10.

1 Introduction

 Major destruction during earthquakes are due to:

• Creation of fissures (large cracks)
Chapter 10 • Abnormal and/or unequal movement
• Loss of strength or stiffness of the ground

 The loss of strength or stiffness of the ground results in the settlement of buildings,
Liquefaction of Soil failure of earth dams, landslides, and other hazards.

 The process by which loss of strength occurs in soil is called soil liquefaction.

 The phenomenon of soil liquefaction is primarily associated with medium to fine-

grained saturated cohesionless soils.

 One of the first attempts to explain the liquefaction phenomenon in sandy soils was
based on the concept of critical void ratio.

1 2

 Dense sand, when subjected to shear, tends to dilate  Based on the effective stress principles, at any depth of a soil deposit:

 Loose sand, under similar conditions, tends to decrease in volume.

 The void ratio at which sand does not

change in volume when subjected to  If the magnitude of σ remains practically constant, and the u gradually increases, a time may
shear is referred to as the critical void come when σ will be equal to u. At that time, σ′ = 0.
ratio.
 Under this condition, the sand does not possess any shear strength, and it transforms into a
liquefied state.

 Deposits of sand that have a void ratio

larger than the critical void ratio tend to
decrease in volume when subjected to
vibration by a seismic effect.

 If drainage is unable to occur, the pore

water pressure increases.

3 Christchurch, New Zealand 2011

4
 San Francisco, CA

Kobe, Japan 1995 Niigata, Japan 1964

Portland, OR

 The critical void ratio concept may not be sufficient for a quantitative evaluation of soil
liquefaction potential of sand deposits. That is because:

1. Critical void ratio is not a constant value but changes with confining pressure.
2. Volume changes due to dynamic loading conditions are different than the one-
directional static load conditions realized in the lab by direct shear and triaxial shear Seattle, WA
tests.

5 6

10.2 Fundamental Concept of Liquefaction 10.3 Laboratory Studies to Simulate Field Conditions for Soil
Liquefaction
 Each cycle of straining reduces the void ratio of the
soil by a certain amount, although at a decreasing
 When earthquake effects are not present, effective σv = σ′ , and effective σh = K0σv (K0 is the at-
rate. (There of course exists a threshold shear strain, below which
no soil densification can take place, irrespective of the number of rest earth pressure coefficient) - Figure a.

cycles)
 Due to ground-shaking during an earthquake, a cyclic shear stress τh will be imposed on the soil
element. Figure (b).
 Decrease in volume of the sand can take place only
if drainage occurs freely.  Hence, any laboratory test to study the liquefaction problem must be designed in a manner so as
to simulate the condition of a constant normal stress and a cyclic shear stress on a plane of the
 Under earthquake conditions however, due to rapid soil specimen.
cyclic straining this will not be the condition. Thus,
 Most common lab test are the “Dynamic Triaxial Tests” and the “Simple Shear Test”
during straining gravity loadings are transferred
from soil solids to the pore water.

 The result will be an increase of pore water pressure

with a reduction in the capacity of the soil to resist
loading.

Gradual densification of sand by

repeated back-and-forth straining in a
7 simple shear test. For this case drainage
from the soil occurs freely. 8 No Earthquake During Earthquake
 10.4 General Concepts of Dynamic Triaxial Test  If the stresses on the specimen are changed such
that: (drainage into or out of the specimen is not allowed)

• axial stress is equal to σ3 +(0.5)σd

 Consider a saturated soil specimen in a triaxial test, as shown in Fig. a, which is
• radial stress is equal to σ3 - (0.5)σd
consolidated under an all-around pressure of σ3. The corresponding Mohr’s circle
is shown in Fig. b.

On plane X-X we will have: Total Normal Stress = σ3 ; Shear Stress = + (0.5)σd
On plane Y-Y we will have: Total Normal Stress = σ3 ; Shear Stress = - (0.5)σd

 Similarly if stresses on specimen are changed

such that: (drainage into or out of the specimen is not allowed)

• axial stress is equal to σ3 - (0.5)σd

• radial stress is equal to σ3 + (0.5)σd

On plane X-X we will have: Total Normal Stress = σ3 ; Shear Stress = - (0.5)σd
On plane Y-Y we will have: Total Normal Stress = σ3 ; Shear Stress = + (0.5)σd

9 Dynamic Triaxial Test 10

 Actual laboratory tests can be conducted by applying:

10.5 Typical Results from Cyclic Triaxial Test

1. An all-around consolidation pressure of σ3 and then,  Cyclic undrained triaxial tests on saturated soil specimens have been conducted by Seed and Lee (1966)
2. Applying a cyclic load having an amplitude of σd in the
on Sacramento River sand retained between No. 50 and No. 100 U.S sieves. The results of a typical test
axial direction only without allowing drainage in loose sand are shown in the following figures:

3. Axial strain and the excess pore water pressure can be

measured along with the number of cycles of load (σd)
application.

 The effect of the stress condition shown in Fig.5d is

to reduce the excess pore water pressure of the
specimen by an amount equal to 0.5σd without
causing any change in the axial strain.

 Thus, the effect of the stress conditions shown in

Fig.5b (which is the same as Fig.4c) can be achieved
by only subtracting a pore water pressure u = 0.5σd
from that observed from the loading condition shown
in Fig.5c.

Typical pulsating load test on loose saturated Sacramento River sand

11 12
 > 20 %  H. B. Seed performed a large number of tests on soil with different
properties to find the parameters that affect liquefaction.
 Axial strain
 The relationship between the magnitude of σd against the number of
cycles of pulsating stress applications for the liquefaction of the
same loose sand is shown in the following figure.
Harry Bolton Seed

 Note that the number of cycles of pulsating stress application increases with the
decrease of the value of σd.
 Change in pore water pressure u

 Change in pore water pressure

corrected to mean extreme
principal stress conditions
against the number of cycles of
load application (i.e., subtracting or
adding 0.5σd from or to the observed pore water
pressure)

14 Relationship between pulsating deviator stress and number of cycles required to

Test results of Loose saturated Sacramento River sand cause failure in Sacramento River sand
13

 More tests:

< 10% *
< 5%

Axial strain from initial liquefaction for pulsating load tests at

Test results of Dense saturated Sacramento River sand three densities for Sacramento River sand (from Seed and Lee, 1966)
* Due to dilation; will be discussed in section 10.11
15 16
  Tests on samples above and below Critical Void Ratio (slide 3 of this presentation) :
 According to the results of the conducted tests, the liquefaction potential depends on
five important factors:

Denser than critical void
ratio  will expand
during shear
1. Relative density RD
2. Confining pressure σ3
Looser than critical void
ratio  will shrink 3. Peak pulsating stress σd
during shear
4. Number of cycles of pulsating stress application

5. Overconsolidation ratio

 Soil grain size characteristics, particle shape, aging and cementation, depositional
environment, drainage conditions, and construction-induced loads are also known to
have some effects on the liquefaction potential.
Critical confining pressure-void ratio relationship for Sacramento
River sand (redrawn from Seed and Lee, 1966)
17 18

10.6 Influence of Various Parameters on Soil Liquefaction Potential Influence of Confining Pressure

Influence of the Initial Relative Density (RD)
 Lee and Seed 1967 performed a number of test to investigate the effect of the initial RD of a soil
on liquefaction.
 It may be seen that, for a given value of σd, the initial liquefaction and the failure occur
simultaneously for loose sand.
 However, as the relative density increases, the difference between the number of cycle to cause
20% double amplitude strain and to cause initial liquefaction increases.
 For a given initial relative density and peak pulsating stress, the number of cycles to cause initial
liquefaction or 20% strain increases with the increase of the confining pressure.
 It is also observed that, for sand having the same initial void ratio and same σ3, the higher σd, the
lower the number of cycles of deviatoric stress required to cause liquefaction.
 This is true for all relative densities of compaction.
 Conditions that can create greater confining pressure are soil located at a deeper depth or addition of
surcharge on the ground surface.

 Initial liquefaction: condition when the pore water

pressure becomes equal to the confining pressure σ3.
 20% strain: is considered as failure.

20
19 Loose soil Dense soil Initial Liquefaction 20% Strain
Influence of the Peak Pulsating Stress, σd 10.7 Development of Standard Curves for Initial Liquefaction
 The figures below show the variation of σd with σ3 for initial liquefaction in 100 cycles and for
20% axial strain in 100 cycles.
 By compiling the results of liquefaction tests conducted by several investigators on various types
 Note that for a given initial void ratio (i.e., relative density RD) and number of cycles of load of sand, average standard curves for initial liquefaction for a given number of load cycle
application, the variation of σd for initial liquefaction with σ3 is practically linear. A similar applications can be developed.
relation also exists for loose sand with a 20% axial strain condition.
 These curves can then be used for evaluation of liquefaction potential in the field. (section 10.15)
 It is worth noting that the peak pulsating stress, σd, is a function of peak ground acceleration
expected at the site.

 D50 is the median grain size, i.e.,

the size through which 50% of the
soil will pass.

 It should be kept in mind that 0.5σd

is the magnitude of the maximum
cyclic shear stress imposed on a
soil specimen (see planes X−X and
Y−Y of Fig. 10.4d, f).

21 Influence of pulsating stress on liquefaction of Sacramento River sand (a) initial liquefaction in 22 Stress ratio causing initial liquefaction of sands in 10 and 30 cycles
100 cycles; (b) 20% strain in 100 cycles (from Seed and Idriss, 1971)

10.8 General Concepts of Cyclic Simple Shear Test 10.9 Typical Test Results of Cyclic Simple Shear Test

 Results of some soil liquefaction tests (initial liquefaction condition) on Monterey sand using
 Cyclic simple shear tests can be used to study liquefaction of simple shear apparatus are shown in the figure below.
saturated sand by using the simple shear apparatus.
 Note that:
 In this type of test, the soil specimen is consolidated by a 1. For a given value of σv and RD, a decrease of τh requires an increase of the number of
vertical stress σv ,at this time, lateral stress is equal to K0.σv cycles to cause liquefaction.
(K0 = coefficient of earth pressure at rest).
2. For a given value of RD and number of cycles of stress application, a decrease of σv
 After that, a cyclic horizontal shear stress of peak magnitude τh requires a decrease of the peak value of τh for causing liquefaction.
is applied (undrained condition) to the specimen.
3. For a given value of σv and
 The pore water pressure and the strain are observed with the number of cycles of stress
number of cycles of horizontal shear stress application. application, τh for causing
liquefaction increases with
 Note that the maximum shear stress on the specimen in simple the increase of the relative
shear is NOT τh, but: density.

23
24
  Influence of Test Conditions
 For a relative density up to about 80%, the peak value of τh for initial liquefaction increases
linearly with RD. • In simple shear test equipment, there is always some nonuniformity of stress conditions.

• This causes specimens to develop liquefaction under lower applied horizontal cyclic
 At higher relative densities (which may not be practical to achieve in the field, particularly if stresses as compared to that in the field.
fines are present), the relationship is nonlinear.
• This happens even though care is taken to improve the preparation of the specimens and
rough platens are used at the top and bottom of the specimens to be tested.

• For that reason, for a given value of συ , RD, and number of cyclic shear stress application,
the peak value of τh in the field is about 15%–50% higher than that obtained from the
cyclic simple shear test.
Linear behavior

 Influence of Overconsolidation Ratio on the Peak Value of τh Causing

Liquefaction

• For the cyclic simple shear test, the value of τh is highly

dependent on the value of the initial lateral earth pressure
coefficient at rest (K0).

• The value of K0, is in turn, dependent on the over

consolidation ratio (OCR).
Effect of relative density on cyclic shear stress causing initial
25 liquefaction of Monterey sand 26

10.10 Rate of Excess Pore Water Pressure Increase 10.11 Large-Scale Simple Shear Tests

 This is one of the most important parameters as it will tell us “how fast” the excess pore water
pressure (ug) will raise  Application in Soil Stabilization of potentially liquefiable soil
 Seed and Booker, 1977, and DeAlba, Chan and Seed, 1975, measured the rate of ug using cyclic
simple shear tests (the figure below).
 The “average value” of the variation of ug was also expressed in a non-dimensional form as:
 Some concerns have remained in the study of soil liquefaction of granular soils for certain
test procedures. Some of these concerns are:
• Stress concentration in small-scale simple shear tests leads to some inaccuracy in the results. (Castro,
1969)
• Stress concentration at the base and cap of cyclic triaxial test specimens and the possibility of necking
leads to nonuniformity of strain and redistribution of water content. (Castro, 1975)

• Attempts to study liquefaction by using shaking table tests have also raised some questions, since the
results, in some cases, have been influenced by the confining effects of the sides of the box.
Range of pore water pressure buildup
ug = excess pore water pressure generated in cyclic simple shear test
 For that reason, “DeAlba, Seed, and Chan, 1976”, conducted a series of large-scale simple
συ = initial consolidation pressure
N = number of cycles of shear stress application shear tests with one-directional cyclic stress application.
Ni = number of cycles of shear stress needed for initial liquefaction
α = constant (≈ 0.7)
• Each specimen was constructed over a shaking table.
• A rubber membrane was placed over the sand to prevent drainage.
 Therefore, the rate can be calculated as: • An inertia mass was also placed on top of the sand.
• Movement of the shaking table produced cyclic stress conditions in the sand.
• “Cyclic shear stress”, τh , and “Cyclic shear strain”, γ′ , were determined as:

* See the parameters in Page 450 of book

28
27
  The variation of cyclic shear strain, γ′, with N for dense sands obtained from large-scale simple
 Tests results were corrected for the
compliance effects of the specimens shear tests was also shown.
and the pore water pressure-measuring
system and the effects of membrane
penetration.  Note that the magnitude of γ′ increased gradually with
N after initial liquefaction up to a maximum limiting
value and remained constant thereafter.
Corrected τh/συ versus Ni for initial liquefaction from large-
scale simple shear tests (from DeAlba, Seed, and Chan, 1976)
 They also compared their results with some
of the other researchers. RD = 50%
 They also presented the relationships
 The differences between the results are between τh/σv and N, producing average
primarily due to:
shear strains of 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%,
• Effect of membrane penetration for samples with different RD.
• Length-to-height ratio of the specimens and hence the
boundary conditions  This was calculated from displacements
• Nature of sample preparation. measured from the large-scale simple
shear tests.
 It is thus evident that care should be taken to
provide proper boundary conditions if
meaningful data are to be obtained from
shaking table tests.
29 30
Fig. 10.25

 The results of Figure 10.25 were replotted as values of τh/σv causing  Based on Figure 10.26, the following conclusions can be drawn:
initial liquefaction, or different levels of shear (for N=10), versus
RD.
1. For initial RD ≤ 45%, the application of cyclic stress ratio high
 The results show that each curve is asymptotic to a certain value of enough to cause initial liquefaction also causes unlimited shear
RD. Hence a curve of limiting shear strain versus RD can be strain. This corresponds to a condition of liquefaction.
obtained as shown in Figure 10.26b.
Fig. 10.25
2. For initial RD > 45%, the application of cyclic
stress ratio high enough to cause initial
liquefaction will result in a limited amount of
shear strain. This is the case of soil with limited
strain potential or the condition of cyclic mobility.

3. The limiting strain potential decreases with the

increase of the initial relative density of soil.

Fig. 10.26

31 32 Fig. 10.26
 10.12 Correlation of Liquefaction Results from Simple Shear
and Triaxial Tests

 Conditions for determination of field liquefaction problems are related to the ratio of
τh/σv; this is also true for the case of cyclic simple shear stress tests. However, in the
case of triaxial tests, the results are related to the ratio of (1/2)(σd/σ3).
Development of a Procedure for
 The following alternative criteria have been considered by Seed and Peacock, 1971
Determination of Field Liquefaction for correlation for the onset of soil liquefaction:
1. The "maximum ratio of the shear stress developed during cyclic loading" to the "normal
stress during consolidation" on any plane of the specimen can be a controlling factor.

For triaxial specimens, this is equal to (1/2)(σd/σ3)

For simple shear specimens it is about τh/(K0συ)

Thus:


33 34
 This is a relationship between simple shear test and triaxial test

2. Another possible condition for the onset of liquefaction can be the "maximum ratio of change 4. The fourth possible alternative may be the ratio of "maximum change in shear stress on any
in shear stress during cyclic loading" to the "normal stress during consolidation" on any plane. plane during cyclic loading" to the "mean principal stress during consolidation":

For triaxial specimens, this is equal to (1/2)(σd/σ3)

For simple shear specimens it is about τh/(K0συ)

This leads to same equation as case 1.

 Therefore, in general we can say:
3. The third possible alternative can be given by the ratio of the "maximum shear stress induced
in a specimen during cyclic loading" to the "mean principal stress on the specimen during
consolidation".

For simple shear specimens:

Maximum shear stress during cyclic loading
Mean principal stress during consolidation

For triaxial specimens:

Maximum shear stress during cyclic loading = 1/2σd
Mean principal stress during consolidation = σ3

Therefore:

35 36
 10.13 Correlation of the Liquefaction Results from Triaxial Tests  Using an average value of α′ = 0.47 and the values of β from previous graph, variation of Cr
with RD can be obtained. (below Figure)
to Field Conditions
 The presented Eq. shows the correlations for initial liquefaction between the stress ratios in the
 It has been explained in section 10.9 that the field value of (τh/σv) for initial liquefaction is about field, cyclic simple shear tests, and cyclic triaxial tests for a given sand at the same relative
15%–50% higher than that obtained from simple shear tests. Thus: density.

 However, when laboratory tests are conducted at say, RD(1), whereas the fields conditions show
the sand deposit to be a relative density of RD(2), one has to convert the laboratory test results to
correspond to a relative density of RD(2).
 Combining this with the triaxial relationship:
 Therefore:

 The approximate variation of β with relative density of sand is

given in the Figure on the right:

37
38

10.14 Zone of Initial Liquefaction in the Field 10.15 Relation between Maximum Ground Acceleration (amax)
 There are 5 general steps for determining the zone in the field where soil liquefaction due to and the Relative Density (RD) of Sand for Soil Liquefaction
an earthquake can be initiated:

1. Establish a design earthquake.  This section aims to determine the relation between the maximum ground acceleration due to
an earthquake and the relative density of a sand deposit in the field for the initial liquefaction
2. Determine the time history of shear stresses condition.
induced by the earthquake at various depths of
sand layer.
Fig. 7.15
3. Convert the shear stress–time histories into N
number of equivalent stress cycles (see section
7.7). These can be plotted against depth.

4. Using the laboratory test results, determine the

magnitude of the cyclic stresses required to cause
initial liquefaction in the field in N cycles Liquefiable
(determined from Step 3) at various depths. Note
that the cyclic shear stress levels change with
depth due to change of σv.
Not Liquefiable
5. The zone in which the cyclic shear stress levels
required to cause initial liquefaction (Step 4) are
equal to or less than the equivalent cyclic shear
stresses induced by an earthquake is the zone of
possible liquefaction.
Fig. 10.29
40
39
 The figure below shows a layer of sand deposit in which we consider a column of soil of height  It has been shown that the maximum shear stress determined from the shear stress–time history
h and unit area of cross section. during an earthquake can be converted into an equivalent number of significant stress cycles.
According to Seed and Idriss, one can take:
 Assuming the soil column to behave as a rigid
body, the maximum shear stress at a depth h
due to a maximum ground surface acceleration
of amax can be given by:

The corresponding number of significant

cycles N for τaυ is given in Table 10.2.

 However, the soil column is not a rigid body. Therefore, the maximum shear stress at a depth
h, needs to be modified as:  We can now combine Eq. (10.23), which gives the correlation of laboratory results of cyclic
triaxial test to the field conditions, and Eq. (10.26) to determine the relationships between amax
and RD. (This has been shown in a numerical example in next slide.)

where CD is a stress reduction factor

and can be found form the Fig. 10.30.

41 42
Fig. 10.30

 In general, the critical depth of liquefaction (see Fig. 10.29) occurs at a depth of about 6.0 m
when the depth of water table dw is 0 - 3.0 m; similarly, the critical depth is about 9.0 m when
dw = 4.5 m.

 Also liquefaction generally occurs in sands having a median size D50 of 0.075–0.2 mm.
Consider a case where

Fig. 10.30

Fig. 10.15
Stress ratio causing initial liquefaction of sands in
10 and 30 cycles (from Seed and Idriss, 1971)

43
44
 It is now possible to prepare Table 10.3:

*R is the relative density in the field

D(2)

Liquefiable San Francisco,

CA

Portland,
Not Liquefiable
OR

Seattle,
45 WA