2.04 2-7. a. Flow is suddenly slowed or stopped.

Ref: 2.49
2-3. d. Service. Ref: 2.13
2-8. a. High; high. Ref: 2.55
2-4. 0. Iron. Ref: 2.21
2-9. a. Butt. Ref: 2.57
2-5. b. Decreases. Ref: 2.34
2-10. a. Backing ring. Ref: 2.60

Contributions from the following sources are appreciated:

Figure 2-6. Teledyneoster

Figure 2-7. Crane Company
 ia-

PIPING SYSTEMS

Lesson Three

Nonmetallic
Piping

TPC Training Systems

This maferio! is piutoctcd by U S. copyright laws. If this text does not appeal in color, this document lias iK.en iiicg;
Please contact leaal(i.eieiemediainc.com or 800-r)'37-o072 - 1 cgnl Afftiirs. oxtensien •ici.ii
Lesson

Nonmetallic Piping

Nonmetallic Piping Materials Joining Plastic Pipe

Clay Pipe Maintaining Plastic Pipe
Concrete Pipe Glass Pipe
Asbestos-Cement Pipe Other Piping Materials
Plastic Pipe Maintenance Requirements
Limitations of Plastic Pipe

After studying this lesson, you should be able to...

• Name the basic nonmetaiiic piping materials, and
discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each.
• Identify the different forms of clay pipe and con
crete pipe.
• Discuss the limitations of plastic pipe.
Explain the difference between thermoplastic and
thermosetting plastic pipe.
Describe how to join sections of nonmetaiiic pipe,
and how to maintain them.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Vitrified clay 3.03 clay that has been treated in a Thermoplastic 3.26 a type of plastic that will
kiln in order to produce a glazed, watertight repeatedly soften when heated and harden when
surface cooled
Prestressed concrete 3.18 concrete that has Thermosetting 3.26 a type of plastic that solidi
been compressed with wires or rods in order to fies when first heated and cannot be remelted or
reduce or eliminate cracking and tensile forces remolded
Tensile strength 3.18 the maximum stress that a
material subjected to a stretching load can with
stand without breaking
 37

Originally, all piping was made from wood or clay. Water was transported over
long distances by open stone channels that served as "pipes." Some of the
channels built nearly 2000 years ago are still In use.

Although metal piping Is In wide use today, nonmetalllc piping Is of equal Impor
tance and has many applications. In addition to materials that have been used for
centuries, there now are many new piping materials to choose from. Older mate
rials have been modified by new processes to make them more useful In meeting
today's plant requirements.

in this lesson, you will study nonmetalllc piping materials—what they are and
where they are most commonly used. You also will read about how to join sec
tions of nonmetalllc piping and how to maintain them.

Nonmetalllc Piping Materials Clay Pipe

3.01 The five basic nonmetalllc piping materials 3.03 Clay pipe comes in two forms:
are:

• vitrified(glassy or glass-like)
• clay
• unglazed (not glassy, because it has not been
• concrete subjected to the firing operation used to make
vitrified pipe).
• plastic
Both types are furnished in sizes ranging from 4 to 36
• glass in. in diameter, and both are available in more than
one grade of strength. Clay pipes are used to carry
• wood. industrial wastes,sewage,and storm water.

Most of these materials are available in several forms
and variations. Clay pipe, for example, is often
glazed to provide greater resistance to corrosion.
Concrete is reinforced for greater strength. A number
of plastics have been developed for use in piping.
Cement, rubber, and plastics, as well as glass, are
used for lining metal piping. Such linings help pro
vide corrosion resistance and prevent contaminant
damage and buildup.
3.02 Codes and specifications that apply to non-
metallic piping have been established by a number
of engineering societies and standards organiza
tions. The properties and characteristics of all stan
dard nonmetalllc piping have been classified so that
designers of piping systems will know what kinds
of piping materials are best for any given applica
tion. As you know, one of the primary reasons for
devising codes is to help ensure the safety of per
sonnel. Codes also ensure that adequate protection
for equipment, including the system itself, is pro
vided.
3.04 Vitrified clay pipe is the most corrosion-proof
product available for industrial and sewage wastes. In
fact, it can carry every known chemical waste without
being damaged, except one—hydrofluoric acid,
which is seldom used by industry and is rarely found
in sanitary sewage.(The only safe way to hold hydro
fluoric acid is in a wax or wax-lined container. It will
eat through all other materials.)
3.05 Liquid flow in drain pipes depends solely on
gravity, not on pressure provided by pumps. A pipe
that carries fluid in this way, whether partially or
completely filled, is called an open-channel pipe.
3.06 Clay pipe (both vitrified and unglazed) is
made and joined with the same type of bell-and-spig-
otjoint that was described in the previous lesson. The
bell-and-spigot shape is shown in Fig. 3-1 on the fol
lowing page. When joining sections of clay pipe, you
should first clean both ends of the pipe thoroughly.
The spigot (small) end of the pipe should be centered
properly, and then seated securely in the bell (large)

This material is protected by U S. copyr ight lav.'s. If this text does not ap|roai rn color , this fiocnmont has boon i l!
Please contact jofldlrmteJemodiajnc.com or 800-337-887? Legal Affairs. (!Xti>ns'« :ii -iti ■ f
Fig. 3-1. Bell-and-spigot ends of clay pipe section
end. The bell is then packed with jute, which is
lamped down until about one-third of the space is
filled. Finally, the joint is filled with joint compound.
3.07 Figure 3-2 is a newer type of joint, which is
flexible and commonly used for joining vitrified
clay pipe. The sealing elements are made from nat
ural or synthetic rubber, or from a plastic that suc
cessfully resists the corrosive effects of the fluids
being carried by the pipe.
3.08 Drainage and sewage lines designed for
gravity flow are laid downgrade at an angle, with
the bell ends of the pipe pointing upgrade. Installa
tions vary, but all must provide the pipe with strong
support in the trench. Unglazed clay pipe must be
protected against the effects of ground moisture and
soil contaminants (a precaution unnecessary for vit
rified pipe). Both types must be positioned to pre
vent undue stresses. The pipe is laid so that it is
supported along its small dimension and not on the
bell end.
3.09 Waste pipelines normally are designed with
a pipe size large enough to handle a load 40% higher
than usual, because the amount of waste and waste-
water from a plant may vary during different seasons
of the year. This is especially true for cooling equip
ment or processes. The volume that a waste pipeline
will have to carry also depends on the level of plant
production.
Concrete Pipe
3.10 Concrete is another common pipe material
and is furnished in three basic forms:
Fig. 3-2. Flexible joint for vitrified clay pipe
• nonreinforced concrete
• reinforced concrete
• reinforced and prestressed concrete pressure
pipe.
Although nearly all concrete piping is used for carry
ing industrial wastes, sewage, and storm water, some
is also used in service lines. Except for the reinforced
and prestressed pressure pipe, most concrete pipe is
limited to low-pressure use. It is not recommended
for use in locations where there is likely to be under
ground acid seepage, which would damage or destroy
the pipe. Concrete is also somewhat brittle, a condi
tion that can be overcome by reinforcing it with metal
rods or mesh.
3.11 Concrete pipe, like other kinds of piping, is
covered by codes and specifications concerning types
of pipe, wall thicknesses, diameters, and pressures.
The external pressure from the weight of Fill above
the concrete pipe is also considered.
3.12 Nonreinforced concrete pipe. Ordinary
concrete pipe is furnished in diameters ranging from 4
to 24 in. It is made with bell-and-spigot ends, as is the
vitrified clay pipe already described, and is used for
similar purposes —small sewer lines and culverts.
Details of its installation are similar to those that
apply to clay piping.
3.13 Reinforced concrete pipe. Reinforced con
crete pipe is used for carrying sewage, storm water,
and industrial wastes. It is also used in culverts. This
type of pipe is so-named because it has been strength-

ened by steel rods buried lengthwise in the pipe wall.
Diameters of reinforced concrete pipe range from 12
to 144 in.
3.14 Sections of reinforced concrete pipe are
joined by bell-and-spigot Joints or by tongue-and-
groove joints.
3.15 Reinforced and prestressed concrete pipe.
When concrete piping is to be subjected to a heavy
load or high pressure, it is strengthened by reinforce
ment, prestressing, or both. As its name suggests,con
crete pressure pipe can carry fluids with pressures of
up to 600 psi. Although pressure pipe can be used in
gravity-flow situations, pumps are commonly used in
such systems. Sizes of concrete pressure pipe range
from 12 to 180 in. in diameter.
3.16 All concrete pressure pipe is reinforced by
steel rods or bars embedded lengthwise in the pipe
wall. In some cases, wire cages are included as well.
In addition, reinforcing rings circle the rods at inter
vals. The rods and rings form a kind of cage, as
shown in Fig. 3-3. The reinforcement strengthens the
pipe wall against both internal pressure (from the
fluid flowing through the pipe) and external pressure
(from the weight of the fill used to cover the pipe in a
deep trench).
3.17 A second and much stronger type of rein
forced concrete pipe is called a cylinder pipe. It has
the same reinforcing rods and rings, but in addition, a
welded steel shell is embedded in the concrete. This
shell is tested to ensure that it is watertight and then is
further strengthened by banding it with reinforcing
rings. Finally, it is given an internal coating of regular
concrete and an outside layer of reinforced concrete.
Fluids in the pipe are not in contact with the steel
shell itself, but with the concrete lining. It is the com
bination of the steel shell and the reinforced concrete
outer layer that gives the pipe its strength. This is
heavy-duty pipe that will handle pressures of up to
260 psi.
3.18 Still further strength can be obtained by a
process known as prestressing the concrete. Concrete
is by nature a material with low tensile strength. A
horizontal concrete rod subjected to a load would snap
easily. On the other hand, concrete has high compres
sion strength. That is, if the same rod were placed in
an upright position, it could support a far greater
Nonmetallic Piping 39
weight. Prestressed concrete pipes are manufactured
with a permanent "built-in" compression force.
3.19 The first step in making a prestressed con
crete pipe is to line a welded steel cylinder with con
crete. When the lining has set, the cylinder is tightly
wrapped with high-strength wire. The .steel cylinder
in turn squeezes the concrete lining, placing it under
compression. Then the outside of the pipe is coated
with concrete. The pipe is much stronger because the
concrete has been compressed. This is the prestressed
type that can withstand pressures of up to 600 psi.
3.20 Either a lead-and-steel or a rubber-and-steel
joint is used to join prestressed concrete pipes. This is
a more advanced form of the bell-and-spigot joint. In
the rubber-and-steel joint, the rubber gasket first is
lubricated with vegetable soap. The gasket fits on the
spigot end of the pipe, which is pushed into the bell
end of the next section of pipe. The outer area of the
joint then is filled with concrete. The joint is wrapped
with reinforced paper or cloth to prevent the concrete
filling from running out of the joint. After the two
pipes have been securely joined, any remaining space
is filled with mortar.
3.21 Cement is also used to line cast iron pipe to
improve corrosion resistance. The lining is coated
later with a sealant material. The outside walls of
this type of pipe are given a white waterproof coat
ing that reflects heat and helps prevent the cast iron
pipe and its lining from separating because of heat
expansion.
Fig. 3-3. Reinforced concrete pipe
PnrirHinn hanHc —
Longitudinal reinforcing rod
40 Programmed Exercises

Name the five basic nonmetallic piping 3-1. CLAY, CONCRETE,PLASTIC,

GLASS, and WOOD
materials.

Ref: 3.01

3-2. The two basic types of ciay pipe are 3-2. VITRIFIED (GLAZED), UNGLAZED
and .
Ref: 3.03

3-3. The most corrosion-proof pipe available 3-3. VITRIFIED CLAY

for carrying industrial and sewage
wastes is pipe. Ref: 3.04

3-4. Liquid flow in drain pipes normally 3-4. GRAVITY

depends on .
Ref: 3.05

3-5. Drainage and sewage lines designed 3-5. DOWNGRADE

for gravity flow are laid at
an angle. Ref: 3.08

3-6. NONREINFORCED, REINFORCED,

3-6. Name three types of concrete pipe. and REINFORCED AND PRE-
STRESSED

Ref: 3.10

3-7. Concrete pressure pipe can carry flu 3-7. 600

ids at pressures of up to psi.
Ref: 3.15,3.19

3-8. Cast iron pipe can be lined with 3-8. CORROSION

cement to increase its resistance
Ref: 3.21

Asbestos-Cement Pipe
3.22 Strong and corrosion-resistant, asbestos-
cement pipe was once commonly used for carrying
water and sewage. The material itself is a mixture of
asbestos fibers, portland cement, and silica flour.
Standard sizes range from 3 to 36 in. This type of
pipe is classified in two ways—as pressure pipe (a
maximum working pressure of up to 200 psi) and as
sewer pipe. Although it is no longer manufactured, it
is still in use in many locations.
3.23 The advantages of asbestos-cement piping
make it easy to understand why it became so popular.
Advantages include high resistance to corrosion and
the fact that it is not subject to tuberculation. An out
standing advantage of asbestos-cement piping is its
light weight, which results in a far greater ease of
handling. Lengths of asbestos-cement pipe are typi
cally joined with an asbestos-cement sleeve. The
sleeve's I.D. is larger than the pipe's O.D.The ends of
the closely and squarely machined pipes fit into the
sleeve and are sealed with a natural or synthetic rub-
ber seal or gasket. The gasket acts as an expansion
joint.
3.24 Even though asbestos-cement pipe is no
longer being installed, you might encounter loca
tions in which it is still in use. If so, do not
attempt to cut into it or make any repairs unless
you have been properly trained. Inhaling airborne
asbestos fibers can cause cancer or other lung dis
ease. Specific safety precautions must be
observed, including marking off the work area,
wearing protective equipment, and wetting the
pipe before cutting to prevent the material from
becoming airborne.
Plastic Pipe
3.25 The use of plastic for piping is becoming
increasingly common. In fact, in many applications,
plastic piping is replacing both metallic and non-
metallic piping because of its particular advantages,
which include:
• high corrosion resistance, both internal and
, external
• self-insulating properties (plastic piping is
rarely insulated)
This matoriai is prolr cied by U.S. copyright laws, if this text does not appear in color, this document lias beor. inerpoiy C'
Please contact iega|(ddcdemediaii"c.com or 800-837-8872 -- Legal Affairs, extens'on .ly.ii
Nonmetallic Piping 41
• freedom from rust and rot
• light weight (generally ranging from one-
sixth to one-half the weight of other piping
materials)
• ease ofjoining.
Additional advantages include the fact that most types
of plastic piping will not bum, nor do they need to be
painted. Another important consideration is that plas
tic is lower in cost than many other piping materials.
Plastic piping is easily maintained and, properly
applied, has a long service life. Both rigid and flexi
ble types are made.
3.26 The term "plastic" refers to an entire group of
materials, not just one material. Generally speaking,
plastic piping is made from one of two major classes
of plastic:
• thermoplastic
• thermosetting.
A thermoplastic material can be softened by heating and
will then reharden when cooled. A thermosetting plastic,
on the other hand, remains hardened once it has been
formed, and cannot be repeatedly softened and rehard-
ened as a thermoplastic can be. Most of the piping you
will work with is likely to be of the thermoplastic type.
3.27 Generally, plastic pipe is furnished in iron
pipe sizes (IPS), although other types are available.
Thermoplastic pipe ranges in diameter from Vs to 14
in. Thermosetting pipe is made in standard sizes rang
ing from 2 to 60 in., and has been manufactured as
large as 144 in. in diameter.
3.28 Thermoplastic piping. Although there are
any number of variations, most standard thermoplas
tic piping is made from one of the following four
materials:
• PVC(polyvinyl chloride)
• PE(polyethylene)
• ABS (acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene)
• CAB (cellulose-acetate-butyrate).
42 Lesson Three
You can see why they are usually referred to by their
initials rather than by their chemical names. Each of
the four types is furnished in more than one grade.
The selection of which grade to use is determined by
the requirements of the application itself, as is the
selection of which type of piping to use.
3.29 PVC piping is rigid, tough, and resistant to
attack by chemicals that would destroy many other
kinds of piping. Typical materials carried by PVC
piping include most acids, salt solutions, alcohols,
caustic solutions, and many chemicals. Other applica
tions include carrying cold water, since PVC is non-
toxic and will not affect the water's taste or cause
odor. Because PVC will not produce sparks if struck,
it is safe to use around explosives and explosive
vapors.(That is also true of the other plastics.) Anoth
er advantage of PVC piping is that it does not allow
water contaminants to build up on its walls.
3.30 PE piping has many of the same advantages
as PVC. More flexible than PVC,it is widely used for
water lines, as well as for carrying salt water and
chemical wastes. PE piping is frequently found in
gas-collecting systems. It is also used as conduit for
carrying telephone and power cables.
3.31 ABS piping is tough and generally resistant to
chemical attack. It is used for carrying many acids,
some alcohols,salt water,crude oil, and such gases as
chlorine and ammonia. Other applications include its
use for sewage piping.
3.32 CAB piping is semirigid. It is stiff enough to
be carried and shipped in straight lengths, yet flexible
enough to follow the shape of the ground. It is used
for sewage lines and for carrying other fluids, as well
as low-pressure gas. In oil refineries, CAB piping
carries sour crude oil, salt water, and gases produced
as part of the refining process.
3.33 Thermosetting plastics. Basically, there are
two common thermosetting plastics used for piping—
epoxies and polyesters. Both are rigid types and are
reinforced with various kinds of fibers.
334 Commercial epoxy piping is usually furnished in
diameters ranging from 2 to 12 in. in standard pipe sizes.
Its applications include carrying sewage, waste process
water, many acids, and other solutions. It is also used in
some processes in the food and beverage industries.
3.35 Commercial polyester pipe is normally avail
able in diameters up to 60 in. and can be used for car
rying materials at temperatures of up to 250°F
(121®C). Polyester piping is resistant to most acids,
and to alcohols, bleaches,and solvents.
Limitations of Plastic Pipe
3.36 While plastic piping has definite advantages,
it also has certain disadvantages, which include, most
significantly:
• limited temperature range—approximately
150°F(66°C) maximum for most thermoplas
tic piping, and 250°F(nfC)for epoxy and
polyester piping
• low-pressure operation—although certain
types can withstand 250 psi, pressures are
usually limited to 75 or 100 psi.
Most types of plastic piping must be supported at
closer intervals than do comparable lengths of iron or
steel piping. In addition, plastic pipes cannot be used
for carrying certain solvents that would dissolve
them.
3.37 The strength of plastic piping decreases as the
temperature of the materials it carries increases. For
example, a 2 in. PE pipe can handle a pressure of 75 psi
at 75°F (24°C), but a pressure of only 25 psi when the
temperature increases to 160®F(71°C).The possible soft
ening of the pipe as a result of heating is one of the chief
reasons for the closer spacing required for supports.
Joining Plastic Pipe
3.38 Like metal piping, thermoplastic piping can
be joined in any of several ways. The basic methods
ofjoining plastic pipe are forms of welding, threaded
joints, and flanges.(Flanges will be covered in a later
lesson.)
3.39 The three main welding processes used with
thermoplastic piping are:
• solvent welding
• fusion welding
• fillet welding.
All three are done at far lower temperatures than Fig. 3-4. Fusion welding
would be used for welding metal piping. All that is
needed is enough heat to soften the plastic to the point
at which it will How. The heat required for welding
thermoplastic piping is provided by chemical action
or hot air rather than by open flame.

3.40 At this point, a safety precaution should be

mentioned. When you join plastic piping—or, for that
matter, any time you work with solvent cements—
you must be certain that the working area is well-
ventilated. In addition, no open flame is permitted.
Most plastic solvents are highly toxic, and many of
them are flammable.

3.41 Solvent welding is a chemical process used for

joining sections of PVC, ABS, and CAB plastics. A
solvent cement is applied to the ends of the sections
that are to be joined. The sections of pipe are then
pressed into appropriate fittings or couplings. It is
essential that the correct type of cement be used, how
ever, for the type of plastic being joined. This process
provides tighter and stronger joints than threading.

3.42 PE and similar types of plastics are joined by

fusion welding, a process that uses a heating device
like the one shown in Fig. 3-4. The mating surfaces
are heated at the same time, softened to the same
point, and then joined. The result is a tight, leakproof
joint that is stronger than the pipe itself.

3.43 Figure 3-5, on the following page, shows the

fillet welding process, which is limited in use to par
ticular kinds of plastics. The torch shown in the pho
tograph is furnishing hot air to the plastic rod, and the
rod in turn is providing the material to fill the joint.
This method of welding can also be used for repairing
leaks in thermoplastic piping.
3.44 Threaded connections are used to join plas
tic pipe in a number of cases, usually when the line
may have to be dismantled or moved later. Basical
ly, the tools and techniques used for threading plas
tic pipes are the same as those used for threading
metal pipes. However, a significant disadvantage of
threading pipe —and one that must be taken into
consideration—is that threading weakens the wall
strength of the pipe. The pressure-carrying capacity
of the pipe therefore is also reduced. Threading
should be used only for pipe that is classified
Schedule 80 or heavier.
3.45 Thermosetting (reinforced) plastic piping
sections can be joined by standard screwed and
sleeve- or socket-type fittings and couplings. In
order to obtain better sealing and to provide greater
strength to the joint, some fittings have tapered
socket joints.
3.46 Another common method of joining plastic
pipe is the butt-ond-strop joint, frequently used for
joining pipe sections in the field. One reason for its
popularity is that it is the most economical method.
The butt-and-strap type makes the joint as strong as
the pipe itself.
 Fig. 3-5. Fillet welding a plastic joint
3.47 To make the joint, you first must roughen the
surfaces of the pipe ends for a few inches on each side
of the seam. This can be done with a power sander,
with a hand file, or with coarse sandpaper. After being
coated with a clear dope, or resin, the ends i\rc firmly
and accurately butted together. It is best to do this with
the pipe sections already mounted in their permanent
supports. Two or more reinforced plastic patches help
to maintain alignment while the joint is completed.
3.48 The seam is wrapped with nine or ten strips
of fiberglass mat or woven roving (a strong cloth,
spun with continuous glass threads).
3.49 The narrowest strip is put on first, directly
around the seam. Successive strips are added, with
Fig. 3-6. How multiple layers are arranged for butt-and-strap Joints
each strip increasing in width as the joint is built up.
The wide.st strip is on the outside of the completed
joint, as shown in Fig. 3-6. The strips are cut long
enough to reach once around the pipe with at least a
1 in. overlap. Before being applied, the strips are
soaked with a resin, preferably the same type of resin
used in making the pipe itself. After the joint has been
made, it is rolled with a paint roller to eliminate air
pockets.
3.50 The most common methods of butt-and-strap
joining are referred to as single-layer application and
multiple-layer application. In the single-layer
method, straps are applied one at a time until the
required joint thickness has been reached. However,
the single-layer method takes a long time to finish. In
the multiple-layer method, the layers are built up
away from the pipe and then applied to the pipe at
one time. This method ensures an even overlap of the
wider straps over the narrower ones, and shortens the
time required.
3.51 In order to provide maximum strength, the
resin used in these joints needs time to cure, or set
chemically. The time required for curing depends on
air temperature, humidity, and the heat developed
during the curing cycle. Best results are obtained
when the work is done at an air temperature between
65 and 85°F(18and 29°C).
Maintaining Plastic Pipe
3.52 Plastic pipes are relatively easy to maintain.
Since their surfaces resist corrosion, they do not need
to be painted or cleaned out. They rarely require insu Fig. 3-7. Glass piping installation with couplings
lation, so no insulation maintenance is necessary. and supports
However, periodic inspections for leaks, sagging, and
out-of-roundness are necessary.

3.53 Leaks arc repaired with the type of solvent

cement designed for the particular type of pipe mater
ial. The pipe first must be drained and allowed to dry
thoroughly. After the repair has been made, a drying
period of at least 10 hours is essential before the pipe
can be brought back up to its normal pressure and
temperature. As a general precaution, remember that
plastic pipes are easily damaged if hit with a hard
object, such as a carelessly driven forklift truck. To
protect the plastic, always use a strap wrench instead
of a pipe wrench or a monkey wrench.

Glass Pipe

steam-cleaned, and immediately afterward be used for

3.54 Glass is a hard, brittle material. However, it
does have a number of advantages that make it highly
suitable for certain applications. Those advantages
Include its great resistance to corrosion, contamina
tion, and heat. In addition, glass is transparent, which
permits visual observation of the pipe's internal con
dition and contents at any time, as shown in Fig. 3-7.
Glass pipe diameters range from 1 to 18 in.
3.55 The limitations of glass are the brittleness
already mentioned, and the fact that it can be used
only for relatively low pressures (75 psi is a practical
maximum). However, some types of glass can be
sheathed in a shell or in layers of fiberglass or poly
ester plastic to allow them to handle pressures up to
150 psi. As is true of plastics, improvements and new
developments continue to increase the strength and
pressure resistance of glass —and therefore, its range
of applications.
carrying a cold liquid, such as milk, without cracking
or shattering. This would not be possible in a plastic
pipeline.
3.58 Sections of glass pipe are connected by joints
made of a stainless steel shell, a rubber gasket or
sleeve, and a plastic liner. No caulking is needed.
Compared to many materials, glass has a low rate of
temperature expansion, but it does expand and con
tract with changes in temperature, which makes the
use of expansion joints advisable. Figure 3-8 illus
trates a sleeve-type expansion joint. One piece of pipe
extends several inches inside the joint. The space
between the two sections of pipe is covered by a self-
centering rubber gasket, held firmly by the bolted
Fig. 3-8. Sleeve-type expansion joint used with
glass piping

3.56 Because of its corrosion- and heat-resistant

properties, glass piping is used extensively in paper
mills, and in the food, beverage, and chemical indus
tries. Its resistance to contaminant buildup makes it
valuable in the dairy products indu.stries, as well as in
pharmaceutical plants. Glass piping also is commonly
used in laboratory applications, because it is easy to
clean, and because it is resistant to most acids and
caustic solutions.

3.57 Another advantage of glass is its resistance to

thermal shock. This means that a glass pipeline can be

■: ill colct , Ihi;-. cioCL!tr-nt tias t.-i-r-n il lc-;,-'!;. car.ii.

- Legal 'om-in.', i
46 Lesson Three
Fig. 3-9. Wood-stave piping
steel band
n 3.62 In some areas, especially in the western part
1 1
1 and waste chemicals. Pressure-creosoted Douglas fir
End view Side view
clamp. Construction is such that one piece of pipe can
slide either way with respect to the other, as both sec
tions expand or contract.
3.59 Maintenance requirements for glass piping
are much the same as those for other piping materials.
Because of its brittleness, however, particular atten
tion is required to supporting glass properly. Standard
hangers and supports are used, but with the addition
of protective padding.
Other Piping Materials
3.60 Chemical porcelain pipe is made of a high-
quality ceramic covered with a special glaze. An
advantage of porcelain piping materials is that they
can withstand quite high temperatures, in the range of
400 to 500®F(204 to 260®C). They will not, however,
withstand a sudden change over about 195°F (90°C).
Above that point, the temperature rise should be grad
ual so that the pipe will expand evenly. When the rise
is too sudden, one surface will expand before the rest
of the material does, and cracking results. Porcelain is
highly resistant to corrosion,but it is relatively fragile.
3.61 Chemical stoneware, another glass-like mate
rial, is corrosion-proof against all materials except
hydrofluoric acid and strong, hot caustic. It is not as
good as chemical porcelain, however, for carrying
high-temperature fluids. Made in bell-and-spigot
form, stoneware piping is well-suited for drain lines
and for carrying fluids that will not affect the cement
used for caulking the joints. Stoneware can be used at
higher temperatures and pressures by placing it inside
a split metal shell. The space between the stoneware
pipe and the outer shell is filled with a thin mortar
{grout)of Portland cement.
of the United States, continuous-strip wooden pipes,
in diameters of up to 20 ft, are used for carrying water
staves protect against fungus, slime, scale, and
insects. The staves or strips are carefully fitted to
form a round pipe, and are securely bound by steel
bands set 10 in. apart or less, as shown in Fig. 3-9.
Steel pipe is sometimes lined with wood, resulting in
a strong, corrosion-resistant pipe that can be used
under pressure.
3.63 Cast iron and steel piping is available with
rubber or plastic linings for carrying corrosive materi
als or for providing protection against contaminants.
Such liners are resistant to abrasion, and so can be
used to carry solids. In gravity-flow circumstances,
many solids are moved dry. However, when they must
be pumped, the solids are carried by liquids. Some
fertilizers are good examples of such solids.
Maintenance Requirements
3.64 Maintenance for nonmetallic piping is much
the same as maintenance for metal pipes. Nonmetallic
piping must be protected against corrosion, leakage,
and the effects of temperature variations. In addition,
nonmetallic piping is affected by the mechanical fac
tors of vibration, stresses, and strains, as well as water
hammer. These conditions affect certain materials
more than others.
3.65 Although nonmetallic piping sections can
readily be joined to one another, it is also possible to
connect a nonmetallic pipe to a metal pipe. This is
accomplished by flanging, which will be covered in a
later lesson.
3.66 It is important to remember that each type of
piping used in an application, whether metallic or
nonmetallic, must be selected on the basis of the
application's requirements.
 Nonmetallic Piping 47

This material is protected iDy U.S. copyright laws. If this text does not appear in color, this document has been illegally copied.
Please contact Iegal@telem6dlainc.com or 800-837-8872 - Legal Affairs, extension 4041
48 Programmed Exercises

3-9. The two major classes of plastic used 3-9. THERMOPLASTIC,THERMOSETTING

for piping are and
Ret: 3.26

3-10. Name the four common thermoplastic 3-10. PVG, PE, ABS, and CAB
piping materials by their initials.
Ref: 3.28

3-11. Is plastic pipe safe to use around 3-11. YES

explosives?
Ref: 3.29

3-12. As temperature increases, the strength 3-12. DECREASES

of plastic pipe .
Ref: 3.37

3-13. Name the three basic methods of join 3-13. WELDING,THREADING, and
ing thermoplastic piping. FLANGES

Ref: 3.38

3-14. In a temporary line, sections of plastic 3-14. THREADED

pipe are usually connected by
joints. Ref: 3.44

3-15. Threading of plastic pipe should be lim 3-15. 80

ited to Schedule and heavier
pipe. Ref: 3.44

3-16. One advantage of glass pipe is its 3-16. THERMAL or TEMPERATURE

resistance to shock.
Ref: 3.57
 Self-Check Quiz 49

Answer the following questions by marking an

in the box next to the best answer.

3-1. Metal piping sometimes is lined with non- 3-6. The joining method that can also be used to
metallic materials in order to provide greater repair leaks in thermoplastic piping is
welding.
□ a. corrosion resistance
□ b. heat resistance □ a. arc
□ c. insulation □ b. fillet
□ d. pressure capacity □ c. fusion
□ d. solvent
3-2. A waste pipeline normally is designed with
% extra capacity. 3-7. Sections of plastic pipe that may have to
be dismantled or moved later are usually
□ a. 20 connected with joints.
□ b. 40
□ c. 60 □ a. butt-and-strap
□ d. 80 □ b. flange
□ c. threaded
3-3. The strongest, most pressure-resistant kind □ d. welded
of concrete pipe is called pipe.
3-8. The proper wrench to use on plastic pipe is a
□ a. cylinder wrench.
□ b. pressure
□ c. reinforced □ a. monkey
□ d. reinforced and prestressed □ b. pipe
□ c. stillson
3-4. The outside walls of cement-lined cast iron □ d. strap
pipe are given a white waterproof coating to
help prevent 3-9. Glass pipe can be used in applications with
pressures up to psi.
□ a. cavitation
□ b. cracking □ a. 75
□ c. joint leakage □ b. 150
□ d. lining separation □ c. 300
□ d. 600
3-5. One characteristic of plastic piping is its
3-10. Nonmetallic piping can be joined to metal
□ a. capacity to handle high pressures piping by
□ b. light weight
□ c. need for insulation □ a. arc welding
□ d. resistance to high temperatures □ b. fillet welding
□ c. flanges
□ d. threaded joints

This material is jDiotocted by U.S. copyright laws, if this text does not appetU in color, thi;. documrnt has boon i l lcg;
Please contact logalw' ii'lomcdiaii c.com or B0()-837-G87? - Legal Aflairs. oxtnnwcii -inai
 SUMMARY
Of the various nonmetallic materials used for pip
ing, the most common are clay, concrete, plastic,
glass, and wood. Clay pipe comes in two forms,
vitrified and unglazed, and is used to carry indus
trial waste, sewage, and storm water. Concrete
pipe is often used in culverts. It may be reinforced
with steel rods or bars, or prestressed—that is,
placed under compression during manufacture.
Prestressed concrete pipe can withstand pres
sures of up to 600 psi.
Plastic pipe has many applications. Although it is
limited to relatively low pressures and tempera
tures, it has many advantages—it is corrosion-
resistant, lightweight, inexpensive, long-lasting.
Answers to Self-Check Quiz
3-1. a. Corrosion resistance. Ref: 3.01
3-2. b. 40. Ref: 3.09
3-3. d. Reinforced and prestressed.
Ref: 3.16 to 3.19
3-4. d. Lining separation. Ref; 3.21
3-5. b. Light weight. Ref: 3.25, 3.36
Contributions from the following sources are appreciated:
Figure 3-4. Wegener North America, Inc.
Figure 3-5. Cabot Piping Systems
and easy to maintain. Joining sections of plastic
pipe is accomplished by welding, threading, and
flanges. Plastic piping may be made from either
thermoplastic or thermosetting materials, and is
available in both rigid and flexible forms.
Glass pipe is not suitable for high pressures, but
because it is heat- and corrosion-resistant, it is
widely used in chemical laboratory, food pro
cessing, and pharmaceutical applications. Other
nonmetallic piping materials, including porce
lain, chemical stoneware, and wood, are not as
common, but all piping materials must be select
ed on the basis of a particular application's
requirements.
3-6. b. Fillet. Ref: 3.43
3-7. c. Threaded. Ref: 3.44
3-8. d. Strap. Ref: 3.53
3-9. a. 75. Ref: 3.55
3-10. c. Flanges. Ref: 3.65
 Lesson Four

Tubing

VO':

TPC Training Systems

This rnai&rial is protc-uted by U S. copyrighl laws, if this text does no! appear in color, this document has boon illcgaliy
Plo.ase contact Icgah^ilejemediainc.coiri or 800-037-8872 - Legal Affairs, eyfenraun ••lOTI
 -f I- -a •

**

SHBHHn

^'4i *l .f'J»'«!r-4i'«;-W-*' 9■^

•■fii;"»■r■* -s; ^ s^"i'' , ^ . I
A-J jjfc-n k4 »'"*-&A-

PIPING SYSTEMS

Lesson Three

NonmetaHic

VO:
imr
Lesson

Nonmetallic Piping

iTOPICS

Nonmetallic Piping Materials Joining Plastic Pipe

Clay Pipe Maintaining Plastic Pipe
Concrete Pipe Glass Pipe
Asbestos-Cement Pipe Other Piping Materials
Plastic Pipe Maintenance Requirements
Limitations of Plastic Pipe

OBJECTIVES

After studying this lesson, you should be able to...

• Name the basic nonmetallic piping materials, and
discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each.
• Identify the different forms of clay pipe and con
crete pipe.
• Discuss the limitations of plastic pipe.
Explain the difference between thermoplastic and
thermosetting plastic pipe.
Describe how to join sections of nonmetallic pipe,
and how to maintain them.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Vitrified clay 3.03 clay that has been treated in a Thermoplastic 3.26 a type of plastic that will
kiln in order to produce a glazed, watertight repeatedly soften when heated and harden when
surface cooled
Prestressed concrete 3.18 concrete that has Thermosetting 3.26 a type of plastic that solidi
been compressed with wires or rods in order to fies when first heated and cannot be remelted or
reduce or eliminate cracking and tensile forces remolded
Tensile strength 3.18 the maximum stress that a
material subjected to a stretching load can with
stand without breaking

This materia! is piotoctftcl by U.S. copyright laws. If this text does not appear in coloi. tfiis ciocumont has been illegailv copu:
Please contact kKjairi^elejTie^iainc.corn or 800-837-0872 - Legal Affairs, extension -1041
 37

Originally, all piping was made from wood or clay. Water was transported over
long distances by open stone channels that served as "pipes." Some of the
channels built nearly 2000 years ago are still in use.

Although metal piping Is In wide use today, nonmetalllc piping Is of equal Impor
tance and has many applications. In addition to materials that have been used for
centuries, there now are many new piping materials to choose from. Older mate
rials have been modified by new processes to make them more useful In meeting
today's plant requirements.

In this lesson, you will study nonmetalllc piping materials—what they are and
where they are most commonly used. You also will read about how to join sec
tions of nonmetalllc piping and how to maintain them.

Nonmetalllc Piping Materials Clay Pipe

3.01 The five basic nonmetallic piping materials 3.03 Clay pipe comes in two forms:
are:

• vitrified (glassy or glass-like)

clay
• unglazed (not glassy, because it has not been
concrete subjected to the firing operation used to make
vitrified pipe).
plastic
Both types are furnished in sizes ranging from 4 to 36
glass in. in diameter, and both are available in more than
one grade of strength. Clay pipes are used to carry
wood. industrial wastes,sewage,and storm water.

Most of these materials are available in several forms
and variations. Clay pipe, for example, is often
glazed to provide greater resistance to corrosion.
Concrete is reinforced for greater strength. A number
of plastics have been developed for use in piping.
Cement, rubber, and plastics, as well as glass, are
used for lining metal piping. Such linings help pro
vide corrosion resistance and prevent contaminant
damage and buildup.
3.02 Codes and specifications that apply to non-
metallic piping have been established by a number
of engineering societies and standards organiza
tions. The properties and characteristics of all stan
dard nonmetallic piping have been classified so that
designers of piping systems will know what kinds
of piping materials are best for any given applica
tion. As you know, one of the primary reasons for
devising codes is to help ensure the safety of per
sonnel. Codes also ensure that adequate protection
for equipment, including the system itself, is pro
vided.
3.04 Vitrified clay pipe is the most corrosion-proof
product available for industrial and sewage wastes. In
fact, it can carry every known chemical waste without
being damaged, except one—hydrofluoric acid,
which is seldom used by industry and is rarely found
in sanitary sewage.(The only safe way to hold hydro
fluoric acid is in a wax or wax-lined container. It will
eat through all other materials.)
3.05 Liquid flow in drain pipes depends solely on
gravity, not on pressure provided by pumps. A pipe
that carries fluid in this way, whether partially or
completely filled, is called an open-channel pipe.
3.06 Clay pipe (both vitrified and unglazed) is
made and joined with the same type of bell-and-spig-
otjoint that was described in the previous lesson. The
bell-and-spigot shape is shown in Fig. 3-1 on the fol
lowing page. When joining sections of clay pipe, you
should first clean both ends of the pipe thoroughly. w
The spigot (small) end of the pipe should be centered
properly, and then seated securely in the bell (large)
38 Lesson Three
Fig. 3-1. Bell-and-spigot ends of clay pipe section
end. The beil is then packed with jute, which is
tamped down until about one-third of the space is
filled. Finally, the Joint is filled with joint compound.
3.07 Figure 3-2 is a newer type of joint, which is
flexible and commonly used for joining vitrified
clay pipe. The sealing elements are made from nat
ural or synthetic rubber, or from a plastic that suc
cessfully resists the corrosive effects of the fluids
being carried by the pipe.
3.08 Drainage and sewage lines designed for
gravity flow are laid downgrade at an angle, with
the bell ends of the pipe pointing upgrade. Installa
tions vary, but all must provide the pipe with strong
support in the trench. Unglazed clay pipe must be
protected against the effects of ground moisture and
soil contaminants (a precaution unnecessary for vit
rified pipe). Both types must be positioned to pre
vent undue stresses. The pipe is laid so that it is
supported along its small dimension and not on the
bell end.
3.09 Waste pipelines normally are designed with
a pipe size large enough to handle a load 40% higher
than usual, because the amount of waste and waste-
water from a plant may vary during different seasons
of the year. This is especially true for cooling equip
ment or processes. The volume that a waste pipeline
will have to carry also depends on the level of plant
production.
Concrete Pipe
3.10 Concrete is another common pipe material
and is furnished in three basic forms:
i'M I' O by U.S. co|jynghl liiv.'i. II Uits tc-xl do-;i- ,'i
PIcH'-e rcnitacl tectpl
Fig. 3-2. Flexible joint for vitrified clay pipe
Closed
nonrcinforced concrete
reinforced concrete
• reinforced and prestressed concrete pressure
pipe.
Although nearly all concrete piping is used for carry
ing industrial wastes, sewage, and storm water, some
is also used in service lines. Except for the reinforced
and prestressed pressure pipe, most concrete pipe is
limited to low-pressure use. It is not recommended
for use in locations where there is likely to be under
ground acid seepage, which would damage or destroy
the pipe. Concrete is also somewhat brittle, a condi
tion that can be overcome by reinforcing it with metal
rods or mesh.
3.11 Concrete pipe, like other kinds of piping, is
covered by codes and specifications concerning types
of pipe, wall thicknesses, diameters, and pressures.
The external pressure from the weight of fill above
the concrete pipe is also considered.
3.12 Nonrcinforced concrete pipe. Ordinary
concrete pipe is furnished in diameters ranging from 4
to 24 in. It is made with bell-and-spigot ends, as is the
vitrified clay pipe already described, and is used for
similar purposes —small sewer lines and culverts.
Details of its installation are similar to those that
apply to clay piping.
3.13 Reinforced concrete pipe. Reinforced con
crete pipe is used for carrying sewage, storm water,
and industrial wastes. It is also used in culverts. This
type of pipe is so-named because it has been strength-
or f.O' i
ened by steel rods buried lengthwise in the pipe wall.
Diameters of reinforced concrete pipe range from 12
to 144 in.
3.14 Sections of reinforced concrete pipe are
joined by bell-and-spigot joints or by tongue-and-
groove joints.
3.15 Reinforced and prestrcssed concrete pipe.
When concrete piping is to be subjected to a heavy
load or high pressure, it is strengthened by reinforce
ment, prestressing, or both. As its name suggests,con
crete pressure pipe can carry fluids with pressures of
up to 600 psi. Although pressure pipe can be used in
gravity-flow situations, pumps are commonly used in
such systems. Sizes of concrete pressure pipe range
from 12 to 180 in. in diameter.
3.16 All concrete pressure pipe is reinforced by
steel rods or bars embedded lengthwise in the pipe
wall. In some cases, wire cages are included as well.
In addition, reinforcing rings circle the rods at inter
vals. The rods and rings form a kind of cage, as
shown in Fig. 3-3. The reinforcement strengthens the
pipe wall against both internal pressure (from the
fluid flowing through the pipe) and external pressure
(from the weight of the fill used to cover the pipe in a
deep trench).
3.17 A second and much stronger type of rein
forced concrete pipe is called a cylinder pipe. It has
the same reinforcing rods and rings, but in addition, a
welded steel shell is embedded in the concrete. This
shell is tested to ensure that it is watertight and then is
further strengthened by banding it with reinforcing
rings. Finally, it is given an internal coating of regular
concrete and an outside layer of reinforced concrete.
Fluids in the pipe are not in contact with the steel
shell itself, but with the concrete lining. It is the com
bination of the steel shell and the reinforced concrete
outer layer that gives the pipe its strength. This is
heavy-duty pipe that will handle pressures of up to
260 psi.
3.18 Still further strength can be obtained by a
process known as prestressing the concrete. Concrete
is by nature a material with low tensile strength. A
horizontal concrete rod subjected to a load would snap
easily. On the other hand, concrete has high compres
sion strength. That is, if the same rod were placed in
an upright position, it could support a far greater
weight. Prestressed concrete pipes are manufactured
with a permanent "built-in" compression force.
3.19 The first step in making a prestressed con
crete pipe is to line a welded steel cylinder with con
crete. When the lining has set, the cylinder is tightly
wrapped with high-strength wire. The steel cylinder
in turn squeezes the concrete lining, placing it under
compression. Then the outside of the pipe is coated
with concrete. The pipe is much stronger because the
concrete has been compressed. This is the prestressed
type that can withstand pressures of up to 600 psi.
3.20 Either a lead-and-steel or a rubber-and-steel
joint is used to join prestressed concrete pipes. This is
a more advanced form of the bell-and-spigot joint. In
the rubber-and-steel joint, the rubber gasket first is
lubricated with vegetable soap. The gasket fits on the
spigot end of the pipe, which is pushed into the bell
end of the next section of pipe. The outer area of the
joint then is filled with concrete. The joint is wrapped
with reinforced paper or cloth to prevent the concrete
filling from running out of the joint. After the two
pipes have been securely joined, any remaining space
is filled with mortar.
3.21 Cement is also used to line cast iron pipe to
improve corrosion resistance. The lining is coated
later with a sealant material. The outside walls of
this type of pipe are given a white waterproof coat
ing that reflects heat and helps prevent the cast iron
pipe and its lining from separating because of heat
expansion.
Fig. 3-3. Reinforced concrete pipe
Encircling bands —
Reinforcing mesh
r : t-
Longitudinal reinforcing rod
40 Programmed Exercises

Name the five basic nonmetallic piping 3-1. CLAY, CONCRETE,PLASTIC,

materials. GLASS, and WOOD

Ret: 3.01

3-2. The two basic types of clay pipe are 3-2. VITRIFIED (GLAZED). UNGL^ZED
and .
Ref: 3.03

3-3. The most corrosion-proof pipe available 3-3. VITRIFIED CLAY

for carrying industrial and sewage
wastes is pipe. Ref: 3.04

3-4. Liquid flow in drain pipes normally 3-4. GRAVITY

depends on .
Ref: 3.05

3-5. Drainage and sewage lines designed 3-5. DOWNGRADE

for gravity flow are laid at
an angle. Ref: 3.08

3-6. NONREINFORCED. REINFORCED,

3-6. Name three types of concrete pipe. and REINFORCED AND PRE-
STRESSED

Ref: 3.10

3-7. Concrete pressure pipe can carry flu 3-7. 600

ids at pressures of up to psi.
Ref: 3.15,3.19

3-8. Cast iron pipe can be lined with 3-8. CORROSION

cement to increase its resistance
Ref: 3.21

lelemediairr.coiTi oi 000-rv37-887? - Legal Affairs e*len?'nn -fOli


Asbestos-Cement Pipe
3.22 Strong and corrosion-resistant, asbestos-
cement pipe was once commonly used for carrying
water and sewage. The material itself is a mixture of
asbestos fibers, portland cement, and silica flour.
Standard sizes range from 3 to 36 in. This type of
pipe is classified in two ways—as pressure pipe (a
maximum working pressure of up to 200 psi) and as
sewer pipe. Although it is no longer manufactured, it
is still in use in many locations.
3.23 The advantages of asbestos-cement piping
make it easy to understand why it became so popular.
Advantages include high resistance to corrosion and
the fact that it is not subject to tuberculation. An out
standing advantage of asbestos-cement piping is its
light weight, which results in a far greater ease of
handling. Lengths of asbestos-cement pipe are typi
cally joined with an asbestos-cement sleeve. The
sleeve's I.D. is larger than the pipe's O.D.The ends of
the closely and squarely machined pipes fit into the
sleeve and are sealed with a natural or synthetic rub
ber seal or gasket. The gasket acts as an expansion
joint.
3.24 Even though asbestos-cement pipe is no
longer being installed, you might encounter loca
tions in which it is still in use. If so, do not
attempt to cut into it or make any repairs unless
you have been properly trained. Inhaling airborne
asbestos fibers can cause cancer or other lung dis
ease. Specific safety precautions must be
observed, including marking off the work area,
wearing protective equipment, and wetting the
pipe before cutting to prevent the material from
becoming airborne.
Plastic Pipe
3.25 The use of plastic for piping is becoming
increasingly common. In fact, in many applications,
plastic piping is replacing both metallic and non-
metallic piping because of its particular advantages,
which include:
• high corrosion resistance, both internal and
external
• self-insulating properties (plastic piping is
rarely insulated)
Nonmetallic Piping 41
• freedom from rust and rot
• light weight (generally ranging from one-
sixth to one-half the weight of other piping
materials)
• ease ofjoining.
Additional advantages include the fact that most types
of plastic piping will not bum, nor do they need to be
painted. Another important consideration is that plas
tic is lower in cost than many other piping materials.
Plastic piping is easily maintained and, properly
applied, has a long service life. Both rigid and flexi
ble types are made.
3.26 The term "plastic" refers to an entire group of
materials, not just one material. Generally speaking,
plastic piping is made from one of two major classes
of plastic:
• thermoplastic
• thermosetting.
A thermoplastic material can be softened by heating and
will then rehaiden when cooled. A thermosetting plastic,
on the other hand, remains hardened once it has been
formed, and cannot be repeatedly softened and rehard-
ened as a thermoplastic can be. Most of the piping you
will woiic with is likely to be of the thermoplastic type.
3.27 Generally, plastic pipe is fumished in iron
pipe sizes (IPS), although other types are available.
Thermoplastic pipe ranges in diameter from '/s to 14
in. Thermosetting pipe is made in standard sizes rang
ing from 2 to 60 in., and has been manufactured as
large as 144 in. in diameter.
3.28 Thermoplastic piping. Although there are
any number of variations, most standard thermoplas
tic piping is made from one of the following four
materials:
• PVC (polyvinyl chloride)
• PE(polyethylene)
• ABS (acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene)
• CAB (cellulose-acetate-butyrate).
42 Lesson Three
You can see why they are usually referred to by their
initials rather than by their chemical names. Each of
the four types is furnished in more than one grade.
The selection of which grade to use is determined by
the requirements of the application itself, as is the
selection of which type of piping to use.
3.29 PVC piping is rigid, tough, and resistant to
attack by chemicals that would destroy many other
kinds of piping. Typical materials carried by PVC
piping include most acids, salt solutions, alcohols,
caustic solutions, and many chemicals. Other applica
tions include carrying cold water, since PVC is non-
toxic and will not affect the water's taste or cause
odor. Because PVC will not produce sparks if struck,
it is safe to use around explosives and explosive
vapors.(That is also true of the other plastics.) Anoth
er advantage of PVC piping is that it does not allow
water contaminants to build up on its walls.
3.30 PE piping has many of the same advantages
as PVC. More flexible than PVC,it is widely used for
water lines, as well as for carrying salt water and
chemical wastes. PE piping is frequently found in
gas-collecting systems. It is also used as conduit for
carrying telephone and power cables.
3.31 ABS piping is tough and generally resistant to
chemical attack. It is used for carrying many acids,
some alcohols, salt water,crude oil, and such gases as
chlorine and ammonia. Other applications include its
use for sewage piping.
3.32 CAB piping is semirigid. It is stiff enough to
be carried and shipped in straight lengths, yet flexible
enough to follow the shape of the ground. It is used
for sewage lines and for carrying other fluids, as well
as low-pressure gas. In oil refineries, CAB piping
carries sour crude oil, salt water, and gases produced
as part of the refining process.
3.33 Thermosetting plastics. Basically, there are
two common thermosetting plastics used for piping—
epoxies and polyesters. Both are rigid types and are
reinforced with various kinds of fibers.
334 Commercial epoxy piping is usually furnished in
diameters ranging from 2 to 12 in. in standard pipe sizes.
Its applications include carrying sewage, waste process
water, many acids, and other solutions. It is also used in
some processes in the food and beverage industries.
This meiteriril is protected by U.5^ copytKihl laws. If tais text does not appear in coloi, this ciorrimont has bd
Pieaso contact ieqai a'telonjediairr .com ot 8n(!-B17-5872 - I.egal Affairs, evten' eri sP-i i
3.35 Commercial polyester pipe is normally avail
able in diameters up to 60 in. and can be used for car
rying materials at temperatures of up to 250°F
(121 ®C). Polyester piping is resistant to most acids,
and to alcohols, bleaches,and solvents.
Limitations of Plastic Pipe
3.36 While plastic piping has definite advantages,
it also has certain disadvantages, which include, most
significantly:
• limited temperature range—approximately
150®F(66°C) maximum for most thermoplas
tic piping, and 250°F (121®C) for epoxy and
polyester piping
• low-pressure operation—although certain
types can withstand 250 psi, pressures are
usually limited to 75 or 100 psi.
Most types of plastic piping must be supported at
closer intervals than do comparable lengths of iron or
steel piping. In addition, plastic pipes cannot be used
for carrying certain solvents that would dissolve
them.
337 The strength of plastic piping decreases as the
temperature of the materials it carries increases. For
example,a 2 in. PE pipe can handle a pressure of 75 psi
at 75®F (24®C), but a pressure of only 25 psi when the
temperature increases to 160®F(71®C).The possible soft
ening of the pipe as a result of heating is one of the chief
reasons for the closer spacing required for supports.
Joining Plastic Pipe
3.38 Like metal piping, thermoplastic piping can
be joined in any of several ways. The basic methods
of joining plastic pipe are forms of welding, threaded
joints, and flanges.(Flanges will be covered in a later
lesson.)
3.39 The three main welding processes used with
thermoplastic piping are:
• solvent welding
• fusion welding
• fillet welding.
i;pi( d
 Nonmetallic Piping 43

All three are done at far lower temperatures than Fig. 3-4. Fusion welding
would be used for welding metal piping. All that is
needed is enough heat to soften the plastic to the point
at which it will flow. The heat required for welding
thermoplastic piping is provided by chemical action
or hot air rather than by open flame.

3.40 At this point, a safety precaution should be

mentioned. When you join plastic piping —or,for that
matter, any time you work with solvent cements —
you must be certain that the working area is well-
ventilated. In addition, no open flame is permitted.
Most plastic solvents are highly toxic, and many of
them are flammable.

3.41 Solvent welding is a chemical process used for

joining sections of PVC, ABS, and CAB plastics. A
solvent cement is applied to the ends of the sections
that are to be joined. The sections of pipe are then
pressed into appropriate fittings or couplings. It is
essential that the correct type of cement be used, how
ever, for the type of plastic being joined. This process
provides tighter and stronger joints than threading.

3.42 PE and similar types of plastics are joined by

fusion welding, a process that uses a heating device
like the one shown in Fig. 3-4. The mating surfaces
are heated at the same time, softened to the same
point, and then joined. The result is a tight, leakproof
joint that is stronger than the pipe itself.

3.43 Figure 3-5, on the following page, shows the

fillet welding process, which is limited in use to par
ticular kinds of plastics. The torch shown in the pho
tograph is furnishing hot air to the plastic rod, and the
rod in turn is providing the material to fill the joint.
This method of welding can also be used for repairing
leaks in thermoplastic piping.
3.44 Threaded connections are used to join plas
tic pipe in a number of cases, usually when the line
may have to be dismantled or moved later. Basical
ly, the tools and techniques used for threading plas
tic pipes are the same as those used for threading
metal pipes. However, a significant disadvantage of
threading pipe —and one that must be taken into
consideration —is that threading weakens the wall
strength of the pipe. The pressure-carrying capacity
of the pipe therefore is also reduced. Threading
should be used only for pipe that is classified
Schedule 80 or heavier.
3.45 Thermosetting (reinforced) plastic piping
sections can be joined by standard screwed and
sleeve- or socket-type fittings and couplings. In
order to obtain better sealing and to provide greater
strength to the joint, some fittings have tapered
socket joints.
3.46 Another common method of joining plastic
pipe is the hutt-and-strap joint, frequently used for
joining pipe sections in the field. One reason for its
popularity is that it is the most economical method.
The butt-and-strap type makes the joint as strong as
the pipe itself.
 Fig. 3-5. Fillet welding a plastic joint
3.47 To make the joint, you first must roughen the
surfaces of the pipe ends for a few inches on each side
of the seam. This can be done with a power sander,
with a hand file, or with coarse sandpaper. After being
coated with a clear dope, or resin, the ends are firmly
and accurately butted together. It is best to do this with
the pipe sections already mounted in their permanent
supports. Two or more reinforced plastic patches help
to maintain alignment while the Joint is completed.
3.48 The seam is wrapped with nine or ten strips
of fiberglass mat or woven roving (a strong cloth,
spun with continuous glass threads).
3.49 The narrowest strip is put on first, directly
around the seam. Successive strips are added, with
!a.v. II thia tox.t cioGs nol ;ipponi m coloi th(S 'JocLinicnt luis
leniL-du'iii'.coiti cr BOfi RlT-.'jr-Tr •
each strip increasing in width as the joint is built up.
The widest strip is on the outside of the completed
joint, as shown in Fig. 3-6. The strips are cut long
enough to reach once around the pipe with at least a
1 in. overlap. Before being applied, the strips are
soaked with a resin, preferably the same type of resin
used in making the pipe itself. After the joint has been
made, it is rolled with a paint roller to eliminate air
pockets.
3.50 The most common methods of butt-and-strap
joining are referred to as single-layer application and
multiple-layer application. In the single-layer
method, straps are applied one at a time until the
required joint thickness has been reached. However,
the single-layer method takes a long time to finish. In
the multiple-layer method, the layers are built up
away from the pipe and then applied to the pipe at
one time. This method ensures an even overlap of the
wider straps over the narrower ones, and shortens the
time required.
3.51 In order to provide maximum strength, the
resin used in these joints needs time to cure, or set
chemically. The time required for curing depends on
air temperature, humidity, and the heat developed
during the curing cycle. Best results are obtained
when the work is done at an air temperature between
65 and 85°F{18and 29°C).
Maintaining Plastic Pipe
3.52 Plastic pipes are relatively easy to maintain.
Since their surfaces resist corrosion, they do not need
c
Alfi:;rs r-xl'.'N'"''' . 1 -Ul't i
to be painted or cleaned out. They rarely require insu Fig. 3-7. Glass piping installation with couplings
lation, so no insulation maintenance is necessary. and supports
However, periodic inspections for leaks, sagging, and
out-of-roundness are necessary.

3.53 Leaks are repaired with the type of solvent

cement designed for the particular type of pipe mater
ial. The pipe first must be drained and allowed to dry
thoroughly. After the repair has been made, a drying
period of at least 10 hours is essential before the pipe
can be brought back up to its normal pressure and
temperature. As a general precaution, remember that
plastic pipes are easily damaged if hit with a hard
object, such as a carelessly driven forklifl truck. To
protect the plastic, always use a strap wrench instead
of a pipe wrench or a monkey wrench.

Glass Pipe
steam-cleaned,and immediately afterward be used for
3.54 Glass is a hard, brittle material. However, it
carrying a cold liquid, such as milk, without cracking
does have a number of advantages that make it highly
or shattering. This would not be possible in a plastic
suitable for certain applications. Those advantages
pipeline.
include its great resistance to corrosion, contamina
tion, and heat. In addition, glass is transparent, which
3.58 Sections of glass pipe are connected by Joints
permits visual observation of the pipe's internal con
made of a stainless steel shell, a rubber gasket or
dition and contents at any time, as shown in Fig. 3-7.
sleeve, and a plastic liner. No caulking is needed.
Glass pipe diameters range from 1 to 18 in.
Compared to many materials, glass has a low rate of
temperature expansion, but it does expand and con
3.55 The limitations of glass are the brittleness
tract with changes in temperature, which makes the
already mentioned, and the fact that it can be used
use of expansion joints advisable. Figure 3-8 illus
only for relatively low pressures (75 psi is a practical
trates a sleeve-type expansion joint. One piece of pipe
maximum). However, some types of glass can be
extends several inches inside the joint. The space
sheathed in a shell or in layers of fiberglass or poly
between the two sections of pipe is covered by a self-
ester plastic to allow them to handle pressures up to
centering rubber gasket, held firmly by the bolted
150 psi. As is true of plastics, improvements and new
developments continue to increase the strength and
pressure resistance of glass—and therefore, its range Fig. 3-8. Sleeve-type expansion joint used with
of applications. glass piping

3.56 Because of its corrosion- and heat-resistant

properties, glass piping is used extensively in paper
mills, and in the food, beverage, and chemical indus
tries. Its resistance to contaminant buildup makes it
valuable in the dairy products industries, as well as in
pharmaceutical plants. Glass piping also is commonly
used in laboratory applications, because it is easy to
clean, and because it is resistant to most acids and
caustic solutions.

3.57 Another advantage of glass is its resistance to

thermal shock. This means that a glass pipeline can be
46 Lesson Three
Fig. 3-9. Wood-stave piping
steel band
i of the United States, continuous-strip wooden pipes,
8 H
End view Side view
clamp. Construction is such that one piece of pipe can
slide either way with respect to the other, as both sec
tions expand or contract.
3.59 Maintenance requirements for glass piping
are much the same as those for other piping materials.
Because of its brittleness, however, particular atten
tion is required to supporting glass properly. Standard
hangers and supports are used, but with the addition
of protective padding.
Other Piping Materiais
3.60 Chemical porcelain pipe is made of a high-
quality ceramic covered with a special glaze. An
advantage of porcelain piping materials is that they
can withstand quite high temperatures, in the range of
400 to 500°F(204 to 260°C). They will not, however,
withstand a sudden change over about 195®F (90°C).
Above that point, the temperature rise should be grad
ual so that the pipe will expand evenly. When the rise
is too sudden, one surface will expand before the rest
of the material does, and cracking results. Porcelain is
highly resistant to corrosion, but it is relatively fragile.
3.61 Chemical stoneware, another glass-like mate
rial, is corrosion-proof against all materials except
hydrofluoric acid and strong, hot caustic. It is not as
good as chemical porcelain, however, for carrying
high-temperature fluids. Made in bell-and-spigot
form, stoneware piping is well-suited for drain lines
and for carrying fluids that will not affect the cement
This matei ial is prolcH.tod by U.S. copyrigin laws. If this text does not appear in coioi. tiiis. doctiirieni has been iilcnaily copied
Please contact leyaljli'teieiriGdLai: rocom oi 800-837-887? -- Legal Affairs, extenr-i.en 4041
used for caulking the joints. Stoneware can be used at
higher temperatures and pressures by placing it inside
a split metal shell. The space between the stoneware
pipe and the outer shell is filled with a thin mortar
(grout) of Portland cement.
3.62 In some areas, especially in the western part
\ in diameters of up to 20 ft, are used for carrying water
and waste chemicals. Pressure-creosoted Douglas fir
staves protect against fungus, slime, scale, and
insects. The staves or strips are carefully fitted to
form a round pipe, and are securely bound by steel
bands set 10 in. apart or less, as shown in Fig. 3-9.
Steel pipe is sometimes lined with wood, resulting in
a strong, corrosion-resistant pipe that can be used
under pressure.
3.63 Cast iron and steel piping is available with
rubber or plastic linings for carrying corrosive materi
als or for providing protection against contaminants.
Such liners are resistant to abrasion, and so can be
used to carry solids. In gravity-flow circumstances,
many solids are moved dry. However,when they must
be pumped, the solids are carried by liquids. Some
fertilizers are good examples of such solids.
Maintenance Requirements
3.64 Maintenance for nonmetallic piping is much
the same as maintenance for metal pipes. Nonmetallic
piping must be protected against corrosion, leakage,
and the effects of temperature variations. In addition,
nonmetallic piping is affected by the mechanical fac
tors of vibration, stresses, and strains, as well as water
hammer. These conditions affect certain materials
more than others.
3.65 Although nonmetallic piping sections can
readily be joined to one another, it is also possible to
connect a nonmetallic pipe to a metal pipe. This is
accomplished byflanging, which will be covered in a
later lesson.
3.66 It is important to remember that each type of
piping used in an application, whether metallic or
nonmetallic, must be selected on the basis of the
application's requirements.
Nonmetallic Piping 47
48 Programmed Exercises

3-9. The two major classes of plastic used 3-9. THERMOPLASTIC,THERMOSETTING

for piping are and
Ref: 3.26

3-10. Name the four common thermoplastic 3-10. PVC, PE, ABS, and CAB
piping materials by their initials.
Ref: 3.28

3-11. Is plastic pipe safe to use around 3-11. YES

explosives?
Ref: 3.29

3-12. As temperature increases, the strength 3-12. DECREASES

of plastic pipe .
Ref: 3.37

3-13. Name the three basic methods of join 3-13. WELDING. THREADING, and
ing thermoplastic piping. FLANGES

Ref: 3.38

In a temporary line, sections of plastic 3-14. THREADED

pipe are usually connected by
joints. Ref: 3.44

Threading of plastic pipe should be lim 3-15. 80

ited to Schedule and heavier
pipe. Ref: 3.44

One advantage of glass pipe is its 3-16. THERMAL or TEMPERATURE

resistance to shock.
Ref: 3.57

This inDlOMul IS pto!fct!.'d by U.S copyi ighi kiws. li this text docs not rsppcar in coloi, this documont tuis been iHi,
Plorise cnntc'ict Jcgrii'ii'tolemediair'f.com or 800-n37-0872 - Lcciai Affairs, extension 4(.)41
 Self-Check Quiz 49

Answer the following questions by marking an "X'

in the box next to the best answer.

3-1. Metal piping sometimes is lined with non- 3-6. The joining method that can also be used to
metallic materials in order to provide greater repair leaks in thermoplastic piping is
welding.
□ a. corrosion resistance
□ b. heat resistance □ a. arc
□ c. insulation □ b. fillet
□ d. pressure capacity □ c. fusion
□ d. solvent
3-2. A waste pipeline normally is designed with
% extra capacity. 3-7. Sections of plastic pipe that may have to
be dismantled or moved later are usually
□ a. 20 connected with joints.
□ b. 40
□ c. 60 □ a. butt-and-strap
□ d. 80 □ b. flange
□ c. threaded
3-3. The strongest, most pressure-resistant kind □ d. welded
of concrete pipe is called pipe.
3-8. The proper wrench to use on plastic pipe is a
□ a. cylinder wrench.
□ b. pressure
□ c. reinforced □ a. monkey
□ d. reinforced and prestressed □ b. pipe
□ c. stillson
3-4. The outside walls of cement-lined cast iron □ d. strap
pipe are given a white waterproof coating to
help prevent 3-9. Glass pipe can be used in applications with
pressures up to psi.
□ a. cavitation
□ b. cracking □ a. 75
□ c. joint leakage □ b. 150
□ d. lining separation □ c. 300
□ d. 600
3-5. One characteristic of plastic piping is its
3-10. Nonmetallic piping can be joined to metal
□ a. capacity to handle high pressures piping by
□ b. light weight
□ c. need for insulation □ a. arc welding
□ d. resistance to high temperatures □ b. fillet welding
□ flanges
□ threaded joints
 SUMMARY

Of the various nonmetallic materials used for pip
ing, the most common are clay, concrete, plastic,
glass, and wood. Clay pipe comes in two forms,
vitrified and unglazed, and is used to carry indus
trial waste, sewage, and storm water. Concrete
pipe is often used In culverts. It may be reinforced
with steel rods or bars, or prestressed—that is,
placed under compression during manufacture.
Prestressed concrete pipe can withstand pres
sures of up to 600 psi.
Plastic pipe has many applications. Although it is
limited to relatively low pressures and tempera
tures, it has many advantages—it is corrosion-
resistant, lightweight, inexpensive, long-lasting.
and easy to maintain. Joining sections of plastic
pipe is accomplished by welding, threading, and
flanges. Plastic piping may be made from either
thermoplastic or thermosetting materials, and is
available in both rigid and flexible forms.
Glass pipe is not suitable for high pressures, but
because It is heat- and corrosion-resistant, it Is
widely used in chemical laboratory, food pro
cessing, and pharmaceutical applications. Other
nonmetallic piping materials, including porce
lain, chemical stoneware, and wood, are not as
common, but all piping materials must be select
ed on the basis of a particular application's
requirements.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

3-1. a. Corrosion resistance. Ref: 3.01 3-6. b. Fillet. Ref: 3.43

3-2. b. 40. Ref: 3.09 3-7. c. Threaded. Ref: 3.44

3-3. d. Reinforced and prestressed. 3-8. d. Strap. Ref: 3.53

Ref: 3.16 to 3.19
3-9. a. 75. Ref: 3.55
3-4. d. Lining separation. Ref: 3.21
3-10. c. Flanges. Ref: 3.65
3-5. b. Light weight. Ref: 3.25, 3.36

Contributions from the following sources are appreciated:

Figure 3-4. Wegener North America, Inc.

Figure 3-5. Cabot Piping Systems

This material is protected by U.S. copyright laws. If this text rices not appear in color, this document has been illegally copied.
Please contact loaali?iitRlemedialnc.cotn or 800-837-8872 - Legal Affairs, extension 'toil
 Lesson

TOPICS

Tubing Tubing Applications

Advantages of Tubing Plastic Tubing
Tube Joining Other Applications
Types of Tubing Tubing Maintenance

OBJECTIVES

After studying this lesson, you should be able to...

• Compare piping and tubing and list the major advan List the main types of metal tubing, and describe the
tages of tubing. kinds of industrial applications in which they are used.
• Describe the methods of cutting, bending, and joining List the main types of plastic tubing, and describe the
sections of tubing. kinds of industrial applications in which they are used.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Laminar 4.14 arranged in or consisting of thin layers Extruding 4.32 the process of shaping a plastic
Brazing 4.25 soldering with a nonferrous alloy or metal by forcing it through a die
that melts at a lower temperature than that of the Annealing 4.33 the process of heating and then
metals being joined; also known as hard soldering cooling a metal, usually to make it softer and less
Ferrule 4.28 a short tube or bushing used for brittle
making a tight joint

Previous lessons In this course have concentrated on piping systems. You have
studied both metai and nonmetaiiic piping. You also have studied basic mainte
nance considerations for piping systems and should now have a more detailed
knowledge of some of them.
This lesson describes tubing—the materials used to make it, how sections are
joined, basic maintenance requirements, and many of its applications. This les
son also explains some of the important differences between piping and tubing.
Tubing
4.01 A common question is "what is the difference
between pipe and tubing?" Many of the differences in
physical characteristics and methods of installation,
as well as the advantages and disadvantages of tubing,
will become clear to you as you read this lesson.
4.02 The term tubing refers to tubular products
made to either an outside or an inside diameter,
expressed in even inches or fractions of an inch.
Because tube walls are generally much thinner than
those of pipes, wall thickness in tubes is of particular
importance. In fact, wall thickness tolerances in tubes
are held so closely that wall thickness is usually given
in thousandths of an inch rather than as a fraction of
an inch. At times, a gauge number is used to indicate
the thickness according to a given system. If none is
specifically mentioned, the Birmingham Wire Gauge
(BWG)system is ordinarily meant.
4.03 Tubes of different diameters have different
wall thicknesses. An example from the standardized
codes for piping and tubing illustrates the difference
between pipe and tubing. The wall thicknesses of two
types of 8 in. iron pipe (one light and one heavy) are
0.250 in. (light) and 0.406 in. (heavy). A light-wall 8
in. copper tube, by contrast, has a wall Sickness of
only 0.170 in., and a heavy-wall 8 in. tdoe has a wall
thickness of 0.271 in. When you compare these fig
ures, it is clear that tubing has much thinner walls
than piping of the same general diameter. And you
will note that the range between "thin" and "thick" is
narrower for tubes than it is for pipes.
4.04 The list of tubing applications is a lengthy
one. Tubing can be used to carry a wide variety or
materials:
• compressed air
• gases(including liquefied gas)
Tiiis maieiial is protesi'iu i^y LsS. coijyi ight laws. If this text does not appear iti coioi, ll i is tlociMiviit has bc ei- i l lcriri'l'; coj;!!
Please contact legniraitelemediajne.com or 800-837-887?
53
steam
water
lubricating oil
fiiel oil
chemicals
fluids used in hydraulic systems
waste products.
Some types are used as conduits for electrical wires.
Tubing is made from both metals and plastics.
4.05 Metal tubing is made from strong materials
such as steel, copper, stainless steel, and aluminum
for use in applications where fluids are carried under
pressure. The wall thickness increases slightly as the
diameter of the tubing increases.
4.06 Tubing ranges in size from V32 to 12 in. in
diameter, although the smaller sizes are much more
common. Standard copper tubing ranges from 1/32 to
10 in. in diameter, steel from Vie to IOV4 in., alu
minum from '/s to 12 in., and titanium tubing is fur
nished up to 8 in. in diameter. Some types of tubing
can accommodate very high pressures—as high as
6000 psi. Relatively few applications require 6000
psi, of course. Stainless steel tubing is used when
high-pressure strength is required.
4.07 Materials used for metal tubing ordinarily are
highly resistant to corrosive fluids. Although metal
tubing may be more expensive than iron pipes in
terms of initial cost, it may be the best—or only—
product that will do the job in many applications. For
example, tubing can be connected to a component
that vibrates, because most tubes are very flexible and
have some "give" to them. (Take a look at the gaso-
1, egal Affairs, exlr-ns'i i i -i;,) ;!
Fig. 4-1. Advantages of tubing over pipe
Piping and fittings
Tubing eliminates fittings
line line connected to a vibrating engine block in any
automobile.) Rigid iron pipe would not hold up in
such a situation.
4.08 Where there is an even choice between pipe
and tubing, the higher original cost of tubing over
pipe must be balanced against such considerations as
ease of installation, length of life, and maintenance
requirements. These considerations apply when com
paring metal tubing with metal pipe. Plastic tubing is
is discussed later in this lesson.
4.09 Although metal tubing has a relatively thin
wall, its major advantage over piping is that it is quite
strong. Small tubes with thin walls (soft materials up
to I in. O.D.) can be bent fairly easily by hand. Tubes
with larger diameters require power equipment for
bending. Because they are flexible, tubes can be run
from one point to another with fewer fittings than if
pipe were u.sed.
4.10 Figure 4-1 shows how the use of tubing in a
common application can eliminate at least four pipe
fittings. The advantages of this arrangement include:
• four potential sources of leaks are eliminated
• the cost of the four 90° elbow fittings needed
for the piping installation is eliminated
• the time required to cut, thread, and join the
separate sections of pipe is saved (it takes far
less time to bend tubing)
Fig. 4-2. Pipe wall must be thick enough to be
threaded
Threaded pipe section
Pipe section without threads
the tubing is much lighter in weight than the
separate lengths of pipe and the pipe fittings
would have been.
Tubing is also much easier to in.stall, because lengths
of pipe and a number of fittings weigh considerably
more than a single length of tubing bent to follow the
same general pathway.
4.11 Mention has already been made of the rela
tively thin walls of tubing, as contrasted with iron
pipe. One reason that iron pipe has a thick wall is that
it is often in.stalled with threaded connections, which
means that part of the material at the threaded end of
the pipe is cut away. However, the pipe must have suf
ficient wall thickness left to handle the fluid pressure
in the line. Threads will be cut only at the end of the
length of pipe, so the wall thickness for the rest of the
pipe section is greater. Because most tubing is
designed for brazed and soldered connections rather
than threaded ones, its wall thickness can be made
uniformly thin. This advantage of tubing over iron
pipe is illustrated in Fig. 4-2. The lighter weight of
tubing also means lower shipping costs, as well as
greater ease of handling.
Advantages of Tubing
4.12 Because of its relatively small diameter and
its flexibility, tubing can be used in tight spaces where
pipes would be very difficult to install. The ability of
tubing to ab.sorb shock from water hammer as the
fluid flow is started or stopped is also an asset. Many

lines have a frequent on-off cycle. In an iron pipe, this
may produce vibration, which is transmitted along the
rigid line, shaking joints, valves, and fittings. The
damage that can result causes leaks and leads to a
need for recaulking. The pipe supports can also be
affected. Because tubing has considerable flexibility,
much of the shock and vibration are absorbed by the
line. This means far less wear and tear on the fittings
and other connections.
4.13 Sections of tubing are normally connected
by means of brazing, welding, or soldering, rather
than by threaded joints. In addition to the advantages
in time saved, not using threaded joints avoids other
difficulties. Threading would weaken thin-wall tub
ing, for example, although steel tubing is sometimes
joined by threading. It is true, of course, that threaded
connections are widely used for pipes, where, proper
ly made, they present no problem.
4.14 Another major advantage of tubing is that it
has a smoother, more even, inner-wall surface than
iron pipe. For this reason, fluid flow in a tube is more
laminar, with little or no turbulence. Anything
described as "laminar" is made up of a number of thin
layers. (Plywood is a familiar laminar or laminated
material.)
4.15 What is laminar flow inside a tube? If you
could look straight down the inside of the tube with
the fluid flowing away from you, you would see that
the flow is most rapid at the center of the tube. It
barely moves at all along the surface of the inside
wall. In an example of a perfect situation, all fluid 1
in. away from the center of the tube would be moving
at the same speed. All fluids 2 in. away from the cen
ter of the tube would be moving evenly, but at a
slightly slower speed than the inner fluid. It is some
thing like the effect when you pull your car's tele
scoping radio antenna out to its full length. When
Tliis material is ptotectc-d by U S. co()yrighl laws. If this text does not appear in color, this document has berMr ilk
Please contact LegcilrH'bdemediainc.cotn or 800-837-8872 - i.ecjal Affairs, extens'on ')041
Tubing 55
fluid flows smoothly in a tube, it is laminar flow. If,
however, there are dents or bumps on the tube's inner
wall, the fluid will be jolted across the otherwise
smooth surface at a different velocity. This causes a
disturbance or turbulence.
4.16 Iron pipe, in contrast to tubing, has more
irregularities along its inner walls. These "bumps"
produce turbulence in the fluid flowing along the
pipe. Consider the following example of what can
happen. A 3 in. iron pipe delivered 110 gpm (gallons
per minute) when first installed. The pipe later
acquired '/8 in. of scale on its inner surface. That
might not seem to be much of a coating, but it caused
enough turbulence in the flow of the fluid to reduce
the delivery rate of the pipe to 89 gpm, a reduction of
almost 20%.
4.17 The advantages of tubing that have been dis
cussed up to this point in the lesson have primarily
been mechanical advantages, or the result of mechan
ical conditions (laminar flow, for example). Tubing
also has chemical advantages, which come from the
corrosion-resistant properties of the metals used to
make the tubing. Against some corrosive fluids, all of
the tubing materials mentioned earlier do very well.
Against other corrosives, some metals perform better
than others. In some cases, only one type of tubing
material is effective. For example, of all the common
tubing metals, stainless steel is one of the best when it
comes to resisting the corrosive effects of salt and salt
water.(Plastic piping is also excellent.)
4.18 Tubing can also have an effect on the fluid
being carried. For example, if the fluid must be kept
pure and free from contaminants—in food-process
ing operations or in "clean rooms," where conditions
of particular cleanliness are necessary—stainless
steel, aluminum, or a special plastic tubing must be
used.
56 Programmed Exercises

4-1. The wall thickness of tubing is 4-1. THOUSANDTHS

expressed in of an inch.
Ref: 4.02

The materials used most commonly for 4-2. METALS. PLASTICS

tubing are and .
Ref: 4.04

As the diameter of a tube increases, its 4-3. INCREASES

wall thickness
Ref: 4.05

4-4. Stainless steel tubing can handle 4-4. 6000

pressures of up to psi.
Ref: 4.06

4-5. Metal tubing ordinarily has high 4-5. CORROSIVE

resistance to fluids.
Ref: 4.07

4-6. Pound for pound, which is stronger, 4-6. TUBING

metal tubing or metal pipe?
Ref: 4.09

4-7. Name the three methods normally used 4-7. BRAZING, WELDING, SOLDERING
to connect sections of tubing.
Ref: 4.13

4-8. Smooth fluid flow is called 4-8. UMINAR

flow.
Ref: 4.15
Tube Joining Fig. 4-4. Tlibe cutters

4.19 Tools needed for joining sections of tubing

include:
For veto 1 in. O.D.

• tube cutter

hacksaw

three-cornered scraper

burring tool
For V2to 2 in. O.D.

flat file

flaring tool

pre-setting tool for flareless fittings

ing squarely and cleanly. This can be done with a
heavy hammer hacksaw or a lube cutter. The difference in the
results is shown in Fig. 4-3. As you can see from
suitable wrenches the enlarged sections of tube in the drawing, the cut
made with a tube cutter (top) is much smoother
tube benders. than that made with a hacksaw (bottom). Figure 4-4
shows tube cutters for tube sizes '/s to 1 in. O.D.
These are variously used to make either a soldered (top) and 1/2 to 2 in. O.D. (bottom). A typical tube
Joint or a compression joint (where joint sections cutter has a pair of rollers on one side and a cutting
are pressed together). wheel on the other, thus making an open jaw. Fig
ure 4-5 shows such a tube cutter in use. The cutter
4.20 Whether you are making a soldered joint or is turned all the way around the tube, making a
a compression joint, it is important to cut the tub- clean cut.

Fig. 4-3. DifTerence In cuts made by Fig. 4-5. Tube cutter in use
tube cutter and hacksaw

Tube cutter

Even edge

Hacksaw

I Ragged edge

by U copyiiyhi lav;s. II Uu:, lixi bocs nol appear in coloi Hiit' dor.umcrnt ha:-, iHcciaily opiv.l
Pl'.'nse coniflct Icciai . idemediainc.com or 800-837-8872 - Legal Alfairs. 4lUi
 Fig. 4-6. Heating a joint to be soldered
4.21 When you cut stainless steel tubing, it can
become "work hardened." That is, stainless steel tends
to harden as it is being cut. For this reason, you should
cut stainless steel tubing rapidly, with as few strokes as
possible, using either a saw with the proper blade or a
tubing cutter made especially for this material.
4.22 The rough edge of the cut must be smoothed
with a burring tool to remove the small metal
whiskers or burrs. One type of burring tool has a cone
of blades that fits into the tubing to remove internal
whiskers, and a second set of blades, set inside a
cylindrical end, that smooths the outer surface. If you
use a hacksaw to cut tubing, make sure to file the tube
end until it is straight and square to the length of the
tube.
4.23 The soldering operation is the same whether
you are connecting two sections of tubing together, or
Fig. 4-8. Flared tube ends
Toe of sleeve
Outside diameter /\ Outside diameter
of sleeve i / \ i of sleeve
T'sleeve
Maximum flare Minimum flare
Fig. 4-7. Applying solder
joining a tube to a fitting, such as an elbow. The two
pieces to be soldered are first cleaned using emery
cloth or a wire brush. Then both the tube (outside)
and the fitting (inside) are covered with flux and fitted
together. Where two tube ends are joined together, the
fitting consists of a short sleeve into which the tube
ends are inserted from opposite sides. The fit is snug.
4.24 The joint is then heated, starting with the tub
ing next to the fitting and then moving to the fitting
itself, as shown in Fig. 4-6. When the flux begins to
"fry," solder is added, as shown in Fig. 4-7. The heat
sucks it into the space between the tubing and the
sleeve. The fitting is then heated, on and off, and
more solder is applied until the joint is fully penetrat
ed. It is important in these steps to apply the heat
evenly around the tubing. In a properly made joint, a
continuous line of solder will appear where the fitting
and tubing meet at each end of the sleeve.
Fig. 4-9. Flared fitting
Male connect body Sleeve support tube
4.25 An oxyacetylene torch or some other high- Fig. 4-10. Flareless fitting
temperature heat source is necessary to provide the
high temperature needed for a brazed joint. Brazing is
"Bite" Ferrule
"hard" soldering, requiring higher heat than that need
ed for "soft" soldering. For soft soldering, the solder
is a tin-lead alloy, which has a low melting point. An Pipe thread
alloy of copper, zinc, and silver is used for brazing.

4.26 Tubing can also be connected by either flared

or non-flared Flaring is done by evenly spread
ing the end of the tube outward, as shown in Fig. 4-8.
The angle of the flare must be accurate to match the
angle of the fitting being used. The flaring tool is
inserted into the squared end of the tubing and then
hammered into the tube a short distance, spreading
the tube end as required. This is called the impact
method.(An alternate method uses a screw-type flar
ing tool.)
4.27 The resulting flared joint is shown in Fig. 4-9.
Note that the flared section is inserted into the fitting
in such a way that the flared edge of the tube rests
against the angled face of the male connector body. In
this fitting, a sleeve supports the tubing. The nut out
side the sleeve is tightened firmly on the male con
nector body, making a firm joint that will not leak,
even if the tubing ruptures becau.se of excess pressure.
4.28 Figure 4-10 shows a flareless fitting. The
plain tube end is inserted into the body of the fitting.
As shown in Fig. 4-9, there are two threaded outer
sections, but in this case ferrule or bushing is locat
ed between them. As the threaded members are tight
ened, the ferrule bites into the tubing, making a tight
joint.
4.29 Tools for bending tubing include both hand
benders, each one designed for a specific diameter tube,
and production benders, which have different attach
ments for various sizes of tubing. Figure 4-11 shows a
hand bender in use. Figure 4-12 on the following page
shows a hydraulic tube bender used for bending heavy
tubes. It is important to get the desired bend without
flattening, kinking, or wrinkling the tubing. Earlier, you
learned that distortion of the smooth, inner wall of a
pipe or tube causes turbulence in the flow, which lowers
the pressure. Figure 4-13, on the following page, shows
one correct bend and three different kinds of incorrect
tiends. You can see how the incorrect bends constrict the
flow, causing turbulence and lower pressure.
Types of Tubing
4.30 Common types of metal tubing in industrial
service include:

Fig. 4-11. Using a hand bender

Completed
Inserting tube 90° bend

■ '• 1 1 by U.S. copi!igt'ii irnvs. It tfub lexi

r i-j; contact legal j.'leiemediainc-coiTi oi r.Oi;
60 Lesson Four
Fig. 4-12. Hydraulic tube bender
• copper(seamless, fully annealed, furnished in
coils or in straight lengths)
• steel (seamless, fully annealed, also available
as a welded type, suitable for bending and
flaring)
• stainless steel (seamless, fully annealed, also
available as a welded type, suitable for bend
ing and flaring)
• aluminum (seamless, annealed, and suitable
for bending and flaring).
Titanium tubing is also made for carrying corrosive
materials.
4.31 As you can see from the above list, metal tub
ing, like metal piping, is made in both welded and
seamless styles. Welded tubing begins as flat strips of
metal which, after a number of rolling operations, are
formed into tubes or cylinders. The seam is then
welded.
4.32 Seamless tubing is made by forming a long,
hot metal ingot into a cylindrical shape, and then
passing the cylinder through a die (a process called
extruding). This produces tubing in the larger sizes
and wall thicknesses. The extruded tubing can be
reworked by drawing it through another die to pro
duce a tube smaller in size, which has thinner walls
and closer tolerances.
4.33 Annealing is the process of reheating a metal
and then letting it cool slowly. Some kinds of metals
Fig. 4-13. Correct and incorrect tube bends
Correct
Wrinked
Incorrect
are subjected to the annealing process to make them
softer and less brittle. This is an important treatment
if the tubing is going to be bent when it is installed.
To connect tubing by using a flared joint also requires
that the metal be annealed. Tubing undergoes other
heat treatment proces.ses and mechanical operations to
provide the needed properties of strength, hardness,
and smoothness of surface.
Tubing Applications
4.34 Copper tubing comes in types K, L, and M.
All three types are available in hard-tempered copper
in straight lengths (suitable for u.se in exposed tubing
installations, where neat appearance is important).
Hard-tempered tubing requires special tools if it is to
be bent. Copper types K and L are also furnished
soft-tempered, and are often used in installations
where the tubing is concealed. Available in coils,
soft-tempered tubing can be bent by hand. (Type M
light-wall tubing is available only in the hard-tem
pered state.)
4.35 Type K heavy-wall tubing is used for carrying
gas, oxygen, steam, and oil. Type K tubing is found in
many underground services, interior plumbing, and
heating and cooling systems. It is the type of tubing
used in snow-melting systems buried under the con
crete or blacktop surfaces of driveways and parking
lots. Type L is a medium-wall tubing and is used for
general plumbing and heating applications. Type M is
used in inside plumbing applications, hot water heat
ing systems, for chilled water lines, and for inside
waste and drainage lines. Type M is not used in high-
pres.sure applications.

4.36 Steel tubing includes both cold-rolled and
hot-rolled types. Each has its own advantages and dis
advantages. Cold-rolled steel tubing is used in those
applications where:
• close tolerances are required for the inside
diameter or wall thickness
• a quality finish is necessary for polishing,
plating, or protective lacquering
• close control of temper and/or hardness is
needed.
Cold-rolled steel tubing is made from rolls of flat
steel that have been processed. The rolls have an
accurate thickness and a very smooth surface. The
steel is fed through a number of forming rolls that
form the flat ribbon of steel into a cylindrical shape.
The tube then passes between two pressure rolls that
press the seam edges tightly together. The tube next
enters an electric welding machine where the seam is
continuously welded.
4.37 Always remember that each tubing material
has its own distinct characteristics that determine its
best use. Hot-rolled steel tubing has wider wall thick
ness tolerances than cold-rolled steel tubing because
the forming and sizing operations are done from out
side the material. In applications where more precise
tube dimensions are required, cold-rolled tubing is
preferred.
4.38 Steel tubing is widely used in high-pressure
hydraulic systems. Aluminum and plastic tubing are
often used for low-pressure applications. Copper tubing
is not used in hydraulic systems when pressures exceed
1000 psi. It has poor resistance to high vibration.
Because water aids in the formation of mst, copper also
enables various elements in hydraulic oils to oxidize.
The oxides form on the wall of the tube, spoiling the
smooth laminar flow mentioned earlier in this lesson.
4.39 Welded steel tubing can be subjected to every
known tube-fabricating operation. It can be bent,
flanged, flared, and flattened. It has great mechanical
strength and can be joined by any of the conventional
welding methods. It is also strong enough, despite its
thin walls, to take tapered pipe threads and straight
threads (to be covered in a later lesson about pipe and
tube fittings).
This .'nntc-i irii is proti-t.ted by U.S. copyright krvvs. If this text does not aispear in coloi. tl ii? docunv.-n! iias besci iiicg;
Please contact legaKTsieleincciiainc.com or 800-837-8872 -• Legal Affairs, extetision -lOTl
Tubing 61
4.40 Stainless steel, in its many varieties, has a
number of advantages over other tubing materials,
including resistance to:
• corrosion
• extreme temperatures (both hot and cold)
• pressure(up to 6000 psi).
4.41 Stainless steel tubing is used in chemical
industries for evaporators, cooling units, and regular
fluid lines. In the paper industry, it is used for digester
lines. Stainless steel tubing is also used for production
lines in the pharmaceutical (drug) industry, as well as
in food-processing equipment, and as sanitary tubing
for the dairy industry.
4.42 You can obtain stainless steel tubing that is
polished on the inside, outside, or both, to provide a
smooth, easy-to-clean surface. Such a surface elimi
nates the danger of bacteria buildup, because food
particles and other deposits do not cling to it. In addi
tion, there is no danger of metallic contamination of
the foods being processed.
4.43 Easy cleaning is a definite advantage in appli
cations where the same tubing line is used for several
different processes, because there is little danger of
contaminating one food or flavor by an earlier one
that passed through the same tube. Stainless steel is
very strong. It is popular in the beverage, soda foun
tain, and brewing industries for flow lines, cooling
and refrigeration lines, carbonated water lines, and
automatic beverage dispensers.
4.44 For many of these sanitary uses, aluminum
tubing is also used. Aluminum withstands many fluids
and gases that attack other commonly used tubing
materials. For low-temperature (cryogenic) lines used
to carry liquefied gases, aluminum offers another
advantage—its strength increases as temperature
drops to as low as -423°F (-255°C). Joints are made
by brazing, and by gas or arc welding.
Plastic Tubing
4.45 Just as plastics have become very important
as nonmetallic piping materials, they have also
become firmly established for tubing. The four most
common types are:
62 Lesson Four
• plexiglass(acrylic)
• polycarbonate
• vinyl
• polyethylene (PE).
In applications where it meets corrosion resistance
demands and the temperatures are within its working
range, plastic tubing is used in chemical processes.
Some types have Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) approval for use with fluids that must be kept
sanitary. Plastics are durable and easily formed.
4.46 The methods ofjoining plastic tubing include
two kinds of fusing (solvent-cementing and heating),
fusion welding, and cement-plus-binding (the butt-
and-strip method). Fused joints are made by reducing
the plastic ends of the tubing to a soft, molten state,
then pressing them together. In the solvent-cement
method, the ends of the tubing are coated with a sol
vent that dissolves the plastic. The tube ends are firm
ly pressed together, and as the plastic hardens, they
are securely joined. The second method of fusing
involves heating the tube ends by holding them
against a hot plate. When molten, the ends are joined
and the operation is complete. Welding is done with a
hot-air torch and requires a welding rod made from
the plastic used in the tubing itself.
Other Applications
4.47 The significant increase in the number of
automated processes in industry has created the need
for new types of tubing to be connected to instru
ments, control panels, and process-control points. An
application may require that various measurements
(for example, the temperature of a solution or its
thickness) be made continuously as the batch comes
to the desired condition. At that point, a different
operation is called for, and it is switched in automati
cally. In a sense, the control centers are somewhat like
automatic telephone switchboards.
4.48 Single-line instrument tubing made of copper,
aluminum, or steel with a protective outer sheath of
plastic is widely used. Groups or bundles of tubes are
also used. Copper, aluminum, and polyethylene tubes
may be arranged side by side in a flat ribbon. This
type of harness has a chemically resistant sheath.
4.49 Metal tubing is widely used in plants and
buildings as raceways or containers for electrical
wires. The tubes are under no pressure, but they pro
tect the wires against moisture and mechanical wear.
And, of course, the mechanical strength of the conduit
or raceway supports the wires. Normally the tube
lines are installed first, then the wiring drawn through
them. Since this can involve wear or breakage of the
insulation, building codes may limit the number of
bends that can be used in a given tube system. The
limit may be two 90° turns plus four 45° tums, for
example. The codes also limit the number of wires
per tube.
4.50 Joints in tubing used as conduits or raceways
must be mechanically strong and highly moisture-
proof. Types of metal tubing used in applications of
this kind include:
• hot-dipped galvanized (zinc-coated) rigid
steel
• galvanized electrical metallic tubing(EMT)
• black enameled rigid steel
• flexible metal tubing.
Several forms of plastic tubing are also used.
Tubing Maintenance
4.51 Tubing maintenance does not differ from pip
ing maintenance in any really significant way. The
same practice of routine maintenance checks should
be followed. Leakage must be watched for, and the
tightness of the supports should be checked. Because
of the high pressures in some tubing applications, it is
especially important to check joints to be certain that
they remain tight. If tubing has to be replaced, follow
recommended procedures to make sure that the job is
done right.
 Tubing 63

This material is protected by U.S. copyright laws. If this text does not appear in color, this document has been illegally copied.
Please contact leaal(a>telemediainc.com or 800-837-8872 - Legal Affairs, extension 4041
64 Programmed Exercises

A joint made so that the sections of 4-9. COMPRESSION

tubing are pressed together is called
a(n) joint. Ref; 4.19

The rough edge of a section of cut 4-10. BURRING TOOL or FILE

tubing should be removed with a(n)
Ref: 4.22

4-11. Incorrect tube bends can cause turbu 4-11. LOWER

lent flow and pressure.
Ref: 4.29

Tubing that is to be connected with a 4-12. ANNEALED

flared jotnt must be .
Ref: 4.33

High-pressure hydraulic systems use 4-13. STEEL

tubing.
Ref: 4.38

Stainless steel tubing is resistant to 4-14. CORROSION

high pressures, extreme temperatures,
and Ref: 4.40

As temperature decreases, the 4-15. INCREASES

strength of aluminum tubing
Ref: 4.44

One process used to join plastic tubing 4-16. FUSION

is called welding.
Ref: 4.46
 Self-Check Quiz 65

Answer the following questions by marking an

in the box next to the best answer.

4-1. If the wall thickness gauge of tubing is not 4-6. When applied to tubing, the term "impact
specified, you can assume that it is method" refers to a operation.

□ a. American Wire Gauge (AWG) □ a. bending

□ b. Birmingham Wire Gauge (BWG) □ b. cutting
□ c. Brown & Sharpe (B&S) □ c. flaring
□ d. Standard Wire Gauge (SWG) □ d. shearing

4-2. Standard steel tubing ranges in size from 4-7. Before tubing can be bent or flared, it should
in. to in. be

□ a. V32; 3 □ a. annealed
□ b. V32; 8 □ b. chilled
□ c. Va; 10 □ c. scored
□ d. 3/1 a; 103/4 □ d. tempered

4-3. Compared to pipe, tubing is 4-8. Which of the following tubing materials is
strong enough to be threaded?
□ a. harder to install
□ b. less expensive □ a. Aluminum
□ c. more flexible □ b. Brass
□ d. not as strong □ c. Copper
□ d. Steel
4-4. Which of the following methods of joining
tubing is least common? 4-9. What type of tubing is best to use for low-
pressure operation at extremely low tempera
□ a. Brazing tures?
□ b. Soldering
□ c. Threading □ a. Aluminum
□ d. Welding □ b. Copper
□ c. Steel
4-5. What kind of tubing is most likely to be used □ d. Titanium
in food-processing applications?
4-10. Plastic tubing is usually joined by
□ a. Aluminum
□ b. Brass □ a. arc welding
□ c. Copper □ b. compression
□ d. Steel □ c. fusion
□ d. threading

This material is ptotectcd by U.S. copyiighl lav.'S. II (his text does oot appear in cohnr. this ciocii!r,ont ha
Piense contact lecial-T-toleinedlairr.coin oi 80n-B'j7-o872 - Legal Affairs. (■•■/!■ n; ' < . 1 1 .-a
 SUMMARY

Tubing is made of many different materials and Is
used in a wide variety of applications. It comes in
a range of sizes, usually specified by diameter or
wall thickness. Tubing is strong and flexible, and
because It can be bent, it requires far fewer fit
tings than pipe. Fewer fittings mean fewer
sources of leaks, less time spent cutting, thread
ing, and joining, lower costs, and less mainte-
Although some types of tubing can be threaded,
joining is normally done by brazing, welding, or
soldering. Sections of tubing also can be con
nected with flared or flareless fittings. When
bending tubing, be careful not to flatten, kink.
or wrinkle the tube. Such distortions of the tube's
smooth inner wall cause turbulence in the flow,
which lowers the pressure.
Copper tubing comes in hard-tempered straight
lengths and soft-tempered coils. Tubing made of
steel, either hot-rolled or cold-rolled, is used in
high-pressure applications. Stainless steel tubing
has many uses because of its unique combination
of advantages—it is resistant to corrosion, high
pressures, and extreme temperatures (both hot
and cold). Aluminum tubing is often used in low-
pressure, low-temperature applications. Plastic
tubing Is also common,especially in some chemi
cal processes.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

4-1. b. Birmingham Wire Gauge(BWG). 4-6. c. Flaring. Ref: 4.26

Ret: 4.02
4-7. a. Annealed. Ref: 4.33
4-2. d. 3/16:103/4. Ref:4.06
4-8. d. Steel. Ref: 4.39
4-3. 0. More flexible. Ref:4.07, 4.09, 4.10
4-9. a. Aluminum. Ref: 4.44
4-4. c. Threading. Ref: 4.13
4-10. 0. Fusion. Ref: 4.46
4-5. a. Aluminum. Ref: 4.18

Contributions from the folfowing sources are appreciated:

Figure 4-4. The Ridge Tool Company Figure 4-7. Revere Copper and Brass
Figure 4-5. The Ridge Tool Company Figure 4-12. Parker Hannifin
 4

■t

1PING SYSTEMS

c o

Training Systems

This material is protected by U.S. copyright iav/s. If Irhs text does not appear In color, tliis document has bcn^ illcgrHy
Please contact iegalfa'letemedifiir cxom or 800-837-3872 - Legal Affairs, r-xiension -1041
Lesson

Hoses

TOPICS

Hoses Nonmetalllc Hose

Codes and Sizes Metallic Hose
Hose Classifications Hose Couplings
Hose Terminology Maintenance
Reinforced Nonmetalllc Hose

BJECTiVES

After studying this lesson, you should be able to...

• Explain how hoses are sized, classified, and
constructed.
• Define basic hose terminology.
• Discuss the respective advantages of metallic hose,
nonmetallic hose, and reinforced nonmetallic hose.
Describe the common types of hose couplings
used in industrial service.
List the primary maintenance requirements of
hoses.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Mandrel 5.08 a central core or spindle around Carcass 5.18 the reinforcement layers of a hose,
which material may be cast or shaped between the inner tube and the outer cover
Neoprene 5.08 a synthetic rubber that is highly Ply 5.23 one of several thin sheets or layers of
resistant to weathering, various chemicals, oil, material
and flame
 69

Previous lessons in this course have described the uses and merits of pipes and
tubing. This lesson describes hoses, which are classified as a slightly different
tubular product. Their basic function is the same, however, and that is to carry
liquids or gases from one point to another.

In this lesson you will study industrial hoses—what they are, how they are clas
sified and constructed, and the ways in which sections of hose are connected to
one another and to pipes or tubing. You will also read about the maintenance
requirements of hoses and what to look for when you make a routine inspection
or check hoses for specific problems.

Hoses carry steam, acids, corrosive chemicals and gases, and

5.01 In many respects, hoses do not differ greatly
from pipes and tubing. All three are used to carry a
variety of materials under a variety of circumstances.
In their construction and in their advantages, however,
hoses are different from pipes and tubing. The out
standing advantage of hose is its fl^xibilily^its abili
ty to bend means that hose can meet the requirements
of numerous applications that cannot be met by rigid
piping systems. Two familiar examples of this flexi
bility are fire hose and the hose that supplies com
pressed air to pneumatic hammers used on construc
tion jobs. Clearly, rigid piping would be difficult to
use and highly impractical in both situations.
5.02 In addition to its flexibility, hose afso has a
vibration-dampening effect. To use one of the same
examples, a pneumatic hammer, or "jackhammer,"
must vibrate to do its job. Tubing or piping could not
stand up very long under such conditions because the
rigid materials would not be able to withstand the
vibration. Many types of equipment operate with a
considerable amount of vibration. Other kinds of
machines have hydraulically or pneumatically driven
components and are equipped with moving members
that require the air or oil supply to move with them.
Again, rigid piping could not be used.
5.03 In general, hoses are subject to the same con
ditions that affect pipes and tubing. That is, hose must
be selected according to the conditions of an applica
tion, and it must be protected, when necessary,
against the damaging effects of temperature, pressure,
and corrosion. Hose applications range from the light
weight ventilating hose used to supply fresh air to
electrical and telephone maintenance technicians
working in tunnels or other tight places to the rugged
suction hoses used in sand- and gravel-dredging oper
ations. In plant facilities of all types, hoses are used to
hydraulic fluids under thousands of pounds of pres
sure. To meet such service requirements, hoses are
made from a number of different materials, as out
lined later in this lesson.
Codes and Sizes
5.04 Standards groups and organizations have
devised standards and codes for hoses, just as they
have for piping and tubing. Specifications include
working pressures, sizes, and material requirements.
As an example, the working pressure of a hose is
ordinarily limited to 25%, or one-fourth, of the
amount of pressure needed to burst the hose. In other
words, a hose that has a maximum rated working
pressure of 250 psi should not rupture until 1000 psi
has been reached, and possibly not even then. This
safety measure is designed to protect personnel and
equipment.
5.05 Hose size is ordinarily designated in terms of
its I.D., and classified according to what is called the
clash system, or dash numbering system. Most manu
facturers of hose and fittings use the dash system to
identify both hose and fittings. To determine the size
of a hose, simply convert the size into 16ths. For
example, a hose size of 'A in. (a hose with a 'A in.
I.D.) is the same as Vie in. The numerator of the frac
tion (the top number, or "4" in this case) is the dash
size of the hose. In the same way, a HA in. size can
be converted to in. and so is identified as a -20
(pronounced "dash 20") hose. By using the dash
numbering system, you can match a hose line to a
tube or a pipe and be sure that the I.D. of both will be
the same. This means that the smooth flow of fluid
will not be interrupted. Hoses range in size from Vi6
in. to as much as 24 in. in diameter. Again, the
dimension given ordinarily refers to the I.D. of the
hose.
 Fig. 5-1. Common hose terminology and other pneumatic tools used in contracting, mining,
and heavy industrial service. The hose is a reinforced
nonmetallic type, which is the most common type in
Carcass Waif genera! use. Many of the terms given are already famil
thickness
iar to you. The I.D., which is the hose size, refers to the
inside diameter throughout the length of the hose body,
unless the hose has enlarged ends. If the ends of the
hose are enlarged, as shown in Fig. 5-2, the letters E.E.
are used (meaning either enlarged end or expanded
end). As in an automobile engine, some hoses have
enlarged ends to fit a fixed end of piping tightly. The
Reinforcing braid O.D. is the diameter of the outside wall of the hose.

-Overall length-
Hose Classifications
5.06 Hose can be classified in several ways—by
material, by type of service (hydraulic, acid-resistant),
by pressure, and by type of construction. For the sake
of convenience, however, you may consider a hose to
be one of three types:
• metallic
• nonmetallic
• reinforced nonmetallic.
In most cases, terminology is the same for each type.
Exceptions are mentioned as they occur.
5.08 The tube is the inner section, or core, of the
hose, through which the fluid flows. Reinforcement is
the material put over the tube to provide resistance to
pressure—either from the inside or the outside. The
hose in Fig. 5-1 has two layers of high-strength .syn
thetic cord reinforcement called braid. In this case,
the hose is said to be mandrel-braided, because a
mandrel (a spindle or core) is inserted into the tube
before the reinforcing layers are put on. The mandrel
provides a firm foundation over which the cords are
tightly and evenly braided. The cover of the hose is an
outer, protective covering. The hose in Fig. 5-1 has a
cover of tough, abrasion-resistant neoprene.
5.09 The overall length is the true length of a
straight piece of hose. Some hose, which is not too
flexible, is formed or molded in a curve. This kind of
ho.se is used in automobile heating .systems, for exam
ple. The arm is the section of a curved hose that
extends from the end of the hose to the nearest center-

Hose Terminology
5.07 Figure 5-1 is a cutaway view of a rugged,
high-pressure air hose of the kind that supplies air drills
Fig. 5-2. Hose with expanded end
line intersection, as shown in Fig. 5-3. The body is the
middle section or sections of the curved hose. The
bend radius of curved hose is the radius of the bend
measured to the centerline, as shown in Fig. 5-4, and
designated as the radius R. In a straight hose, bent on
the job, the radius of the bend is measured to the sur
face of the hose (the radius r in Fig. 5-4).
5.10 Much of this terminology will not apply to
nonmetallic hose that is not reinforced. Nonreinforced
nonmetallic hose is not very common in plant use,
however.

5.1 1 One of the factors governing hose selection

is the amount of pressure that the hose will be
required to carry. In one of the more widely used
classification methods, pressure falls in any of three
general groups:

Fig. 5-3. Bend radius
• low pressure(no more than 250 psi)
• medium pressure(from 250 to 30(X) psi)
• high pressure (from 3000 to 6000 psi, and
even beyond).
5.12 Within these ranges, some manufacturers
make further distinctions, such as "very high" and
"super high." But you cannot assume that a hose rated
as "low-pressure" hose will automatically be useful at
200 psi. It is not as simple as that. It may, in fact, be
built for pressures not to exceed 40 or 50 psi. When
replacing sections of hose, you should use the same
type of hose with the same pressure rating as the
original hose. This precaution is especially important
when you are working with hoses in high-pressure
applications.
5.13 A related consideration is the vacuum rating
of a hose. Vacuum rating refers to suction hose appli
cations, in which the pressure outside the hose is
greater than the pressure inside the hose. It is impor
tant to know the degree of vacuum that can be created
before a hose begins to collapse. An ordinary drinking
straw, for example, will collapse easily if too much
vacuum is applied. Thus, it is said to have a low vacu
um rating.
5.14 In some applications, both the working pres
sure and the vacuum rating of the hose are important.
A good example is the common automobile radiator
hose, where the upper hose operates under pressure,
but the lower hose operates under vacuum. Applica
Tliis malerial is protected by U.S. copyright iovvs. It tnis text rices not eppeai in coloi. Iliis ciocumcnt !kis
Pienso contact Icq:;!y-lcleinediaii c.rciri or 800-B37-P372 - l_egal Affair^;, nxion^'on -Ifiti
Hoses 71
Fig.5-4. Measuring bend radius
RA-
Et
/V/ '
R = Bend radius for cun^ed hose
r s Bend radius for straight hose
tions for which you need to know both the pressure
rating and the vacuum rating are not very common
otherwise, however.
5.15 Temperature has a definite effect on hose
operation. Although most low-pressure and medium-
pressure hoses can safely handle temperatures of up
to 250°F (121°C), low-pressure hose should not be
used for hot air above 160°F (71°C), or for hot oil
above 180°F(82°C).
5.16 Usually these considerations have been taken
into account when the hose was originally selected.
They should present no difficulties to you. Just make
sure that you use the right hose for the job.
Reinforced Nonmetallic Hose
5.17 Hoses of one kind or another have been used
for hundreds of years, but they were quite limited in
what they could do. About 100 years ago, after new
developments in the processing of rubber, hoses were
made by building up layers of rubber around man
drels. The mandrel was later removed, leaving a flexi
ble rubber hose. Hoses made in this way collapsed
easily, but were a great improvement over the earlier
types. Later, as a further improvement, manufacturers
added layers of rubberized canvas. This gave hoses
more strength and gave them the ability to handle
higher pressures. After the development of synthetic
rubber, manufacturers had new, rugged, and more
corrosion-resistant materials to work with. The syn
thetic rubbers used today include neoprene, nitrile
rubber, and butyl rubber.
on i!
72 Lesson Five
Fig. 5-5. Typical construction of reinforced nonmetallic hose
Reinforced horizontal braided
Horizontal braided
Vertical braided
5.18 But most hoses are not made from a single
material. Different materials form layers in the hose,
reinforcing it in various ways for strength and resis
tance to pressure. Hose used today usually has an
inner tube (made of some form of rubber) or a lining
(such as plastic) surrounded by a carcass and cover,
as you saw in Fig. 5-1. The carcass is usually braid
ed. The type of braiding used is determined by the
requirements of the application. Figure 5-5 shows
the most common types of reinforced nonmetallic
hose and the differences in their construction.
5.19 Two types of braiding are used to reinforce
a hose, vertical braiding and horizontal braiding.
Vertical braiding strengthens the hose against pres
sure applied at right angles to the centerline of the
hose. Horizontal braiding strengthens the hose
along its length, giving it greater resistance to
expansion and contraction. Descriptions of the two
types follow, with references to their general appli
cations.
5.20 Vertical-braided hose. This hose has an
inner tube of seamless rubber. The reinforcing wrap
ping (carcass) around the tube is made of one or
more layers of braided yarn. This type of hose is
made in lengths of up to 100 ft with I.D.s of up to
l'/2 in. It is considered a small hose and is used in
low-pressure applications. Vertical-braided hose is
used to carry fuel oil, acetylene gas and oxygen for
welding, paint for spraying, and water for lawns,
gardens, and other household uses.
Wrapped
Wire reinforced
Wire woven
5.21 Horizontal-braided hose. This construction
(also called mandrel-built) is used to make hose with
an I.D. of up to 3 in. For higher working pressures,
the seamless rubber tube is reinforced by one or more
layers of braided fibers or wire. Horizontal-braided
hose is used to carry butane and propane gas and
steam, and for various hydraulic applications that
require high working pressures.
5.22 Reinforced horizontal braided-wire hose.
The carcasses around the seamless tube are made up
of two or more layers of fiber braid with a steel wire
reinforcement between them. The I.D. may be up to 4
in. This hose is mechanically very strong and is used
where there are high working pressures and/or strong
suction (vacuum) forces, such as in chemical transfer
and petroleum applications.
5.23 Wrapped hose. Used primarily for pressure
service rather than suction, wrapped hose is made in
diameters of up to 24 in. The hose is constructed on
mandrels, and to close tolerances. It also has a smooth
bore, which encourages laminar flow and avoids tur
bulence. The reinforcement is several plies (layers) of
woven cotton or synthetic fabric. The tube itself is
made from a number of different synthetic rubbers,
selected for their resistance to hard-to-handle or cor
rosive fluids. It is used in acid-handling and sand
blasting applications.
5.24 Wire-reinforced hose. In this type of hose,
the reinforcement includes wires wound in a spiral

around the tube, or inside the carcass, in addition to a
number of layers of wrapped fabrics. LD.s of 16 to 24
in. are common. In addition to material-handling
applications, this type of hose is used in oil suction
and discharge situations that require special hose
ends, maximum suction (without collapsing), or spe
cial flexing characteristics (must be able to bend in a
small radius without collapsing)—or all three of these
requirements.
5.25 Wire-woven hose. This kind of hose has
cords interwoven with wire running spirally around
the tube, and is highly flexible, low in weight, and
resistant to collapse even under suction conditions.
Wire-woven hose is well-suited for such negative
pressure applications.
Nonmetallic Hose
5.26 Hoses are also made of other materials, many
of them nonmetallic and nonreinforced. For example,
materials like Teflon®, polyethylene, nylon, and
Dacron* have been developed. Dacron remains flexi
ble at very low temperatures, even as low as -350°F
(-212°C), nearly the temperature of liquid nitrogen.
In fact, hoses made from Dacron are used to carry
liquefied gas in cryogenic applications.
5.27 Teflon is used in applications where hoses are
required to carry corrosive fluids and fluids at temper
®Teflon and ^Dacron arc registarcd trademailu of E.I. du Pont Nemours & Co..Inc.
This material is piotocled by U S. copyright lows. If thiis text does not ripp'oar iii coior. tl iis ficcumefil ha.s
Please contact IrKjaltptelvemediainracom oi o0()-f3'37-0872 - Legal Affairs, cxtimssm •Its i 1
Hoses 73
atures of up to 450°F (232°C). Teflon can also be
used at temperatures as low as -65°F (-55®C). It is
usually sheathed in a flexible, braided metal covering,
which helps protect against abrasion and also pro
vides added resistance to pressure.
5.28 Small-diameter nylon hoses are used as air
hoses, supplying compressed air to small air-powered
tools. The large plastic hoses used to ventilate street
manholes are made of such neoprene-coated materials
as cotton duck, nylon fabric, and glass fabric. The cot
ton duck variety is for light-duty applications. The
glass fabric type is used with portable heaters and for
other applications involving hot air and fiimes. Diam
eters range up to 24 in.
5.29 Hoses made from pure gum, natural latex,
and silicone rubber are also available. The pure gum
hose will safely carry acids, chemicals, and gases.
Small hoses of natural latex, which can be steril
ized, are used in hospitals, with pharmaceuticals,
blood, and intravenous solutions, and in food-
handling operations and laboratories. Silicone rub
ber hose is used in situations where extreme tem
peratures and chemical reactions are possible. It is
also used as jet starter hose for gas turbine aircraft
starters, to which it provides compressed air in large
volumes. This type of hose works successfully over
a temperature range from -70°F (-57°C) to 450°F
(232°C).
iMcgnily coy-
74 Programmed Exercises

5-1. The outstanding advantage of hose is 5-1. FLEXIBILITY

its
Ret: 5.01

The size of a hose is usually specified 5-2. INSIDE DIAMETER (I.D.)

in terms of its .
Ref: 5.05

Name the three basic types of hose. METALLIC, NONMETALLIG.

REINFORCED NONMETALLIC

Ref: 5.06

5-4. Applied to hose, the letters "E.E." stand 5-4. ENLARGED (or EXPANDED) END
for
Ref: 5.07

5-5. Hose is reinforced in order to provide 5-5. PRESSURE

strength and greater resistance to
Ref: 5.18

Horizontal braiding strengthens hose 5-6. LENGTH

along its .
Ref: 5.19

Name four nonmetalllc materials used 5-7. DACRON, NYLON,POLYETHYLENE,

for making nonreinforced hose. TEFLON

Ref: 5.26

5-8. Dacron hose remains flexible at 5-8. LOW

extremely temperatures.
Ref: 5.26
Metallic Hose
5.30 Figure 5-6 shows the constnaction of a bronze-
braided, flexible all-metal hose, which has a tube of
corrugated bronze. The tube is covered with the woven
bronze braid to protect against abrasion, and to pro
vide increased resi.stance to pressure. Made in diame
ters of up to 3 in. and in lengths of 24 in., metal hose
Is also available in steel, aluminum, Monel®, .stainless
steel, and other corrosion-resistant metals.
5.31 Another advantage of flexible metal hose is
its ability to damp vibration. For example, a pump
may be permanently mounted on a piece of equip
ment that is subjected to a considerable amount of
vibration. In addition, the pump may be pumping a
high-temperature, high-pressure corrosive fluid. The
flexible hose runs from the pump to a fixed pipeline
and damps the vibration. The stress of constant bend
ing at high temperatures and pressures is extremely
rough on most other types of hose. Figure 5-7 shows
another example—a pair of these all-metal hoses
being used to carry water for cooling the rollers of
heavy machinery in a paper mill.
5.32 Other common uses for metallic hoses
include serving as saturated and superheated steam
SMoncI is a ivgiMca'd ir.idcmark i>l Hiinlinjjlon Alloys, Ire.
Fig. 5-6. Construction of all-metal hose
Fig. 5-7. Topical metal hose installation
This inateriai is pioloctcd by U.S. copyrighi laws, if this text does not appear lit color, this clncument has been illcgaliy copied.
Please contact ie.cjaJ.'iLHoJonic-dinli'C.coxrt O' ti00-8'J7-8872 - Legal Affairs, extension ••u.141
l ines, gas and oil lines, lubricating lines, and
exhaust hose for diesel engines. Basically, the cor
(
rugated
i type is used for high-temperature, high-
|
pressure leakproof service. Another type of con
struction
; is the interlocked flexible metal hose, used
mainly for low-pressure applications. Examples of
interlocked flexible metal hose include the flexible
:spouts on oil cans, wiring conduit, and oil lines.
"Other metal hose, with a liner of flexible, corrosion-
resistant
i material, is available in diameters of up to
24 in.
5.33 Duct-type hoses are made of aluminum, gal
vanized steel, and stainless steel. These are used to
vent corrosive fumes, as well as gases at extreme tem
]peratures (hot or cold). Because they are metallic,
these
1 hoses resist weathering and dust, and they will
inot bum.
I
Hose Couplings
;5.34 Just as hoses and the conditions under which
they
i operate vary, so do the methods of joining hoses.
]Hose couplings may be either permanent or reusable.
They can also be made to connect or disconnect
(quickly, an obvious advantage and a requirement in
imany applications.
Fig. 5-8. Low-pressure hose coupling
Fig. 5-9. Installing a push-on coupling
Cut hose to proper length, then Force hose over stem into pro-
oil inside of hose and outside of tective cap until it seats against
coupling stem. bottom of cap.
Fig. 5-10. Clamp-type coupling installation
5.35 Fire hose is a good example of the need for
quick-connect, quick-disconnect couplings that per
mit rapid connections between separate lengths of
hose, and between hose ends and hydrants or nozzles.
In a compressed-air system, a single line may have a
number of different uses. Changes involve discon
necting one section and connecting another. In auto
motive service stations, for example, compressed air
from a single source is used to power tire-mounting
machines, pneumatic wrenches, spark plug cleaning
units, paint sprayers, and so on. Each unit has a hose
that is equipped for rapid connecting or disconnecting
at the fixed air line. Industrial applications are simi
larly varied.
5.36 For general low-pressure service, a coupling
like that shown in Fig. 5-8 is used. Figure 5-9 shows
how the coupling is placed on the hose by hand. No
brazing is involved, and the coupling can be used over
and over again. (Where the pressure demands are
greater, however, such a coupling can be blown out of
the tube. Hose couplings designed to meet high-pres
sure conditions must then be used.) After the coupling
has been inserted in the ho.se, a yoke is placed over it
in such a way that its arms are positioned along oppo
site sides of the hose behind the fitting. The arms are
then tightly strapped or banded. Unless something
breaks, the fitting remains securely inside the hose.
5.37 A variation of this type, shown in Fig. 5-10,
uses a clamp that is put over the inner end of the fit
ting and is then tightly bolted, thus holding the hose
firmly. In other cases, a plain clamp is used, as shown
in Fig. 5-11. Each size clamp is designed for a hose of
a specified diameter. The clamp slides snugly over the
hose, and is then crimped tight by means of a special
hand tool or air-powered tool
5.38 Couplings for all-metal hose, described
above, involve two brazing operations, as shown in
Fig. 5-12.
5.39 For large hoses of rugged wall construction, it
is not possible to insert push-on fittings by hand. Spe
cial bench tools are required.
5.40 Quick-connect, quick-disconnect hose cou
plings provide flexibility in many industrial process
lines where a number of different fluids or dry materi
als from a single source are either to be blended or
routed to different bins, vats, or other containers. The
two parts of a quick-connect coupling are shown in
Fig. 5-13. One is mounted in a hose, and the other is
mounted in a fixed pipeline. The upper fitting (A) has
a circular recessed section at the bottom. The element
in the lower part (B) has two levers or cams. The
lower element slips over the upper one. The cam
levers are then pulled down and their inner edges
engage the circular recess firmly.
5.41 A round gasket or washer (C), positioned
where the two faces of the fitting come together,
forms a tight seal. The connection is complete when
the two cam arms have engaged the groove. It is as
quickVnd easy as snapping a lunch bucket shut. These
fittings are connected to the hoses in various ways.
The coupling itself has no threads or lugs to engage.
Fig. 5-11. Installing a clamping ring
and requires no tools. It makes for a quick, pressure-
tight connection.
5.42 Quick-connect couplings like the one shown
in Fig. 5-13 can be used in hose installations that
handle chemicals, gasoline, water, and dry products.
Figure 5-14 on the following page shows an array of
fixed pipes fitted for these quick-connect couplings.
Hoses can be quickly hooked up to one or another of
these outlets.
5.43 In some hose applications, especially those
where acids are involved, metal flanges or fittings
cannot be used because of the corrosive effect the
acid would have on them. Instead, hoses that have
flanged edges are used, as shown in Fig. 5-15 on the
following page. The flange is a built-in part of the
Disconnected
Fig. 5-12. Coupling installation for all-metal hose
Top (left to right): threaded nipple, bronze sleeve, hose.
Bottom (left to right): sleeve slipped over hose end and
brazed to it, nipple brazed to sleeve.
hose. Another approach is a flanged-end hose sur
rounded by a metal flange that does not come into
contact with the fluid at all, as shown in Fig. 5-16 on
the following page.
Maintenance
5.44 All types of hoses require proper care and
maintenance. Some require more frequent checking
than others. The maintenance procedures required for
steam hose are typical, and are outlined here as an
example.
5.45 To maintain steam hose, you should:
• examine the line for cracks in the cover caused
by heat, weather, oil, and physical abuse
Connected
Fig. 5-14. Quick-connect couplings in process lines
look for a restricted bore because of tube
swelling
hunt for cover blisters, sometimes caused by
tube failure, which permit steam pockets to
form between carcass and cover
Fig. 5-15. Built-in rubber hose flange
Fig. 5-16. Split-ring metal flange for hose
• watch for leaking steam, which is usually
caused by improper couplings or faulty fasten
ings of couplings.
Be sure to check couplings carefully for corrosion
damage.
5.46 Because any of the faults mentioned above
can result in a dangerous hose blowout or rupture, reg
ular inspections are necessary. At the first sign of
weakness or failure, remove the hose. If the failure is
at one end, cut off at least 1 ft of the hose beyond the
damaged area before recoupling. Then reverse the
ends of the hose. Where steam hose is in constant u.se,
it should be uncoupled once a month and examined at
the steam inlet end. Look for signs of brittleness,
swelling, softening, or breaks in the cover. Pressure
and temperature gauges should be checked frequently.
The maximum rated temperature and operating pres
sure of the particular hose should never be exceeded.
 Hoses 79

This material is protected by U.S. copyrighl laws, if this text does not appear in color, this document has been illegally copied.
Please contact leciai(?i)teletnediainc.com or 800-837-8872 - Legal Affairs, extension 4041
80 Programmed Exercises

5-9. Name at least three metals used for 5-9. ALUMINUM. BRONZE. MONEL,
making metallic hose. STEEL, STAINLESS STEEL

Ref: 5.30

5-10. Corrugated metal hose is used for 5-10. HIGH: HIGH

service at temperatures
and pressures. Ref: 5.32

5-11. Hose coupling can be either 5-11. PERMANENT, REUSABLE

or .
Ref: 5.34

5-12. Each size of hose clamp is designed 5-12. DIAMETER

for hose of a specific .
Ref: 5.37

5-13. Couplings attached to metal hoses are 5-13. BRAZED

in place.
Ref: 5.38

5-14. What tools do you need to install a 5-14. NONE

quick-connect, quick-disconnect hose
coupling? Ref: 5.41

5-15. In applications where couplings might 5-15. FLANGED

corrode, hoses that have
ends are used. Ref: 5.43

5-16. Leaks in steam hose lines are usually 5-16. COUPLINGS

caused by improper .
Ref: 5.45
 Self-Check Quiz 81

w^ Answer the following questions by marking an

in the box next to the best answer.

5-1. What is the inside diameter of a -16 5-6. Low-pressure hose should not be used for air
(dash 16) hose? hotter than about °F.

□ a. 1 in. □ a. 80
□ b. 4 in. □ b. 160
□ c. 8 in. □ c. 200
□ d. 16 in. □ d. 250

5-2. The most common type of hose in general 5-7. The type of hose construction most suitable
use is hose. for maximum suction conditions is

□ a. metallic □ a. horizontal-braided
□ b. nylon □ b. vertical-braided
□ c. reinforced nonmetaiiic □ c. wire-reinforced
□ d. Teflon □ d. wire-woven

5-3. The innermost section of a hose is called the 5-8. The nonmetaiiic hose best suited for use at
extremely low-temperatures is
□ a. body
□ b. braid □ a. Dacron
□ c. carcass □ b. nylon
□ d. tube □ c. silicone rubber
□ d. Teflon
5-4. The spindle over which reinforcing layers are
wrapped during the construction of a hose is 5-9. Interlocked hose is used in
called a(n) applications.

□ a. arm □ a. high-pressure
□ b. carcass □ b. high-temperature
□ c. mandrel □ c. low-pressure
□ d. ply □ d. low-temperature

5-5. To what general classification of pressure 5-10. In applications where materials are distrib
does a hose carrying 2500 psi belong? uted from one source to several points,
couplings are used.
□ a. Low
□ b. Medium □ a. flange
□ c. High □ b. push-on
□ d. Very high □ c. quick-connect
□ d. reusable

This material is protected l:y U.S. copyiight laws. If this text does not appear in color, tliis document lias been iilcfjr.iiy c
Please contact Legnjfetriiemediainc.coni or 800-B37'-o872 - Lccial Affairs. e>:tens:n.n hOU
82 Lesson Five

SUMMARY

The flexibility of hose allows It to be used in appli
cations where vibration would make the use of
rigid pipe impossible. There are three main types
of hose—metallic, nonmetallic, and reinforced
nonmetalllc—which may be designated for low-
pressure, medium-pressure, or high-pressure
applications. Hose size is usually expressed in
terms of its I.D. and classified according to the
dash numbering system.
Various materials are used to make nonmetallic
hose. Synthetic rubbers are often used for the
seamless inner tubes, which are then reinforced
with layers of braiding. Two types of braiding-
horizontal and vertical—are common,and hose
may be further strengthened by a layer of wire.
Nonmetallic materials used in the construction of
nonreinforced hose include Dacron, nylon.
polyethylene, and Teflon. Metallic hose may be
made of aluminum, bronze, Monel, steel, or stain
less steel.
Couplings used for joining hoses may be either
permanent or reusable. There are clamp-type fit
tings, push-on fittings, and couplings that
require brazing. Quick-connect, quick-discon
nect couplings provide a fast, easy, pressure-
tight connection. Couplings must be checked for
leaks and corrosion damage during maintenance
inspections.
Most plants use hoses to transport steam, water,
air, and hydraulic fluids over short distances.
Each application must be analyzed individually,
and a hose must be selected which is compatible
with the system specifications.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

5-1. a. 1 In. Ref: 5.05 5-6. b. 160. Ref: 5.15

5-2. c. Reinforced nonmetallic. Ref: 5.07 5-7. c. Wire-reinforced. Ref: 5.24

5-3. d. Tube. Ref: 5.08. 5-8. a. Dacron. Ref: 5.26

5-4. c. Mandrel. Ref: 5.08 5-9. c. Low-pressure. Ref: 5.32

5-5. b. Medium. Ref: 5.11 5-10. c. Quick-connect. Ref: 5.40

Contributions from the following sources are appreciated:

Figure 5-5. The Gates Rubber Co. Figure 5-10. Anchor Coupling Co., inc.
Figure 5-6. Johnson Corporation Figure 5-11. Stiie-Craft Mfr., inc.
Figure 5-7. Johnson Corporation Figure 5-12. Johnson Corporation
Figure 5-9. Anchor Coupiing Co., inc.
 PIPING SYSTEMS

Lesson Six

Fittings

>'Jr TPC Training Systems

This material is protected by U.S. copyright laws, if this text does not appear in coioi. this document has been illegally cop!
Please coniact Irrj.ilp^iP'^lemediainc.co.m or 8QO-8'37-8872 - Legal Affairs, pyfonsion 4041
Lesson

TOPICS

Fittings Other Fittings

Functions of Fittings Welded Connections
Screwed Connections Tube Fittings
Flanged Connections Drawing Symbols

OBJECTIVES

After studying this lesson, you should be able to...

• Explain how expansion joints and vibration dampeners
work.
• Contrast screwed, flanged, and welded connections,
and tell why one type of joint may be preferred for a
given application.
Discuss the main functions of fittings.
Identify common pipe and tube fittings.
Demonstrate a knowledge of the symbols used to
represent joints and fittings on schematic drawings of
piping systems.

KEY TECHNICAL TER

Elbow 6.06 a fitting that connects two pipes at an Bushing 6.15 a removable cylindrical lining used
angle, usually 45° or 90° to limit the size of an opening
Lateral 6.12 a Y-shaped fitting that connects three Gasket 6.27 a packing, often in the form of a ring,
pipes, one of which joins the system at a 45° or used to make a pressure-tight joint between
60° angle two parts
Reducer 6.15 a fitting that connects two or more 0-ring 6.43 a ring, usually made of synthetic rub
pipes of different diameters ber, used as a gasket
 85

Previous lessons In this course have explained how piping systems circulate flu
ids—either liquids or gases—from one point to another in plants. You have stud-
led how and why pipes, tubes, and hoses are used In various applications. Three
other elements are Important In understanding piping systems—valves, acces
sories, and fittings.

Valves are components that regulate the flow and the pressure of the fluid In a
piping system. Accessories are components that protect the line In operation.

This lesson describes common pipe and tube fittings, and explains their basic
designs, functions, and applications. Information Is also given about the sym
bols used to represent fittings on drawings and diagrams.

Fittings
6.01 The components used in a piping system to
connect sections of pipe and to change the direction
of flow are called fittings. The function of fittings is
the same for both pipes and tubes. Pipe fittings and
tube fittings are similar in shape and type, even
though pipe fittings are usually heavier than tube fit
tings. Any of several methods can be used to connect
fittings to pipes or tubes. Most tubing is threadless,
because it does not have the wall thickness needed to
carry threads. But pipes, most of which have heavier
walls, are often threaded.
6.02 The simplest way to change the direction of
a pipe would be simply to bend it—if that were easy
to do. In fact, this is done sometimes, but usually by
the pipe manufacturer rather than by the worker on
the job. Many larger shops are equipped with their
own pipe-bending machines, however, and bend
pipe regularly. Improperly made bends can restrict
fluid flow by changing the shape of the pipe and
weakening the pipe wall. Tube bending,on the other
hand, is a common practice. Although a tubing line
requires fewer fittings than a pipeline, many tube fit
tings are used.
\
For example, the term "250 lb" refers to the pressure
at which the fitting can safely be used. In other words,
a fitting rated at 250 lb can be used in a line that car
ries up to 250 psi.
Functions of Fittings
6.05 The main functions of fittings are:
• changing the direction of flow
• providing branch connections
• changing the sizes of lines
• closing lines
• connecting lines.
6.06 Changing the direction of flow. An elbow
(or "ell") fitting is used to change the direction of
flow, usually in a 45° or 90° turn. Elbows are among
the most commonly used fittings in piping systems.
Elbows are available with other angles as well.
Although turns in tubing systems are made mostly by
bending,elbows also are used occasionally.

6.03 Fittings are made from a number of materials,
including steel, bronze, cast iron, plastic, and glass.
As you might expect, they are furnished in the same
broad range of sizes as pipes and tubes.
6.04 Standards have been established to ensure
that fittings are made from the proper materials and
are able to handle the pressures required of them. Fit
tings also are made to specific tolerances so that they
will properly match the pipe or tube that they join.
6.07 Two types of elbows are shown in Fig.6-1 on
the following page. As you can see, the long-radius
fitting has the more gradual curve of the two. The
important dimension is the center-to-face distance. It
is the distance between the center of the fitting (A)
and a line (C) drawn down from the face (D) of the
fitting at the other end. In the long-radius elbow, the
center-to-face distance is always 1'/2 times the diame
ter of the fitting. Or,stated mathematically, C/F = 11/2
D.(In this equation, C stands for "center," F stands

Tills iTiaiena! is piotccted by U.S. copyrighi Ui'.vs. If tills text does not ripi)ear in coior. this docuinenl lias lie en ilp
Plc.-nse contact [cgel :plcniediciinc.coin or 800-037-8877 - Legal Affairs, exf'-^nsio.n -'.O » t
 Fig. 6-1. Short- and long-radius elbows Fig. 6-2. Short- and long-radius return bends

R = 1V2D
C/F = D C/F = 1 V2D

Short-radius 180° return Long-radius 180° return

Short radius Long radius

for "face," and D stands for "diameter") This type of
elbow is used in applications where the rate of flow is
critical, and space presents no problem. The gradual
curve minimizes How loss caused by frictional resis
tance and turbulence.
6.08 In the short-radius elbow, the center-to-face
measurement equals the pipe diameter(C/F = D). If a
system is made up of long lines, and has many
changes in direction, short-radius elbows should not
be used. The greater frictional loss may require heav
ier pumping equipment. In general, long-radius
elbows are preferred wherever they can be used.
• a tee, shaped like the letter "T," connects
three lines
• a cross connects four lines
• laterals, or Y-fittings, connect three lines, one
of which joins the system at a 45° or 60°
angle.
6.13 Some of the more common pipe fittings are
shown in Fig. 6-4. In this drawing the fittings are
threaded. But threading is only one of several ways to
connect fittings to pipe.

6.09 As you can see. the elbows shown in Fig. 6-1 6.14 A tee fitting (top left in Fig. 6-4) permits flow
provide a 90° turn. Where the total turn of the pipe is at right angles to the main flow. The main flow passes
more gradual, 45° elbows are used. through the straight "run" of the tee. The 90° outlet is
referred to as the "branch" of the lee. In a straight tee,
6.10 A return bend is a fitting that carries fluid all three outlets—the run as well as the branch—are
through a 180° ("hairpin") turn. These types of fit the same size. In a reducing tee, the branch outlet is
tings, shown in Fig 6-2, are used for piping in heater
coils and heal exchangers. Tubes, which can be bent
Fig. 6-3. Typical application for return bends
into this form, do not require any fittings in this kind
of application. When straight pipes are assembled as
shown in Fig. 6-3, returns are fitted to the ends of the
pipes.

6.11 Providing branch connections. Piping and

tubing systems are more than single lines running
from one point to another point. They usually have a
number of intersections. In many cases, the pattern is
almost like that of a city street map. In other applica
tions, the line is more like an interstate highway,
which has only occasional side roads.

6.12 Common types of pipe and tube fittings

include:

smaller than the run outlets, thus reducing the flow of
material through that section of the system. The func
tion of a cross is to provide 90° outlets opposite each
other. All four outlets in a straight cross are equal in
dimension. In a reducing cross, the two branch outlets
are smaller than the run outlets, again to obtain the
desired material flow and pressure through the sys
tem. A lateral or Y-fitting (top center in Fig. 6-4)
amounts to a "fork in the road."
6.15 Changing the sizes of lines. The function of
a reducer is to reduce a line to a smaller pipe size.
One reason for doing so is to increase flow pressure
in a piping system. Another is to reduce the volume of
fluid. This is the same principle used in supplying
water to a house or building from a water main, and
for distributing the water within the building. At least
one face of the fitting matches the large pipe. One or
more other faces match the smaller pipe. Any of the
fittings just described can be obtained as reducers.
Several such reducing fittings are shown in Fig. 6-4.
Study the figure until you have identified all of the
fittings and can classify them as to type. Then look
carefully to see which outlets are reduced. Reducing
can also be accomplished by means of a bushing
inserted into a fitting.
6.16 Closing lines. Pipe aips^aiQ used to close or
seal off the end of a pipe or tube. This can be done
where part of the system has been dismantled. Where
the system now ends, a short length of pipe may be
left to make a possible later reconnection. The pipe
end must be "corked." A cap does the trick.
Fig. 6-4. Common threaded fittings for galvanized steel pipe
Tee Reducing tee Side outlet, tee
Reducing elbow 45® street elbow Side outlet, elbow
Extension piece Reducer Flange
I ; by U S. copyi iglit laws,, if liiii; ic-xl dues ncl -.ipfveai iri
Pknso contcfnl lecjela talemcd.iM'^r.coin or 800-R37-8872 - Legrd Aflijirs. extehs'un -in.ll
Fittings 87
6.17 Ph^ are used to close openings in fittings.
For example, suppose a three-pipe connection is
required now, but a fourth pipe is to be connected at
this same point in the near future. A cross fitting is
used. Three of its outlets are connected into the sys
tem. The fourth outlet, unused at the moment, is fitted
with a plug. Plugs also provide a means of access into
the piping system in case the line becomes clogged.
6.18 Connecting lines. Connecting two lengths of
pipe together can be done by means of a union or a
coupling. Such fittings do not change the direction of
flow, or provide for a branch line, or close off the
pipe. A coupling is simply a threaded sleeve. A union
is usually made in three pieces—the thread end, the
bottom end (which has a threaded I.D.), and the ring
(which has an inside flange at one end and a threaded
I.D. at the other end). Unions make it easy to connect
or disconnect pipes without disturbing the position of
the pipes.
6.19 The drawing in Fig. 6-5 on the following
page is a diagram of a shortened piping system,
scaled to illustrate some of the fittings that have been
described so far. (In an actual piping system, it is
unlikely that you would find so many fittings so close
together in a line.)
6.20 The fittings illustrated up to this point have
been pipe fittings. Figure 6-6 illustrates what tube fit
tings look like. Note that they have the same names as
pipe fittings. From your study of this lesson so far,
you should be able to find an elbow, a union, a tee, a
Cross Lateral 90° elbow 45° elbow Street elbow
Long screw Nipple All-thread nipple Coupling Union
Waste nut Locknut Hexagon bushing Cap Plug
ihis has bean illefi-.a;';. tuj
 Fig. 6-5. Functions of fittings

Gate valve

B 45° e bow

I Provide branch
connectionsy

cap, a cross, and a reducing fitting. Because tube fit
tings are connected by means other than those used
for connecting pipe fittings, the outlet faces of tube
fittings are different from those of pipe fittings. How
ever, as intersections and ends in the tubing system,
they serve the same purposes as the pipe fittings
already described.
Screwed Connections
poor threads. The oil serves to keep the material lubri
cated and cool as the thread is cut. Figure 6-8 shows
properly and improperly cut threads. A thread job that
is done with an insufficient amount of cutting oil or
with the wrong kind of oil will probably have to be
rejected.
6.24 The traditional method of ensuring a good
seal in a threaded fitting is to coat the threads with a

6.21 Pipe joints may be screwed, flanged, or weld

ed. All three of these methods are shown in Fig. 6-7.
Fig. 6-6. Tube fittings
Each method is widely used, and each has its own
advantages and disadvantages.

6.22 Screwed fittings are joined to the pipe by

means of threads. In an original installation or when a
Bulkhead elbow 45° elbow
section of pipe must be replaced, threaded connections
have the advantage of being easily tailored to the job.
Once the right pipe length has been obtained, the
threading is done on the job. However, cutting the
threads may penetrate the pipe as deeply as one-half
45° bulkhead elbow Connector Connector
the wall thickness, weakening the pipe in the joint area.

6.23 Because threaded joints can be potential

problem areas, especially where higher pressures are
involved, the threads must be properly cut in the first
place. Hand threading is made easier when the correct Bulkhead union
"pumping" action is used, a technique that can be
acquired only on the job. The technique consists of
rotating the tap or die to make a cut and then backing
it up to help clear the chips. A generous supply of the
proper thread-cutting oil is a further safeguard against Tube end
reducer
Fig. 6-7. How fittings are connected to pipe
Total wall
thickness
Vz total
wall thickness
Typical flanged
assembly
paste dope. Another method is to wind the threads
with Teflon® tape, as shown in Fig. 6-9. Starting back
about two threads from the end of the pipe, wind the
tape on until it extends slightly beyond the fitting. The
photograph in Fig. 6-9, which illustrates connections
to a liquid filter, shows several of the kinds of fittings
described in this lesson. You should be able to find
four elbow joints, two unions, and two tees with plugs.
Flanged Connections
6.25 Flanged fittings are forged or cast pipe fit
tings, as shown in Fig. 6-7. Theflange is a rim or ring
at the end of the fitting that mates with another sec
tion. Pipe sections are also made with flanged ends.
Another type of flange is the companion flange,
which is a separate ring slipped over the end of a pipe
and then fastened to it.
6.26 Flanges are joined either by being bolted
together or by being welded together. The flange
faces may be ground and lapped to provide smooth,
®Tcflon is u registered Iriidcmark of li. 1. du Poiil de Nemours and Company
Fig. 6-8. Correct and incorrect threads
■ (i by U.S. co;iyr ;ghl biv.'s. if I'df. loxl docs no! l'.p|>:\,i ici o -y' l . !
c'.Milact jccjiil
Fig. 6-9. Sealing tape applied to threaded fittings
Welded
assembly
Socket welding
fitting
flat mating surfaces. In all cases, it is necessary to
provide a tight joint to prevent leakage of fluid and
pressure.
6.27 Figure 6-10 shows a typical example of a
flanged joint. The mating parts are bolted together
with a gasket inserted between their machined faces
to ensure a tight seal. The procedure requires clean
parts, as well as proper alignment and support of the
pipes, correct insertion of the gaskets, and proper
tightening of bolts.
6.28 As with all joints, clean each part for best
results. Use a solvent-soaked rag to remove the rust-
preventing grease that is put on flanges at the factory.
Next, clean off any dirt and grit particles. Then clean
the gasket. When the pipe is in place, it should be
supported in such a way that the flanges will not be
required to support the pipe. Line up the flanges prop
erly and check the joint with a spirit level, both hori
zontally along the pipes and vertically across the
flange faces.
Fig. 6-10. Assembling a flanged joint
[eler'-.'jdiai[•': C'cn Cl Li)d-B3"-ao7? - l.ro.ii Ait

Fig. 6-11. Flanged joints require matching faces
Plain faces
Raised faces
6.29 You can coat gaskets lightly with graphite,
oil, or some other recommended lubricant to make
them easier to remove if the joint is opened later.
With the flanges secured in position, insert the gasket
and half of the bolts at the bottom of the fitting to
hold the gasket in place. Give the remaining bolts a
shot of thread lubricant and slip them into place.
Tighten the nuts by hand. For final tightening, the
procedure is somewhat like the one you use when you
change a tire on your car. That is, tighten the nuts on
opposite sides, so as to load all the bolts evenly. Then
keep going over and across, tightening each nut in
turn until the joint is equally tight at every nut.
6.30 Some flanges have raised faces and others
have plain faces, as shown in Fig. 6-11. Like faces
must be matched. A flange with a raised face should
never be joined to one with a plain face. You will find
that steel flanges generally have raised faces, and iron
or bronze flanges usually have plain or flat faces.
When 125 lb iron or bronze flanges are joined to steel
flanges, the raised face on the steel flange should be
machined off. A full-faced gasket normally is pre
ferred. Flanged fittings are relatively heavy and must
be properly supported. Keep in mind, too, that they
take up considerable space.
 Programmed Exercises 91

Improperly made bends restrict 6-1. FLUID FLOW

in a pipeline.
Ref: 6.02

The designation "250 lb" refers to the 6-2. PRESSURE

at which a fitting can safely
be used. Ref: 6.04

Which has a more gradual curve, a 6-3. LONG-RADIUS ELBOW

long-radius elbow or a short-radius
elbow? Ref: 6.07

What type of fitting connects four lines? 6-4. CROSS

Ref: 6.12

6-5. In a reducing tee, the 6-5. BRANCH; RUN

smaller than the
Ref: 6.14

You can close off an unused outlet in a 6-6. PLUG

fitting with a(n) .
Ref: 6.17

You can connect two lengths of pipe in 6-7. UNION, COUPLING

a straight run with a(n) or
a{n) . Ref: 6.18

A flange with a plain face should never 6-8. RAISED

be joined to one with a{n)
face. Ref: 6.30

I ins inatoriDi is pro'.c's.led by U.S copynghi ia.vs. H i:ns u-xl does iio! appear h) coiot. lliis ciocument l-.as
Please contact Ir^rjnin'teiernedMii-c.coni O! 600-837.0872 - Legal Affairs, extcnsurn
Fig. 6-12. Expansion joint Fig. 6-13. Expansion joint in place

Other Fittings spiral-wound types. In addition, high-temperature

6.31 Other fittings used for flanged connections
include expansion joints and vibration dampeners.
Expansion joints have three functions:
• They compensate for slight changes in the
length of pipe by allowing joined sections of
rigid pipe to expand and contract with
changes in temperature.
lines are usually made up with a large bend or loop to
allow for expansion.
6.34 Vibration dampeners are designed specifical
ly to absorb vibrations that, unless reduced, would
shorten the life of the pipe and the service life of the
operating equipment. They also eliminate line noises
(humming and hammering carried by the pipes). A
typical vibration dampener is shown in Fig. 6-14.

• They allow pipe motion, either to the side or
along the length of the pipe, as the pipe shifts
around slightly after installation.
• They help dampen vibration and noise carried
along the pipe from distant pumps or other
equipment (including chilled water lines in
large buildings).
6.35 Vibration dampeners also help reduce the
effects of water hammer, the banging noise caused by
sudden changes in either the pressure or volume of
moving liquid in pipes. To some extent, the vibration
dampener absorbs pressure changes and sound. These
Fig. 6-14. Vibration dampener

6.32 The expansion joint shown in Fig. 6-12 has a

leakproof tube that extends through the bore and
forms the outside surfaces of the flanges. Natural or
synthetic rubber compounds are normally used,
depending on the application. Because the fitting has
full-face flanges of vulcanized rubber and fabric, no
gaskets are necessary. The sealing surface permits
low bolting pressures and tends to equalize uneven
surfaces to which it is connected, providing a tight
seal. An installation is shown in Fig. 6-13.

6.33 Other types of expansion joints include metal

bellows (or corrugated) types, slip-joint types, and
 Fig. 6-15. Typical welding fittings

90° elbow
Return bend

Eccentric
reducer
Socket welding fittings

joints have full-face rubber flanges, which eliminate
the need for gaskets. The flanges are backed up by
forged steel backup rings. In addition, like the rein
forced hose described in Lesson Five, high-strength
fabric plies and a helical steel wire are embedded in
the carcass for maximum stability and strength. There
is a smooth, resilient lube and a rugged cover.
of which there are two versions, one having a 37°
angle, the other a 45° angle. These angles are in the
fitting body's tapered or conical seat. As shown in
Fig. 6-16A, the tube end is on the right. First, slip the
Fig. 6-16. Three common tube fittings

Welded Connections

6.36 Improvements in modem piping technology

and in welding equipment have greatly increased the
use of welded joints. A properly welded joint is as
strong as the pipe itself. A welded piping system is a
continuous system, which combines piping, valves,
flanges, and other fittings. It has a long leakproof and
maintenance-free life, which is a particularly impor
tant consideration where high pressures are involved.
The smooth joints simplify insulation and take up less Ferrule

6.37 Welded connections are made as outlined in

Lesson Two. Note that the welding fittings shown in
Fig. 6-15 are similar in function to those already men
tioned, but instead of being threaded, they have
beveled ends. So does the pipe to which they are con
nected.

Tube Fittings

6.38 Tubing is connected by flare fittings, com

pression fittings, and brazed or welded flange fittings.
Probably the oldest of these types is the flare fitting.

' i.G[;y l ighi liUV;,. It i t '-Xt dOvS :V. t

;'iKlotnfduii i'coir, oi c.i)0-'" ■
Fig. 6-17. Correct and Incorrect replacement
of O-rings
incorrect Correct
locknut and bushing onto the tube. Then flare the end
of the tube. The flare matches the angle of the fitting
on the left. In the lower part of Fig. 6-16A, the tube's
flared end has been butted against the fitting, and the
locknut screwed tightly onto the fitting, sealing the
tube connection properly.
6.39 In Fig. 6-I6B, the tube is not flared, but fitted
with a ferrule that pinches the tube as the locknut is
tightened on the body of the fitting. In the top draw
ing, the tube is shown for the right-hand side only. In
the lower drawing, the fitting has been connected to
two tubes, one on each side. This is a compression fit
ting.
6.40 Figure 6-16C shows a brazed-seal tube fit
ting. Like the nut-and-ferrule body design just
described, the welded flange connection is a reliable
means of connecting tube components. The flange
welded to the tube end fits against the end of the fit
ting on the left. The locknut on the right of the flange
is then tightened securely onto the fitting.
6.41 Look at Fig. 6-6 again. You will note that
some of the tube fittings have one end threaded.
These are the "terminal" fittings in a tubing system.
Fig. 6-18. Schematic symbol for a tee fitting
Symbol for a screwed joint
A screwed tee fitting
They are installed first in the wall of the equipment
served by the tube line. The path of the tube is laid
out from one terminal fitting to the other. The fittings,
of course, must be properly lined up to match the tube
that is to be connected later.
6.42 When installing terminal fittings, use an
open-end wrench. Never use a pipe wrench—its teeth
will cut into the machined surfaces of the fitting.
Tighten terminal fittings like you would any other
pipe thread.
6.43 Straight-thread terminal fittings are used for
high-pressure system requirements. They are sealed
with an 0-ring (or washer) made of the correct syn
thetic rubber compound for the application. Do not
push the 0-ring over the threads—they might nick or
score it, which can lead to a leakage problem later.
Instead, push a plastic or metal "thimble" over the
thread to protect them. Then push the 0-ring over the
thimble and onto the undercut section of the fitting.
The correct and incorrect procedures are shown in
Fig. 6-17. The 0-ring and its backup washer rest
against a locknut when the connection is completed.
When the 0-ring is slipped into place, this locknut
should be at the end of its thread and at the top of the
undercut section of the fitting.
Drawing Symbols
6.44 As a maintenance technician, you must know
the symbols used to represent various fittings on
drawings of piping and tubing systems. Figure 6-18
shows how Joint and fitting symbols are logically
combined to form a single schematic symbol. This
figure is a drawing of a tee fitting. Note that the sym
bol for a screwed joint is a vertical line. The symbol
Symbol for a tee fitting Combined to form a
symbol for a screwed
tee fitting
 Table 6-1. Symbols for joints and fittings

Purpose Type of fitting

Elbow 45

Change
direction

90° turned down

90'turned up

Reducer
Change
pipe size

Bushing

Lateral (Y-fitting)

Straight
Provide
branch
connection
Outlet up

Outlet down

Cross Straight size

Pipe plug -<1- -<1

Close off
a pipeline

i:;. material is protected by U S. copyiight laws. If this text does not appear in color, this cincumoiil has been illegally copied
Please contact iegaKi'ilclemediainc.co.in or 800-837-8872 - Legal Affairs, extension -1041
96 Lesson Six

for a tee joint is an upside-down "T." Put them togeth

er and the combined symbol is the result.

6.45 Table 6-1, on the previous page, shows a

number of symbols for the joints and fittings dis
cussed in this lesson. The key to studying it is to
examine one column from top to bottom, looking for
the common element in every symbol in the column.
For example, you will find that each item in the
"welded" column has an X-shaped crossmark, which
is the symbol for a welded joint. All the soldered
joints have circles on them. The single-line symbol
representing a threaded connection is in each symbol
in the "screwed" column. Each symbol also identifies
the type of fitting (elbow, tee, or reducer). Refer to
the illustrations of these fittings shown earlier in this
lesson and you will see the relationships.
 Fittings 97

This material is protected by U.S. copyright laws. If this text does not appear in color, this document has been illegally copied.
Please contact leaal@telemediainc.com or 800-037-8872 - Legal Affairs, extension ^i041
98 Programmed Exercises

6-9. What type of fitting allows for a certain 6-9. EXPANSION JOINT
amount of pipe movement?
Ret: 6.31

6-10. What type of fitting helps reduce the 6-10. VIBRATION DAMPENER
effects of water hammer?
Ref: 6.35

6-11. Fittings used for welded joints have 6-11. BEVELED

ends.
Ref: 6.37

6-12. The seat of a flared tube fitting has an 6-12. 37,45

angle of either ° or
Re : 6.38

6-13. What type of wrench should you use 6-13. OPEN-END WRENCH
for tightening a terminal fitting?
Ref: 6.42

6-14. A straight-thread terminal fitting used 6-14. O-RING

in a high-pressure system is usually
sealed with a{n) , Ref: 6.43

6-15. Name the joining process represented 6-15. WELDING

by this symbol.
Ref: 6.45, Table 6-1

6-16. What type of fitting does this symbol 6-16. FLANGED TEE
represent?
Ref: 6.45, Table 6-1
 Self-Check Quiz 99

Answer the following questions by marking an "X'

in the box next to the best answer.

6-1, In a long-radius elbow, the center-to-face 6-6. Which of the following flanged joints uses a
distance equals gasket?

□ a. V2 the fitting diameter □ a. Bolted flange

□ b. 1V2 times the fitting diameter □ b. Companion flange
□ c. the pipe diameter □ c. Expansion joint
□ d. the pipe radius □ d. Welded flange

6-2. In a short-radius elbow, the center-to-face 6-7. A flange that has a plain face should be
distance equals joined to a flange that has a face.

□ a. V2 the fitting diameter □ a. countersunk

□ b. 1V2 times the fitting diameter □ b. plain
□ c. the pipe diameter □ c. raised
□ d. the pipe radius □ d. serrated

6-3. For best fluid flow, a elbow should 6-8. Which of the following fittings helps reduce
be used. the effect of water hammer?

□ a. 45® □ a. Eccentric reducer

□ b. 60® □ b. Return bend
□ c. short-radius □ c. Terminal fitting
□ d. long-radius □ d. Vibration dampener

6-4. The fitting that provides two smaller branches 6-9. The following symbol represents a
is called a joint.

□ a. double cross
—5—
□ b. double lateral □ a. bell-and-spigot
□ c. reducing cross □ b. flanged
□ d. straight cross □ c. screwed
□ d. welded
6-5. A union is used to
6-10. The following symbol represents a
□ a. change the direction of flow joint.
□ b. connect two sections of pipe
□ c. join two flanges —e—
□ d. provide a branch line □ a. flanged
□ b. screwed
□ c. soldered
□ d. welded

This mate-rial is protected by U.S. copyright laws. If tiiis text docs nut appear in coloi , thi?: cicri iment has been iti
Please contact [egaiGyielenje^'Jain^-.coiri or 600-837-,3372 Leqal Affairs. aO-V!
 SUMMARY

Fittings in piping and tubing systems have five
main functions. They can change the direction of
flow, provide branch connections, change the
sizes of lines, close off lines, and connect lines.
Elbows and return bends change the direction of
flow. Tee fittings, cross fittings, and Y-fittings pro
vide branch connections. Reducers can connect
lines of different diameters. Caps and plugs are
used to close off pipelines or unused fitting out
lets. Couplings and unions connect sections of
piping or tubing in straight runs.
Pipe joints may be screwed,flanged, or welded.
Screwed fittings are threaded and can pose
potential leakage problems. Flanged fittings have
mating faces. A flange with a raised face should
never be joined to one with a plain face. Special
ized flanged joints include expansion joints,
which compensate for the expansion and contrac
tion of pipe caused by changes in temperature,
and vibration dampeners, which absorb vibration
and reduce the damage caused by water hammer.
Welded joints can be as strong and leakproof as
the pipe itself.
Tubing is connected by flare fittings, compres
sion fittings, and brazed or welded flange fittings.
Both pipe and tube fittings are represented on
drawings and diagrams by simple symbols. You
should learn to recognize these symbols and the
ways in which they can be combined with other
symbols on schematic drawings.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

6-1. b. 1V2 times the fitting diameter. 6-6. a. Bolted flange. Ref: 6.27
Ref: 6.07
6-7. b. Plain. Ref: 6.30
6-2. c. The pipe diameter. Ref: 6.08
6-8. d. Vibration dampener. Ref: 6.35
6-3. d. Long-radius. Ref: 6.08
6-9. a. Bell-and-splgot. Ref: Table 6-1
6-4. c. Reducing cross. Ref: 6.14
6-10. c. Soldered. Ref: Table 6-1
6-5; b. Connect two sections of pipe.
Ref: 6.18

Contributions from the following sources are appreciated:

Figure 6-3. Babcock and Wilcox Co.

Figure 6-9. Chemplast, Inc.
Figure6-10. Crane Co.
Figure 6-12. Hewitt-Robins Co.
Figure 6-13. General Rubber Corp.
Figure 6-17. Parker-Hannifin Co.
 PIPING SYSTEMS

Less'^n Seven

Common
Valves
b fr.

V O

TPC Training Systems

It:S material is protccii-'U by U.S. copyright laws. If this text does not appear in color, this document has been il
Please contact iegal'.ii'lel8medininc.co_rn or 800-B37-8872 - Lean! Affairs, extension -lO-ti
 Lesson

Common Valves

TOPICS

Valves Ball Valves

Valve Construction Butterfly Valves
Valve Sizes Plug Valves
Valve Functions Check Valves
Types of Industrial Valves Quick-Opening Valves
Gate Valves Valve Maintenance
Globe Valves Valve Connections
Needle Valves

OBJECTIVES

After studying this lesson, you should be able to...

• Explain the various ways in which valves control Explain how and why quick-opening valves are used
fluid flow in piping systems. in industrial piping applications.
• Identify gate, globe, needle, ball, butterfly, plug, and Describe routine inspection, lubrication, and mainte
check valves, and tell what each is used for. nance procedures for common valves.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Stuffing 7.04 packing material used to form a Galling 7.44 surface damage to mating metal
liquid-proof seal parts caused by friction
Throttle 7.08 to control flow through a valve by Seizing 7.44 the tendency of mating metal sur
means of intermediate steps between fully open faces to stick to each other, caused by excessive
and fully closed pressure, temperature, or friction
Stem 7.13 the rod by means of which the disk or
plug Is moved to open or close a valve
Any industrial plant will have many valves that require attention. Simply as a
matter of routine, a maintenance technician must be able to identify and iocate
different valves in order to inspect them, to adjust them, and to repair or replace
them. For this reason, you should be familiar with all valves, especially those
that are vital parts of a piping system.

This lesson describes some of the more common valves that you are likely to
encounter In your work. You will learn what they are, what they look like, what
kinds of materials they are made of, and how they operate. You also will study a
few of their major maintenance requirements.

Valves
7.01 Valves are devices that permit control of the
flow of fluids through piping systems. The fluid may
be a liquid, a gas, or some loose material in bulk (like
a concrete slurry, thick wastes, or even grains of
wheat). Designs of valves vary, but all valves have
two features in common:
• a passageway through which fluid can flow
• some kind of movable part that opens and
closes the passageway.
7.02 Figure 7-1 represents the basic construction
of a common valve type and shows the principle of
valve operation. Fluid flows into the valve through the
inlet port. "Port" is the term for any of the openings
of a valve to the outside. The fluid flows through pas
sages in the body and past the opened element that
closes the valve. It then flows out of the valve through
the outlet port, sometimes called the discharge port.
7.03 If the closing element is in the closed posi
tion, the passageway is blocked. Fluid flow is stopped
at that point. The closing element keeps the flow
blocked until the valve is opened again. This is done
by raising the closing element, which must be con
trolled by some mechanical means. Some valves are
opened and closed automatically, and others are con
trolled by manually operated handwheels, like the one
shown in Fig. 7-1. Other valves, such as the check
valves that you will learn about later in this lesson,
operate in response to pressure or the direction of
flow.
ing box filled with packing. The closing element fits
against the seat in the valve body to keep the valve
tightly closed.
Valve Construction
7.05 In view of what you have already learned
about piping and fittings, it will come as no surprise
to you to learn that valves are made from many differ
ent materials. Although valves are interesting and
important, they are only parts of a complete system.
As such, they are designed, selected, and built to fit
the requirements and conditions of the particular sys
tem. This means that they are subject to the same
effects of corrosive materials, pressure, and tempera
ture as the piping itself.
7.06 Valves are made from bronze, cast iron, steel,
Monel®, stainless steel, and other metals. They are
also made from plastic and glass. Valves are made for
service at the same pressures and temperatures that
piping is subject to. They are also covered by various
codes and standards, as are the other components of
piping systems about which you have leamed.
® Monel is a ivyistcrcd iraiiemark of lluiuingion Alloys. Inc.
Fig. 7-1. How a valve operates
Handwheel
Closing
element
.Stuffing
box

7.04 The closing element of the valve depicted in ^

Fig. 7-1 is controlled by a handwheel mounted on the
valve stem. In order to prevent leakage, a seal is used Closed
at that point. The seal, in this case, consists of a stujf-

• n*.: '1' • i' l c' .'Cum.'nl br-'i: iilegnuy c-cijiia

I ;•<::!! A1f.:irs 4041
 Fig. 7-2. Elements of valves
Valve Sizes
7.07 Valves are made in a full range of sizes,
which match pipe and tubing sizes. For example, a 3
in. valve would be selected for use in pipeline with a
3 in. diameter. As a rule of thumb, remember that a
valve smaller than the pipe should never be used. That
is, a 2 in. valve would not be put into a 3 in. pipeline.
The effect would be to reduce fluid flow, and thereby
increase friction. It would be possible to use a larger
valve, but ordinarily there is no reason for doing so.
Valve Functions
7.08 Valves control the flow of fluids in one of
three ways. They can be used to:
• start or stop flow
• throttle flow
• regulate flow.
Starting and stopping flow means just that—a fully
closed valve can stop the flow of fluid completely,
and an open valve allows it to start again. Throttling
means to control the flow as desired by means of
intermediate steps between fully open and fully
closed. Regulating the flow means that the valve oper
ates automatically, according to changes in pressure
in the line. A regulating valve opens or closes as nec
essary to increase or decrease flow, and so keeps the
pressure constant.
7.09 A number of valves are familiar to almost
everyone. A good example is the ordinary kitchen
faucet, which serves two of the three functions men
tioned above. As it turns the water on and off, it starts
and stops the flow. In addition, it can act as a throt
tle—for example, if the water comes out too hard, you
can adjust the flow as you desire.
Types of Industrial Valves
7.10 The types of industrial valves covered in this
lesson include the following:
gate valves
globe valves
needle valves
ball valves
butterfly valves
 Fig. 7-3. Gate valve characteristics
A. Rising stem B. Non-rising stem
• check valves
• quick-opening valves.
Each of these valves is designed to perform either the
staiVstop function or the throttling function, or both—
but not the automatic regulating function. With a few
exceptions, these valves take their names from the
type of internal element that controls the passageway.
This fact makes it much easier to get acquainted with
them. The two exceptions are the check valve and the
quick-opening valve. A check valve, as you will see
later in this lesson, permits fluid to flow in one direc
tion only, checking the fluid if it tries to flow in the
opposite direction. And a quick-opening valve, as its
name suggests, is one that can be opened quickly.
7.11 The cutaway views in Fig. 7-2 show three
common valves that you will work with. As you study
these drawings, you will note that many of the com
ponents of the three valves are similar—and, in fact,
have the same names. The three principal parts of
such valves are the body, the bonnet, and the trim:
• The body is the main part of the valve that is
connected to the piping.
• The bonnet contains the moving parts of the
valve, and is usually bolted to the body.
This itsi'.enoi i. |.'i oil' (1 i'l'V .opy i{jhi hi'.--
PI. •-
Flexible
C. Gates
• The trim includes the stem, the seat rings, and
the closing element.
7.12 Every valve has openings, called ports, by
which fluid enters or leaves. The number of ports is
the number of ways fluid may enter or leave a valve.
Those shown in Fig. 7-2 have two ports each, and so
are called two-way valves.
7.13 Figure 7-3A shows a gate valve with a rising
stem. The stem rises out of the valve as the valve is
opened, and in this manner indicates the position of
the gate. Figure 7-3B shows the same valve, except
that this model has a nonrising stem. Rotation of the
wheel operates the valve, but the stem does not come
out of the housing. This type of gate valve is used in
installations where there is little headroom, or in
cramped spaces.
7.14 Figure 7-3C shows three different kinds of
closing elements used in gate valves. The solid wedge
on the left was the first of its type invented. The other
two types are split up the middle, which permits the
wedge to adapt to small amounts of distortion caused
by pipeline strain or seat wear. The flexible wedge at
the right is cut out between the two seats (the faces of
the wedge that are pressed against the two walls of
the valve body to seal the passageway). Flexibility is
an advantage if the valve has to be closed while it is
Fig. 7-4. Simplified views of common valves
Gate valve G obe va ve
being subjected to extremely high temperatures. The
body of the valve expands because of the heat. The
gate then has less space to fit into, but it must be firm
ly seated if it is to stop the flow. Because the gate has
some "give" in it, excessive stress on the valve spin
dle is not required to clo.se the gate.
7.15 Figure 7-4 .shows the closing elements used in
gale, globe, needle, and butterlly valves. It also shows
the pattern of fluid flow through the valves.
Gate Valves
7.16 Gare valves are used primarily for start/stop
service. They are not especially recommended for
intermediate flow regulation or for throttling. They
should not be used in a kitchen because of potential
wear to the disk faces and ultimate leakage. As you
look at the patterns of fluid flow in Fig. 7-4, you can
see two important features of the valves shown in the
drawing, including gate valves;
• the fluid flow is straight through the body of
the valve
• the passageway through the valve is approxi
mately the same .size as the pipes to which the
valve is connected.
For these reasons, the pressure loss (or pressure drop)
through these types of valves is about equal to the
loss in a piece of pipe of the same length.
7.17 Gate valves are well-suited to service on
equipment in distant locations, where they may remain
Need e va ve Butterfly valve
in the open or closed position for a long time. When
they are open, gate valves offer little or no blockage to
the flow. It is important to remember that fluids are
normally under pressure. The valves must be selected
properly in terms of the pressures to which they are
exposed. Gate valves range in size from Vs in. all the
way to 108 in. in diameter. Because of space limita
tions, sizes greater than 84 in. have been replaced by
butterfly valves in many applications.
Globe Valves
7.18 The globe valve gets its name from the disk
element—the "globe"—that presses against the valve
seat to close the valve. As shown in Fig. 7-4, fluid
flow through a globe valve is at right angles to the
direction of flow in the pipes. When this type of valve
is opened, the entire surface of the globe moves away
from the valve seat at once. This is an important dif
ference between a globe valve and a gate valve. In a
gate valve, the gate is nearly always subject to fluid
pressure against the valve seal. Because globe valves
can be adjusted with fewer turns of the wheel than
gate valves, they are preferred for applications that
call for frequent opening and closing. They also pro
vide an excellent means of throttling flow.
7.19 The angle valve shown in Fig. 7-2 has the
same basic design as the globe valve. As shown in
Fig. 7-5, an angle valve reduces the number of joints
required If a valve is needed near a right-angle change
in the direction of a pipeline.
7.20 Three basic types of disks—ball, plug, and
composition—are used in globe valves. In each case.
Fig. 7-5. Use of angle valves Fig, 7-6. Needle-point globe valve

the disk seats against a tapered, flat-surfaced seat in
the body of the valve. Composition disks are tailored
for specific services, such as cold water, hot water,
and petroleum products, and are renewable. The plug-
type disk is in effect a metal cork, round with tapered
sides, that is inserted into a tapered seat.
Needle Valves
7.21 Needle valves, which are a variation of globe
valves, are so named because the closing element is
long, narrow, and comes to a point, as you can see in
Fig. 7-6. The diameter of the seat is smaller than that
of the standard globe valve, and it reduces the amount
of flow that the valve can pass. Fluid flow is con
trolled by the extent to which the needle point is
inserted into the seat.
7.22 Needle valves are used for very accurate
throttling. For this service, the threads on the stem are
closer than usual, in order to permit finer adjustment
and control of the needle point. The needle fits accu
rately into the seat, which minimizes the effort needed
to ensure tight closure.

This material is protected by U.S. copyright laws, it this text does not appeal in color, this ciocumenl has been illegally copied
Please contact I?.g::l'2t''''en:tedLainr com or B00-8'i7-B872 - Legal Affairs, extens'on -iC ii
108 Programmed Exercises

7-1. Valves control through piping 7-1. FLUID FLOW

systems.
Ref; 7.01

7-2. The closing element In a valve fits 7-2. SEAT

against the in the valve body.
Ref; 7.04

7-3. In addition to starting and stopping flow 7-3. THROTTLE or REGULATE

valves can be used to flow.
Ref: 7.08

7-4. The part of a gate or globe valve that 7-4. BONNET

contains the valve's moving parts is
called the . Ref: 7.11

7-5. How many ports does a two-way valve 7-5. TWO

have through which fluid can enter or
leave the valve? Ref: 7.12

7-6. In areas where there is very little head 7-6. NONRISING

room, a gate valve with a(n)
stem should be used. Ref: 7.13

7-7. Because of its internal construction, a 7-7. START/STOP (or OPEN/CLOSE or

gate valve is best suited for ON/OFF)
service.
Ref: 7.16

7-8. Which is better suited for throttling 7-8. GLOBE VALVE

service, a gate valve or a globe valve?
Ref: 7.16, 7.18
Ball Valves
7.23 Ball valves use a ball to block the flow of
fluid through the valve. The ball has a cylindrical hole
through it, as shown in Fig. 7-7. When the hole is in
line with the pipe, flow is permitted. When the ball is
turned 90°, its solid surface blocks the flow of fluid.
In Fig. 7-7, the ball is in the open position. The ball
and the facing pieces of the body of the valve are
carefully machined to provide a good metal-to-metal
seal. However, the ball is primarily sealed by two
heavy seat rings that press tightly on the ball from
opposite sides. It is somewhat like a golf ball being
sandwiched between two doughnuts. Assuming per
fect circles, there would be a perfect contact and seal
between each doughnut and the surface of the ball.
The ring-shaped seals are also shown in Fig. 7-7.
7.24 When the valve is closed, pressure in the line
helps to keep it closed, which is one advantage of this
type of valve. Another advantage is that fluid can flow
through it in either direction, as desired.
Butterfly Valves
7.25 The term "butterfly" suggests something deli
cate or fragile. In fact, butterfly valves did get their
start under rather flimsy conditions, as the valves
(dampers) in stove pipes. Since butterfly valves began
to be made with rubber rather than metal seats, which
permit a tighter seal, they have become more widely
Fig. 7-7. Ball valve
"his material is protoctod by U.S. copyright law.s. if this text does not appear in color, this document ii
Please coniaol !ecjal<i:'ieiemediair.'-.co_m oi SOr-ftiy-as?? -- Legal Affairs, exfen- ''.'w
used. A common application is in the pipelines that
circulate water in central power stations. With the
increased size of equipment in these stations came the
necessity for very large water piping, and the butterfly
valve came into its own.
7.26 Figure 7-8 is a cutaway view of a butterfly
valve. The valve in the photo is a fairly massive piece
of equipment. Such a valve is not opened or closed
easily by hand. Some kind of valve operator, or
mechanical aid, is necessary. In this picture, a manu
ally operated gear reducer is used. When the wheel is
turned, a gearbox opens or closes the valve. Other
types of valve operators include electric motors and
hydraulic cylinders. These devices are discussed in
Lesson Eight.
7.27 When a butterfly valve is in the fully closed
position, the valve disk fits tightly against the seals.
A comparatively recent u.se for these valves is in the
ventilation systems of nuclear reactor installations.
A quick-closing butterfly valve is used to seal the
ventilators in the event of any malfunction in the
reactor.
7.28 In steam power applications, butterfly valves
are often installed with a "failsafe" feature. This
means that they close automatically if there is a pump
or power failure. Mechanical valve operators close the
valve rapidly until it is almost completely shut. The
last portion of the valve disk's travel (to the complete-
Fig. 7-8. Butterfly valve
Fig. 7-9. Plug valve
ly shut position) is more gradual. This relieves line
shock pressures in the system.
7.29 Butterfly valves are compact, and they do not
require supports other than those required for the
pipeline itself. They can be used for controlling flow
in either direction. This feature is useful in plants that
periodically reverse condenser flow, setting up what is
called "backwash" to clean the condenser lube sheets.
Butterfly valves are designed to handle pressures
ranging from 50 to 125 psi. They are excellent for
throttling fluid flow, as well as for operation in a shut-
off capacity.
Plug Valves
7.30 A plug valve (also called a cock or petcock) is
something like a ball valve. As shown in Fig. 7-9, the
Fig. 7-10. Types of check valves
Swing check Horizontal-lift check
blocking element in the body of the valve has an open
channel through it. However, the element is in the
form of a cylindrical plug, rather than a ball. Some
times the plug is slightly tapered, or conical. The plug
fits into the body of the valve, and offers either its
open port or its solid side to the fluid—a quarter turn
is all that is necessary to change from one position to
the other. The shape of the port may be rectangular or
round. There are some ports that are diamond-shaped.
These are u.sed for special throttling applications in
such services as balancing air-conditioning and heat
ing systems.
7.31 Although primarily open/close valves, plug
valves can be used for throttling. They are easily
adapted to automatic control. The.se valves can safely
and efficiently handle gas and liquid fuel, boiler feed-
water, and condensate. They are also able to handle
food and beverages, paper and pulp, paint, varnish,
lacquer, asphalt, and other even thicker materials,
such as cement and ore slurries.
7.32 Make a comparison of the size, shape, and
space requirements of the various valves shown in
Fig. 7-2 and the plug valve shown in Fig. 7-9. The
plug valve has no projecting bonnet, no exposed
threads, and no underhanging body.
Check Valves
7.33 Check valves are designed to control the
direction of flow, as illustrated in Fig. 7-10. They are
u.sed when it is necessary for a liquid or gas to move
through the system in only one direction. When the
flow is moving in the proper direction, the valve
remains open. When the direction of flow reverses.
Vertical-lift check Ball check
 Common Valves 111

the valve closes automatically from the fluid pressure Fig. 7-11. Foot valve
against it.

7.34 Figure 7-10 shows the basic types of check

valves. In each case, pressure from the flow in the
proper direction pushes the valve element to an open
position. Flow in the reverse direction pushes the
valve element to a closed position.

7.35 In the swing check valve, the closing element

swings open and shut like a trap door does. This type
of valve offers little resistance to flow when it is in
the open position. Swing check valves generally are
used in piping applications where pressure drop is an
important consideration. They can be utilized for han
dling liquids, and they can be in.stalled in either verti
cal or horizontal positions.

7.36 Horizontal-lift check valves are frequently

assembled in the same valve bodies as those used for
threaded stem and control wheel, some kind of lever
regular globe valves. They are used for applications in is used to operate the valve. Figure 7-12 shows quick-
which flow reversals and pressure changes are very
acting globe and gate valves. The globe valve is self-
frequent. Horizontal-lift check valves are less likely to closing and spring-operated. The gate valve lever is
develop "disk slam" and valve chatter than the swing manually operated, however, and does not return itself
check valves described in the previous paragraph. Ver
to a closed position.
tical-lift check valves are similar in construction to
horizontal-lift check valves, except that they are
7.40 Quick-opening valves have many useful
designed for vertical mounting. applications. Their quick action is necessary in indus
trial and laboratory environments, where emergency
7.37 Ball check valves are designed to handle showers must be able to provide a flood of water for
thick fluids, and for service where scale and other
washing chemicals or contaminants from a worker's
particles are present. They are made in vertical, hori eyes or skin. They also control the air supply for the
zontal, and angle designs. Because of their quiet oper horns on a highway truck. Quick-closing valves also
ation, ball check valves are recommended for use in have special use.s, such as cutting off the flow of gas
applications where the fluid flow changes rapidly. The to a main or to individual outlets.
ball moves quickly up and down as it opens and clos
es. It also rotates somewhat, which equalizes wear on
both the ball and the valve seat.
Fig. 7-12. Quick-opening valves
7.38 Afoot valve is used at the foot of an open-end
pipe submerged in a fluid, such as in an oil tank or a
well. It is a variety of vertical-lift check valve, permit
Quick-opening
ting ttuid flow upward in the pipe, but not back down Quick-opening cam-aclion
into the tank. Foot valves usually have a strainer on globe valve gate valve
the intake side, as shown in Fig. 7-11.

Quick-Opening Valves

7.39 Quick-opening valves are adaptations of some

of the valves already described. They are modified to
provide a quick on/off action. In place of the usual

...1 r
Fig. 7-13. Routine valve maintenance
7.41 Plug valves, which require only a small
amount of turn between the open and shut positions,
are well-adapted to quick-opening applications. If a
.stop collar is built into a quick-opening valve, you can
easily tell whether it is fully open or fully closed. (In
a normal valve, you must rely on the "feel" of the
wheel's resistance in order to determine when the
valve is fully closed.)
Valve Maintenance
7.42 Effective valve maintenance begins with the
correct daily operation of controls. As an example of
incorrect operation, consider the kitchen sink faucet
again. As the faucet washers harden and deteriorate
with time, it becomes more difficult to shut the water
off completely, and the faucet begins to drip. A com
mon practice is simply to apply as much force as pos
sible to the faucet handle. Doing so, however, places
the threads of the valve stem and the body of the
Fig. 7-14. Replacing the disk in a globe valve
valve under great pressure. This can crack the valve
housing, ruin the threads, or both. All that is needed is
a short maintenance job—remove the valve stem, take
out the old washer, and clean the valve seat. Then
insert a new washer and reassemble the unit. For
industrial valves, the term "seals" refers to what
household plumbers call "washers." But even in
industrial applications, the same sealing conditions
7.43 Good maintenance includes the periodic
inspection of valves, correct lubrication of all moving
parts, and the replacement of seals or stem packing.
When leakage or excessive friction develops, replace
the seals. Reface all leaking seats and disks.
7.44 Frequent lubrication helps prevent galling and
seizing of the sliding parts. Galling is another word
for frictional wear. Seizing is the tendency of metal-
on-metal surfaces to bind and stick to each other

because of heat or excessive pressure. Any valve
acquires a certain amount of corrosion and foreign
particles. These conditions can develop in the stem
threads, thrust washers, and other parts of the valve
linkage.
7.45 Figure 7-13 illustrates several routine mainte
nance procedures. The drawing at the far left shows
the three places where leaks are most likely to devel
op. Whether small or large, leaks should not be over
looked. A small leak can often be stopped quickly
simply by slightly tightening the packing nut or
gland. Bonnet and flange leaks can be caused by the
bolt being loosened from strains in the line over a
period of time. Some of these leaks can be stopped
simply by tightening the bolts. If that does not work,
install a new gasket in the joint.
7.46 Wear on stem packing is caused primarily by
the continued operation of the valve—^that is, the ris
ing and turning motion of the valve stem, plus the
effects of the fluids and the varying pressure in the
line. Lubricate the stem and the exposed threads at
regular intervals, as shown in Fig. 7-13.
7.47 Most valves are designed so that the complete
bonnet and disk assembly can be removed without
rhis iTiateiiai ir, protected by U.S. copyt igi-it laws. If this text docs not appear in color, itii;; document has been, iiif
Please contact legaJ/ijiUcJeipedlaino.com or 600-Bo7-8372 - t^egol Affairs, oxtcnsion -ir, vi
Common Valves 113
disturbing the valve body itself, as you can see in the
drawing at the far right in Fig. 7-13. The packing
around the valve stem is kept in place by the gland.
The gland is often bolted. It is important to tighten the
gland bolts evenly, so that there is no risk of binding
the valve stem. Figure 7-14 shows the steps to follow
when you replace the composition disk of a globe
valve. With the stem in the fully open position, loosen
the bonnet and remove the stem-and-disk assembly.
Remove the disk holder and install a new disk.
7.48 Different disks are designed for different
types of service. Depending on the type of disk used,
many valves can be considered all-purpose valves.
When a line is changed from one type of service to
another, use the appropriate disk or an approved
all-purpose disk.
Valve Connections
7.49 A valve is a fitting, in one sense, and is joined
to sections of pipe. This is done by any of the several
methods used for connecting fittings. Valves are con
nected to piping by welding, threading, and flanging.
Procedures and precautions are exactly the same as
they are for connecting elbow and tee fittings to a
line, and for joining flanged ends.
114 Programmed Exercises

7-9. Does a ball valve permit fluid flow in 7-9. YES

more than one direction?
Ref: 7.24

7-10. A fast-operating shutoff valve commonly 7-10. BUTTERFLY

used in large water-circulating systems
is the valve. Ref: 7.25

7-11. Except for the shape of its closing 7-11. BALL

element, a plug valve is similar to
a(n) valve. Ref: 7.30

7-12. What type of valve ensures that fluid 7-12. CHECK VALVE
flow will be in one direction only?
Ref: 7.33

7-13. In installations where pressure drop is 7-13. SWING

an important factor, a(n)
check valve is generally used. Ref: 7.35

7-14. Check valves designed to handle 7-14. BALL

heavy fluids carrying scale or other par
ticles are called check Ref: 7.37
valves.

7-15. An emergency shower system is usually 7-15. QUICK-OPENING

controlled by a(n) valve.
Ref: 7.39, 7.40

7-16. Name the three places where valve 7-16. VALVE STEM, BONNET GASKET,
leaks are most likely to develop. FLANGE GASKET

Ref: 7.45, Fig. 7-13

 Self-Check Quiz 115

Answer the following questions by marking an

in the box next to the best answer.

7-1. Most valves are named after the 7-6. A large butterfly valve is most likely to be
operated by a(n)
□ a. internal closing element
□ b. material from which they are made □ a. electric or hydraulic power source
□ c. overall shape of the valve body □ b. handwheel or valve stem
□ d. type of service for which they are □ c. large chain wheel
designed □ d. solenoid and plunger

7-2. The part of a valve directly connected to the 7-7. The opening in the cylinder of a plug valve
piping is called the designed for throttling service usually has
a(n) shape.
□ a. body
□ b. bonnet □ a. diamond
□ c. seat □ b. oval
□ d. trim □ c. round
□ d. triangular
7-3. A gate valve that has two ports and is
designed for fluid flow in one direction 7-8. In applications where pressure drop is a
only is considered a valve. major consideration, a check
valve should be used.
□ a. check
□ b. one-way □ a. ball
□ c. throttling □ b. horizontal-lift
□ d. two-way □ c. swing
□ d. vertical-lift
7-4. Which of the following valves provides the
most accurate throttling? 7-9. Water for an emergency industrial shower
is best controlled through the use of a
□ a. Ball valve valve.
□ b. Gate valve
□ c. Globe valve □ a. foot
□ d. Needle valve □ b. plug
□ c. quick-opening
7-5. Which of the following valves is the best □ d. self-closing
choice for an application that requires fast
on/off operation, low pressure drop, good 7-10. What term describes wear caused by friction
sealing, and flow in both directions? in valves?

□ a. Ball valve □ a. Binding

□ b. Gate valve □ b. Galling
□ c. Globe valve □ c. Seizing
□ d. Needle valve □ d. Sticking

This inatorial is protected by U.S. copytight laws. If this text does not appear in coloi , li iis cloeui-ncnt lias ben; i! ic
Please contact le.g n I'ftUelem e d I a j n c. c pm or 800-m7-S872 - Legal Affairs, ox inn?, ion -1041
 SUMMARY

Valves control fluid flow in piping systems. They
can be used to start and stop flow, to throttle
flow, and to regulate flow automatically. Most
industrial valves are made of bronze, cast iron,
and steel. The choice of the best valve material
for a particular application depends on the operat
ing pressure and temperature, the type of fluid to
be carried, the method of Installation, and other
factors.
The types of industrial valves covered in this les
son include gate valves, globe valves, needle
valves, ball valves, butterfly valves, plug valves,
check valves, and quick-opening valves. Each
type has its own advantages and disadvantages.
For example, gate valves are used primarily for
start/stop service, while needle valves provide
very accurate throttling. Butterfly valves control
flow In either direction, while check valves permit
flow In one direction only.
The joints that connect valves and piping may be
threaded, welded, brazed, soldered, or flanged.
Good valve maintenance includes periodic
Inspections, lubrication, and the replacement of
seals or packing. Always make sure to depressur-
Ize the line before you dismantle any valve for
Inspection or service.
You will come across variations of the valves dis
cussed In this lesson, but the fundamentals of
their construction and operation are very much
the same as those that apply to all common
valves.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

7-1. a. Internal closing element. Ref:7.10 7-6. a. Electric or hydraulic power source:
Ref: 7.26
7-2. a. Body. Ref:7.11
7-7. a. Diamond. Ref: 7.30
7-3. d. Two-way. Ref:7.12
7-8. c. Swing. Ref: 7.35
7-4. d. Needle valve. Ref: 7.22
7-9. c. Quick-opening. Ref: 7.39, 7.40
7-5. a. Ball valve. Ref: 7.23, 7.24
7-10. b. Galling. Ref: 7.44

Contributions from the following sources are appreciated;

Figure 7-7. McCanna, Inc.

Figure 7-8. McCanna, Inc.
Figure 7-9. The Duriron Co., Inc.
Figure 7-11. Flowmatic Corp.
Figure 7-12. Crane Co.
Figure 7-14. Crane Co.
 PIPING SYSTEMS

Lesson Eight

Special Valves

VO':

This maleiial is protested by U.S. copyright laws, if this text does nut appear in color, this clocumeril has been iilognily copird
Please contact [cgaj(ii'teiemediait"';' com oi 800 ri37-8372 - Legal Affairs, extons'on ^1)41
Lesson

Special Valves

TOPICS

Construction and Materials Rupture-Disk Relief Valves

Diaphragm Valves Reducing Valves
Blowoff Valves Other Valves
Pressure-Regulating Valves Valve Operators
Temperature-Regulating Valves Magnetic Operators
Safety Valves Pneumatic and Hydraulic Operators
Relief Valves Remote Control

OBJECTIVES

After studying this lesson, you should be able to...

• Explain how diaphragm valves work.
• Describe the functions of the three main types of
blowoff valves.
• Tell how regulating valves, relief valves, and reduc
ing valves are used In industrial piping systems.
Describe how different kinds of actuators open and
close valves In response to pneumatic, hydraulic,
or electrical signals.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Diaphragm valve 8.04 a valve in which the clos Actuator 8.39 a mechanism used to open or
ing element is a thin, flexible disk; often used in close a valve in response to a pneumatic,
low-pressure systems hydraulic, or electrical signal
Tuberculation 8.07 a corrosive formation on the Solenoid 8.42 an electrically energized coil of
surface of a metal wire surrounding a movable iron core
Blowdown 8.29 the difference between the set
pressure and the reseating pressure in a safety
relief valve
Surveys indicate that the valves most frequently found In Industrial plants are, in
order of quantity, gate valves, globe valves, and check valves. These three kinds
of valves, then, are the most "common" valves in that they are the most com
monly used. Other valves are considered to be "special" valves because of their
less frequent use and more specialized functions.

The special valves discussed in this lesson include diaphragm valves, blowoff
valves, regulating valves, relief valves, and reducing valves. Because many of
these valves are power-operated, some of the basic actuators or operating
mechanisms also are explained in this lesson.

Construction and Materials
8.01 This lesson describes several different kinds
of valves that are designed to perform more special
ized functions than the common valves you studied
in the previous lesson. Before reading about the vari
ous valves introduced in this lesson, you should
know that special valves, like common valves, are
furnished in a wide variety of sizes and materials.
The materials used depend on the application, but
they must provide strength where needed, resistance
to corrosion and pressure, and resistance to the
effects of temperature.
8.02 Although the construction and operation of
some of these special valves differ from those of the
common valves covered in Lesson Seven, the basic
principles remain the same. That is, special valves
control fluid flow and regulate it by means of ports
and passageways in the valve body, which are opened
or closed by some type of closing element.
the body of the valve slightly above the opening
through which the fluid passes. Closure is achieved
by pressing the diaphragm tightly against the body, as
shown.
8.05 Figure 8-2, on the following page, is an
exploded view of the valve itself. Note that the clos
ing mechanism used to move the diaphragm is com
pletely .separated from the fluid by the diaphragm. For
this reason, the closing mechanism (the bonnet
assembly) does not require any conventional packing
material around the valve stem. This is a definite
advantage over valves that do require such packing,
because packing deteriorates and requires periodic
replacement.
8.06 Look again at Fig. 8-1. Note that the bonnet
assembly and the diaphragm are fastened to the valve
body with the same bolts. Always shut off and drain
the line before disassembling the valve to inspect or

Diaphragm Valves Fig. 8-1. Diaphragm valve positions

8.03 The advantages of diaphragm valves are best

understood after a brief review of the construction of
several valves discussed in Lesson Seven. In gate,
globe, plug, ball, and needle valves, the closing ele
ment is in the body of the valve. The closing element
is designed to let the fluid pass or not pass, and is
turned by a valve stem to which it is attached. A stuff
ing box or seal is used to prevent the fluid from leak
ing out along the valve stem. The valve stem extends
far enough into the body of the valve to come into
contact with the fluid.
.X,
8.04 As shown in Fig. 8-1, a diaphragm valve uses
a flexible disk, or diaphragm, as its closing element.
The diaphragm is a wall, or partition, positioned in

Thii, mciteiu'il li-. by U.5.

Plon^o contact Incii'i': i-;' ■
Fig. 8-2. Exploded view of diaphragm valve
Handwheef
Bonnet
assembly
Compressor
Diaphragm
replace the diaphragm. Otherwise, line pressure could
lift the diaphragm when the bonnet is unbolted.
8.07 When tightly closed, diaphragm valves stop
fluid flow down to the smallest bubble. They are
completely droptight, and are well-suited to service in
applications where tight, accurate closure is impor
tant. The tight seal is effective whether the fluid is a
gas or a liquid. Because of the flexible construction of
the diaphragm and the means of pressing it firmly
against the valve body, a tight seal is obtained even
after the valve has served for considerable periods of
time handling corrosive or scale-forming water. The
tight seal is not lost even after the diaphragm has suf
fered some pitting, corrosion, and tuberculation.
8.08 Diaphragms may be made of any one of a
number of materials that are resistant to the particular
fluids being transported. The valve body itself may be
made of glass, plastic, or other material fitted with a
soft rubber lining. These valves can be used in very
severe chemical or abrasive services. Typical exam
ples of abrasive materials are alumina, sand, cement,
fly ash, lime, gravel, and airblown powders. The
extremely tight closure feature makes these valves
useful in vacuum applications —in the manufacture of
electronic components, for example, and in pharma
ceutical (drug) and chemical processing. The separa
tion of the bonnet assembly from the fluid line means
that lubricant or dirt from the bonnet assembly cannot
get into the fluid. This makes diaphragm valves excel
lent for use in applications where the fluid must be
kept contaminant-free.
8.09 Diaphragm valves range in size from 1/2 to 16
in. in diameter, with screwed or flanged ends avail
able in sizes up to 3 in., and flanged ends only in the
4 to 16 in. sizes. Working pressures range up to 125
psi in the smaller valves, and up to 50 psi in the 14 to
16 in. sizes. There are several thousand types of
diaphragm and valve body materials available. Valve
operation is varied —valve wheels, quick-opening
levers, and mechanical power systems all are used.
(Power operators are covered later in this lesson.)
Blowoff Valves
8.10 Blowojf valves are used most often for steam
boiler applications. They have three functions:
• They remove suspended solids and impurities
by using boiler pressure to blow off or blow
down a portion of boiler water.
• They provide a means of rapidly lowering the
water level in the boiler when necessary.
• Following boiler-cleaning operations (done
by adding cleaning acid to the condensate
water entering the boiler), they serve to clear
the acid solution out of the boiler before it is
put back into normal operation.
Blowoff valves are located at a low point in the boiler
water system.
8.11 There are three types of blowoff valves:
• the seatless, sliding-plimger blowoff valve
• the siiding-disk (or nonwedging-gate)
blowoff valve
• the seat-and-disk (or hard-seat) blowoff
valve.
Fig. 8-3. Seatless, sliding-piungcr blowoff valve
Plunge
Plunger tube
A fourth variety is any combination of two valves in
a common body. The seatless, sliding-plunger valve,
for example, can be combined with a seal-and-disk
valve.
8.12 When boilers operate at pressures of 100 psi
or more, boiler codes require each bottom blowoff
pipe to have either two slow-opening blowoff valves,
or one slow-opening and one quick-opening valve. If
there is a quick-opening valve (which should be locat
ed nearer the boiler), open it first. Then open the
slow-opening valve. Since the slow-opening valve
requires at least five full (360®) turns of the hand-
wheel to change from the full-closed to the full-open
position, this sequence ensures that the blowoff oper
ation is started slowly and prevents shock to the sys
tem. The quick-opening valve can be closed quickly
in an emergency.
8.13 The seatless, sliding-plunger blowoff valve is
depicted in Fig. 8-3. As shown, this valve is in the
closed position. Input is from the right, output is
down through the bottom of the valve. The bottom
section of the plunger, positioned below the input por
tion of the valve, has open ports in it. The valve is
opened by turning the handwheel, which raises the
plunger until the ports are opposite the valve inlet
port. The fluid blown off is discharged down the
inside of the plunger. Normally, clockwise rotation of
a handwheel closes the valve. The plunger valve is
classified as a slow-opening valve.
Fig. 8-4. Sliding-disk blowoff valve
8.14 Figure 8-4 shows a quick-acting sliding-disk
blowoff valve. This one is lever-operated. The flow is
blocked when the solid face of the disk is positioned
across the passageway in the body of the valve. The
valve is opened by rotating the disk until a hole in one
side of the disk is moved into position in place of the
solid face. Because a quick-opening valve does not
provide a positive shutoff, it should always be used in
a line with a slow-opening valve, which does provide
a positive shutoff.
8.15 The seat-and-disk blowoff valve is used on
higher-pressure boilers. Shown in Fig. 8-5 on the fol
lowing page, the seat-and-disk blowoff valve is the
horizontal valve in what is called a tandem valve
assembly. The vertical valve in this drawing is a seat
less, sliding-plunger type. The seat-and-disk valve has
a rising, rotating stem. The disk is attached to the bot
tom of the stem and is free to rotate. It mates with the
valve seat in the body of the valve. Both the disk and
body seat have hard-faced seating surfaces.
8.16 In the tandem valve assembly depicted in
Fig. 8-5, both valves operate on the same input flow.
Both are slow-opening valves. In other tandem valve
assemblies, you might find one slow-opening and one
quick-opening valve. In either case, a tandem valve
assembly is a compact,easy-to-operate unit.
8.17 Blowoff valves usually are manually operated
by handwheels or levers. Some blowoff valves are
 Fig. 8-5. Seat-and-disk blowoff valve
Seatless, sliding-plunger valve I
Seat-and-disk valve
made with integral seats. This means that the seat is a
built-in part of the valve body, not a separate part
inserted in it. Some valve seats are threaded into the
valve body and are sealed either by a gasket or by a
seal weld. An integral seat is made by depositing a
hard-faced material directly in the valve body. A hard
material called Stellite'^'^ is commonly used.
8.18 When such a seat starts to leak, the seating
surface can be rccut or reground while the valve
remains in place in the pipeline. This eliminates the
need for breaking pipe joints and reduces the frequen
cy of leaks. When the valve is beyond the point of
maintenance by recutting or regrinding, the seat must
be refaced.
*.Slcllile is a registered iradcniiirk uf Slixidy Deloro Slellilc, Inc.
Fig. 8-6. Pressure-regulating valve
i I
Pressure-Regulating Valves
8.19 Pressure-regulating valves do just what their
name suggests —they regulate pressure in a fluid line,
keeping it very close to a preset level. If the demands
of a steam or compressed-air line remained steady at
all times, no regulator valve would be needed. This
ideal condition does not occur, however, in industrial
environments. Flow demand varies with many fac
tors, such as the number of pieces of equipment in
operation, and the change in demand as pumps and
other machines warm up. All along the fluid line the
demands are constantly changing. Efficient operation
requires a constant pressure level.
8.20 Pressure-regulating valves are used in both
gas and liquid lines. The operating principle is much
the same for both types of service. The valve is set to
monitor the line and to make needed adjustments in
response to a signal from a sensing device.
8.21 Figure 8-6 shows a pressure-regulating valve
and cro.ss-.sectional views of such a valve. Although it
may seem more complicated than most of the valves
that you have studied, it is actually just a combination
of valve types that you have already read about.
8.22 What you see is really two valves that inter
act with each other. One half is the main valve-and-
piston assembly. The other is the auxiliary valve
assembly shown at the right. Each of these two
assemblies has two valve elements that act in opposi
tion to each other. That makes four valve elements in
E

Fig. 8-7. Installation of pressure-regulating valve
Plug-type disk'
angle valve
Pressure Bypass
ga^e Safety ^
valve
Pressure-regulating
valve
Gate valve Gate valve
Siphon (used only for
steam installations)
all. One of these elements, in the auxiliary valve
assembly, is set by the handwheel and controls the
operation of the other three elements as pressure in
the fluid line varies. The maintenance technician or
valve operator sets the controlling valve element in
the auxiliary valve assembly. After that, the element
set by the handwheel takes over the regulating
process.
8.23 The two pairs of valve elements that are
joined together are:
• the disk valve (A) and piston (L) in the main
valve assembly
• the diaphragm (J) and auxiliary valve (F) in
the auxiliary valve assembly.
The inlet pressure serves to depress the piston (L)and,
therefore, open the disk valve (A). The outlet pressure
operates on the diaphragm (J)and,thereby,on the aux
iliary valve (F), which in tum controls the inlet pres
sure to the piston (L). To put it another way,the outlet
pressure determines the extent to which the inlet pres
sure can depress the piston and open the main route
through the valve. The use of outlet pressure to control
inlet conditions is called feedback. Through the inter
acting valve elements just described, both the inlet
This iDatei ial is prolet;!cd by U.S. copytight laws. If I'lis texi does not appear iii coloi, tiiis ciocnmr-nt l ias been il'rn:
PIf.'ase contact ioqai iuletnediair:: corn oi 800-B37-8872 -■ Lo()al Affairs, r-ytrn- .m -uUI
Special Valves 123
Fig.8-8. Temperature-regulating valve
Tubing(B)
Control
unit(C)
Closing
Bulb(A) element(E)
Valve
body(D)
pressure and the fluid flow through the valve are con
trolled by the pressure from the valve outlet.
8.24 In actual use, a pressure-regulating valve is set
to react to a pressure of about 50% of the maximum
flow that could pass through it. Figure 8-7 shows a pres
sure-regulating valve in a pipeline. Note that there is a
gate valve on each side of the pressure-regulating valve.
You also can see other valves that you have studied.
Temperature-Regulating Valves
8.25 Temperature-regulating valves are close
cousins of pressure-regulating valves. Their purpose
is to monitor the temperature in a line or process solu
tion tank and to regulate it (that is, to raise or lower
the temperature as required). They are also referred to
as thermostatic control valves.
8.26 Figure 8-8 shows one type of temperature-
regulating valve. It consists of a bulb (A), tubing (B),
a control mechanism (C), and the valve body (D).The
control unit (C) includes a thermostat, which is an
automatic device for regulating temperature. As the
temperature drops below the required level (or
exceeds it), the thermostat sends a signal. The valve
opens or closes accordingly—under control of the
spring-loaded closing element(E).
124 Programmed Exercises

Does the valve stem in a diaphragm

valve require packing?
Re : 8.05

In boiler water systems, blowoff valves

are located at a point.
Ref: 8.10

How many complete turns of the hand- 5(FIVE

wheel does it take for a slow-opening
valve to change from the full-closed to Re ; 8.12
the full-open position?

In a system that has one slow-opening 8-4. THE QUICK-OPENING VALVE

valve and one quick-opening valve,
which should be opened first? Ref: 8.12

When an integral valve seat can no 8-5. REFAGED

longer be recut or reground, it must be
Ref: 8.18

The use of outlet pressure to control 8-6. FEEDBACK

inlet pressure is called
control. Ref: 8.23

Pressure-regulating valves are set for

about % of the maximum
flow that can pass through them. Ref: 8.24

Temperature-regulating valves are also 8-8. THERMOSTATIC CONTROL

referred to as valves.
Ref: 8.25
Safety Valves Fig. 8-9. Fop safety valve

8.27 Safety valves, like relief valves (as well as

their combined form, safety relief valves), react to
excessive pressure in a piping system. They provide a
rapid means of getting rid of the pressure before a
serious accident occurs. Normally, the term "safety
valve" refers to a valve used with gases and steam. A
relief valve, on the other hand, is used with liquids. In
both cases, the general design is a heavily spring-
loaded disk valve that opens in response to excessive
pressure.

8.28 In a safety valve, the gas or steam is vented to

the atmosphere through a large discharge pipe. Safety
valves come in a wide variety of sizes, depending on
the overall size of the piping system that they are pro
tecting. (The one shown in Fig. 8-7 is a relatively
8.32 Figure 8-11, shown on the following page,
small one.)
shows how such valves are constructed. Input is
from the bottom of the valve. Pressure works against
8.29 Pop safety valves, such as the one shown in
the disk, normally kept seated by the spring above it.
Fig. 8-9, are used with gases and steam. These valves
The valve opens because the pressure has become
function by "popping" wide open at a preset pressure.
great enough to overcome the resistance of the
Pop valves remain open until pressure in the vessel or spring.
line has dropped back to a second preset pressure,
slightly lower than line pressure. Then the valves snap
shut instantly. Such valves tire equipped with a "hud
dling" chamber, where the steam collects. This cham Fig. 8-10. Heavy-duty safety valves
ber is adjustable, which permits you to regulate the
valve's popping pressure, and the amount of blow-
down when it pops.

8.30 Normally, a pop valve has a drain hole on the

di.scharge side for draining condensate. This is not
true in cases where the potential release of poisonous
or flammable gases is involved. Figure 8-10 shows a
pair of large safely valves and their individual dis
charge pipes. From the sizes of these valves, and from
the rugged springs used to keep them closed under
normal conditions, it is evident that they are used in a
high-pressure system.

Relief Valves

8.31 Relief valves are used with liquids. Such

valves start to open at a preset pressure, but require a
20% overpressure to open wide. As the pressure
increases, the valve continues to open farther until it
has reached its maximum travel. As the pressure
drops, it starts to close, and finally shuts off at about
the set pressure.
 Fig. 8-11. Relief valve
8.33 For use with hot water tanks and heaters, relief
valves responsive to temperature as well as pressure
are available. Safety and relief valves are used with sat
urated steam, air, gas, vapor, and most liquids. Safety
relief valves are used for all process applications.
Rupture-Disk Relief Valves
8.34 The rupture-disk relief valve is another type
of relief valve. As shown in Fig. 8-12, this valve is
much like a diaphragm valve, but without a bonnet or
control mechanism. Its particular advantage is that it
can relieve large volumes of gas or liquid quickly.
The disk itself is held in place by flanges. Usually the
disk is made of metal and designed to open at a preset
pressure. Once open, the valve stays open because the
disk has been ruptured. Common disk materials are
aluminum, stainless steel, and copper. A gate or plug
valve is commonly installed to shut off the line once
the valve has opened.
Reducing Valves
8.35 The purpose of pressure-reducing valves is to
maintain a constant level of reduced pressure in a pip
ing system that is supplied from a higher-pressure
source. In practice, they are very much like pressure-
regulating valves. A pressure-reducing valve reduces
pressure by throttling the fluid flow. Much like the
pressure-regulating system, a reducing valve installa
tion includes valves on either side of the reducing
valve, as well as a safety valve.
8.36 In high-pressure power plants, steam purity is
essential for maintaining peak efficiency and for min
Fig. 8-12. Rupture-disk relief valve
Companion flange
Companion flange
imizing piping and turbine maintenance. Because
impurities in a fluid line can damage the system,
power plants use special instrumentation to detect
very low amounts of dissolved solids. Such instru
mentation requires foolproof pressure reduction in
order to do its detective work properly. Figure 8-13
shows a high-pressure reducing-valve system, ordi
narily installed between the high-pressure steam line
and the instrumentation. Steam from the line passes
through the high-pressure valve at the left, then into
the changeover unit at the right. The pressure in the
line can, of course, be shut off by the valve as neces
sary when the changeover unit is to be inspected for
wear or sludge.
Other Valves
8.37 You now have a basic knowledge of the most
common types of valves found in nearly all plant
facilities. In addition to those that you have studied,
you may work with other valves, but for the most
part, they are variations of the valves already covered
in this lesson and in the previous lesson. Examples
include bypass valves, which are used to carry the
flow around or past the point in the system through
which the fluid normally passes. A typical application
for a bypass valve is a steam line, where the bypass
carries steam to warm up the line before the main
valve is opened. The bypass also helps balance the
pressure on both sides of a main valve, which makes
it easier to open.
8.38 A float valve is one that is controlled by an
arm attached to a ball float, which rises or falls
according to liquid level. A pilot valve is a small
 Fig. 8-13. High-pressure reducing valve system

Reducing
capsule cartridge

Shutoft valve Screen

III "r

valve used to operate a larger one. A sluny valve has valve, the mechanical operator must provide a back
a lever-operated, knife-edged disk that holds back the ward and forward motion. Magnetic, hydraulic, and
solids in a fluid. A three-way valve has three ports and pneumatic operators are used for this purpose.
afour-way valve has four ports. The designation "OS
& Y valve" refers to a type of valve stem and screw Magnetic Operators
and means "Outside Screw and Yoke." All such
valves are similar in construction and operation to 8.42 Magnetic valve operators use solenoids. A
those that you know about now. solenoid is a coil of wire in the shape of a doughnut.
When a bar of iron is inserted as a plunger inside an
Valve Operators energized coil, it moves along the coil because of the
magnetic field that is created. If the plunger (the iron
8.39 In today's automated industries and central
control stations, many valves are mechanically oper
ated by devices called actuators or operators. These Fig. 8-14. Electrically powered valve actuator
devices may be powered by electricity, air, or gas. A
valve actuator powered by an electric motor is shown
in Fig. 8-14. Reduction gears link the motor to the
valve stem. The motor itself must be equipped with
electrical limit switches, which shut the motor off
when it has turned the valve as far as it can go in a
given direction. (If an electric motor is forcibly pre
vented from turning when current is flowing through
its field coils, the coils can burn out rapidly. There
fore, a protective device usually is installed to keep
this from happening.)
Actuator

8.40 The mechanical operator shown in Fig. 8-14

has a handwheel for controlling the valve when the
power fails. Figure 8-15, on the following page,
shows a very large ball valve in an outdoor pipeline,
with a mechanical operator powered by an electric
motor mounted on top of it.

8.41 Electric motors are used with reducing gear

boxes to rotate valve stems. For a lever-operated

I! i Itxl (joes noi .ipi'H-.ii in eoloi. Hii: cioceni,- fiI (mi- '.-n i!ic -i:
- ' • 01 600-837-5872 - Leg?l Alfiiirs. -i041
 Fig. 8-15. Ball-valve installation with mechanical actuator powered by electric motor
bar) is fitted with a spring, it returns to its starling
point when the electric current is turned off. Sole
noids are used as operators for many different types
of valves.
8.43 In a direct-operating valve, the solenoid
plunger is used in place of a valve stem and hand-
wheel. The plunger is connected directly to the disk
of a globe valve. As the solenoid coil is energized or
Fig. 8-16. Normally closed magnetic lever valve
Soenoid
Closing
element
deenergized, the plunger rises or falls, opening or
closing the valve.
8.44 Figure 8-16 shows a lever-operated valve. The
power for moving the lever is provided by a solenoid.
This valve is a normally closed valve. Of course, the
mechanical linkage can be set either to open a normal
ly closed valve or to close a normally open valve.
Pneumatic and Hydraulic Operators
8.45 Figure 8-17 shows a pneumatic ball-valve
actuator.(A hydraulic valve operator is much the same
in appearance and works in much the same way.) TTie
cylinder assembly is attached to the ball-valve stem
close to the pipe. A piston inside the cylinder can
move in either direction. The piston rod is linked to
the valve stem, opening or closing the valve, depend
ing on the direction in which the piston is traveling. As
a "failsafe" feature, some of these valves are spring-
loaded. In case of air or hydraulic pressure failure, the
valve operator returns the valve to the safe position.
Remote Control
8.46 A worker who is operating a valve at a posi
tion some distance away from the valve actuator
could control the actuator by controlling the valve to Fig. 8-17. Pneumatic-cylinder actuator for ball valve
which the actuator is attached. An example of how
such a system as this would work follows in the next
paragraph.

8.47 A temperature-controlled valve is submerged

in a process solution that must be kept at a certain
temperature. If the process solution overheats, it is
cooled by means of cold water circulating through
coils of tubing in the processing tank. If a thermostat
in the solution detects any overheating, an electric cir
cuit closes and a solenoid becomes energized. The
solenoid operates a pneumatic valve that provides
compressed air to a distant pneumatic actuator. The
actuator is attached to a bail valve in the cold water
line. When the ball valve is opened, cold water flows
through the coils in the processing tank. As a result,
the temperature of the solution drops. The thermostat
is able to detect when the solution reaches the correct
temperature level, and then deenergizes the solenoid.
The distant pneumatic actuator turns the cold water
off again.

8.48 Credit for the success of the system belongs

in part to the people who designed the system. Credit
for making sure that it continues to work as designed
belongs to the informed maintenance technicians who
keep the system in top condition.

This material is protected by U.S. copyright laws. It this text does not appear in color, tl iis document has been illegally copied
Please contact Icgal.il- telemediairc.cuni or 600-B37-8872 - Legal Affairs. exion<^ion ria4l
130 Programmed Exercises

8-9. Safety valves are normally used with 8-9. GASES,STEAM

and .
Ret: 8.27

8-10. Relief valves are used with 8-10. LIQUIDS

Ref: 8.31

8-11. The purpose of a pressure-reducing 8-11. CONSTANT

valve is to maintain a(n) level
of reduced pressure in a piping system. Ref: 8.35

1-12. A small valve used to operate a larger 8-12. PILOT

one is called a(n) valve.
Ref: 8.38

8-13. The designation "OS & Y" stands for 8-13. OUTSIDE SCREW AND YOKE

Ref: 8.38

8-14. A mechanism used to open or close a 8-14. ACTUATOR

valve in response to a pneumatic,
hydraulic, or electrical signal is called Ref: 8.39
a(n) .

8-15. In a magnetically operated valve, a(n) 8-15. SOLENOID PLUNGER

opens and closes the valve.
Ref: 8.43

8-16. In valves with pneumatic or hydraulic 8-16. PISTON ROD

actuators, a(n) opens and
closes the valve. Ref: 8.45
 Self-Check Quiz 131

Answer the following questions by marking an

in the box next to the best answer.

8-1. The best valve to use for a vacuum applica 8-6. The chamber in a pop safety valve where
tion is a valve. the steam collects is called a(n)
chamber.
□ a. diaphragm
□ b. globe □ a. blowdown
□ c. needle □ b. feedback
□ d. vertical-lift check □ c. huddling
□ d. popping
8-2. For use on higher-pressure boilers, a
blowoff valve is recommended. 8-7. The disk of a rupture-disk relief valve is
usually made of
□ a. nonwedging-gate
□ b. seat-and-disk □ a. metal
□ c. seatless, sliding-plunger □ b. nylon
□ d. sliding-disk □ c. plastic
□ d. rubber
8-3. A pressure-regulating valve
8-8. To help balance pressure on either side of a
□ a. keeps line pressure at a preset level main valve, a valve may be
□ b. operates only in liquid-carrying lines installed.
□ c. reduces pressure in branch lines
□ d. relieves excessive pressure □ a. butterfly
□ b. bypass
8-4. When applied to valves, the term "feedback" □ c. diaphragm
refers to the □ d. pressure-regulating

□ a. inlet pressure controlling the outlet 8-9. A valve with a lever-operated, knife-edged
pressure disk that holds back the solids in a fluid is
□ b. outlet pressure controlling the inlet called a(n) valve
pressure
□ c. same thing as "backwash" □ a. float
□ d. signal required to balance system □ b. OS&Y
pressure □ c. pilot
□ d. slurry
8-5. The control unit of a temperature-regulating
valve includes a 8-10. A direct-opening valve is opened and closed
by a(n)
□ a. pilot
□ b. siphon chamber □ a. electric motor
□ c. solenoid □ b. handwheel
□ d. thermostat □ c. lever
□ d. solenoid plunger

T!-iis inaterifil is proteclr-d by U S. copyright lav.'s. If this text does not appear in color, tliis clecumenf iias been incnaiiv co()i£
Please contact Icq a I 'li > t o J oni o d i .a i r. c. c on \ Oi 600-037-3872 • Legal Affairs, o>: tension -tO-l
 SUMMARY

This lesson describes several different kinds of
special valves. Diaphragm valves, which provide a
very tight seal, are suitable for vacuum applica
tions and applications where the fluid must be
kept contaminant-free. The diaphragm is the part
of the valve most likely to wear out, because of its
constant motion and because it is exposed to the
fluid. Blowoff valves are used In steam boiler
applications. There are three types of blowoff
valves, all of which can be used to lower the water
level In a boiler rapidly or to remove suspended
solids by blowing off a portion of boiler water.
Pressure-regulating and pressure-reducing
valves act to reduce the incoming line pressure
of a fluid and maintain the pressure at a preset
level. The purpose of safety valves and pop safety
valves is to protect the system from excessive
pressures. Safety valves open at preset pressure
levels, permitting pressure relief. Normally, "safety"
valves refer to valves used with gases and steam,
while "relief" valves perform the same function with
liquids.
The device that produces motion to open or close
a valve is called an actuator. The most common
energy sources for actuators are air (pneumatic),
oil (hydraulic), and electricity. Magnetic operators
use a solenoid plunger to open or close a valve,
instead of a valve stem and handwheel.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

8-1. a. Diaphragm. Ref: 8.08 8-6. c. Huddling. Ref: 8.29

8-2. b. Seat-and-disk. Ref: 8.15 8-7. a. Metal. Ref: 8.34

8-3. a. Keeps line pressure at a preset level. 8-8. b. Bypass. Ref: 8.37
Ref: 8.19
8-9. d. Slurry. Ref: 8.38
8-4. b. Outlet pressure controlling the inlet
pressure. Ref: 8.23 8-10. d. Solenoid plunger. Ref: 8.43

8-5. d. Thermostat. Ref: 8.26

Contributions from the following sources are appreciated:

Figure 8-2. McCanna, inc.

Figure 8-8. Crane Company
Figure 8-9. Crane Company
Figure 8-10. Consolidated (Dresser industries, inc.)
Figure 8-11. Jayco, Inc.
Figure 8-13. Hancock (Dresser industries, inc.)
Figure 8-14. Hancock (Dresser industries, inc.)
Figure 8-15. ACF industries, inc.
 PIPING SYSTEMS

Lesson Nine

Filters, and
Traps
< ■f- 'S
\

co

Training Systems

Tliis material is protected by U.S. copyright laws. !{ this text does not appear in color, this dociiment luis been illcgaily mp
Please contact legair-i telemedialnc.rom ot 300-837-8872 -- Legal Affairs, extension 0Q-1t
Lesson

fI Strainers, Filters, and Traps

TOPICS

General Applications Traps

Strainers Vent Valves
Filters Trap Maintenance
Steam Typical Piping System

OBJECTIVES

After studying this lesson, you should be able to...

• Discuss the protective uses of strainers and filters
In piping systems.
• Explain how the relationship between pressure and
temperature affects steam lines and creates the
need for steam traps.
Describe proper steam trap maintenance.
Explain how and why air-vent and water-drain
valves are used.
Describe how a heat exchanger works in a fluid
system.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Strainer 9.04 an accessory used to remove large Trap 9.29 an accessory used to remove conden
particles of foreign matter from a fluid sate from steam lines
Filter 9.12 an accessory used to remove solids Differential pressure 9.30 the difference
from a fluid stream between the inlet and outlet pressures in a piping
Condensate 9.28 steam that condenses into system
water In a piping system
Strainers, filters, and traps are piping system components designed to help pro
tect a system from the harmful effects of undesirable particles or impurities
entering the fluid stream. Because of the considerable variety of materials car
ried by piping systems, there is an equal range of choices In protective devices.

This lesson describes the basic designs of filters and strainers, which remove
solid particles from fluid lines. Traps are important because they are used in pip
ing systems to remove unwanted condensate and air from steam lines. It has
been estimated that over 75% of all plant facilities In the U.S. make use of steam
in some application. The major maintenance considerations of these protective
components also are explained.

General Applications from a fluid. Strainers can be used in pipelines carry

9.01 Although you may think of filters, strainers,
and traps in terms of specific components used in spe
cific systems, the basic principles apply in many sys
tems. The examples used in this lesson include appli
cations found in almost every plant—hot and cold
water lines, steam lines, lubricating lines, and pneu
matic and hydraulic lines.
9.02 Two such systems are those that carry hot and
chilled water for heating and air conditioning, and
lines that carry fluids for various process applications.
Any kind of contaminant in these lines is a source of
potential trouble that must be removed. Pipes can
become clogged, thereby causing greatly increased
friction and lower line pressure. Solid particles can
score pipe and tube walls, making thin spots that can
break open under pressure and cause leakage. They
may also damage fittings, valves, seals, and pump
components.
ing water, air, gas, oil, steam, and nearly any other
fluid carried by pipes. As a mle, strainers are installed
ahead of valves, pumps, regulators, and traps in order
to protect them against the damaging effects of conta
minants.
9.05 A common strainer design uses two screens,
cylindrical in shape. One cylinder is inside the other,
and the two are separated by a small space. The inner
cylinder is a coarse-mesh screen, the outer one is a
fine-mesh screen. The fluid passes first through the
coarse screen, which catches the larger particles. Then
it passes through the fine-mesh screen, which blocks
the smaller particles. Then the fluid passes back into
the line. Figure 9-1 shows the construction of a strain
er. Particles in the fluid are caught in two ways. Either
they do not make it through the screen, or they do not
make the sharp turn that the fluid must take as it
leaves the unit. The bottom of the unit serves as a
sump or pot where the solids collect.

9.03 Solid particles in a high-pressure line can

damage a valve in two ways: Fig. 9-1. Cross-sectional view of a typical strainer

• clogging the valve so that it cannot close

tightly

• wearing away the closely machined valve

parts.

In a piping system, where pressures must be closely

controlled, the valves cannot function properly when
solid particles are present. Cartridge-type
rolled screen

Strainers
Blowout or
cleanout plug
9.04 A strainer is a device made of wire mesh
screens, which serves to remove large solid particles

Tiiii iTit-tenri! is by U.S. if t.;isi 'i );l I'l l in cfjioi . Ihi:- docuimeiU liar; bt
Ploaso coninct inciaU..- ti:>iG(iicdi.-:i[ - ■:cin
■; Oi ('."!'" nd7 0P72 Legal Affairs, eytensa.ai di! ; i

Fig. 9-2. Magnetic ferrous trap installation
Strainer
Pressure
gauge
Magnetic
ferrous
trap
Dirt pocket
9.06 Note the blowout or cleanout plug at the bot
tom. The unit can be cleaned out easily, at intervals,
by two different procedures:
• The cleanout plug can be removed, and the
pressure in the line can be used to blow the
fixture clean.
• The large retaining nut at the bottom of the
fitting can be removed, permitting the car
tridge to slide out for cleaning or replace-
II is important, of course, that the valve system in the
line permit shutting off the line first.
Fig. 9-3. Magnet assembly and magnetic trap
9.07 It has been estimated that at least
50% of the solid impurities found in fluids
carried by closed circulating systems are
ferrous, meaning that they contain iron.
When the fluid is water, iron pipes are
almost certain to be in the line somewhere
between the reservoir and the plant. Old
piping systems acquire scale. New sys
tems may contain metal chips, mill scale,
Pressure or weld splatter.
gauge
9.08 Mill scale is the thin layer of iron
oxide formed during the manufacture of
pipes. As rust develops inside the pipe,
small flakes of scale break off. They are
also broken loose by mechanical shocks,
and by the expansion or contraction of the
pipe. Strainers get rid of such particles.
9.09 Figure 9-2 shows a drawing of a high temper
ature hot water(HTHW)line in a plant. The symbols
in the diagram that look like bow ties represent
valves. Water goes first through the strainer and then
through the trap in this installation.
9.10 The fine-mesh screens in strainers catch a
considerable amount of the solid matter in the fluid.
The magneticferrous trap pictured in Fig. 9-2 catches
iron particles that have passed through the strainer.
This trap consists simply of a ring of magnets with
spaces between them. Magnets attract iron. Since half
the particles in the water are ferrous, they stick to the
magnets.
9.11 Figure 9-3 shows what the magnet assembly
looks like. Remove it from the trap housing at inter
vals for cleaning. Wipe the magnets clean with a
cloth. Because of the combined operation of the
strainer and the trap, both nonmagnetic and magnetic
particles in the water are removed. It has been report
ed that these devices have prevented pump and seal
failures caused by solids in the water.
Filters
9.12 A filter is a device that removes solid contam
inants from a fluid (liquid or gas). This is done by
passing the fluid through some kind of porous barrier.
Filter cartridges have replaceable elements made of
nylon cloth, paper, wire cloth, or fine-mesh nylon
cloth between layers of coarse wire. These materials

Fig. 9-4. Cross section of a duplex filter
Bypass
Norma Integral relief valve
fluid path
Strain out unwanted particles, which collect on the
entry side of the filter element. When saturated, the
element is replaced.
9.13 Most filters have two common features;
• They cause the fluid to make sharp changes
in direction as it passes through.
• They contain some kind of barrier that will
not let larger particles pass.
The change of direction is important. The larger parti
cles are loo heavy to change direction quickly. Many
of them drop .straight down into the bottom of the fil
ter. Others are caught at the barrier.
9.14 Figure 9-4 shows a filter designed for either a
suction or a pressure line. This is a duplex filter,
which has two identical filters side by side. One of
them is always in use. When the filter element needs
cleaning, the other side of the duplex unit is switched
into service. Dirty fluid comes into the midsection
and passes down through the filter element, which
could be a fine-gauge nylon cloth, a wire cloth, or
finely perforated stainless steel.
9.15 From the filter element, the fluid passes out
of the unit and back into the line. This unit has a ''tell
tale" indicator, which shows when the filter element
has become excessively clogged and requires clean
ing. If nothing is done at that time, incoming fluid
simply bypas.ses the filter element entirely, and there
O'l ' : bv '' b- > I Ijj;.'!((]lM
Strainers, Filters, and Traps 137
Vaive-actuating
element
Backflush outlet (optional)
is no filtering action. Such a bypass feature in a fluid
line is important. If there were no bypass and the filter
became too clogged to pass fluid, the pump in the line
would be damaged as It reacted to the unmovable
fluid in the line.
9.16 Figure 9-5 shows a cross section of an edge-
type filter. This is called d- full-flow filter, meaning
that all of the oil in the system passes through it. The
filter consists of a stack of disks with holes in their
centers, like flat doughnuts, with very little separa
tion between them. Entering the filter, the oil passes
down the outside of the stack. Before leaving the fil
ter, the oil comes out of the center of the stack, hav
ing passed between the disks. Impurities in the oil are
left behind on the outer surface of the stack. A
Fig. 9-5. Cross section of an edge-type filter
Metal edge Scraper
element blades
Space for
accumulated
impurities
I I Ml cm'oi', till.'. cioi'unv-'-,t 'i.M- bv '. i i I''. .M'-b, (.•!r;K
l.Mqnl Affairs oii -lb ;i
 Fig. 9-6. Cross section of a
cartridge-type filter
scraper blade moves around the outer surface, wiping
off the impurities collected there. The blade is oper
ated manually by means of the handle at the top of
the filter housing. Impurities drop down into the
sump. A plug at the bottom of the sump permits the
removal of sludge.
9.17 Figure 9-6 shows a cartridge-type filter,
much like the kind of filter used in your automobile.
In this case, the oil passes down into the filter, then
through the walls of the cartridge element—which
Fig. 9-7. Compressor air-
intake inter
has small holes in it—and finally up and out. When
the cartridge element becomes completely coated
with sludge, it is replaced.
9.18 In pneumatic lines, where clean air is a must,
filtering of the air starts before the air reaches the
compressor. A compressor air-intake filter is shown in
Fig. 9-7. Air flows up inside the outer portion of this
unit, passes through various screens and around baf
fles, and exits down the center of the unit into the
compressor intake pipe.
 Programmed Exercises 139

Solid particles can damage valves by 9-1. CLOGGING, WEAR

causing and .
Ref: 9.03

A strainer Is a device made of 9-2. WIRE MESH

screens.
Ref: 9.04

Are strainers generally installed in 9-3. BEFORE

pipelines before or after pumps and
valves? Ref: 9.04

9-4. At least % of the solid impuri 9-4. 50

ties in a fluid line are ferrous.
Re :9.07

The thin layer of iron oxide formed 9-5. M LL SCALE

during the manufacture of pipes is
called Ref: 9.08

Are the filter elements in filter car 9-6. YES

tridges replaceable?
Ref: 9.12

In most cases, does the fluid change 9-7. YES

direction as it passes through a filter?
Ref: 9.13

In pneumatic lines, does filtering start 9-8. BEFORE

before or after the air reaches the com
pressor? Ref: 9.18

(i; iTiatei ial is proicctod by U S. copyrigh! laws. If tnis lext does nol .ippeat in color, this clocuincnt lias boer. illcg.nlly copied
Please contact loaai''. 'clcmediair r ro.in oi 80'.) 817-S872 - Legol Affairs, extensiofi '1041
140 Lesson Nine
Steam
9.19 Before reading about steam traps, consider
the nature of steam. Basically, it is a matter of the
relationship between temperature and pressure. Water
boils at 212°F(100°C). This is true at sea level, where
the atmospheric pressure (the pressure of the air) is
14.7 pounds per square inch (psi). If heated to 212®F,
the particles of water become active enough to form
steam, which overcomes the atmospheric pressure and
rises into the air.
9.20 At the top of Pike's Peak (altitude: 14,110 ft),
where the atmospheric pressure is lower than it is at
sea level, boiling occurs at a lower temperature. In
fact, water will boil away without becoming hot
enough to hard boil an egg. So at a lower atmospheric
pressure, the water can vaporize into steam at a
lower temperature.
9.21 On the other hand, if the pressure on the
water is increased, the temperature necessary to pro
duce boiling must be higher, because there is more
pressure to overcome. At a pressure of 100 psi, water
boils at 338°F(170°C), but at 200 psi it boils at 388°F
(198°C). These figures are significant because the
pressures in steam boilers are higher than 14.7 psi
(atmospheric pressure). Consequently, the boiling
temperature must be higher than 212°F(100°C).
9.22 If water in a system is kept below 320°F
(160®C), the water will not boil (at 100 psi, water
boils at 338®F or 170®C). But if, for some unusual
reason, the pressure does drop down to 14.7 psi
(atmospheric pressure), the water boils rapidly and
turns into steam.
9.23 Suppose that steam is circulating in a line at
220°F (104°C) at atmospheric pressure. Then, farther
along the line, the temperature drops to 210°F(99°C).
What happens? The steam condenses back into water
that is close to the boiling point. These are unlikely
cases, but they are useful in relating the importance of
pressure and temperature in a steam line.
9.24 As water comes to a boil at 212°F (100°C),
steam forms. Small particles of water are carried up
with the steam, which is called wet saturated steam,
or simply wet steam. The moisture is what makes the
steam visible. If still more heat is applied, all of the
water will be turned into dry saturated steam. The
steam is invisible. If it is heated still more, it becomes
superheated steam, or dry steam.
9.25 If a line is carrying dry saturated steam at a
pressure of 100 psi and a temperature of 338®F
(170°C) or below, and there is a drop in pressure
somewhere at a distance from the boiler, the saturated
steam will change into superheated steam.
9.26 It is evident that steam at high pressures and
temperatures is tricky. Hoses and pipes in the system
must be selected to withstand sudden changes. If, for
example, a sudden opening of a drain valve at the end
of a steam line causes a rapid drop in pressure, super
heated steam can "flash" into being.
9.27 Not only must the piping system be able to
withstand such changes, but the maintenance techni
cian must be alert and aware. Remember that steam
and hot water under pressure in piping systems are
dangerous.
Traps
9.28 Traps are used to remove water {condensate)
from steam lines. Condensate is undesirable because:
• water produces rust
• water plus steam leads to water hammer.
In addition to getting water out of the steam line, it is
important to get the air out of it.
9.29 Traps are devices that open and close in
response to conditions in the system. They empty
condensate and air into an outlet pipe, but hold steam
in the system. The condensate is either used in some
other heating application or returned to the boiler.
9.30 The operation of a trap depends on what is
called the differential pressure. Differential pressure
is the difference, in psi, between the inlet and outlet
pressures. A trap will not operate well—or at all—^at a
differential pressure higher than the one for which it
was designed.
9.31 The capacity of a trap is not determined by its
nominal size (expressed in inches and fractions of
inches), but by the size of the discharge orifice. For
example, a nominal 1 in. trap can handle condensate

Fig. 9-8. Common steam traps
Closed
(steam)
A. Theffnostatic
I 9»
D.Open bucket
in quantities ranging from 3000 to 10,000 pounds per
hour (Ib/hr), depending on its orifice size.
9.32 Thermosialic and mechanical are the names
given to the two general types of traps. As you know,
anything described as "thermostalic" is responsive to
temperature. When temperature and pressure are nor
mal, the thermostatic element in a thermostalic trap
expands downward to close the opening of the outlet
pipe, as shown in Fig. 9-8A. When either the tempera
ture or the pressure drops, the thermostatic element
contracts, opening the way to the outlet pipe, through
which condensate and air escape. The trap is designed
to operate at a definite temperature drop a certain
number of degrees below the saturated temperature
for the existing steam pressure.
9.33 Mechanical steam traps include these types:
• float-and-thermostatic
This material is proteclcd by U.S. copyright laws. If tliis text does m. i
Please contnci lGnhlu|'leteme_^iainr,c,oir! oi P.Oh O'i^-r
Strainers, Filters, and Traps 141
B. Float-and-thermostatic C.Inverted bucket
Wft
E Impulse
• inverted bucket
• upright bucket
• impulse.
9.34 A float-and-thermostatic trap is shown in
Fig. 9-8B. Condensate water in a steam trap raises the
float and opens the outlet port so that the water flows
out of the trap. This is a mechanical trap, although it
does have a thermostatic element at the top, as shown.
The thermostatic bypass remains open when air or
condensate is in the trap at a temperature below the
thermostatic element's closing temperature, thus per
mitting air to leave the system. When the air has gone
and hot steam enters the trap, the element closes
again, keeping the steam in the system.
9.35 A Jloat trap is designed for applications where
there is no problem of air in the system. A float trap han
dles conden.sate only. It looks much like the trap shown
in Fig. 9-8B, but without the thermostatic element.
l( i i UiP' ■.'InCDiiV
,
Fig. 9-9. Inverted-bucket trap installation
Supply
Unit heater
Check valve
Strainer
Bucket trap
9.36 Figure 9-8C shows an inverted-bucket trap.
Instead of a float, as in the designs just described, this
trap has an inverted (upside down) bucket mechani
cally linked to the outlet port. The bucket is supplied
with a small vent hole. During operation, a small por
tion of condensate remains around the bottom of the
bucket and forms a seal. Live steam and condensate
entering the trap raise the bucket, closing the valve.
Steam leaking through the vent allows the bucket to
drop, opening the valve and permitting condensate to
leave the trap.
9.37 The inverted-bucket trap is used in applica
tions where the condensate is led to a return line, as
illustrated in Fig. 9-9. Note carefully the elements in
this drawing. The check valve in the vertical pipe
leading from the trap to the return line permits flow in
one direction only. In this case, the only way that the
condensate can move is upward to the return.
9.38 An upright-bucket trap, also called an open-
bucket trap, is used for applications where there are
slight or small variations of load or pressure. As
shown in Fig. 9-8D, condensate enters the trap on the
inlet side and fills the space surrounding the bucket. It
finally rises high enough to overflow into the bucket,
sinking it. The discharge port opens and steam pres
sure then forces the condensate out of the trap and the
operating cycle is repeated.
9.39 An impulse trap, shown in Fig. 9-8E, is a
very simple device that usually has only one moving
part—a disk. Hot condensate and steam form pressure
Fig. 9-10. Vent valve
Float _
support
in the trap, thereby closing the valve. As soon as the
steam cools back into condensate, the trap opens to
discharge the water. As additional hot condensate and
steam increase the temperature, the cycle is repeated.
9.40 Traps are often used for handling condensate
from fan coils, unit heaters, unit ventilators, and ven
tilating coils. Figure 9-9 shows how this is done. Note
that the pipe under the unit heater is capped, and a
sediment pocket or sump is formed. In addition, a
strainer is installed in the line between the unit heater
and the trap.
Vent Valves
9.41 In heating systems that have radiators, steam
cannot enter the radiators if they are filled with air.
Therefore, each radiator has a vent valve to let air out
of the line. The valve closes with the entry of steam or
hot water. Its purpose is to keep steam in the system.
9.42 The vent opens when air is to be vented, and
shuts against steam and hot water. It opens again
when steam temperature has dropped sufficiently, or
when enough water has drained away to permit the
air-venting process to resume. The vent valve shown
in Fig. 9-10 has a float that rests on a float support
when the valve is open and air is escaping from the
line. As steam or hot water enters the valve, the float
rises to close the valve at the top.
9.43 A vacuum vent valve does the same job
essentially, but it also has a vacuum check valve in the
 Strainers, Filters, and Traps 143

top, as shown in Fig. 9-1 1. The check valve prevents Fig. 9-11. Vacuum vent valve
the return of air into the system. Although they are
called valves, vent valves could just as well be called
Vacuum check
traps. They do not control the flow of fluid in the sy.s- valve
tem, but see to it that unwanted elements (water and
air in the cases mentioned) are bled from the system.

9.44 Air-vent or water-drain valves of the ball

float type are used to remove air from water piping,
oil piping, and pressure vessels, or to remove water or
oil from compressed-air systems. They are not used Bellows

on steam lines. Steam lines require steam traps.

9.45 Figure 9-12 shows an air-vent water-drain

valve. This valve does double duty. When used to
remove air from water- or oil-carrying .systems, the
valve is installed at the highest point in the system,
where air collects. This type of installation is shown
in Fig. 9-13 on the following page. Normally the between floats or buckets and valves, and reseating
valve is filled with water or oil. As air collects, it
the valves when necessary. If these steps are not
forces the liquid out. Then the float drops, the outlet taken, the trap will not operate properly. Figure 9-15
on the following page shows a number of tests that
valve opens, and the air escapes. The valve is mount
ed in an upright position. maintenance technicians should perform on a regu
lar basis to ensure proper trap operation. A dis
charge line permits venting the output of the trap
9.46 When it is used to drain water or oil from air-
carrying systems, the valve must be installed at the
into the open. In a steam line, the output should be
lowest point of the sy.stem, where liquid collects. This
only steam if the trap has properly blocked the pas
type of installation is shown in Fig. 9-14 on the fol sage of water. Temperature checks of the piping on
lowing page. The operation is the reverse of that for
each side of the trap will indicate if the trap is oper
venting air. In this case, the water or oil that gathers in ating as it should be. The steam at output should
show a higher temperature than the steam at input.
the valve finally pushes the float upwiu-d, opening the
outlet, through which the water or oil then leaves the
(The steam at input contains condensate, which is
cooler than pure steam.)
system.

Trap Maintenance
Fig. 9-12. Air-vent water-drain valve
9.47 Traps operate under constantly
varying fluid pressure and temperature
conditions. They tend to accumulate
sludge that prevents tight closing. The Cross section

moving parts of floats, buckets, and

valves are subject to wear. Because the
moving parts of traps operate in a mix
ture of steam and water, or sometimes
in a mixture of compressed air and
water, they are difficult to lubricate.

9.48 Trap maintenance includes

periodic cleaning, removing sludge
that interferes with valve action,
adjusting the mechanical linkage

,>n: oi 60D B 37-oS72 • I f-qal Atiair>, c-» i- tv i n -i:; 11

 Fig. 9-13. Air-vent valve installation Fig. 9-14. Water-drain valve installation

System
Air-venl K i| to be
valve E drained

Sediment
Globe valve
separator.
Gate valve
Blowoff
valve i

System
to be
vented

9.49 A simple test—just listening to the trap
action—will tell you how the trap float or bucket is
opening and closing. If the trap has a bypass line
around it, leaky valves will show up when the main
line to the trap is cut off, forcing all the fluid through
the bypass.
Typical Piping System
9.50 An important fluid system found in many
plants is the one used to lubricate heavy machinery.
The sSystem circulates oil under pressure. Figure 9-16
shows a system u,sed to lubricate a cylinder-type air
compressor.
9.51 The oil circulating in the lubrication system
must form and maintain a strong film between all
wearing surfaces—bearings, cylinders, pistons, piston
rods—in order to minimize friction and wear. The oil
also protects against corrosion and carries away fric-
tional heat generated in the bearings. The oil must cir
culate at the right pre.ssure, and it must be kept clean.

Fig. 9-15. Trap maintenance problems

Test steam lines by Wearing protective gloves, Close trap valve and open Listen with a metal rod
venting valves to check for a higher temperature bypass valve to check for for proper trap opening
check for condensate. at the trap output. leaks In the bypass. and closing.

Discharge
valve open
i

Fig. 9-16. Air compressor lubrication system
Oil pressure
gauge
Thermometer(T
^ Three-way
Oi coo er t/ valve
Edge-type
oil niter
Water
discharge
Thermometer
Oil sump strainer
Oil pump
The oil should not be allowed to overheat to the point
at which it will thin out and lose its good lubricating
properties.
9.52 Trace the system shown in Fig. 9-16, starting
with the oil pump located at the bottom of the drawing.
First, the oil passes through an oil cooler or heat
exchanger. This consists of a pair of tubes, one inside
the other, but not connected together. The inner tube
carries cooling water. The hot oil flows through the
outer tube, losing some of its heat to the inner one.
(Heat passes from a warmer body to a cooler one.) After
passing through the oil cooler, the water has been
warmed up by the heat obtained from the tube carrying
the oil. The oil emerges cooler, having given up some of
its heat to the water. Some heat has been exchanged—
which is why a device of this kind is called a heat
exchanger. It is a common component in fluid systems.
9.53 The cooled oil next passes a thermometer that
provides a continuous reading of oil temperature.
This inatcrial is protected by U.S. copyrigiit laws. II this text does not appear in color, this ciocument ha.s been iiiefj.-iHy cnpir d
Please contact ie(;iai('ii''teieiTiediainc.com or 800-837-8872 - Legal Affairs, extension •■1041
Strainers, Filters, and Traps 145
Main bearing
oil headers
Oil-failure
pressure
switch
Note that there is a second thermometer in the line. It
is located between the compressor crankcase and the
oil pump. This second thermometer gives the temper
ature of the oil as it comes out of the compressor. The
oil then goes through an edge-type filter, through a
three-way valve to an oil pressure gauge, and then
into the compressor. Completing the loop, the oil
passes down through the compressor to the crankcase.
From there it enters the return line to the oil pump. An
oil sump strainer is located at the outlet port of the
crankcase. The oil-failure pressure switch is designed
to cut off the unit driving the compressor if the pres
sure in the lubricant system drops below a predeter
mined level.
9.54 Each of the components that you have studied
in this lesson has a definite place in a piping system.
For example, the system that you have just traced is a
typical one, and the systems that you will be working
with in most industrial installations will have the
same characteristics.
146 Programmed Exercises

9-9. 14.7
9-9. Atmospheric pressure is equal to
psi.
Ref:9.19

9-10. At an altitude of 10,000 ft, water boils at 9-10. LOWER

a temperature than at sea
level. Ref: 9.20

9-11. Pressure in steam boilers is 9-11. HIGHER

than atmospheric pressure.
Ref: 9.21

9-12. Steam traps are used to remove 9-12. WATER or CONDENSATE

from steam lines.
Ref: 9.28

9-13. The differential pressure in a piping 9-13. INLET, OUTLET

system is the difference between the
and pressures. Ref: 9.30

9-14. The two basic types of steam traps are 9-14. THERMOSTATIC, MECHANICAL
and .
Ref: 9.32

9-15. Vacuum vent valves prevent the return 9-15. AIR

of into a system.
Ref: 9.43

9-16. Are air-vent valves used on steam 9-16. NO

lines?
Ref: 9.44
 Self-Check Quiz 147

Answer the following questions by marking an "X''

in the box next to the best answer.

9-1. Solid particles in a fluid line can 9-6. At 100 psi, water boils at
the closing element of a valve.
□ a. 100®F
□ a. clog □ b. 170°F
□ b. corrode □ c. 100®C
□ c. magnetize □ d. ITO'C
□ d. puncture
9-7. What happens in a piping system carrying
saturated steam at 100 psi and 338°F if the
9-2. The coarse screen in a strainer is placed steam pressure drops to 50 psi?
the fine screen.
□ a. The steam becomes superheated
□ a. above □ b. The steam condenses
□ b. below □ c. The temperature drops to 169°F
□ c. inside □ d. Nothing
□ d. outside
9-8. In an application where there are slight varia
9-3. Before you remove a strainer for cleaning, tions in load or pressure, a(n) trap
you should normally is used.

□ a. check line pressure □ a. float

□ b. have a replacement strainer ready □ b. inverted-bucket
□ c. notify your supervisor □ c. thermostatic
□ d. shut off the line □ d. upright-bucket

9-4. Unwanted particles collect on the 9-9. Air-vent water-drain valves can be used to
of a filter element. remove water from

□ a. bottom □ a. oil lines

□ b. entry side □ b. pneumatic lines
□ c. exit side □ c. steam lines
□ d. top □ d. steam traps

9-5. A filter through which all of the oil in a system 9-10. It is often difficult to lubricate steam traps
passes is called a filter. because they

□ a. bypass □ a. accumulate sludge

□ b. cartridge-type □ b. are installed in hard-to-reach
□ c. duplex locations
□ d. full-flow □ c. have no moving parts
□ d. operate in a mixture of steam
and water

Thiis iTiatei ial is piotei-.Ujd by U S. copyrigbp lav.'s. if t!ds toxi docs no! oppccir in co!' (ionnmcnt ii;n

Please contact Icgai ';: teloincdiairc roni or dnO-Rt7-f3872 -- 1 ('Cjat A!!a s, ex tens' ! a -tr
 SUMMARY

Contaminants are a major cause of problems in
piping systems,so filters and strainers are often
installed in a system to remove particles of foreign
matter. As a rule, strainers are installed ahead of
valves and pumps in order to protect them against
the damaging effects of contaminants. Filters and
strainers must be cleaned regularly.
The temperature at which water boils depends on
how much pressure the water Is under. As water
comes to a boil, steam forms. If more heat is
applied, the water turns to dry saturated steam. If
It is heated still more, it flashes into superheated
steam. Hot water and steam under high pressures
are very dangerous.
Steam traps remove condensate from steam pip
ing systems. Traps operate mechanically in
response to changes in pressure or temperature.
Proper trap maintenance includes periodic clean
ing, removing sludge that interferes with valve
action, adjusting the mechanical linkage between
floats or buckets and valves, and reseating the
valves when necessary.
Air-vent valves remove air from water or oil sys
tems, and water-drain valves remove water or oil
from compressed-air systems. However, vent
valves are not used on steam lines—steam lines
require steam traps.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

9-1. a. Giog. Ret: 9.03 9-6. d. 170°C. Ref: 9.22

9-2. c. Inside. Ref: 9.05 9-7. a. The steam becomes superheated

;Ref: 9.25
9-3. d. Shut off the line. Ref; 9.06
9-8. d. Upright-bucket. Ref: 9.38
9-4. b. Entry side. Ref: 9.12
9-9. b. Pneumatic lines. Ref: 9.44
9-5. d. Full-flow. Ref: 9.16
9-10. d. Operate in a mixture of steam and
water. Ret: 9.47

Contributions from the following sources are appreciated;

Figure 9-3. Industrial Magnetics. Inc.

Figure 9-6. Ingersoll-Rand Co.
Figure 9-7. ingersoli-Rand Co.
Figure 9-8. Armstrong International, inc.
 J
PIPING SYSTEMS

Lesson Ten

ccessones

TPC Training Systems

This material is protected by U.S. copyright laws. If this text docs not appear in color, this ciocumoni lias beeti illcgaily copied.
Please contact leQaKo'leleinediainr.rom or Bno-B^T-ae?? - Legal Aflaits, exlension 4041
Lesson

Accessories

Pressure Gauges Actuators and Intenslfiers

Temperature Gauges Pneumatic Pressure Line Accessories
Rotary Pressure Joints Heat Exchangers
Vacuum Breakers Wrenches
Accumulators Maintenance
Receivers

OBJECTIVES

After studying this lesson, you should be able to...

• Describe how different types of gauges are used
to measure pressure and temperature in piping
systems.
• Explain why rotary pressure joints are necessary in
some applications.
• Describe the functions of accumulators and
receivers.
Tell how actuators and intenslfiers are used in
fluid-power systems.
Discuss the principles of preventive maintenance
and repair maintenance as they apply to piping
systems.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Gauge pressure 10.02 the amount by which the Bellows gauge 10.08 a device that uses a bel
total absolute pressure exceeds the ambient lows for measuring pressure
atmospheric pressure Vacuum breaker 10.24 a device used to
Absolute pressure 10.02 gauge pressure plus relieve a vacuum formed in a fluid line and
atmospheric pressure prevent backflow
Bourdon tube 10.06 a pressure-measuring
instrument that uses a curved metal tube as its
sensing element
 151

Accessories in pipelines include many components that help improve the opera
tion and control of the system. Others are considered absolutely essential to the
type of equipment being served. This lesson describes some of the more widely
used types of piping system accessories. They include pressure and tempera
ture gauges, rotary pressure joints, vacuum breakers, accumulators and
receivers, actuators and Intensifiers, heat exchangers, and various tools.

it is important for you to know how these accessories work, and how to care for
them. As a maintenance technician whose job is maintaining piping systems,
you are a significant part of your plant's successful operation.

Pressure Gauges
10.01 Correct pressure in pipes, tubes, and hoses is
essential. Keeping fluid pressure at the proper level is
necessary mainly for three reasons:
10.03 Pressure in any fluid pushes equally in all direc
tions. The total force on any surface is the psi multiplied
by the area in square inches. For example, a fluid under
a pressure of5 psi, pushing against an area of4 in^, pro
duces a total force against that surface of 20 lb(5 x 4).

• efficient, economic transportation of fluids
through the entire system, without waste of
power
• delivery of fluids to all outlet points in the
system (the places where the fluid is to be
used) at the required pressure
• prevention of too much or too little pressure
(either condition can damage the system and
become hazardous to personnel).
Pressure failure in a lubricating line that serves a
compressor, like the one described in Lesson Nine,
can mean inadequate lubrication of bearings and, in
tum, expensive mechanical repairs (for a bumed-out
bearing), or even a thrown piston rod and cracked
cylinder.
10.02 Pressure gauges are located at key points in
piping systems. Pressure is usually expressed in terms
of pounds per square inch (psi). There is a difference
between gauge pressure (psig) and absolute pressure
(psia). "Gauge pressure" refers to the pressure level
indicated by the gauge. However, even when the
gauge reads zero, it is subject to ambient atmospheric
pressure, or 14.7 psi (at sea level). When a gauge
reads 20 psi, that is 20 pounds gauge pressure (psig).
The true pressure is the 20 pounds shown plus the
14.7 pounds of atmospheric pressure acting on the
gauge. The total or "actual" pressure is called the
absolute pressure—^gauge pressure plus atmospheric
pressure. It is written 34.7 psia.
10.04 The most common method of measuring pres
sure in a piping system is to have the fluid press against
some type of flexible unit, moving it slightly. The mov
able unit is linked mechanically to a lever and a small
gear that moves the indicator pointer or arrow to indicate
the pressure on a dial(a pressure gauge).
10.05 The surface that the pressure acts against may
be the inner surface of a coiled tube, a diaphragm or
disk, the end of a plunger, or a set of bellows. Whatever
the type of element, it is normally fitted with a spring
that resists the pressure and returns the element(and the
indicator pointer) back to the zero position when the
pressure drops to zero. All such gauges are called
spring-loaded gauges.
10.06 Many pressure gauges use a coiled tube called a
Bourdon tube as the flexible element. Under pressure, the
fluid fills the tube. Note that one end of the tube is
attached to the base of the gauge, as shown in Fig. 10-1
on the following page. The other end, which is free to
move, is connected by a short lever arm to the indicator
or pointer.
10.07 Remember that pressure, by definition, must
operate against a surface.In this case,the pressure pushes
against the inner wall surface of the tube. You can think
of the inside walls of the tube as being two inner surfaces
facing each other. The surface area of the wall that makes
the tightest tum (A)is less than the surface area of the
inner wall on the other side (B). Because the pressure
inside the tube presses equally on all surfaces, the pres
sure on the larger area exerts more force, and causes the

This moierial is protected by U.S. co|jyrighl laws. If this text docs not appear in color, ttiis docuir.ent has been, iilcj.- iy cojh( rf
Please contact leaalCditeiemediainc.com or 800 B37-o872 - Lecjal Affairs, extensiori U-oi
Fig. 10-1. Bourdon tube gauge
Bourdon
i Be lows
tube to start to uncoil. As the tube uncoils, it begins to
straighten out. The amount of uncoiling depends on the
gauge pressure applied, which can be read on the dial.
10.08 Figure 10-2 shows how a bellows gauge
works. The bellows itself is an expanding and contract
ing cylinder that is held in the zero position by a
spring. Pressure operates against the end of the bellows
to push it down and compress it. The pointer, which is
linked to the bellows, registers the distance that the bel
lows moves. When pressure is released, the spring
returns the bellows and the pointer to the zero position.
10.09 Figure 10-3 shows a plunger gauge used in
hydraulic systems. This is also a spring-loaded
Fig. 10-3. Plunger gauge
Plunger
Pressure
connection
Fig. 10-2. Bellows gauge
Movement
Pressure
gauge. Pressure from the line acts on the bottom of a
cylindrical plunger in the center of the gauge and
moves it upward. At full pressure, the plunger
extends above the gauge, as shown in the drawing.
As the pressure drops, the spring contracts to pull
the plunger downward, back into the gauge body.
10.10 Spring-loaded gauges are not extremely
accurate, but they are entirely adequate where there
is no need for more precise readings. Their accura
cy is limited becau.se springs lose their elasticity as
they extend and contract repeatedly. For that rea
son, they do not resist the applied pressure evenly
for very long, and the actual pressure may be
slightly different from that shown on the dial. They
Fig. 10-4. Needle-type air-pressure gauge
 Accessories 153

Fig. 10-5. Industrial thermometer Fig. 10-6. Bimetallic gauge

Pointer

Thermometer
Capillary tut)e

Union
fitting
Bulb
Scale-

Bimetallic element

Well

can be recalibrated against a new gauge if neces
sary.
10.11 Figure 10-4 shows an air-pressure gauge
equipped with a hypodermic needle. This kind of needle
easily pierces rubber hose. If inserted at a small angle to
the hose, the hose will not leak when the needle is with
drawn. Air presses against a movable member,such as a
Bourdon tube, and causes the indicator to move.
Temperature Gauges
10.12 For measuring the temperature of fluids in
industrial piping systems, a rugged version of the
familiar mercury thermometer is often used. The bulb
and capillary tube are contained inside a protective
metal tube called a "well," as shown in Fig. 10-5. The
thermometer is attached to the piping system (or tank,
vat, or other component) by a union fitting.
amount it bends is reflected in the movement of the
indicator or pointer on the gauge. (This type of ele
ment is commonly used in thermostats.)
10.15 Thermostats are devices that open or close an
electrical switch when the temperature reaches a pre
determined point. As explained in an earlier lesson, a
thermostat does not provide temperature readings, but
causes some action to take place in response to
changes in temperature.
10.16 Many industrial processes require a continuous
record of temperature variations. In a recording ther
mometer, the pointer or indicator is a pen that traces a
line on a continuously moving sheet of paper, suitably
marked or calibrated in time divisions and values. Figure
Fig. 10-7. Elements of a recording thermometer

10.13 Another common type of temperature gauge is

the bimetallic gauge shown in Fig. 10-6. The key to its Bourdon tube

operation is the bimetallic element in the body of the

instrument. The bimetallic element is a coil made up of
two metals that have different coefficients of expansion.

10.14 The coefficient of expansion is a figure that

represents how much a material expands with heat. Pen arm
Capillary
(Steel, for example, expands 6 millionths of an inch tube Unk
per degree.) When two metals that have different
coefficients of expansion are wound together and sub Bulb
jected to heat, one metal expands more than the other.
As a result, the bimetallic element bends slightly. The

This material is piotocted by U S. copyrighl laws. If this text docs not appear in color, this document has been ihei
Please contact legalTeu'domcdirdr ^•.com or 8nh B37-8872 - Legal Affairs, cxlens on -ttrrt
 Fig. 10-8. Rotary pressure joint on paper dryer 10-7 shows the pressure-spring element used in such
instruments. The temperature-sensing device is a bulb
filled with a gas or liquid that expands with temperature,
producing motion in an attached Bourdon tube element.
The element is linked to the pen arm assembly. Other
types of instruments used for recording fluid flow oper
ate on the same principle.

Rotary Pressure Joints

10.17 Some types of industrial equipment have rolls,

dryers, or cylinders that rotate at high speed, yet they
must also be connected to a fluid line. For example. Fig.
10-8 shows a paper dryer that is heated with live steam.
The drum is 5 ft in diameter, about 20 ft long, and can
handle a paper sheet running at speeds up to 4000 ft/min.
By using a mtcuy pressure joint, the dryer can be sup
plied with steam and the condensate can be removed.
Fig. 10-9. Rotary pressure Joint construction
10.18 Figure 10-9 is a cross-sectional drawing of one
of these joints. Steam enters the joint at the top left and
passes through the outer of two tubes into the drum. Con
densate is picked up by the siphon elbow inside the drum.

10.19 The rotating member of the joint is the nipple (1)

that is attached to the roil or drum and tums with it. The
nipple has a convex collar that rotates against the match
ing concave surface (2) of a carbon-graphite seal ring.
The spring (3) seals the nipple on the seal ring at the start
Condensate of operation. During operation, the pressure of the steam
produces the seal. The mating surfaces of the nipple and
the collar become smooth with operation. The .steajn or
condensate is the only lubrication required for the car
bon-graphite parts.

10.20 Rotary pressure joints of this kind are used in

Fig. 10-10. Sight-flow indicator
the paper, textile, plastics, rubber, chemical, and food
industries, and in many other industries that admit heat
ing or cooling agents to rolls, dryers, or cylinders. These
joints can handle steam, water, brine, hot heat-transfer
oils, and other fluids at up to 650°F (343''C}.

10.21 Swivel joints, ball-and-swivel joints, and ball

joints are other t>'pes, more or less related, that allow the
Heat-resisting pipe to move to some extent and still retain a tight seal.
glass tube Retainer
10.22 In a steam application, it may be useful to know
what the flow of conden.sate from the drum or cylinder is
at all times. One way of doing this is by inserting a sight-
flow indicator in the line. As shown in Fig. 10-10, it
includes a short length of pyrex glass tubing mounted in a
 Fig. 10-11. Vacuum breaker

Retainer tube

cast iron body and kept there by retainers and seals. The
flow in the condensate line is readily visible. Similar indi
cators are used in a variety of piping systems that include
lubricating, chemical, and food processes.
10.23 Look at Fig. 10-8 again and you will see a sight-
flow indicator (circled in the condensate pipeline at the
lower right). Note that the rotary-pressure joint is con
nected to short pieces of all-metal hose. Note also the
temperature gauge in the condensate line.
Vacuum Breakers
10.24 Another accessory often found in pipelines is a
vacuum breaker, shown in Fig. 10-1 1. The function of a
vacuum breaker is to admit air into the line whenever a
vacuum develops. Vacuum is the absence of air. Vacuum
in a pipeline can be a serious problem. It can cause fluids
to run in the wrong direction, possibly mixing contami
nants with purer solutions. It also can cause the collapse
of tubes or equipment.
the line rises suddenly, the accumulator absorbs the rise,
preventing shocks to the piping. If pressure in the line
drops, the accumulator acts to bring it up to normal.
10.27 An accumulator is a dome-shaped or cylindrical
chamber or tank attached to a hydraulic line. An example
is shown in Fig. 10-12. Fluid rises inside the accumulator,
compressing the air in it, until the pressure of the air and
the pressure of the hydraulic fluid are balanced. If line
pressure drops, the compressed air in the accumulator
expands to push fluid into the line, thus restoring pres
sure. If line pressure rises, fluid flows into the accumula
tor, compressing the air again and relieving the strain on
the system. Accumulators supply fluid only during peaks.
Fig. 10-12. Accumulators

10.25 The vacuum breaker uses a ball that is usually

held against a seat by a spring. The ball is contained in a
retainer tube mounted inside the piping system or inside
the component being protected. If a vacuum develops,
the ball is sucked down into the retainer tube, where it
works against the spring. Air flows into the system to fill
the vacuum. The spring then returns the ball to its usual
position, which acts to seal the system again.

Accumulators

10.26 Accumulators in hydraulic .sy.stems are compo

nents that help keep pressure in the line smoothed out.
They store and deliver energy as needed. If pressure in

l:,y U LOpy't iql ll kiv/:,. li i' ■xl ciucb r.ol appeor in colo'. this ciocunuMi i i;
r'lo.-so coiiiact 'I'jIi-mr'Cii. I )' 1:1 01 iiO!]-8'37-S87? - Lerial Affciirs. extcns-'on
156 Programmed Exercises

10-1. Absolute pressure is equal to 10-1. GAUGE, ATMOSPHERIC

pressure plus pressure.
Ref: 10.02

10-2. Fluid pressure pushes in all 10-2. EQUALLY

directions.
Ref: 10.03

10-3. Do spring-loaded pressure gauges 10-3. NO

provide extremely accurate readings?
Ref: 10.10

10-4. The value that represents how much a 10-4. COEFFICIENT OF EXPANSION
material expands with heat is called the
Ref: 10.14

10-5. A thermostat causes action in response 10-5. TEMPERATURE

to changes in .
Ref: 10.15

10-6. You can check the flow of condensate 10-6. SIGHT-FLOW INDICATOR
in a steam application by installing a(n)
in the condensate line. Ref: 10.22

10-7. The purpose of a vacuum breaker is to 10-7. AIR

admit Into the system.
Ref: 10.24

10-8. Accumulators and 10-8. STORE, DELIVER

energy as needed.
Ref: 10.26
 Fig. 10-13. Single-acting and double-acting
linear actuators
10.28 Air receivers are much like accumulators.
That is, they cushion shocks from sudden pressure
rises in an air line. There is no liquid in an air receiv
er. The air compresses as pressure rises. As pressure
drops, the air expands to maintain pre.ssure in the line.

10.29 Both accumulators and receivers help main Single-acting

tain line pressure if a leak develops or if there is a
pump or power failure. The stored pressure can take
over for a short time, long enough to maintain the
pressure needed to shut down a machine or other
piece of equipment.
Double-acting
10.30 Both units .serve as shock absorbers for the
system, acting to cushion the shock of valve closure
and load starts, stops, and reversals.
of brackets used to mount the actuator on the pipe and
Actuators and Intenslflers
the valve-shank drive lever used to connect the actua
tor to the valve stem.
10.31 Another important accessory found in both
air and liquid fluid-power systems is the actuator, a 10.35 An intensifier, shown in Fig. I0-I6A on the
device that reacts to pressure to perform u.seful work following page, consists of a pair of cylinders that
of some kind. Linear actuators, which produce produce a supply of high-pres.sure fluid at an output
straight-line motion, are cylinders equipped with pis pressure higher than the input pressure. For example,
tons and rods. As shown in Fig. 10-13, the cylinders if an input pre.s.sure of 20 psi acts on the 4 in. piston
may be single-acting or double-acting. In a single-act shown in Fig. I0-I6B, the total input force is calculat
ing cylinder, pressure in the line moves the piston in ed as 20 psi X 12.5 in~ (the area of the piston), or 250
one direction only. When the pressure is removed, the lb. The area of the I in. piston connected to the large
spring returns the piston to the starting point. one is roughly V4 in^. The pressure available at the
small piston is 250 lb V4 in^ = 333 psi.
10.32 In a double-acting cylinder, pressure can be
applied to either end, moving the piston in either 10.36 The intensifier can therefore convert an input
direction. Figure 10-14 shows a cutaway view of an pressure of 20 psi to an output pressure of 333 psi.
actuator.

10.33 These actuators are either hydraulically or Fig. 10-14. Cutaway view of an actuator
pneumatically powered. Actuators powered by elec
tric motors are also available. Instead of a piston rod
moved by compre.ssed air or hydraulic power, electric
actuators use a motor and a screw-driven shaft, as
shown in Fig. 10-15 on the following page.

10.34 Included in Fig. 10-15 is a view of an actua

tor motor mounted on a piping .section and connected
to the stem of a large valve. The actuator in this case
is electric, but a hydraulically powered model also
could have been used. In either case, the actuator
shaft or rod moves in and out to open and close the
valve, as required, by remote control. Note the types

I I I cuici. lhi:> clorniiv; h.r. l>i

l.c-C)ril Affairs, pxtrns i -ff; i i
Fig. 10-15. Electrically driven actuator
Electnc brake
Actuator
m
m Screw drive
m
switches
Traveling nut
However, the total input force equals the total output
force, ignoring friction. The pressure is concentrated
on a very small area, so the output is intensified
accordingly.
Pneumatic Pressure Line Accessories
10.37 In pneumatic lines, a frequent combination of
accessories consists of a filter, a regulator, and a
lubricator. These items are shown in Fig. 10-17. The
filter is on the left. A cross-sectional view of it is
shown in Fig. 10-18 on page 160. Air enters at top
right and passes down past the whiriaway baffle, pro
ducing a high-speed circular air pattern. This minia
ture tornado throws any liquids or solids in the air
against the side of the bowl. There they drain and fall
down into the bottom of the filter. This area, called a
Fig. 10-16. IntensiHer
valve stem clamp
Pipe mount bracket
nstal ation
"quiet zone," is protected by the baffle plate. The air
then passes through the cylindrical, porous metal fil
ter element in the center of the filter and out the top,
back into the line. Such filters may have either a
transparent or metal bowl.
10.38 The second accessory pictured in Fig. 10-17
(the center drawing) is a regulator. When adjusted for
a desired pressure, the regulator automatically main
tains that pressure. It does so by means of a spring-
loaded valve that responds to pressure changes, clos
ing when the pressure rises and opening when the
pressure falls.
10.39 As shown in Fig. 10-18 on page 160, outlet
pressure raises the diaphragm against the spring pres
sure, causing the disk to move toward the valve seat.
333 psi output
20 psi input

This has a throttling effect, which Fig. 10-17. Accessories for pneumatic lines
decreases fluid flow. When the
outlet pressure drops, the
diaphragm drops too. The spring
pressure pushes the disk off the
seat, thus increasing fluid flow.
10.40 The right-hand component
in Fig. 10-17 is an air-line lubrica
tor. Normally, both oil and water
are contaminants in an air line and
are filtered out. But in some air
lines, even though water is unde
sirable, oil is added to the air to
provide lubrication for various
tools, cylinders, and other compo
nents supplied by the line.
10.41 Figure 10-18 shows a
cross-sectional view of the lubrica
tor. Oil is introduced into the airstream by the siphon
ing or drawing action caused by the difference in pre.s-
sure between the outlet and intake sides. The amount
drawn into the airstream depends on the airflow
demands made by tools along the system. It may be a
few drops of oil per hour or only a few drops per day.
10.42 Drops of oil mix with the air leaving the
lubricator and move through the system to the tools
being used. The amount of oil mixed with the air
increases as the airflow increases, because oil flow is
regulated by the needle valve. Even if various tools
along the line are not in constant use but are used only
at intervals, all of them will receive the proper amount
of lubrication.
10.43 It may seem odd that after the compressed air
has been run through the filter to remove oil, water,
and dirt, it is now desirable to add oil to the airstream.
But the reason for doing so is clear. Materials
removed from the air by the filter include dirty oil and
sludge that may have entered the airstream by way of
the compressor. Such material must be removed from
the airstream and clean lubricating oil must be added.
Heat Exchangers
10.44 Heat exchangers are devices for adding or
removing heat and cold from a fluid (liquid or gas). They
operate on the principle that heat flows from a warmer
body to a cooler one. The purpose may be to cool one
Accessories 159
Regulator Lubricator
body, or to warm the other. Whether you are warming or
cooling, the principle remains the same. The design of
the heat exchanger varies, but it usually consists of one
tube, or possibly a large coil of tubing, placed inside a
larger cylinder. In the oil lubrication system described in
Lesson Nine, the purpose was to cool the hot oil. But the
aim also might be to heat up a process fluid circulating
through one part of the heat exchanger while steam cir
culates through its other section.
10.45 In a compressed-air system, the air coming
from the compressor is hot. In order to cool it down,
compressed-air systems often include water-cooled
aftercoolers. The type shown in Fig. 10-19 on the fol
lowing page has a double tube. Hot compressed air
passes through the outer tube. Cooling water passes in
the opposite direction through the inner tube, which is
equipped with circular disks or fins to improve its
heat-transfer performance. As the compressed air
cools down, condensate may result. This water, plus
any oil that may have entered the airstream at the
compressor, drains off into a condensate drainpipe at
the bottom of the tube.
10.46 A slightly different type of aftercooler, shown
in Fig. 10-19, is the shell-and-tube unit, which is
installed between the compressor and the air receiver
or storage tank. Hot compressed air enters the shell
and flows over and around the tube-coil assembly,
which is filled with cold water. The water flows
through the tubes continuously to maintain a constant
Fig. 10-18. Cross-sectional views of filter, regulator, and lubricator

Regulator Lubricator External

oil flow
Needle control
Strainer vais'®
Fill plug

passage
Diaphragm
Air 1
passage

Whirlaway-
Porous bronze
filter element

Safety non-
shattering
transparent
^1
Quiet zone Transparent
safety bowl

Drain cock

cooling action. Condensate, formed when the air is
cooled, is drained off so that only cool, dry air flows
through the air line.
piping and piping system components. Select the right
type and size of wrench for each application. It is pos
sible to do serious damage to a valve or fitting if the
wrong wrench is used, or if the right wrench is used
improperly.

10.47 Figure 10-20 shows several different kinds of 10.48 A monkey wrench has smooth-faced jaws,
wrenches that are used specifically for working on which make it the best wrench to use for hex nuts on

Fig. 10-19. Water-cooled aftercoolers

Shell-and-tube aftercooler

valves and fittings. A strap wrench should be used on
plated or polished surfaces. The strap itself is made of
webbing and will not scratch. To use the wrench,
open the strap, fit it around the pipe and refasten it. As
you turn the wrench handle, the pressure tightens the
strap and it catches hold. A pipe wrench (Stillson
wrench) is used only on pipe. Its jaw faces have serra
tions (teeth) that provide a good grip. Pressure on the
handle increases the grip.
10.49 Pipe tongs (also called chain pipe wrenches)
normally are used for pipe 3 in. in diameter or larger,
but they are made in smaller sizes as well. Chain pipe
wrenches operate on the same principle as strap
wrenches. Open-end wrenches and socket wrenches
are used for tightening flange bolts. It is important to
use the right size, because wrench slippage can wear
nut and bolt heads round and cause bruised knuckles.
10.50 Avoid the use of an oversize wrench if you
are tempted to lean on the joint. Excess pullup can
cause damage,especially to a valve.
Maintenance
10.51 Always keep in mind that there are two types
of maintenance—preventive maintenance and repair
maintenance. Both are important.
Fig. 10-20. Types of pipe wrenches
Monkey wrench
Open end
wrenches
!his material is protected by U.S. copyright lavvr.. it this text (toes not appear in color, this document has hcon iilcfi.ally cojrii
Please contaci lonaKmtclomGdiainc.com or fjOO-837-887? -■ Legal Affairs, extension 4011
Accessories 161
10.52 Preventive maintenance, which should be
done at regularly scheduled intervals, is a matter of
finding and correcting minor defects before they
cause trouble. For example, you may find that some
pipe hangers have become loose since your last
inspection. If the hangers are not tightened up against
the pipe, it may sag or shift, causing enough strain on
the joints to result in leakage. Or you may find that
flange bolts have become loose. It is much simpler
and more economical to tighten them now before
something does go wrong.
10.53 Repair maintenance, which is often more
urgent than preventive maintenance, means correcting
conditions that are already causing trouble. A leak in
the bend of a pipe or tubing may require patching, or
it may mean that a section of the line must be
replaced. A joint may be leaky, a valve damaged, or a
gauge broken. All need immediate attention.
10.54 Some conditions occur naturally, because all
components wear in time. Other troubles can be pre
vented by catching them early enough to make minor
repairs out of potential major ones. Whenever there is
a problem, you will find it useful and interesting to
ask yourself, "How could this have been prevented?"
Knowing the answer will save you a great deal of
time and hard work.
strap wrench Pipe wrench
Pipe tongs
or chain pipe Too much leverage
wrench
Is dangerous
162 Programmed Exercises

10-9. Both accumulators and receivers 10-9. PRESSURE

help maintain line if a leak
develops. Ret: 10.29

10-10. Linear actuators provide 10-10. STRAIGHT-LINE

motion.
Ref: 10.31

10-11. A device that produces a supply of fluid 10-11. INTENSIFIER

at an output pressure higher than the
input pressure is called a(n) . Ref: 10.35

10-12. Name the three accessories that are 10-12. FILTER, REGULATOR, and
frequently found in pneumatic pressure LUBRICATOR
lines.
Ref: 10.37

10-13. Heat flows from a{n) body to 10-13. WARMER; COOLER

a{n) body.
Ref: 10.44

10-14. Name the two kinds of devices that 10-14. HEAT EXCHANGERS and
operate on the principle stated in the AFTERCOOLERS
last question.
Ref: 10.44,10.45

10-15. The appropriate wrench to use on 10-15. STRAP

plated or polished surfaces is a{n)
wrench. Ref: 10.48

10-16. You must practice both _ 10-16. PREVENTIVE. REPAIR

maintenance and mainte-
nance on piping systems. Ref: 10.51 to 10.53
 Self-Check Quiz 163

Answer the following questions by marking an "X"

in the box next to the best answer.

10-1. It Is necessary to keep pressure at the proper 10-6. You can install a(n) in a hydraulic
level in a piping system in order to system to help keep the line pressure from
changing suddenly.
□ a. ensure proper valve operation
□ b, maintain proper sealing □ a. accumulator
□ 0. prevent water hammer □ b. actuator
□ d. transport and deliver fluids efficiently □ c. intensifier
□ d. receiver
10-2. If a pressure gauge reads 30 psig at sea
level, the absolute pressure is 10-7. The air in an air receiver expands when the
psia.
□ a. fluid velocity decreases
□ a. 14.7 □ b. line pressure decreases
□ b. 30.0 □ c. line pressure increases
□ c. 44.7 □ d. liquid level drops
□ d. 60.0
10-8. In an electric actuator, the work-performing
10-3. If a fluid pressure of 10 psi is pushing against element is a
an area of 5 in^, the total force against the
area is lb. □ a. double-acting cylinder
□ b. motor and screw-driven shaft
□ a. 5 □ c. rod and piston
□ b. 10 □ d. single-acting cylinder
□ c. 15
□ d. 50 10-9. If the area of an intensifier's small piston is
2 in^, the area of the large piston is 6 in^, and
10-4. An industrial mercury thermometer can be the input pressure is 40 psi, the output of the
attached to a pipe or tank by a small piston is psi.

□ a. capillary tube □ a, 80
□ b. compression fitting □ b. 120
□ c. thermostatic bushing □ c. 240
□ d. union fitting □ d, 320

10-5. The component that connects a revolving unit 10-10. You should use a(n) wrench on a
with a fluid line is called a plated or polished pipe.

□ a. rotary pressure joint □ a. chain

□ b. siphon elbow □ b. monkey
□ c. swivel coupling □ c. Stillson
□ d. universal coupling □ d. strap

i lVis rni-Ueriai is piolccted by U S. copytlghl laws. II Uiis Icrxt does no! ti|jpe;u In coloi , tins cioci.mnMtt has bi
Ploaso contact lonaiCn'telemGdlausscorn oi 80()-B37-887? - I f^ga! Allans, r-yt'swiini no'ri
 SUMMARY

Pressure gauges are located at key points in a pip
ing system. Pressure is defined as force per unit of
area. Pressure levels are usually expressed in
terms of pounds per square inch (psi). Water is
used as the reference liquid for measurements and
calculations Involving liquid pressure. Air is the
reference for gas calculations. Many gauges indi
cate zero at atmospheric pressure. Others indicate
actual pressure, including atmospheric pressure.
Common temperature gauges include bimetallic
thermometers, which use the difference in ther
mal expansion of two different metals to indicate
temperature. The coefficient of expansion is the
change in length or volume of a substance per
degree of temperature change.
Other piping system accessories described in this
lesson include rotary pressure joints, vacuum
breakers, actuators and intensifiers, accumulators
and air receivers. Accumulators store hydraulic
fluid under pressure until the system needs it.
They also help cushion and absorb hydraulic
shocks. Air receivers are tanks used with air
compressors to store pressurized air for use in
the event of compressor failure. Heat exchang
ers and aftercoolers are devices for adding or
removing heat and cold from a fluid. They oper
ate on the principle that heat flows from a
warmer body to a cooler one.
There are two types of maintenance—preventive
maintenance and repair maintenance. Preven
tive maintenance, which is done at regularly
scheduled Intervals, is a matter of finding and
correcting minor defects before they cause trou
ble. Repair maintenance means correcting con
ditions that are already causing trouble. You
must become proficient at both in order to main
tain your plant's piping systems effectively.

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

10-1. d. Transport and deliver fluids 10-6. a. Accumulator. Ref: 10.26

efficiently. Ref: 10.01
10-7. b. Line pressure decreases.
10-2. c. 44.7. Ref: 10.02 Ref: 10.28

10-3. d. 50. Ref: 10.03 10-8. b. Motor and screw-driven shaft.

Ref: 10.33
10-4. d. Union fitting. Ref: 10.12
10-9. b. 120. Ref: 10.35,10.36
10-5. a. Rotary pressure joint. Ref: 10.17
10-10. d. Strap. Ref; 10.48

Contributions from the following sources are appreciated:

Figure 10-4. Ingersoll-Rand Co.

Figure 10-8. The Johnson Corporation
Figure 10-12. Young Engineering Mfg, Inc.
Figure 10-14. Parker-Hannifin
Figure 10-15. ITT-Genera! Controls
Figure 10-16. Parker-Hannifin
Figure 10-17. Dyna-Quip
Figure 10-19. Bell & Gossett, ITT
Figure 10-20. Crane Co.