I.

Euphemism ( Nói giảm, nói tránh ):

- Definition: euphemism is a neutral or positive expression used in place of one
that carries negative associations.
- Aim: They allow us to have uncomfortable conversations without using
unsettling language. => make something sound better
- Examples:
+ A boss told an employee that it is time to “let go” instead of “fired” which aims to soften
the blow.
+ “My grandfather passed away due to ill health.” Using passed away has a gentleness that
allows us to more easily come to terms with what happened.

II. Dysphemism (Nói quá):

- Definition: A dysphemism is used to produce exaggeratedly a negative effect

on someone’s attitude about something, or to tone down the positive
associations it may have.

- A dysphemism words express a severely negative slant and emotional

viewpoint on a topic.( making something sound worse)

- Examples: The "New king of Southeast Asia" Cambodia has affirmed its class
bravery for everyone to see after the defeat by only a difference of ''14 goals''
with Asian giants IRAN in the second qualifying round of World Cup 2022
 - It sounds worse to be obscenely rich than to be very wealthy. Eating animal
flesh sounds worse than eating meat.

III. Hyperbole (nói cường điệu) :

- Definition: Hyperbole is the use of exaggeration or extravagant

overstatement as a rhetorical device or figure of speech.
- It may be used to evoke strong feelings or to create a strong impression. It
may seem easy to dismiss hyperbole when evaluating claims but even if you
are alert to it and recognize the exaggeration you still need to be careful that
the use of hyperbole doesn't sway you to believe the underlying claim.
- Examples: 1.
+ Many people heard Jeremy shouting when the spider landed on him.
(Nhiều người nghe Jeremy hét lên khi con nhện đáp xuống anh ấy.)
+ The entire tri-state area could hear Jeremy shouting when the spider landed on him.
(Toàn bộ khu vực ba bang có thể nghe thấy Jeremy hét lên khi con nhện đáp xuống anh ấy.)
=> Both of these sentences mean that many people have heard Jeremy scream. But the
exaggeration in the second sentence places special emphasis on Jeremy's volume. It's
impossible that a human scream can travel hundreds of miles - the point is that Jeremy is
really scared of that spider.
+ I’m so hungry that I could eat a horse.
+ That purse looks like it cost a million dollars.
+ I love you to the moon and back.
Sao Hoa ngữ có 4 lỗi thời trang "mãn tính" nhìn chỉ muốn phong sát cho bõ tức! (kenh14.vn)

IV. Proof- surrogate ( đại diện bằng chứng )

 Definition: an expression used to suggest that there is evidence or authority

for a claim without actually saying what it is.
This happens as a way of replacing argumentation.
 It is often used to make people believe a claim. Can be sometimes misleading
- Example: Everyone’s parents give at least twenty dollars a week allowance.
- Some expression of proof surrogate :
+ Experts believe
+ Studies shows
+ Scientist recommend
- Examples:
 There's evidence that Tom leaked Anna's personal information
 Studies show that reading aloud uses more of your brain than reading silently
 Studies show that eating KFC for every meal is the healthiest way to live
 Jose writes that "people are mostly good at heart." The author is simply
wrong.
Explanation: The arguer states that the author is "simply wrong" yet offers no
reasons. Words and phrases such as "simply," "obviously," "without question,"
etc., are indicators that no such evidence will be presented.
I) Euphemism
1. Definition:
- A word or phrase used to avoid saying an unpleasant or offensive word.
- Euphemism is the polite expression and it is used in the place of words or
phrases that are comparatively unpleasant or harsh. In brief, Euphemism
reduces the harshness of a particular word or phrase. It replaces the words
which are impolite and it is noticeably used in the daily language.

2. How Euphemism slant listeners’/readers’ opinion, feeling…

- Euphemism is the idiomatic expression that loses its literal eaning and it
is used in the sentences to hide the unpleasantness.
- Writers use this literary device to convey a message skillfully express
something which is embarrassing to say clearly.
- Euphemisms create emotional distance and provide a level of comfort and
ease when discussing a topic that is sensitive, difficult, or disturbing.
- Euphemisms are sweet-sounding, or at least inoffensive, alternatives for
expressions that speakers or writers prefer not to use in executing a particular
communicative intention on a given occasion
Ex: passed away instead of died.
“Let go” instead of “fired”
“Make love” instead of “sex”
“Put down” instead of “euthanized”
golden years instead of old age
economical instead of cheap

3. Examples
II) Dysphemism
1. Definition
- The substitution of a disagreeable, offensive, or disparaging expression
for an agreeable or inoffensive one
- Is used to produce a negative effect on someone’s attitude about
something, or to tone down the positive associations it may have
- Curses, name-calling and any sort of derogatory comment directed
towards others in order to insult or to wound them are all examples of
dysphemism. Exclamatory swear words that release frustration or anger are
dysphemisms.
2. Examples and Observations
- When applied to people, animal names are usually dysphemisms: coot,
old bat, pig, chicken, snake, skunk, and bitch, for example.
- If Euphemisms we have: “to pass away, to pass on, to depart this life, go
to one's Maker”, and so on. Parallel dysphemisms would be “to snuff it, to
croak, and to push up daisies,...”, since these allude graphically and cruelly to
the physical aspect of death, down to breathing one's last, the death rattle, and
being reincorporated into the cycle of nature.
- Speakers resort to dysphemism to talk about people and things that
frustrate and annoy them (Stylistic Discord) that they disapprove of and wish to
disparage, humiliate and degrade. Ex: During political campaigns, they crop up
everywhere => “The government is valiantly combating resistance from
terrorists.”
- In slang speakers frequently have the opposite phenomenon,
dysphemism, where a relatively neutral word is replaced with a harsher, more
offensive one. Such as calling a cemetery a 'boneyard'.
- Dysphemisms in Context: => A jocular approach to death is only
dysphemistic if the hearer can be expected to regard it as offensive. Ex: if a
doctor were to inform the close family that their loved one has “pegged out”
during the night, it would normally be inappropriate, insensitive, and
unprofessional (i.e., dysphemistic). Yet given another context with quite a
different set of interlocutors, the same expression could just as well be
described as cheerfully euphemistic.

III) Hyperbole
1. Definition
-Hyperbole is a statement that has been exaggerated. It is used to overstate a
situation and is not intended to be taken literally. Hyperbole may be used in a
figurative language to overexpress what someone is saying

-Hyperbole is used to overemphasize a statement or situation in order to give a

more dramatic effect on the listener or reader.

2. How hyperbowl slant listeners’/readers’ opinion, feeling…

-Hyperbole can be used like any other descriptive form of language to help
paint a more vivid picture for your audience. Hyperbole also serves as a form of
persuasion, to really make your case to audience. The use of exaggeration or
overstatement can make your speech that much more persuasive.

Hyperbole is used to highlight points and add emphasis to a feeling, an idea, an

action, or a feature. Furthermore, using in your writing lets you describe
something in a heightened way to make it more remarkable

3. Example

-Hyperbole can also be used as a rhetorical device, in this type of use you might
see a phrase such as ‘we have nothing to fear but fear itself.’ In this example,
the speaker is exaggerating how fearful people should be or are.
-In such an example as ‘I almost died from laughter.’ The speaker did not
literally almost die but using this hyperbole they are expressing that they
laughed a great deal.

-To register distress, one might write: “Charlie gazed hopelessly at the endless pile of
bills stretching across the counter.” (From “Ereading Worksheets.”)

-She’s my guardian angel. In this example, the writer wants to say that the girl
is an angel believed to have special care of a particular individual broadly
-Your brain is the size of a pea. This is a way to tell someone that they are
foolish or unintelligent person.

IV. Proof - surrogate:

1. Definition:

An expression used to suggest that there is evidence or authority for a claim

without actually citing such as evidence or authority. This happens as a way of
replacing argumentation

2. How proof-surrogate slant listeners’/readers’ opinion, feeling:

- Proof -surrogate used to make us believe that a claim is true and does
have need any reason to doubt it. Can be sometimes misleading.
- Logical Form:
Claim X is made.
Claim X is expressed in such a way where no evidence is forthcoming, or no
requests for evidence are welcome.
=>Therefore, X is true
- Some expression of proof-surrogate:
“Everyone knows that…”
“Experts say that…”
“Some would say that…”
“Scientists have proven that…”

3. Example:
● Example 1:
Jose writes that "people are mostly good at heart." The author is simply wrong.
=> Explanation: The arguer states that the author is "simply wrong" yet offers
no reasons. Words and phrases such as "simply," "obviously," "without
question," etc., are indicators that no such evidence will be presented.
● Example 2:
Politician X is crooked—this is an indisputable fact known by everyone except
politician X's supporters.
=> Explanation: The language "this in an indisputable fact" is a surrogate for
the evidence showing that politician X is crooked.
● Example 3:
Saying “Expert say that..” without saying who the experts are and how it is
knơn that what they say is true.
● Example 4:
“Studies show” without” specifying which studies, and who did them, and
according to what standards they were conducted.
● Example 5:
There’s every reason to believe that the investment will pay off.
Rhetorical Analogy
Likens two or more things to make one of them appear better or worse than another
to evoke emotions that would stand as bases for believing unreasonable claims.

Rhetorical analogies also include comparisons, like “You have a better chance of
being struck by lightning rather than winning the lottery.” But some comparisons can
lead us into error if we are not careful. A female smoker has a much better chance of
surviving lung cancer than a male does, but that would not be a good reason for a
female smoker not to quit. Advertising sometimes offers vague comparisons

Example: Quentin Tarantino has been dubbed as ‘the new Scorsese’, which might
increase his acclaim and recognition in the public eye. -> An unfair comparison as
Scorsese and Tarantino are different people who possess different bodies of
work and directing styles, and shouldn’t be put on two ends of an imaginary
scale.

Ricardo Quaresma, once dubbed “better Ronaldo” is now a washed up piece of wet
cabbage.
Rhetorical Explanation
An explanation that conveys a strong attitude or feeling because of the diction used.
Is normally used to persuade or slant someone’s attitude or point of view toward
whatever the “defined” term refers to.

Example: “Notre Dame lost to USC this weekend because they played like my little
brother’s peewee team”. -> The speaker shows great dissatisfaction with the
team’s horrible performance.

This kind of definition can be troublesome, because it often distorts the real meaning
of a term in order to cause the listener or reader to favor or disfavor a person, policy,
object, or event.

This slant particularly evokes anger from the audience through a negative
explanation.

Rhetorical explanations use the language of standard explanations to disguise

their real purpose, which is to express or elicit an attitude
Example: Affirmative action used to stand for equal opportunity; now it means
preferences and quotas. The people behind affirmative action aren't for equal rights
anymore; they're for handouts. -> The core message is understood as
comparisons show that the demographic that used to rebel is now conforming,
chasing pragmatic personal values instead of fighting the good fight bravely.

Defining abortion as “the murder of an unborn child” does this and stack the deck
against those who think abortion is morally defensible. Restricting the meaning of
“human being” to an organism to which a human given birth stacks the deck the
other way. -> Gives way into both of the sides’ persuasion, one restriction
values human life in many forms while the other is perceived as undervaluing
it.

Rhetorical Definitions
Rhetorical definitions are used to persuade or slant someone’s attitude or point of
view toward whatever the “defined” term refers to. This kind of definition can be
troublesome, because it often distorts the real meaning of the term in order to cause
the listener or reader to favor or disfavor a person, policy, object, or event.

Example: they might say that a politician is “all rhetoric and no substance,” meaning
the politician makes good speeches but doesn't have good ideas.

Pitchfork: In many ways, This Is Next is a glorified promo sampler from Warner-
owned indie distributor Alternative Distributor Alliance, which distributes every artist
featured here.

Ridicule/Sarcasm
Sarcasm is used by people who expect to get a good laugh at the expense of
somebody else who is usually on the opposing side, without actually raising an
objection to the opposition; ridicule attacks the opposing party; both divert attention
from the actual topic of debate to something else that is completely irrelevant

Also known as the horse laugh, this device includes ridicule and vicious humor of all
kinds. Ridicule is a powerful rhetorical tool—most of us hate being laughed at.

Example: When someone does something wrong - ”Very good; well done! You
deserve a promotion!” ( brooding )
I. RIDICULE
 1. Definition
 Using complimentary language for the purpose of insulting or ridiculing
something/someone.
 Avoid arguing a position by making fun of it with ironic statements.
2. Example
“Physical education takes up one of your classes, and with that, you could be
doing a business class.” said sophomore Michael Brady.
Donald Trump: “Obama never drew crowds like this” - people: “We are
protesters”.

II. RHETORICAL DEFINITION

1. Definition
 Rhetorical definitions are used to persuade or slant someone’s attitude or
point of view toward whatever the “defined” term refers to.
 It can have either positive or negative impact on someone’s emotion or
attitude.
2. Example
“A cup of hot chocolate is a warm fuzzy, as comforting and cozy as a crackling
fire on a snowy night.”
“A Democrat is a person who likes to take your money and give it to lazy
people.”
III.RHETORICAL EXPLANATION:
1. Definition

 An explanation that conveys a strong attitude or feeling because of the

diction used.
 Rhetorical explanations usually smuggle in some prejudice or bias.
=> Utilize normal explanatory language to hide their true intent, which is to
express or evoke anger at affirmative action policies.
2. Example
“Notre Dame lost to USC this weekend because they played like my little
brother’s peewee team.”
“That pretty girl over there looks so healthy because she eats an apple every
day for lunch.”

IV. RHETORICAL ANALOGY

1. Definition
 A rhetorical analogy likens two or more things to make one of them
appear better or worse than another.
=> May lead us to change our opinions about something even though we have
not been given arguments.
 People use rhetorical analogies for straightforward explanatory purposes.
 It may also include comparisons (both sides of the comparison need to be
clear, or the comparison isn’t worth much).
2. Example
Neil Armstrong quote: “That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for
mankind.”
=> This pairs the idea of one man's individual action with the greater
implication for humanity as a whole. It makes a connection between two things.
“Trump salutes Marine One after taking his mask off.” MSNBC called it a
“Mussolini Moment”. CNN called it “something out of North Korea”.
=> Negative point of view toward Trump (as a dictator).
 1. Innuendo - bóng gió (Also called insinuation.) (Hà Anh - Thanh Vi)
- Innuendo is a form of expression used to make a specific claim without actually
stating that claim. Used to imply or suggest something without being explicit
- Innuendo uses the power of suggestion to disparage (say something bad about)
someone or something.

Example:
- “I’ve found a way to get some “extra help” on the test”: Indicates that the speaker is
preparing to cheat on a test. The use of quotation marks to emphasize the phrase
“extra help” is a common way to use innuendo. This implies that the phrase is being
used in a special way here and allows your friend to boast about cheating without
admitting that he is cheating; it’s a safe way to talk about doing something that is not
allowed.
-
- “Hmm. It seems strange that Scott has missed work on yet another Friday, of all
days”: This implies that Scott’s reason for missing work is not sickness but wanting to
enjoy a three-day weekend. Perhaps he is not really sick, but taking a nice trip, going
to a concert, or watching TV.
-
- Vắng mợ thì chợ vẫn đông: To imply that there are individuals who evaluate
themselves as very important, nevertheless the absence of them actually does not
affect the community substantially.
-
- “I wish I were as confident as you to wear something so revealing.” : This is a
backhanded compliment, and can also sometimes be examples of innuendo. The
innuendo in this sentence is that the person in question actually is showing too much
skin.

2. Weasler
- Weaslers are an expression used to protect a claim from criticism by weakening it.
They are rhetorical devices that you add to a claim to weaken it such that you seem
to be making a strong claim, but you are not.  This allows you to exaggerate the
qualities of something (a truck, for example), without actually lying. It would appear, if
you think about it in the right way, that the party was not a success. 
- Using phrases like "perhaps" or "it is impossible" in front of a claim to allow the
possibility it may not be true, therefore, allows the speaker a way out if the claim is
called into question.

Example: “Up to 50% of our regular price”: That could mean that the discounts range
anywhere from 0% to 50% but they’ve got you in the store looking for all those 50%
discounts. This is used to imply an ideal situation but actually qualified it.

● “Virtually never needs service”: really means that it actually needs service, “virtually”
is interpreted by most people as meaning “almost or the same as…” but it means
“not in actual fact”
● “ It’s like getting another one free” : This is a qualifier that has a comparative element
to it. It is used to stop people from looking at the actual product being sold and
instead start thinking about something that is bigger, better and different.
This advertisement claims that it is a "natural bliss". The company doesn't detail what they
mean by "natural bliss". This claim could mean multiple things, and the product may not
even be made from natural substances.

"Fight" is a common weasel word used in advertisements for cleaning and health and beauty
supplies, similar to "act" or "work." This ad claims that Colgate is proven to "fight" germs for
12 hours, but the consumer is given no context as to what it means to "fight" germs.
Sometimes people lose fights; this toothpaste could be losing the fight to your germs.

3. Stereotype: -H
- A stereotype is a cultural belief or idea about a social group’s attributes, usually
simplified or exaggerated. In other words, stereotype is an oversimplified
generalization about the members of a class or culture. it can be positive or negative
- Stereotype is to associate something with a popular sometimes negatively held
image of a group.
- Simply, we can understand that stereotype is a set idea that people have about what
someone or something is like or an idea that is used to describe a particular type of
person or thing.

Example of stereotype:There are also some common stereotypes’ of men and

women, such as:
Men and women both contribute to the family economy in different ways, but many people
still think that "Men build houses, women build homes".

The old concept often holds that a man can achieve success on his own, but a woman can
only do it with the help of a man.
 Stereotypical ads for home appliances.
Home-appliance ads like those of refrigerators, washing machines, mixture grinders, exhibit
only females to be the consumers.. They are mostly seen standing with their wives, who are
the ones using those appliances. This gives a stereotypical message to the audience that,
yes females are made for this and males are meant for that.

Stereotypes also exist about cultures an countries :

● All Blacks outside of the United States are poor.

● “ This guy has tattoos all over his body, Gangster for sure.”
4. Downplayers (Hà Anh)
 - Downplayers attempt to make someone or something look less important or less
significant
- Stereotypes, rhetorical comparisons, rhetorical explanations, and innuendo (all
discussed later) can all be used to downplay something.

Example: ( Thùy Dương )

- Although he has such a huge fortune, he never does charity.

This statement downplays the wealthiness of the man.

- He is the so-called leader of the company.

- Wifi costs mere 100$ per month.
- Trump downplayed the Coronavirus Pandemic:

"We have it totally under control. It's one person coming in from China, and
we have it under control. It's going to be just fine"

"It's going to disappear. One day — it's like a miracle — it will disappear,"

5. Loaded question (Khanh Ha)

- A loaded question is a question that carries an inappropriate assumption(s), that is
doubtful and unsupported.
- A loaded question rests on one or more unwarranted (unjustified) assumptions. This
type of fallacious question puts the person who is being questioned in a
disadvantageous and defensive position, since the assumption in the question could
reflect badly on them or pressure them to answer in a way that they wouldn’t
otherwise.

Example:

“Do you actually support this terrible politician?”

This loaded question presupposes the fact that the politician being discussed is terrible.
Accordingly, if the respondent replies “yes”, because they do support that politician, then
their answer will inadvertently suggest that they think that politician is terrible.

“Do you think that we should convict this criminal?”

This loaded question presupposes the fact that the person being discussed is a criminal.
Accordingly, if the respondent believes that that person is innocent and replies “no”, in order
to show that they don’t think a conviction is necessary, then their answer will inadvertently
suggest that they believe that person is in fact a criminal.

“Are you one of those hateful people that doesn’t have any religious beliefs?”
This loaded question is framed so that if the respondent replies “yes”, because they don’t
have any religious beliefs, then their answer will inadvertently suggest that they believe
themself to be hateful.

“Have you accepted the fact that most scientific studies don’t support this theory?”

This loaded question presupposes the fact that most scientific studies don’t support the
theory in question. If the respondent says “no”, because they believe that this is wrong, then
their answer will inadvertently suggest that they agree with this presupposition, and that they
simply refuse to accept it.