2022 June - July

June/July 2022
The International Journal for the Tunnelling Industry

TUNNELLING JOURNAL JUNE/JULY 2022
www.tunnellingjournal.com
Sprayed concrete
and carbon:
how low can we go?
Page Page Page
16 Multi-layer 30 15 minutes with 34 The health
Lining Design Josie Gallagher and safety
TJ investigates a An interesting imperative
new framework for an insightful TJ takes a close-
tunnel lining design. conversation with up look at safety
the Chairman of the management and
Joseph Gallagher its impact on our
Group. industry.
Tunnelling Journal 1
VSM
FLEXIBLE AND
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developed its Vertical Shaft Sinking Machine (VSM) technology
particularly for shaft construction below groundwater. This mechanized
shaft sinking technology is able to construct shafts for access,
ventilation, sewage and other utilisations in soft and stable soils.
herrenknecht.com/en/vsm
2 Tunnelling Journal
Contents
Editor’s comment – page 5
News from the web – page 6
08
Sprayed concrete and carbon: how low
can we go?
As the demand for decarbonisation from investors and
governments grows, tunnel linings – and their cement
content - are coming under scrutiny. What does this mean
for sprayed concrete, asks Kristina Smith.
16
Multi-layer lining design: a new
framework for tunnel lining design
As the single layer sprayed concrete lined (SCL) primary
lining design gradually becomes the “norm”, design of
multi-layer lining (MLL) that comprises a permanent primary
lining layer and the following lining layers becomes a real
challenge. Dr. Jiang Su of Ramboll, London, UK, discusses
this emerging topic from engineering fundamentals, and
suggests the necessity of upskilling a new breed of “hybrid
tunnel engineers”.
Sustainable Shotcrete with Crushed

Waste Glass
By M Serati, G Malgotra, and SMR Basireddy of the School
of Civil Engineering, University of Queensland, Brisbane, N
Jackson, of GCP Applied Technologies, NSW, and H Asche of
24
Aurecon.
30
15 minutes with Josie Gallagher
34
The health and safety imperative
Given the complex nature of tunnel construction projects,
health and safety management is a principal consideration for
all project stakeholders. Missing the mark on these important
parameters can result in added expenses, lost time and
injuries. By Munesu Shoko.
Contacts – page 38
ALWAYS
ADVANCING www.terratec.co
BANGKOK FLOOD PROTECTION: AHEAD OF THE CURVE

The Bueng Nong Bon to Chao Phraya River Diversion Project is a major flood prevention tunnel being built in the
capital as part of the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration’s (BMA) long-term plan to manage flash floods.
Due to the dense urban environment, the tunnel’s route has been dictated by the need to stay within
public road easements, which has imposed a number of very tight radius curves on the alignment. To achieve
these, TERRATEC has delivered two new 5.70m diameter tight radius EPBMs, which have been designed with an
extreme X-type articulation system that can accommodate a minimum radius curve of 35m. Machine operation
will be assisted by TERRATEC’s highly-experienced Field Service staff to ensure optimum performance and
successful project completion.
TUNNELLING SOLUTIONS UTILITIES

EDITOR’S COMMENT
Step changes...
It’s impossible to avoid the subject of climate
change these days, nor would we want to when
considering the stakes and also the role civil
engineering will play in minimising the potentially
devastating effects of unrestricted global
temperature escalation. Set that up alongside
worker health and safety, and I’d say these were
the two aspects of contemporary construction that
we hear the most about at present and are the two
subjects that feature most heavily in this issue of TJ.
Go back 30 years or so, climate change was
virtually a rumour, and worker safety all too often ...the relentless barracking over the past
involved making sure you had your hard hat and
steel toe capped boots on! decades from the various Health & Safety
Not so now, indeed the relentless barracking
over the past decades from the various Health & Executives around the world, whether it be for
Safety Executives around the world, whether it be
for improved methodology for hyperbaric safety, improved methodology for hyperbaric safety,
silicosis prevention, or even highlighting mental
health issues, to name a very few, has paid dividends silicosis prevention, or even highlighting
and should be applauded.
But the rate at which the industry is attacking mental health issues, to name a very few, has
the issue of protecting the environment, and of
reducing the carbon footprint of any given project paid dividends and should be applauded.
is also quite staggering. Kristina’s article ‘Sprayed
concrete and carbon: how low can we go?’ on p8
illustrates this point perfectly. Not only are individual Going back to the world of Health & Safety, it was
companies in small JVs taking responsibility by interesting to read Josie Gallagher’s interview on
creating new technologies that will lower the p30 – in celebration of 40 years in the industry as a
carbon content of a concrete lining, but huge client company – where he flags up their safety initiatives
bodies, such as HS2 in the UK and Grand Paris as being one of the prime reasons for the success
Express in France are ensuring best practice is being of his company, saying “We’ve invested significantly
followed across the board of their mega-projects. in our safety culture and our LIFE (‘Living Incident
It’s a perfect example of initiating genuine step Free Everyday) ethos, which is at the forefront of
changes from originally ‘small acorn’ ideas, by giving everything we do in the business.”
them real teeth, something only the client can So, the people in the team really now are
genuinely do. paramount, having thankfully taken over from
And more and more of these ‘small acorn’ production rates as a main project driver.
ideas are springing up globally. We’re delighted When you think about it, workforce Health &
to have the University of Queensland’s Professor Safety and Climate Change solutions are mutually
Mehdi Serati et Al’s article ‘Sustainable shotcrete exclusive, just on rather different scales. Worker
production with waste glass aggregates’ in this safety is more personal, caring for a team right
issue on p24 that illustrates yet another initiative down to the individual. Climate change prevention
for sprayed concrete, as summed up in its title. is Global, it’s about caring for the population. But
We’re also delighted to announce the next round to the individual and their family, neither is more
of the group’s findings will be presented at the BTS important than the other, you just want everybody
Conference in London in October. In fact, I received to come home at the end of the day.
an email just as I was writing this from a company You can make up production rates another time,
saying it had developed a new compound with but you can never replace a loved one. So let’s keep
bio-based ethylene that reduces the CO2 balance those ‘small acorns’ and safety initiatives growing,
in segment gaskets. Yet more initiative for us to for the sake of your family, friends, and let’s face it,
investigate, so keep them coming. the whole world.
BREAKING INDUSTRY NEWS
Lower Thames Crossing bidder dialogue begins

27/04/2022
National Highways has invited shortlisted

bidders to participate in dialogue for the
£2.3bn contract to build the tunnel and
approach roads for the Lower Thames
Crossing.
The contract will be for the twin bored
tunnel and its approach roads. At a length
of 4.3km it will be the longest UK road
tunnel and with a diameter of over 16m
diameter, the widest tunnel in Europe. A
tunnel was chosen rather than a bridge
to reduce the environmental impact on
sensitive ecological landscapes such as
the Thames Estuary and Marshes.
Three bidders are shortlisted. They are:
• BFV JV; comprising BAM Nuttall Ltd, aims to deliver solutions that meet the commence the mobilisation and design
Ferrovial Construction (UK) Ltd and challenging ambitions for the programme works early, and allow time to maximise
Vinci Construction Grands Projets such as exploring carbon neutral the opportunities for collaboration
• Bouygues Murphy Joint Venture construction. The process will allow across the three main works and other
(BMJV); comprising Bouygues Travaux dialogue between National Highways related contracts, across areas including
Publics S.A.S. and J Murphy & Sons Ltd and the bidders, and is designed to be development of a local supply chain and
• Dragados-Hochtief Joint Venture (DH collaborative in its approach. developing low-carbon solutions as part
JV); comprising Dragados S.A. and The procurement of the three main of the optimised contractor involvement.
Hochtief Infrastructure Gmbh works contracts is continuing in parallel National Highways plans to submit an
to the development consent process application for a Development Consent
The competitive dialogue approach has with the contract awards anticipated Order for the new crossing later this year,
been adopted as this is a highly complex in Summer 2023. The streamlined once it has held its Local Refinement
project, with unique challenges that procurement process is designed to Consultation, which runs until Monday 20
require innovative solutions. The dialogue enable the successful contractors to June 2022.
Live performance marks Tideway Auckland Light Rail opens tender

Tunnel completion process
29/04/2022 18/05/2022
Tunnelling has completed on London’s 25km long, 7.2m The tender processes for the $14.6bn Auckland Light Rail and the
diameter Thames Tideway Tunnel and to commemorate Additional Waitematā Harbour Connections project have opened,
this engineering feat, a live performance has taken place marking an important step forward in developing a future-
70m underground in the depth of the tunnel itself. The proofed rapid transit network for the New Zealand North Island
performance, from London-based composer and musician metropolis.
Rob Lewis, was streamed and is available on Tideway’s “The Auckland Light Rail project will provide a 24km route
YouTube channel and fuses multi-instrumental music with with up to 18 stations or stops from the City Centre to Māngere
the sounds of the sewer construction, capturing the unique and the airport. The route will include tunnelled light rail from
acoustic properties of the space. Wynyard Quarter to Mt Roskill, continuing above ground to the
The Tunnel was divided into three sections – the 13km airport running parallel to the SH20 motorway, with the provision
long Central, the East at 5.5km long, and the 7km west– of safe walking and cycling options along the corridor and with
with each section being constructed by a different joint connections to all stations,” Minister of Transport, Michael Wood
venture of contractors. The West section is being built said.
by the Joint venture of BAM Nuttall, Morgan Sindall and The tender process for Auckland Light Rail is being co-
Balfour Beatty Group, the East section by the Joint venture ordinated with the tender process for the Additional Waitematā
of Costain, Vinci Construction Grands Projets and Bachy Harbour Connections project, in order to ensure that the industry
Soletanche, and the Central section by the Ferrovial and professionals who plan and design these projects are able to
Laing O’Rourke JV. best plan for the pipeline of infrastructure work coming across
The £4.2bn Tideway project is due to be complete in Aotearoa.
2025, following secondary lining, connection and testing Connections project will begin later this year, with a preferred
works. way forward determined in late 2023.
Chennai receives first of
five Terratec EPBMs
31/05/2022
TERRATEC has announced the delivery of the first of five

6.61m diameter EPBMs that will be used by Tata Projects Ltd.
for its underground works contracts on Chennai Metro Rail
Phase-II Corridors India.
The new TBMs will be used on Phase 2 – Corridor 3, from
Venugopal Nagar Station to Kellys Station. The work involves
the construction of 18km of bored tunnels. TERRATEC will
provide five of the seven TBMs required for the package.
The Mixed Ground EPBMs will install 1,400mm wide by
275mm thick universal reinforced concrete lining rings
consisting of five segments plus a key.
The new Line 5 Chennai metro will have 48 stations and
connect from Madhavaram to Sholinganallur. The project is
anticipated to be completed in about four years.
Preferred bidder announced for

Stonehenge Tunnel
26/05/2022
TUNNEL
CONSTRUCTION
The UK’s National Highways has announced its Preferred
Bidder for the £1.25bn contract for the tunnel and main
construction work for the A303 Amesbury to Berwick Down
scheme past Stonehenge as the MORE JV, comprising Webuild/
FCC Construcción/BeMo Tunnelling. The announcement
follows a robust procurement process, a major part of which
required shortlisted tenderers to develop their design solutions
and demonstrate these as compliant with National Highways
requirements.
MORE JV have enlisted a design consortium with Atkins, Jacobs CONTACT
and Spanish designer Sener acting as the design joint venture. Messe Berlin GmbH
The Main Works Contract covers the construction of the Erik Schaefer
Messedamm 22 · 14055 Berlin
proposed 3.3km long tunnel’s civil, structural, mechanical,
Germany
electrical and technology components, including the TBM, T +49 30 3038 2034
along with the approach roadworks and structures and the Erik.Schaefer@messe-berlin.de
environmental components of the five-year construction phase.
TunnelingJournal_Tunnel_InnoTrans2022_90x272_en_Jubi.indd 1 09.05.2022 09:41:21
Sprayed concrete and carbon:
how low can we go?
As the demand for decarbonisation from investors and Loughborough University, Arup and Peaston Concrete
Consultancy. There are still some problems to iron
governments grows, tunnel linings – and their cement out– of which, more later – but it has the potential
to provide a solution for contractors looking to meet
content - are coming under scrutiny. What does this carbon reduction targets on major infrastructure
projects with sprayed concrete elements.
mean for sprayed concrete, asks Kristina Smith. Looking at the wider picture, reducing the cement
content in sprayed concrete is just one piece in
a much bigger jigsaw which encompasses issues
In December last year Shotcrete Services trialled including new approaches to planning and early
sprayed concrete in which 70% of the cement design, better design, greater cooperation between
had been replaced by ground granulated blast designer and contractor, higher standards of
furnace slag (GGBS). Tests went on to show that the execution and – crucially – longevity of the structure.
concrete’s performance and durability characteristics “If we are thinking about carbon, the idea should be
were potentially conformant to typical specifications to optimise without overdoing it,” cautions Wolfgang
for sprayed concrete linings (SCL) – but with a 60% Aldrian, principal expert, tunnelling and mining at
lower carbon footprint. Master Builders Solutions and an expert on SCL. “A
A typical SCL mix would contain 480kg per tunnel should last for a long time with minimum
cubic metre of CEM I, or pure Ordinary Portland refurbishment needs. If you have to close it after 10
Cement (OPC). Due to its carbon intensity, the CEM years for structural refurbishment, that is not a low
I component of SCL accounts for around 80% of its carbon solution.”
embodied carbon.
Shotcrete Services’ successful trial is significant Demanding decarbonisation
because using high proportions of supplementary The last few years have seen a huge shift in attitudes
cementitious materials (SCMs) like slag, while towards sustainability and environmental issues.
commonplace in cast concrete as a means of National and local governments are still getting
improving durability, is problematic in sprayed up to speed in most regions but, in the meantime,
concrete. Such mixes don’t work well with the private sector is stepping in to exert pressure.
contemporary liquid accelerators, which are Shareholders, investors and funders are demanding
formulated to work with CEM I cement. This means that companies actively demonstrate their
they can’t gain strength quickly enough to be used for commitment to decarbonisation.
SCL. “We have seen that attitude extend to very large
Shotcrete Services is working on its ‘low carbon underground projects - big mining investments rather
sprayed concrete’ with GGBS supplier Ecocem, than tunnelling at the moment,” says Ross Dimmock,
Shotcrete Services
successfully
sprayed concrete
with 70% of its
cement replaced by
slag, a 60% carbon
saving.
Sprayed concrete and carbon: how low can we go?
for its Dramix fibres manufactured at its plant in

Petrovice. De Rivaz believes that EPDs, which contain
information about a product’s carbon footprint,
will be coming under closer scrutiny as carbon
governance becomes more mature.
The International Tunnelling and Underground
Space Association (ITA) announced in April that
it was setting up a new activity group focused on
low carbon concrete for shafts and linings, which it
says are responsible for 60 to 70% of the embodied
carbon in a tunnelling project. Benoit Jones,
managing director of Inbye Engineering will chair
the group. “It will encourage the use of low carbon
concretes for sprayed concrete, segmental linings
and cast in situ concrete, by providing case studies
and recommendations for clients, designers and
“Banks are giving better borrowing rates constructors,” says Jones.
for mining projects that invest in electric Cutting back on cement

Shotcrete Services and Ecocem have been working
underground fleets.” on their low carbon sprayed concrete for over five
years. Now, with other organisations on board, the
Ross Dimmock, Normet goal is to get the technology project-ready in time
to be used on Skanska Costain Strabag’s (SCS’s) HS2
Normet’s vice president tunnelling. “Owners Main Works S1 and S2 contracts which involve the
are looking to invest in a whole fleet of electric southern section of the UK’s new high-speed rail line.
underground vehicles, for instance, because they Chris Peaston, director at Peaston Concrete
get much better borrowing rates from large central Consultancy, came across the technology around
European banks.” three years ago when he was an associate at
Publicly funded infrastructure projects have Arup. Working with Shotcrete Services, Ecocem
yet to catch up. Dimmock is frustrated that other and Loughborough University, Peaston first
Governments don’t follow Norway’s aggressive obtained internal funding from Arup to develop its
decarbonisation lead; it is banning fossil fuel cars understanding of the idea, following which the group
from 2025 and already has over 70% electric vehicles, won a small research grant from the Institution of
there are government incentives for the construction Structural Engineers.
industry to go green and seven cities have committed Back then, Peaston was working on the
to carbon neutrality by 2025. specification for the S1 and S2 works, as part of SCS’s
All the Nordic countries are also advancing fast and design team Design House, a consortium of Arup,
other countries are gaining pace. In the UK, HS2’s Net Typsa and Strabag. “In writing that specification, some
Zero Carbon Plan, published in January 2022, says of the prescriptive requirements were changed so
that it will reduce carbon emissions from steel and that it had the potential to use this new material,” says
concrete by 50% by 2030 compared to 2021 levels. Peaston. “They were altered it to make it performance
In France, the Grand Paris Express is taking the lead. based, and to permit innovation.”
Société du Grand Paris’s chair Jean-François Monteils, A standard sprayed concrete specification – based
appointed in March 2021, has committed to reducing on the British Tunnelling Society (BTS) specification
greenhouse gas emissions due to construction by – mandates liquid accelerators. But the low carbon
25%, although timescales and baselines are not yet sprayed concrete employs a powdered accelerator.
clear. Manufactured by Japanese company Denka and sold
“The impact of Grand Paris is very strong in France,” under license by Ecocem, the accelerator principally
comments Benoit de Rivaz, global technical manager
at Bekaert Underground Solutions. “There has been
a lot of communication, and with the chair actively
talking about the subject, it has captured the minds of
the people.”
De Rivaz points out that tunnel linings – until
recently considered the least exciting part of a
tunnelling project – are now taking centre stage,
thanks to the introduction of carbon reduction goals “Performance-based
such as those mentioned above. On Grand Paris, the
use of fibre-reinforced concrete for the segments on specifications enable
Line 16 Lot 1 is a first for France, and will deliver steel
and hence carbon savings, he says. innovation.”
Transparent and robust carbon data is vital in
measuring and reducing carbon emissions, says De
Rivaz. In June last year Bekaert achieved an EPD
Chris Peaston, Peaston
(Environmental Product Declaration) certificate Concrete Consultancy
comprises amorphous calcium aluminate and calcium
sulfate.
Powdered accelerators, which were silicate based
and highly caustic, were used in the early days of
sprayed concrete, combined with wet mix at the
nozzle, but were discontinued long ago due to
health and safety risks. According to John Reddy,
group quality and innovation application manager at
Ecocem, the Denka accelerator is a totally different
material: it is not caustic and has the same COSHH
(Control of Substances Hazardous to Health)
considerations as CEM I.
HS2 has provided two tranches of funding to the
research through its Innovation Team. The first was
awarded to Loughborough University through HS2’s
Dr Sauer & Collaboratorium for Research on Infrastructure and
Partners deployed Cities (UKCRIC) framework and was used to fund
sophisticated the trials at Shotcrete Services’ premises in Kent. The
design tools to
ensure that the
second will be delivered through the SCS contract
linings of the vast and will be used to develop the reliability of the
underground present prototype spraying equipment, while safely
station caverns for combining the powdered accelerator.
Toronto’s Eglinton
“Any accelerator must be introduced at the nozzle
line were as slim as
possible. adjacent to the workface. Powdered accelerators
present a unique challenge and we recognise we
need to address the related issues,” says Peaston. The Austrian mix requires a decent quality of
With SCS’s sprayed concrete works on HS2 set to cement, says Aldrian, going on to explain that all
start in around a years’ time, Shotcrete Services and sprayed concrete operations need stability of cement.
partners have work to do to come up with equipment Variation in the make-up of the cement means that
that can create a reliably homogeneous mix. They the concrete mix can behave wildly differently with
will also be looking at whether they can increase the the same dose of accelerator.
proportion of GGBS replacement to 80%, reducing Aldrian believes that calcinated clay offers hope as
the CEM I content to around 120kg per cubic metre a good SCM for the future, as both slag and fly ash
with a commensurate carbon reduction of up to 65%. will become less available as coal-fired power stations
“The technology also allows for spraying a CIII/B shut down and steel manufacturing operations use
combination, which has enhanced sulfate resistant more and more recycled materials and move to
and is hitherto unachievable in sprayed concrete,” different locations around the world. “For us the
says Peaston. question is can it be accelerated?” says Aldrian. “This is
Aldrian’s theory of a more modest cement something we need to look into.”
replacement regime comes from his observation
of Austrian practice, where engineers created a mix Better design
design for low leaching because drainage pipes were According to Dr Sauer & Partner’s technical director,
too often blocked. The mix has 280kg per cubic Thomas Schwind, the most important step towards
metre of CEM I and 140kg per cubic metre of SCM lowering the carbon footprint of infrastructure
which can be a mix of fly ash, slag and limestone, with projects is better design.
a minimum reactivity as defined by Austrian standards. “As engineers, our duty on carbon savings is
“They use the same accelerator at the same dosage to use the materials we have more efficiently,”
[as for a standard mix],” says Aldrian. “The acceleration he says. “Replacing some of the cement with
is comparable. In Austria it has more or less taken over.” pozzolanic materials can be helpful, but there are big
opportunities in not using so much of the material.”
The inter-dependence of efficient design,
cost savings and carbon savings was recently
demonstrated on the Eglinton Crosstown light
rail project in Toronto, Canada, a 30-year, CAD
$9.1bn Public Private Partnership (PPP). The form of
construction contract – design-build, under the PPP
umbrella – meant that the contractor was pushing
the design team for cost and schedule efficiencies
from day one, says Schwind.
“The idea should be to optimise Concessionaire Crosslinx Transit Solutions chose to
replace three of the planned cut-and-cover stations
without overdoing it.” with large SEM (sequential excavated method) mined
caverns. There were various reasons for this, says
Wolfgang Aldrian, Schwind, including avoiding the constraints and
risks of utilities relocation, reducing disruption at the
Master Builders Solutions surface, program flexibility and resource flexibility.
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“During the design process we were talking about walls of a cavern, steel car reinforcement was used.
how to make the linings thinner, how to make slabs Dr Sauer & Partner’s design deployed hollow core
thinner, how to be leaner and more efficient,” says elements for the slab, saving on cost and weight but
Schwind. “The main goals were cost savings or also on carbon.
schedule savings, but in doing this we also saved Getting the shape right in design and in
significantly on carbon too.” construction is vital in minimising material use, says
The new 19km-long line runs underground for Schwind. “For us, shape control is very important,”
10km, with 15 of its 25 stations underground. The he says. “It is important to create tunnel shapes that
three SEM caverns, which are around 17m wide, 14m experience the expected loading conditions, under
high and up to 500m long are relatively shallow and compression and therefore not needing a high
had to be excavated through over-consolidated and percentage of reinforcement.”
highly variable glacial soils. Because inner linings often are not in compression,
The structure of the cavern linings is double shell: a they can be prone to cracking. “Many of our inner
primary lining, PVC sheet membrane and a secondary linings have very little load. Often, they are simply a
lining. Both primary and secondary linings are of a safety feature,” says Aldrian. “If this is true, it is only
similar thickness, between 400 and 450mm with both lightly loaded and you get shrinkage cracks, unless
linings considered permanent; that is, taking loads in you pay close attention to the curing, because it’s not
the permanent state. loaded.”
“We minimised the thickness of the lining using very Schwind explains the impact of a close relationship
sophisticated analysis,” says Schwind. “We used 3D between designer and contractor: “There was very
FEM analysis, very complex elastic plastic concrete good cooperation with the contractor which meant
models that allowed for redistribution of stresses in we could explain and communicate directly to the
the shells and allowed us to utilise the materials to the contractor where the quality was really needed, what
best effect.” the critical sections were and what they needed to
Dr Sauer & Partners specified fibre reinforced focus on,” he says. “When you know the people in the
concrete, with the contractor electing to use field very well, you can communicate with them.”
macrosynthetic fibres from Master Builders Solutions
rather than steel ones. “They came out on top in the High quality, long life
economic assessment,” says Schwind. “We prescribed One of the reasons that some sprayed concrete
the performance, flexural strength, residual strength. If linings are overdesigned, is that the quality of
the mix can provide the properties we require, we are application can be unreliable. Aldrian believes that
okay with that.” to assure quality there should be more rigour in
At points where a concourse slab connects with the assuring the competency of the nozzle operatives.
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Sprayed concrete and carbon: how low can we go?
truck mixer later this year. With a battery capacity of

350kW/h, the truck will have an eight-hour working
window, says the manufacturer.
Another way?
Even with designs and materials optimised, nozzle
operatives trained and competent, and lining
thicknesses laser controlled, sprayed concrete linings
creates a lot of waste. Over-excavation, over-
spraying, rebound and rejected batches of concrete
mean that up to twice the design quantity of sprayed
concrete can be used.
Over-excavation is the biggest problem, says
Dimmock. Even with the most diligent control, it is
impossible to avoid, since it is the condition of the
ground itself which often means that more of the
“As engineers, our duty is to use materials rock than intended comes away. Rebound too can
be significant: 10% loss for rebound is pretty standard
more efficiently.” according to Dimmock, but in some regions it can be
as high as 30%, depending on the process employed.
Thomas Schwind, Dr Sauer & Partners Benoit Jones thinks that sprayed concrete may be
overused now and that the industry should look at
“You don’t need a licence to spray a concrete more radical alternatives.
lining that is supposed to last for 100 years. This “We’re probably doing shotcrete as well as it can
for me does not make sense.” While competency be done,” he says. “We are incrementally reducing
can be high in regions where sprayed concrete is the carbon footprint by using replacement cements,
an established technology, this is not the case for working with different accelerators that work with
developing markets. In these regions, providing low carbon concrete and I feel like we need to do
training to nozzle operatives is important from something a bit more revolutionary.”
a long-term carbon reduction perspective, says Jones looks back to an era in London when Crosslinx Transit
Solutions chose
Aldrian, because it means structures will last longer. the tricky junctions and shapes of metro tunnels
to construct
Alongside an experienced nozzle operative were accommodated by specially made cast iron three stations
comes the need for high-performing machinery, segments and thinks that a more cost-effective on Toronto’s
to ensure that all the components of the shotcrete and carbon-effective modern-day mechanised and Eglinton line using
are sufficiently mixed to create a homogenous end automated version would be a good solution. Offsite SEM rather than
cut-and-cover.
product. “You need an uninterrupted stream at the manufacture also removes quality issues and reduces Oakwood Station,
nozzle or at least significantly reduced pulsation,” waste, he points out. pictured here, was
says Aldrian. However, he observes that such Dimmock thinks that owners should be going one of them.
technology and its impact has not been valued in the
past.
Assuming that the spraying equipment is good
enough, the next step could be to introduce
technology that helps to limit overspraying – and
hence carbon. Normet is developing its SmartScan
system so that it can provide real-time information
on the profile, rather than the nozzleman having
to wait for information to be processed. The latest
georeferenced system is called SmartScan Align.
In the great scheme of things, whilst switching to
electric drive spraying robots has some impact on
the carbon footprint of a project, says Ross: “The
real savings are not so much in the sprayers but in
the materials transport in and out of the tunnels.”
The carbon due to the cement in the linings still
dominates the equation. However, there are benefits
to electric vehicles beyond lowering embodied
carbon: the trucks do not produce particulate
matter, they are cooler, quieter, require less
ventilation and less maintenance, says Dimmock.
Though the take-up of electric tunnelling
equipment is low outside of Norway, there is interest
from other countries. And other manufacturers are
rising to the challenge.
Having launched a hybrid truck-mounted
concrete pump in November 2021, Putzmeister is
now preparing to launch the all-electric iONTRON
for a much more holistic approach, as set out in to the table with a carbon counting game in hand
PAS 2080 – carbon management in infrastructure, may start to see competitive advantage soon.
rather than simply setting carbon reduction targets As the examples of Eglinton and HS2’s S1 and
for contractors once contracts have been won. PAS S2 contracts demonstrate, performance-based
2080, published in 2016 and being updated this year, specifications, rather than prescriptive ones, aid
asks owners and designers to look at alternatives very innovation such as higher proportions of SCMs or
early in the planning and design process. alternative fibre materials. Clearly, this demands
Tunnelling project clients should ask for broad- expertise and specialist knowledge from those
brush carbon assessments at the time of tender, writing the specifications.
says Aldrian, something that will be included in ITA Efficient structural design is low-carbon design
guidance on BIM for tunnelling when it is published. because it reduces the use of materials and
“I urge the owners to take responsibility, stay resources. This requires the designers to trust in
open minded, and ask their designers to put carbon the competency of the contractor, which can be
assessments in the tender documents,” says Aldrian. fostered through procurement routes that involve
“Ask bidders to do a simplified carbon assessment contractors early.
on day one for every bid, perhaps just looking at “The basis of overly conservative design is concern
concrete and steel.” over what happens if something goes wrong,” says
Schwind. “If we know who is building it and we are
Low carbon enablers convinced that they can build it to the quality we
Leadership on carbon will come from owners, need, then we can be less conservative.”
particularly where infrastructure programmes In summary, the focus on carbon emissions
require funding from financial institutions or can be a catalyst to drive greater levels of
the private sector, which in turn will impact on professionalism and competence – in sprayed
procurement and processes. Contractors who come concrete and beyond.
SUPERCON: ditching the waterproofing layer

Norway’s SUPERCON project Geotechnical Institute (NGI), Technologies under test
aims to develop a sprayed one of the leaders of the include a hydration accelerator
concrete lining which is research who has been from Master Builders Solutions,
waterproof – but requires no researching the water and Xseed, which is normally
waterproofing layer. So, rather vapour permeability of sprayed used in cast concrete and
than having a PVC waterproofing concrete and membranes for polymer modification of the
membrane or a sprayed several years. NGI is working concrete, as well as different
waterproofing membrane with research foundation set accelerators and shrinkage
between the primary and SINTEF and The Norwegian reduction agents. Up to 25%
secondary layer, the secondary University of Science and of the cement was replaced
layer itself is watertight. Technology (NTNU) on the with fly ash and limestone.
The traditional tunnel lining SUPERCON programme, with Bekaert proposed a new
system in Norway consists of industry support too. version of its 3D steel fibres
sprayed concrete initial support To make the secondary layer for the SUPERCON project,
on the rock mass and a free- sufficiently watertight means which are very short with a very
standing precast inner lining with limiting cracking. To do this, high tensile strength and small
insulation behind it. However, the the researchers are looking diameter.
inner linings have a short life – into binder technology to “With the performance
around 50 years – so cast in-situ reduce shrinkage, polymer of these fibres we want the
linings and segmental linings with technology to improve ductility cracks to distribute nicely into
TBM-excavated tunnels have and watertightness and fibres to microfissures.” The goal is for
recently been used. better distribute cracks. the cracks to be less than 0.1 to
The aim of SUPERCON is to The end of April saw a series 0.15mm wide.
produce an alternative to all of of field tests, carried out on one The results of the April trial
these which would be long- of rail authority Bane Nor’s and are currently being processed
lasting, with a lower carbon the main contractor Veidekke’s and analysed. Holter, who is
footprint than any of the above tunnelling projects in Drammen, animateur on the International
methods. “It would reduce the in the south-east of Norway. Tunnelling Association’s
total concrete consumption “We carried out the in-situ tests working group 12 on sprayed
dramatically and could also to investigate a number of mix concrete, hopes to be able
reduce the excavation cross design adjustments, innovative to provide more information
section because you would be measures to make the sprayed at the working goup meeting
applying a thinner inner lining,” concrete waterproof and to be during World Tunnelling
says Karl Gunnar Holter, a senior able to spray it onto moist and Congress in Copenhagen in
specialist at the Norwegian dripping surfaces,” says Holter. September this year.
Multi-layer lining design:
a new framework for tunnel
lining design
As the single layer sprayed concrete lined (SCL) primary lining without membrane; (b) sprayed
waterproofing membrane, and (c)
design gradually becomes the “norm”, design of multi-layer lining sheet waterproofing membrane.
Figure 1 shows one typical project
(MLL) that comprises a permanent primary lining layer and the following this trend.
The change to a new
following lining layers becomes a real challenge. Dr. Jiang Su of generation of lining
configurations has brought with
Ramboll, London, UK, discusses this emerging topic from engineering it significant design challenges
that were not initially understood
fundamentals, and suggests the necessity of upskilling a new breed by the tunnel engineers at the
time of their implementation.
of “hybrid tunnel engineers” These MLL design problems’
challenges generally arose as a
result of a lack of understanding
15 years ago soft ground SCL several projects with the main of the engineering behaviour of
tunnel design and construction in objective being to achieve lining MLL. In response to this, design
the UK followed a similar pattern efficiency (i.e., reduced overall assumptions were made that were
as in many other countries. This lining thickness). Example projects perceived to be conservative.
comprised a layer of sacrificial include A3 Hindhead tunnel However, in certain situations
sprayed concrete primary lining, (Ireland & Stephenson 2010), these have been shown not
a layer of sheet waterproofing Crossrail station SCL tunnels to be the case resulting in
membrane and a layer of cast (Su and Thomas 2015), Thames unexpected and sometimes
in-situ concrete secondary lining, Tideway tunnel (Vardaro et al., detrimental consequences during
reinforced by conventional bar 2018, Psomas et al., 2019) and construction, including delays
reinforcements in both linings London Underground Bank to programme and significant
(Van der Berg et al., 2003). The Station upgrade (Nasekhian & material wastage. This paper
primary lining was treated as Feiersinger 2017). addresses the need for some
temporary works with no long- This new generation of standardised guidance to be
term load resistance nor durability multi-layer lining (MLL) tunnel provided on MLL design.
requirement. This configuration configuration requires long-term Over the last few years, at least
is referred to as sacrificial primary load resistance and durability in two documents, ITA Permanent
Figure 1: SCL lining (SPL) in this paper. both the primary and following Sprayed Concrete Linings (ITA
tunnel after the
application of
Since 2007 a trend of shifting linings. There are typically three 2020) and ATS Tunnel Design
sprayed membrane SCL linings from a temporary types of interfaces between Guidance (ATS 2020), have been
and two layers of structure to a permanent concrete lining layers: (a) direct published about permanent
secondary linings structure has been observed on concrete to concrete contact linings by different tunnelling
organisations. However, little
advice or reference literature
has been provided on this
topic (Celestino 2021). Another
important document, the ITAtech
lining and membrane guidance
(2013) is currently under update
for the 2nd version. The first
version was published in 2013
and contains only 2 pages on
design issues. The author hopes
the updated 2nd version will
take the opportunity to cover
these important design issues
presenting a comprehensive
analysis and design approach for
Multi-layer lining design - a new framework for tunnel lining design
actual load effects, rather than also be equally applied to tunnels applied between the two layers of
a simplified approach that relies with precast segmental lining or linings, a tensile bond and certain
on empirical data. Nevertheless, shafts. degree of composite action (i.e.,
the lack of information on the shear transfer at interface with
MLL design has created a sizeable What is the MLL configuration relative movement between the
knowledge gap in the current As aforementioned, three new two linings) corresponding to the
tunnelling industry. This paper lining configurations have membrane interface are assumed
tries to illustrate the importance been adopted for design and at the interface. This configuration
of the MLL design as a framework construction since 2007, all of is termed partial CSL in this paper.
through addressing the following which comprise at least two The Partial CSL has been widely
issues: layers of permanent linings with used in the Crossrail station SCL
1. What is the MLL configuration. different types of interfaces tunnels and caverns (Su and
2. The particular design between the linings. These are: Thomas 2015) as well as London
considerations within the MLL • Fully composite shell lining Underground Bank Station
design framework. (CSL) without waterproofing upgrade (Nasekhian & Feiersinger
3. What design methodology is membrane 2017).
most suitable for MLL. • Partial composite shell lining If sheet membrane is used,
4. What is the required knowledge with sprayed membrane neither tensile bond nor
and understanding for • Non-composite shell lining (or composite action is assumed at
performing MLL design unbonded double shell lining) the interface. This is termed as
5. What are the implications to with sheet membrane non CSL in this paper. The non
the industry. CSL has been used in Crossrail
If there is no waterproofing Farringdon station SCL tunnels
This paper is not a detailed design membrane in between the two and Tideway central connection
guidance for MLL, the scope of linings, the primary and secondary tunnels.
which is extensive and cannot lining concrete will be in direct It has been observed that when
be fully addressed here. The contact with each other. In this secondary lining is cast directly
author hopes this paper will bring case, tensile bond (i.e., tensile onto the sprayed waterproofing
the MLL framework to tunnel stiffness and strength) and a full membrane or primary lining
engineers’ horizon and encourage degree of composite action (i.e., substrate, debonding may occur
them to start to think about it shear transfer at interface without between the secondary lining and
when undertaking relevant tunnel relative movement between the its substrate (Allen 2021). This is
design in the future. two linings – shear stiffness) with mainly due to early-age thermal
This paper is based on the shear strength are assumed at and shrinkage effect of the
author’s 15 years’ hands on the interface. This configuration secondary lining. In this case, non
experience in academic research, is referred to as full CSL in this CSL interface assumptions should
practical consulting, laboratory paper. The primary lining together also be considered in the design
testing, numerical analysis, with its primary thickening layer as a possible design scenario.
construction supervision and at SCL tunnel and shaft junctions Conventional bar
forensic investigation on MLL. also fall into this type of lining reinforcements have been mostly
The majority of this paper is based configuration. The full CSL has eliminated from the design and
on the findings from a number been adopted for the main tunnel construction for SCL tunnels
of academic journal papers and and some connection tunnels in soft ground. Fibre reinforced
conference articles that have for the Tideway West contract sprayed and cast in-situ concrete
researched major tunnelling (Coppenhall and Batty 2020). have become the default option
projects where MLL configuration It has also been used for the except at locations where high
has been used and issues were shaft junctions for Crossrail and stress concentration occur (e.g.,
subsequently identified. This Tideway Central contract (Vardaro tunnel junctions).
paper uses an SCL tunnel as an et al., 2018). Following the correct MLL
example, but the principles can If a sprayed membrane is design principles, the MLL
configuration should lead to
a reduction in overall lining Figure 2: The
Most chellenging
Separate work not Standalone thickness and excavation volume, comparison of
Traditional SCL directly affecting work not affect focus area between
and interesting part and improved efficiency in terms
Tunnel design lining structural primary lining and the traditional and
of design work
performance waterproofing
of programme, cost, material modern MLL SCL
usage and embodied carbon. tunnel design
Ground
SCL Tunnel design
Design considerations within
excavation and Waterproofing Secondary Lining
and construction Primary Lining installation installation MLL design framework
installation The scope of the MLL design is
to understand the interactions
between the MLLs with different
Most chellenging The target area
MML SCL Tunnel Established design
and interesting part to minimalise the interfaces from the time of
design and construction application of the second layer
within the lining thickness and hence
method
system the carbon of lining to the end of designed
service life, as shown in Figure 2.
The main factors requiring
consideration within the MLL Two models approach One model approach
design framework are listed below Modeller 1 uses a geotechnical software for Modeller 1 uses a geotechnical software for
but not limited to: soil-structure interaction for the tunnel primary both primary and secondary lining design with
lining design consideration of both soil-structure interaction
1. The restraining effects and multi-layer lining for empty tunnel
of previously constructed
Modeller 1 calculates the spring stiffness and
lining(s) and interface with forces for the interface between the two linings Modeller 1 adds one more step in the model
the following lining when the and provide them to modeller 2 by applying the internal water pressure to the
effect of early-age thermal and secondary lining intrados for tunnel full of water
shrinkage effect takes place. Modeller 2 uses a structual software for beam-
2. The properties and robustness spring model analysis for the tunnel secondary
lining for empty tunnel
of the interface
3. The load sharing between the
different layers of lining with Modeller 2 uses a structual software for beam-
spring model analysis for the tunnel secondary
different types of interfaces lining for tunnel full of water
in between and different
application times under Modeller 2 obtain the spring forces for the
different loading conditions. interface between the two linings and provide
them to modeller 1
4. How to numerically analyse the
Figure 3: Typical
analysis procedure correct structural behaviour of
for (left) two MLL. Modeller 2 add to the geotechnical model the
spring forces to the primary lining intrados to
models’ approach 5. How to evaluate the assess its impact on the primary lining
and (right) one modelling results and check
model approach.
the lining performance
through instrumentation and analyse the soil-structure permanent primary and secondary
monitoring. interactions. The design of the linings and the different types
secondary lining was on most of interfaces that occur (e.g.
These items are usually not occasions carried out by structural concrete to concrete, sprayed
considered when conventional engineers who were more familiar or sheet membrane), the MLL
SPL configuration is used or with concrete behaviour and bar design is better analysed using
the methodologies that used reinforcement detailing and used a single numerical model that
for SPL configuration are a structural modelling software combines all the geotechnical
not appropriate for the MLL for analysis using a beam-spring and structural elements that were
configuration anymore. All above model that simplified the soil- previously considered separately.
mentioned factors can be split structure interaction. As the As a result it becomes imperative
into two categories depending primary lining is assumed to be that the interface properties of
on the bonding condition of the fully degraded in long term and the sprayed and sheet membrane
interface between the linings (i.e., all the long-term load is assumed are understood. In addition, the
bonded interface and unbonded to be taken by the secondary thermal and early-age shrinkage
interface). lining, there weren’t any MLL induced strain in the secondary
design problems. The thermal lining has to be included in this
What design methodology is and early-age shrinkage induced single model. When conventional
most suitable for MLL strain in the secondary lining was rebars are replaced by structural
MLL design is a relatively new usually calculated separately using fibres, elasto-plastic models
design discipline that has arisen a CIRIA spreadsheet (Bamforth need to be used to simulate
from the use of the three new 2007, Bamforth 2018) to check the behaviour of the concrete.
generation lining configurations in the calculated crack width was Within this single model, analysis
practice. Not only does this new less than the allowable maximum results such as lining forces
generation of lining configuration value. Only the long-term ground and membrane stresses can be
bring a more efficient and and groundwater pressure were obtained for capacity checking.
economic construction usually analysed in the beam- The results are more likely to be
methodology to the contractor spring model. presented and checked in the
and client, but it also presents Due to the use of the format of stress and strain than
a new challenge to the tunnel
Figure 4: SCL designer.
tunnel analysis Historically, for the SPL
focusing on lining
configuration, the design
cracking
process for the primary and
secondary linings was to some
extent separated. The design of
the primary lining was usually
undertaken by geotechnical
engineers who understood
the concept of soil-structure
interaction and used geotechnical
modelling software to explicitly
the conventional axial force,

bending moment and shear force.
There are many advantages
of using a single numerical
model to resolve the MLL design
problem, such as reducing
modelling time and resource, cost
savings and an improvement in
modelling accuracy. This will be
demonstrated by a comparison
between a typical sewage tunnel
design process that uses two
models and a new design process
that uses a single model that
follows the MLL design approach.
The comparison of different
analysis procedures is shown in
Figure 3. the upper part of the secondary site fibre optic monitoring results Figure 5: (left)
Three examples are included lining, firstly pushing the fairly well and give a robust global model of
analysed problem.
here to demonstrate the benefits secondary lining close the gap explanation on the gap between (right) Application
of the one single model approach. and then share the remaining the designer’s prediction and site of temporary
The lining has been modelled loads between the primary and monitoring results. construction loads
using volume elements so that the secondary linings. The principal
interaction between the linings tensile strength can be obtained What knowledge do we need
can be properly simulated and the from the results and the crack to perform MLL design and the
stress and strain results can be width then can be calculated. status of the research
investigated in detail. The site monitoring data shows The new generation of MLL tunnel
The first example, shown that the maximum crack width lining requires the tunnel designer
in Figure 4, uses PLAXIS2D to matches the analysis prediction. to consider many new issues
simulate the long-term behaviour The third example, shown in that were not needed for the SPL
for a MLL with a sprayed Figure 6, uses PLAXIS 3D to back tunnels. This section lists some
waterproofing membrane and analyse a SCL tunnel junction of the typical and most common
a bonded partial composite construction - a MLL with a fully issues, briefly summarises the
interface (a) overall stress CSL interface. Instead of installing status of the research and gives a
conditions along the whole the full 800mm thick SCL lining brief account of the answers to the
tunnel lining. (b) compression- in one step to resist all short- questions. Reference to the relevant
tension stress distribution across term ground and groundwater literature is provided if readers
the each of the two linings (red pressure, this model considers would like to have a more in-depth
colour represents tension). (c) the staged construction of the understanding of the issue.
tension plastic points at intrados first SCL layer (taking all short- 1. For Full CSL and Partial CSL
of both linings due to composite term ground and groundwater configurations, the two linings
action. The use of an elasto- pressures) and the second are now bonded together. How
plastic constitutive model for SCL thickening SCL layer (stress free) do you numerically simulate
lining significantly improves the prior to the junction opening. It the lining and the interface
understanding of the cracking should be noted that using two to make sure the tensile and
conditions of the lining. This layers of plate or shell elements or shear bond are correctly
example also demonstrates one layer of plate or shell element simulated? The two linings
that the primary and secondary with one layer of volume element need to be simulated using
lining capacity checks need to will not be able to simulate the zone (in 2D) or volume (in 3D)
Figure 6: Simulating
be carried out separately. Using composite action properly. The elements and the sprayed and SCL tunnel junction
the total axial force and bending analysis results match the on- sheet waterproofing interface construction
moment from both linings to
check against a single lining
capacity curve based on the total
lining thickness is not appropriate.
The second example, shown
in Figure 5, uses PLAXIS 3D
to simulate two construction
stages for a MLL with unbonded
interface: (a & b) early-age
thermal and shrinkage effect
of a newly poured secondary
lining leading to a potential gap
being generated between the
two linings; and (c & d) transient
construction loads applying to
can be simulated using an between the concrete linings pressure will not affect the
interface element. Interfaces and interface materials governs lining force. However, it does
can also be used for the direct how much bending moment affect the stress state of the
concrete to concrete contact, will be transferred to axial force bonded membrane (Su and
if the interface stress is of in each of the two linings; Bloodworth 2022a).
interest. Otherwise, interface this is the mechanism of the
can be ignored (Su and composite action. Depending 7. What is the impact of thermal
Bloodworth 2018, Bloodworth on the lining deformation, the and early-age shrinkage in the
and Su 2018). Beam (in 2D) composite action will transfer tunnel secondary lining on
and shell (in 3D) elements bending moment into either the performance of bonded
cannot simulate the composite compression or tension. If the interface and lining?
action because these element tension is generated in the The thermal and early-age
does not have “in-plane shear secondary lining cracking will shrinkage induced strain in
stress”, which is essential to be likely to occur. Therefore, the secondary lining will try to
generate composite action. the degree of composite action pull the secondary lining away
should be reduced as much from the interface, potentially
2. What are the practical as possible. This has been a resulting in debonding at
functions of the interface? much-debated issue recently the interface. Besides that, if
The interface has two levels and has been qualitatively the interface is not bonded,
of function. The first level and quantitatively verified restrained strain will occur
is to ensure the tensile and and acknowledged by some in the secondary lining,
shear bond (via providing consultancies and contractors potentially resulting in cracks
sufficient tensile and shear who are pioneering on this most likely to be seen on the
strength) between the topic. (Su and Uhrin 2016, crown. (Su et al. 2019, Su and
two layers of lining. The Bloodworth and Su 2018, Su Bedi 2019)
second level is to transfer and Bloodworth 2019, Su et al.
compression, tensile and shear 2019) 8. What is the impact of thermal
(if applicable for respective and early-age shrinkage in the
lining configurations) stresses 5. What interface properties tunnel secondary lining on
through the interface (Su and should the designers use in the the performance of unbonded
Bloodworth, 2022a) numerical modelling? interface and lining?
Testing on dry and wet The thermal and early-age
3. What is the impact of relative sprayed membrane and sheet shrinkage induced strain in
normal stiffness between membrane have been reported the secondary lining will try to
concrete linings and interface by different researchers (Su pull the secondary lining away
materials on the load sharing? and Bloodworth 2016, Holter from the interface, causing a
The relative normal stiffness 2015, Diez et al. 2019). For the gap between the two linings.
between the concrete linings moment, the short-term dry This gap needs to be taken
and interface materials governs and wet membrane interface into account when applying
the load sharing between the properties and dry long-term further external or internal
two linings. If the interface membrane interface properties loads because there will be no
material has the same stiffness are ready to be used by the load sharing effects between
as the concrete material (i.e., tunnel designers. However, the the two linings until the gap
direct concrete to concrete long-term sprayed membrane has been closed. If not being
contact), the applied loads will properties, including the considered, certain linings will
be shared according to the stiffness and tensile and shear take a much greater proportion
axial stiffness of each lining. strengths are not available yet. of the overall further loads,
On the other hand, if the The only reported long-term potentially leading to overstress
interface material stiffness is wet membrane test results of the lining (Su 2021).
much lower than the concrete were based on tests that were
lining, less of the load will be load controlled rather than 9. What is the true benefit of the
transferred from the primary displacement controlled, bonded interface?
to the secondary lining. This leading to unrealistic failure The true benefit of a bonded
is attributed to the fact that mechanism (Diez et al. 2019). interface is its tensile bond that
tunnels are static indeterminate Further research is needed on distributes the majority of the
structures so that the load this area. external groundwater pressure
transfer through layers of lining to the primary lining. Therefore,
is determined by displacement 6. Where should the long-term an idealised interface should
rather than the load itself (Su groundwater pressure be have high tensile and shear
ad Bloodworth 2022b). applied and what are the strength to prevent debonding
impacts of different application from occurring, but also low
4. What is the impact of relative locations? normal and shear stiffness to
shear stiffness between As long as the bonded reduce the loads taken by the
concrete linings and interface membrane interface does secondary lining (Su 2015,
materials on the load sharing? not debond, the application Bloodworth and Su 2018, Su et
The relative shear stiffness positions of groundwater al. 2019)
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5. Interpretation of results
Technical Skill indicating the behaviour
of the lining not only from
traditional axial force, bending
Soil-structure interaction
moment and shear force
Mechanical perspective, but also the
behaviour more fundamental stress-
of ground strain perspective (material
Static intermediate
behaviour of lining mechanics knowledge).
Structures Geotechnics
Realistically, it is very difficult to
find an engineer that can cover
all these aforementioned areas
to have a full picture of the
Time-
dependent General tunnel MLL problem. It is more often
tunnel lining design/analysis that engineers are equipped
behaviour with knowledge focused on
either geotechnical, structural,
geology or material sides. This
has to some extent prevented
Materials Geology engineers from properly
understanding the whole MLL
Fibre reinforced Ground problem. Therefore, continuous
concrete characterisation
professional development for
Waterproofing tunnel engineers working on MLL
membrane design becomes increasingly
Geomaterials important. Equally important
is an up-to-date MLL design
guidance that covers all key
aspects aforementioned.
Figure 7: Technical 10.What is an efficient tunnel framework should be proven both
skills required for design when having bonded qualitatively and quantitively and Conclusions
the new generation
of “hybrid tunnel
interface? also be blind peer reviewed in The adoption of a set of new
engineers” The secondary lining thickness top tunnelling, geotechnics, or generation multi-layer tunnel
should be reduced as much structural journals. lining configurations creates
as possible. By doing so, the This new generation of lining a new specialised subject
majority of the loads will be configurations has also given in tunnelling – MLL design.
taken by the primary lining and rise to the demand for a new As it is a relatively new and
the secondary lining will be breed of “hybrid tunnel engineer”, challenging framework, many in
required only for fireproofing that spans between structural the industry have yet to realise
purpose (Su 2015, Bloodworth engineering and geotechnical its importance or understand
and Su 2018, Su 2022). engineering, as well as geology its main engineering principles.
and material engineering, as Equally, none of the available
These issues all need to be clearly shown in Figure 7. In addition to tunnel design guidance
defined in appropriate tunnel the general tunnel design skills, documents have provided clear
design guidance documents. This hybrid tunnel engineers working guidance on this framework.
has been largely absent to date on MLL design problems would This paper has outlined what the
and where it has been provided ideally be equipped with the MLL design framework is, why it
has often been proven to be knowledge and skills of: is different, its importance and
inaccurate. 1. Behaviour of the ground, the the current state of available
derivation of geotechnical knowledge and research. It is
Implications to the Industry parameters and soil-structure concluded that the framework
The emergence of an MLL design interaction (geology and brings significant challenges to
framework brings a few significant geotechnical knowledge); the industry and a necessity to
implications to the industry. 2. Static indeterminate behaviour upskill a new breed of “hybrid
The biggest one is probably the of concrete lining (structural tunnel engineers” to realise
necessity of upskilling our tunnel mechanics knowledge); the full value of these new
engineers. Due to its complexity, 3. Early-age shrinkage and solutions.
sometimes the engineering thermal effects and post crack
principles of this new framework behaviour of lining and the Acknowledgement
seem to be contradicting to some behaviour of different interfaces The author would like to
traditional ones at first glance. (material knowledge); thank Richard Miller, Dr. Alan
Therefore, a rigorous approach 4. Numerical modelling with the Bloodworth, Christina Trigle, Si
based on top level research is ability to select appropriate Shen and Yan Geng for editing
required. Benefits or shortcomings soil and concrete models and giving invaluable advice on
of any elements within this and (numerical modelling skills); and aspects of this paper.
References
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ATS. Tunnel Design Guidance (2020). Australian Tunnelling Society & Engineers Australia.
Bloodworth, A., & Su, J. (2018). Numerical analysis and capacity evaluation of composite sprayed
concrete lined tunnels. Underground Space, 3(2), 87–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.undsp.2017.12.001.
Celestino, T. (2021). Review of the ITA report on permanent sprayed concrete lining. Tunnelling
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Bamforth, P. B. (2007). C660 Early-age thermal crack control in concrete. CIRIA.
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Coppenhall, P & Batty, E. (2020). Hammersmith Connection Tunnel. Tunnels and Tunnelling, March
2020, pp.34-42.
Ireland, T.J., & Stephenson, S. (2010). Design and construction of a permanent shotcrete lining—The A3
Hindhead Project, UK. pp. 143-152. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
ITA. ITAtech Report No 2. (2013) Design Guidance for Spray Applied Waterproofing Membranes.
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Psomas, S., Coppenhall, P., Rimes, M., Brown, D. & Cheevers, E. (2019). Design and construction of
permanent steel fibre reinforced sprayed concrete lining shafts for Thames Tideway West Project UK.
Proceedings of World Tunnel Congress 2019.
Su, J (2021). Ramboll internal report.
Su, J. (2022). Adopting “less is more” principle for efficient design of composite SCL tunnels. World
Tunnel Congress 2022.
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ground with spray-applied waterproofing. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 59,170-182.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2016.07.006
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Sustainable Shotcrete with
Crushed Waste Glass
By M Serati, G Malgotra, and SMR (CWG) has grown in the last few
years in a range of applications
for construction purposes.
Sand for shotcrete production
Basireddy of the School of Civil (e.g., concrete production, road
pavement construction, tile
is, therefore, sourced mainly
from beaches and quarries.
Engineering, University of Queensland, and brick manufacturing, water
filtration, and sandblasting), its
This work aims to assess the
applicability of CWG to replace
Brisbane, N Jackson, of GCP Applied wider use remains relatively
under-investigated in geotechnical
sand in a shotcrete mix design
and investigates further how
Technologies, NSW, and H Asche of domains. Some potential reasons
could be the perceived inferior
sand replacement with CWG
could affect shotcrete properties.
Aurecon quality of CWG as a reliable sand
replacement, lack of community-
Unconfined compressive (UCS)
and tensile strength of different
Estimates show that a staggering accepted and market-ready shotcrete mixes were measured
fifty billion metric tonnes of natural guidelines, unrepresentative testing using high-speed photography
sand and aggregates is being requirements for CWG re-use, techniques, and the results are
consumed all over the world and the fact that the construction discussed and reported here.
every year[1]. Such unsustainable industry is not yet fully prepared
exhaustion of natural aggregates to embrace change towards a Experimental Results
has damaged aquatic habitats, circular economy[10, 11, 12]. One of This study was aimed at partial
endangered animal species, and the geotechnical-related areas in to full replacement of sand with
have caused beach erosion, which the utilisation of CWG yet CWG in shotcrete production.
making coastal communities remains largely under-studied is Experiments were conducted at
vulnerable to floods and other the production of shotcrete mixes. the Geotechnical Engineering
natural disasters. If immediate According to the International Centre (GEC) within the School of
actions are not taken to address Tunnelling Association, the Civil Engineering at the University
the huge indiscriminate mining of demand for tunnelling and of Queensland, Australia[13]. Five
non-renewable sources of beach underground constructions will dfferent mixes of shotcrete were
and quarry sands, it is estimated boom in the coming years. produced with CWG replacing
that around 67% of southern With such an increased demand sand at proportions of 0%, 10%,
California beaches, for instance, for tunnelling, shotcrete has also 15%, 20%, and 50% under constant
will disappear by the year 2100[2]. received increasing attention for water to binder ratio of 0.45.
The depletion of sand reserves has use in ground support, repairs, Crushed waste glass in coarse
also resulted in a dramatic increase and final linings in underground sizes (1.7 - 3.35mm) was obtained
in its international trade value, excavation. Shotcrete thus plays from a commercial supplier, Enviro
and the sand price has increased a vital role in today’s modern Sand, in Brisbane, utilising 100%
almost six-fold just over the last construction, civil, mining and recycled glass, and milling it using
25 years[3, 4, 5, 6]. As a result, the excavation projects. In tunnelling a mining crusher under near-
emerging paradigm shift taking applications, in particular, dry conditions with less than 2%
place is to replace natural and shotcrete is commonly used as moisture content (see Fig.1b). To
quarried sand with sustainable a temporary support system (or replicate field conditions and to
and cost-effective alternatives, permanent if applied in several provide post- crack reinforcement,
like crushed waste glass through layers), encasing structural steel steel fibres (DRAMIX-3D 65/35BG)
circular economy, to mitigate the for fireproofing, deterioration, were added in all shotcrete designs
environmental degradation caused and in the final lining. Compared at 35kg/m3. Flyash was also used
by sand overexploitation at a to concrete, shotcrete mixes are as a supplementary cementitious
global scale. rich in sand; hence require an material (SCM) to improve
Waste glass (also known as increased binder content to coat shotcrete mix performance in
cullet) is theoretically 100% re- the surface. Despite shotcrete’s their fresh and hardened state. In
usable. It does not degrade and wide range of applications and addition, TYTRO WR 174 (water-
can be recycled over and over its huge global consumption reducing) and TYTRO HC 270
without any reduction in quality. It demands, shotcrete industries (hydration-stabilizer) chemical
is mainly composed of silica (SiO2), have suffered from a significant admixtures were added to achieve
a key mineral found in natural rise in the overall cost in recent better workability and to stabilise
sand, and shares similar chemical years, mainly due to steep hikes hydration, respectively. Tytro RC
composition to that of natural in the price of sand. While the 430 is a high performance and
sand[7, 8, 9]. However, although availability of desert sand is liquid rheology-control admixture
the use of crushed waste glass abundant, it is often not suitable based on nanometric colloidal
Sustainable Shotcrete with Crushed Waste Glass
silica to improve cohesion, Figure 1. Test

adhesion and early strength results and raw
materials used
development to shotcrete. It is in this research
added when shotcrete shows signs project, including
of segregating during batching (a) tested UCS
to pull it back together. For each samples at 0%
and 100% sand
mix design, typical shotcrete tests
replacement ratio,
including slump, slump retention, (b) aggerates,
air content, density, as well as binders and
UCS and Brazilian tests, were steel fibres, (c)
conducted for each mix design. Brazilian test
results to measure
The UCS and Brazilian samples shotcrete’s tensile
were prepared and cured at 22- strength indirectly.
24oC for 7 and 28 days before
testing[14]. The samples were stored
in a lime saturated bath at 1 day
of age until removal for testing.
The temperature of the baths 60 9
Brazilian Tensile Strength (MPa)

was 27 degrees ± 2 degrees at
8
all times. Using ultra-high-speed 55
UCS Strength (MPa)
7
photography technique and 50
6
optical methods at 130kHz and
45 5
above, the fracture propagation
mode and crack speed in the 40 4
shotcrete samples were then 3
35
inspected. To record the fracture 2
pattern, a Phantom v2012 camera 30
1
was utilised. The camera system 25 0
Reference 10% 20% 50% 100% Reference 10% 20% 50% 100%
is capable of recording at up to Mix CWG CWG CWG CWG Mix CWG CWG CWG CWG
1,000,000 frames per second 7-days 28-days 7-days 28-days
(fps) at reduced resolution or
22.5kHz at a maximum resolution • the slump and reverse cone test with CWG, no significant Figure 2.
Compressive and
of 1 megapixel. By identifying results both show an increasing change was observed in 7-days
indirect tensile
the exact frame where the crack trend in the workability index and 28-days mechanical strength test
initiated and the frame at which with the addition of CWG. This strength results between the results for various
the fracture was fully propagated trend, however, is not followed control and new mix designs. shotcrete mixes at
through the test specimen, an by the 100% mix. A potential The 100% mix, however, shows different sand
replacement ratio.
average tensile crack propagation reason could be the addition of a significant reduction in its
speed for each sample was Tytro RC 430 during batching strength properties; but it could
obtained. A suitable camera speed since this mix was recognised be related to the addition of
was carefully selected to ensure as very wet and runny during Tytro RC 430 during batching
the full crack propagation process mixing. That is, the addition of and not due to the replacement
can be captured over at least 10 admixture TYTRO RC 430 to of sand with glass waste.
frames. the 100% CWG mix hindered • As expected, both UCS and
Figures 1 & 2 and Tables 2 & 1 workability when compared Brazilian tensile strength of all
illustrate the raw materials used in to other mixes. It is worth mixes increase over time. The
this project and some of the early mentioning that Tytro RC 430 rate of mechanical strength
test data. Figure 3 further shows was not used in any other mix increase between 7-days and
high-speed recordings of crack designs. 28-days is very similar in all
Figure 3. High-
propagation in a shotcrete mix • Density, air content and mixes regardless of the CWG speed time-lapses
with 50% sand replacement. bleeding results only changed replacement ratio. However, of the fracture
slightly with the higher additions the 20% mix design shows pattern observed in
Discussion of CWG, which can be explained the highest improvement with shotcrete samples
compressed
The slump and reverse cone by almost zero water absorption around 37%.
between at
tests are commonly adopted property of glass compared to • The value of the brittleness horizontal platens
in practice in shotcrete and natural aggregates and sand. index, defined as the ratio of according to ASTM
concrete industries to specify the • Up to 50% sand replacement UCS/tensile strength[14, 15], shows recommendations.
mix workability and pumpability.
Yet another useful index to
determine shotcrete workability
can be determined by subtracting
100 from the sum of slump and
(reverse cone) test results, as
shown in Tables 2. With reference
to results obtained, it can be
concluded that:
Figure 4. Typical a slight increase from 7-days
fracture modes to 28-days post-curing. This
observed in
Brazilian tensile
can be explained by noting
strength testing of that glass is a relatively more
geomaterials[16, 17, 18] brittle material than sand. That
is, the higher the glass content,
the more brittle the mix. It can
also be seen more clearly by
assessing the fracture pattern
on the face of Brazilian test
samples between different
mixes as shown in Fig.1c.
Serati et al. (2021) reported granite, ceramic and basalt), • However, the effect of increased
that the fracture mode in the the most commonly observed brittleness index on the tensile
Brazilian test (from a single fracture pattern always involves cracking speed in mixes with
crack to multiple cracking) is breaking up samples into many higher CWG is less pronounced.
preliminarily governed by the fragments due to unstable A possible explanation for this
material’s brittleness index. multiple cracking, unwanted observation could be steel
It means, a single crack in shear fractures at contacts and fibres in all mixes which control
Brazilian testing of a brittle solid a dominant central crack (see fracture propagation and crack
is mostly recorded in specimens also Fig.4c). As illustrated in speed in failed samples under
with a low brittleness index 1c, the reference mix with 0% induced stresses. More research
and tensile strength (usually CWG exhibits a single straight is needed to verify the fracturing
less than 5MPa), also shown crack. As the ratio of CWG in speed results over a longer time
in Fig.4a. For medium tensile the mix design increases, the period, which is underway by
strength materials, the dominant tensile crack becomes more the authors.
fracture pattern becomes a violent with several fragments
single crack accompanied by generated on the fracture Conclusions
moderate-sized inverse shear surface, e.g. the reference Sand, being one of the most
conical plugs in the vicinity of mix against the 100% sand valuable non-fuel mineral
contacts (see Fig.4b). For high replacement with CWG mix commodity, is being mined at an
tensile strength materials (e.g. design. alarming 50bn tonnes every year
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Sustainable Shotcrete with Crushed Waste Glass
globally, equivalent to almost 18kg relatively ìnert’ and potentially glass in shotcrete mixes, but also
per person per day. The ever- offers opportunities for recycling highlight the necessity of further
increasing use and diminishing as a substitute for diminishing research with more experimental
reserves of natural and quarried and increasingly expensive sand testing (including early age
sand, and hence its price, has supplies. This study assesses strength test, the alkali-silica
highlighted the urgent need for the applicability of large-scale reaction, creep, biaxial and true
a cost-effective replacement, waste glass re-use in shotcrete triaxial testing of mix designs),
embracing the circular economy. production. The promising results which are underway within the
Waste glass is perceived to be confirm the applicability of waste authors’ group.
Table 1. Specification of materials used

Material Property Standard
Cement Fineness Index: 387 (m /kg)
2
AS/NZS 2350.8
Normal Consistency: 27.50% AS/NZS 2350.3
Initial Setting Time: 135 minutes (Limit 45 minutes Minimum) AS/NZS 2350.4
Final Setting Time: 190 minutes (Limit 360 minutes Maximum) AS/NZS 2350.4
Soundness: 0 mm AS/NZS 2350.5
Mortar 3, 7 and 28-days Compressive Strength: 35.8
MPa, 47.9 MPa, and 66.8 MPa AS/NZS 2350.11
Flyash Specific Gravity: 2 AS 3583.5

Fineness @ 45 micron: 86% (Limit 75% Minimum) AS 3583.5
Moisture Content: <0.1% (Limit 0.5% maximum) AS 3583.2
Steel Fibre Length & Diameter: 35mm & 0.55mm

Aspect Ratio(l/d): 65
Youngs modulus: 210 MPa
Strain at ultimate strength: 0.80%
Nomina Tensile strength: 1.345 MPa
Sand Apparent Particle Density: 2.65 (t/m3) AS 1141.5

Particle Density-DRY: 2.62 (t/m3) AS 1141.5
Particle Density-SSD: 2.63 (t/m3) AS 1141.5
Water Absorption: 0.40% AS 1141.5
Clay and Fine Silt: 3% AS 1141.33
Sample Source: Moreton Bay, QLD
Medium Sand Apparent Particle Density: 2.63 (t/m3) AS 1141.5

Particle Density-Dry: 2.56 (t/m3) AS 1141.5
Particle Density-SSD: 2.59 (t/m3) AS 1141.5
Water Absorption: 1.00% AS 1141.5
Clay and Fine Silt: 8% AS 1141.33
Sample Source: Rockwell quarry, QLD
7mm Aggregates Apparent Particle Density: 2.97 (t/m3) AS 1141.6.1

Particle Density-Dry: 2.92 (t/m3) AS 1141.6.1
Particle Density-SSD: 2.94 (t/m3) AS 1141.6.1
Water Absorption: 0.60% AS 1141.6.1
Flakiness Index: 29% AS 1141.15
Sample Source: Blue Rock Quarry, QLD
CWG Specific Gravity: 2.5 ASTM D5550 -14

Maximum Dry-Density: 1.82 (t/m3) AS1141.5
Minimum Dry-Density: 1.39 (t/m3) AS1141.5
Abrasion loss: 2.40% ASTM D7428
Maximum Void Ratio: 0.79 -
Minimum Void Ratio: 0.37 -
Table 2. Summary of the test results

Test Type Reference 10% 15% 20% 50% 100%
Mix
Slump (mm) 235 255 250 240 265 200

Reverse Cone (mm) 460 560 475 475 600 -
Workability index 595 75 625 615 765 -
Density (kg/m3) 2663.09 2974.14 2990.85 2985.27 2977.85 2874.01
Air Content (%) 1.2 0.8 1.30 0.6 0.4 3.5
Tensile Crack Speed (m/s) 1.03 1.08 1.06 1.21 1.19 -
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank GCP Applied Technologies (Sydney, Australia) for the supply of raw materials,
and Mr Paul Howard (Enviro Sand, Australia) for supplying crushed waste glass used in this study. We are also
grateful to Mr Shane Walker at the School of Civil Engineering at The University of Queensland (Brisbane,
Australia) for his assistance with the preparation and testing of the shotcrete mixes.
Citing
Serati, Mehdi, Malgotra, Gautam, Jackson, Niki, Basireddy, Sai Manaswi Reddy and Asche, Harry (2021).
Sustainable shotcrete with crushed waste glass. Eurock 2021, Turin, Italy, 21–24 September 2021. Rome,
Italy: Italian Geotechnical Society (AGI). doi: 10.1088/1755-1315/833/1/012081
References
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[4] Jiao D, Shi C, Yuan Q, An X, Liu Y, and Li H 2017 E ect of constituents on rheological properties of
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[5] Liew KM, Sojobi AO, and Zhang LW2017 Green concrete: prospects and challenges.Construction and
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something, which, in my opinion
1 was nigh on impossible until the
tunnel shield and back up gear in
Name/position/brief employment the tunnel was set up properly. A
history/current working role fairly terse conversation ensued
for about twenty minutes before
Joseph Gallagher. Chairman of both of us were able to find a
the Joseph Gallagher Group. common ground, and without
doubt in turned out to be one of
I commenced working as a the best ever day’s work. Let’s just
Banksman, in 1962, on a tunnel say the ring got built…
project in Peebles in Scotland for When we completed our tunnel,
a company called Reid & Mallik. I Tim had left a message for me
then came to England and worked to call him in Manchester on a
in Retford in Nottinghamshire Saturday evening when we had
building a Power Station, taken the tunnel shield out of the
incidentally where my company shaft to the surface. The hired
now has an office. Following this, crane that was in use to lift the
I went back to Scotland to work shield from the pit bottom had
on a reservoir in Tweedsmuir, broken down for four hours, and
Lanarkshire, for Thyssen’s, a To illustrate the point, I we didn’t come out of the tunnel
German company where my happened to have worked on the until 7.45pm on the Saturday
brother James was a Foreman. highest paying project in London evening.
In January 1965, I came to in 1972 and was taking home When I eventually called Tim
London (to earn my fortune as approximately £90 net weekly. In from the site office, his first words
the old saying goes!) and began contrast, when I went to work for to me were to ask me to become
working on the Victoria Line at Tim Kilroe, my take home pay was the General Foreman on the
Euston as a miner’s labourer. There increased to £440 net weekly, a Monday – the Works Manager
then followed numerous tunnel huge sum in those days - albeit, to use today’s terminology. I was
projects up and down the UK. unlike its football counterpart, genuinely staggered, as in my
In 1970, the first experimental unfortunately there were no opinion I was still learning my
Bentonite Slurry TBM “Tunnel signing on fees in the construction trade, and needless to say the role
Boring Machine” came to New game! was a huge learning curve for me.
Cross from Japan for Edmund Whilst the wages were unlike After a few weeks, Tim arrived
Nuttall. Unbeknown to us, this anything we had seen or on site: presumably he had been
was the beginning of TBM’s in the witnessed before, let me assure giving me some breathing space
UK as we now know it, and I’m you that we earned every penny of to familiarise myself with the
lucky and proud to say that I was it – far and away the busiest and new role. In our conversation,
the first TBM Operator in the UK. most demanding work that I ever he mentioned that we were
Fortunately, the experiment was had witnessed. A testament to this three lining gangs short in
a huge success, and Nuttall went is that we not alone didn’t come another section of the works. He
onto win a contract in Warrington up for our breaks, but indeed only requested that I do a little digging
and reused this particular TBM - took them at all when we were around at the weekend to see if
and the rest, as they say, is history. waiting for skips. I had never there were any gangs available
In 1972, I commenced worked for Tim Kilroe before, but in London. He finished the
working for a company from his man management skills were conversation by saying, and I recall
Manchester named Tim Kilroe quite extraordinary. When Tim this vividly: “I’m not concerned
& Sons in Newport Pagnell, had a conversation with you, not what you pay them: I’ll give you
Buckinghamshire. Working for only did it instil a huge amount my price and you can pay them as
this particular company was a real of pride in you and the work, but you see fit.” And just like that, I had
eye opener for me personally: the you walked away feeling you were been introduced into the world of
Kilroe business model was to win the most important Leading Miner subcontracting.
the work, employ the best miners, on the planet. The man even When the project was complete,
set huge production targets and, had Sir Matt Busby the famous Tim wanted to transfer me back
in turn, pay the highest salaries. It Manchester United manager on up to a project he had in Scotland.
may seem a fairly simple business his Board of Directors! Unbeknown to Tim, there was
model these days, but no other My first conversation with Tim a new boss in town who carried
contractor had employed this almost ended before it started. On even more weight than him: my
model prior to Kilroe & Sons: I our second night of employment, wife, Agnes, overruled me on
suppose you could say it was he came down to the tunnel that decision as we had three
something like playing for face, requesting (or requiring!) of a family by that stage and I
Manchester City nowadays! another ring on the production – was already working every hour
under the sun. That said, it was Mowlem became aware that chance never got anywhere.”
with a heavy heart that I said I had formed a company and My philosophy was as long as
my goodbyes to Tim and the invited me to assist their team in I earned a similar salary as to
company. pricing a contract which they won what I had been taking home as
Following my stint with Kilroe, from Balfour Beatty at Acton in a Leading Miner, then I was quite
I began working as a Night London. The project consisted of happy to take on the added
Foreman for Nuttals on the Strand tunnelling, shafts and open cut, responsibility - and should it all
contract at Charing Cross, and I and as well as myself, I took on be a failure, well frankly, I was no
was there for the following five two employees - one being an worse off than when I began.
years – a pretty unusual feat back excavator driver - and later I took I went to the Midland Bank
in those days. After, I moved on on a third employee when we in Camden Town to open the
to work for John Mowlems at commenced the shaft work. company account and I can
Surrey Docks and Wandsworth I remember finishing that first still see the Bank Managers
– the last project I completed project as if it were yesterday. expression when I announced
before I decided to form my We completed the project on I was opening the company
own company, Joseph Gallagher a Monday and the miner who account with a £5 note. Years
“London” Ltd. assisted me turned around later when the Bank Manager
and said to me “Josie, if that’s retired, he hosted a fairly lavish
2 subcontracting, you are welcome leaving dinner in the city. When
to it” - so much for the joys of he stood up to make his farewell
Congratulations on 40 years of being a subcontractor! speech, he proceeded to say
Joseph Gallagher Ltd! From Lead That said, the project was a that a young gentleman once
Miner with a £5 note in 1982 to success for John Mowlem and came into his bank in Camden
owning Joseph Gallagher Ltd – a consequently Balfour Beatty, so I Town and opened a company
leading tunnelling sub-contractor was on my way. account with a £5 note and
serving the UK and Middle East - is When the question is posed turned to me and asked me to
quite a story. How did it all begin, as to what made me go and stand up. Whilst it was a proud
what made you decide to go it set up my own, I suppose the moment, in reality the sweat
alone? response is that I always believed was running down my back with
that “the man who never took a embarrassment!
As I mentioned, I had been
working on a John Mowlem What were the major challenges involved in building a successful start-up
project in Wandsworth as a 3 company in the tunnelling industry 40 years ago?
Leading Miner on a 100-inch
TBM. We had an engineer/
surveyor who was responsible for I could probably think of three main hundred pounds in the bank in those
keeping the tunnel shield on line challenges that we faced, particularly in early days and I once even had to put
and level. Over a period of time, those early formative years. my house up as collateral to the Bank to
we became good friends and one The first was persuading a company secure a job. Suffice to say, when you’re a
day he happened to mention that to take a risk with a brand-new young man, some of these decisions are
I must pay a substantial amount Subcontractor without any order book easier to take compared to when you’re a
of my earnings in income tax or any history. Fortunately for me, I had little older and with a family to support.
(which I most certainly did!). He been a General Foreman for Nuttals,
proceeded to put his hand into his John Mowlem and Tim Kilroe & Sons, “Without disciplined management
pocket, pulled out a card and told who were all the equivalent of blue-chip
me that it has the phone number companies in those days. I’d like to think of cash, it’s likely to be a matter of
of his accountant. some of the personal relationships I built time before any start-up company
A few months later, we and what I had proven with them meant
completed the project and upon that they were willing to give me work as goes out of business, no matter
clearing out my filing cabinet a subbie, which, in turn, built creditability how good or effective a job they are
the following day, I happened with other companies with whom I hadn’t
to stumble across this business previously worked for or with. capable of doing.”
card. Without thinking too much Secondly, and this is one that will
about it, I decided to give the always remain prevalent for any The final, and potentially biggest
accountant a call and made an company, but especially one in its challenge was the acquiring of miners
appointment to meet up with him. infancy: cashflow. Without disciplined and a high-class workforce.
Fast forward a few days/ weeks management of cash, it’s likely to be Getting miners of the required
and I had formed a company, a matter of time before any start-up standard, capable of driving the work
namely Joseph Gallagher company goes out of business, no and production, to work for a brand
‘London’ Ltd (there was a matter how good or effective a job they new company with only one project on
company in Birmingham named are capable of doing. As well as good its books was no mean feat, and it took
JJ Gallagher which prevented cash management, there is always a some wiles of persuasion to get the
me from naming the company fair amount of luck and risk involved experienced miners to come and work
Joseph Gallagher Ltd at that in the early days. As you might be able for the company, even if it perhaps was in
time). to imagine, I probably didn’t have two their eyes only for a few weeks.
My former employer John
4
Could the same be achieved today
amidst the current climate of huge
multi-national contractors?
I think the biggest challenge would

be in the changing nature of the
work over the last 40 years. Back
then, Joseph Gallagher Ltd was
exclusively a pricework company
as opposed to offering solely
labour supply, which is a lot more
common these days.
Personally, I do think it would be a
little more difficult to be successful
today but not impossible, and
even back then the likes of Nuttall,
John Mowlem and Tim Kilroe were
essentially the equivalent of large
multi-national contractors.
5
The business is a real success
story. What core values have you
DLR train for
instilled in the company ethos, Lewisham arriving
right from the out-set, that have at London’s Bank
led to its longevity? station
The first, and something which has

become increasingly more critical about 300k in value, whereas the
as the years have gone by, is safety. contract at Bank was to the value
“I think it’s the DLR at Bank for
Number 1. Frankly, without a of £11.5m, so quite a big step up Edmund Nuttall as it was my first
good safety record in the modern in magnitude! From recollection,
climate, your chances of success I was told I was awarded the really big project as a subbie. Up
are practically zero. We’ve invested job because the client had been until then, my biggest contract
significantly in our safety culture impressed by the amount of
and our LIFE (‘Living Incident Free background work and preparation was something in the realm of
Everyday) ethos, which is at the I had done on the project when about 300k in value, whereas the
forefront of everything we do in I was called into the pre contract
the business. award interview, so I guess contract at Bank was to the value
The second is being an honest
company. When you make a
sometimes it does pay to do your
homework!
of £11.5m, so quite a big step up
mistake, hold your hands up and in magnitude!”
admit doing so. When you sit 7
opposite somebody in business, big projects are let on a labour
the first criteria I judge anyone by Toughest project you have supply basis as opposed to the
is whether I can trust the person worked on and why? DLR contract which was wholly
I’m speaking to. If the answer is pricework. Every employee on the
yes, then you’re already halfway Again, it would have to be the DLR project was on pricework, even
there. Problems can be overcome project at Bank, solely because the back up and surface labour.
but a lack of trust in whom you’re of the amount of scaling up it What gave me huge satisfaction is
working with is almost always fatal. required compared to anything that I had to sit down and evaluate
I had done before. Prior to that, every price I gave the miners. It
6 I had a workforce of roughly 15 was key that I could not afford
employees who were prepared any gang to reject the price given
Best project you have worked on to run through a brick wall on to them, otherwise my credibility
and why? behalf of the business, but now I would be shot. I’m very proud to
was contending with something say that during the course of the
I think it’s the DLR at Bank for in the region of approximately project, I probably sat down and
Edmund Nuttall as it was my first 450 employees, who - in the main agreed about 400 prices and not
really big project as a subbie. Up - were there for the maximum once did any gang fail to accept
until then, my biggest contract amount of salary they could what was on offer. I believe what
was something in the realm of possibly earn. Nowadays, the stood in my favour was largely
my background, in that I had levels of competency, you then

been a miner myself and the 9 became the Pit Boss. At this stage,
gangs knew that I had done the whatever might occur back in the
work and that I knew the true Most frustrating issue facing tunnel all the way to the pit top,
value of the production targets. today’s tunnelling industry. you had done all these jobs and
My biggest problem was that the had the experience to deal with
Channel Tunnel was being built at The sheer number of ‘bosses’! In any situation. That was the rite of
a similar time, and naturally there my younger days, the only person passage.
were huge salaries on offer as it who could stop you working In the modern world, if you
was the flagship project of the was the General Foreman. require an excavator operator,
century. Being able to complete Today, there are so many people they will likely be classed as a
our project successfully without who have an opinion, without miner. However, that is also
a labour problem was a huge necessarily having the experience likely to be their only experience
achievement and key to the to make that judgement. There of being in a tunnel and should
success and everything else which are fewer individuals who are you have a tunnel face collapse,
went on in the project. working and making decisions through no fault of their own,
born from experience and time they are unlikely to have the
8 spent on the job, but instead are answer as to how it’s rectified or
making decisions and judgement remedied.
What 3 innovations have most calls based off what they might be
changed the tunnelling industry reading in a manual. 11
over your career and why?
10 What is the best advice you have
Again, I have to go back to ever received?
safety. By far and away, it’s the What major challenges does the
biggest innovation and change tunnelling industry face in the When I commenced working
in tunnelling in my career. Back future? for Edmund Nuttall at the Strand
in the old days, it was all about contract, the Site Agent was a
production: nothing else mattered I think it’s potentially the lack of gentleman named Jim Murray. On
as long as you hit your production apprenticeship that workforce my first morning, he introduced
target. With the emphasis tends to serve these days. For himself and told me he will give
so heavily on those targets, example, when I started out as me three words of advice that
sometimes operatives might take a young man, your first job was would serve me well and that I’d
a shortcut which would be unsafe being a labourer on the surface hopefully never forget. Those
in order to meet those targets. to understand what was required three words were to be ‘firm but
Thankfully, things have changed and how the pit top operated. You fair’ and he said that if I were to
for the better and it’s a much safer were then the Slinger Signaller adhere to that advice, it will never
environment now for the younger at the pit top before you were let me down - and how right he
generation and workforce. transferred to the pit bottom, was.
A second would be full face and then onto being the pony You will never command the
EPB (Earth Pressure Balance) as boy pushing the skips. You may respect of your workforce if
it eliminated miners working in then become the locomotive they can’t trust you to be fair.
compressed air, which damaged operator, followed by being the Sometimes when the workforce
the health of so many miners in belt man at the back of the sledge come to you looking for an
years gone by - largely with ‘bone at the tunnel face. You might increase in salary, there are
rot’ which is the most common then become the grout operator, situations when you simply
complaint from working in followed by being the miner’s can’t give them that. What is
compressed air. In my formative labour and then, and only then, crucial though is that when the
years, we worked in compressed you became the miner, followed conversation is finished - increase
air so often and occasionally we by being the Leading Miner. or no increase - the worker feels
wouldn’t even have a medical Should you show the required valued and respected.
prior to doing so.
The final innovation would be
What advice would you give to someone at the beginning of
NATM (New Austrian Tunnelling 12 a career in tunnelling?
Method). When I started in
tunnelling, “NATM” did not exist in
the UK. It has changed the world Quite simply, be an honest and hard worker. That applies to any
of tunnelling because it eliminates category in tunnelling, or any walk of life in fact, as it will set the
“HAVS” (Hand Arm Vibration tone for everything that will follow. You might think that people
Monitoring). There are so many don’t observe your actions but in my opinion they certainly do.
old miners who suffer badly from
‘white finger’ due to this and Also, age is not a barrier for promotion. When I interview young
because they spent their careers graduates, I always tell them if they produce the goods at a young
using an “FL22” (a pneumatic air age, that their age will not stop them getting promoted. That’s the
tool) every shift of their working kind of mentality I want to see in my workforce.
lives.
The health and
safety imperative
implemented on-site,” says Rispin.
Given the complex nature of tunnel construction Health and safety, he adds, are so important to
the industry that the ITA (International Tunnelling
projects, health and safety management is a principal Association) created a specific Working Group (WG
5), to bring multi-disciplinary individuals together to
consideration for all project stakeholders. Missing discuss the topic and publish articles and guidelines
for the benefit of the global industry.
the mark on these important parameters can result in In the United States, the UCA (Underground
Construction Association) has its own Working
added expenses, lost time and injuries. Group with a special focus on health and safety.
While it has a domestic focus, the group also shares
By Munesu Shoko. the results of its efforts internationally.
“For Strata, safety is an integral part of our business,
as we offer safety-driven products and technologies
to our customer base. At the same time, safety is
an integral part of our culture, and we reiterate it in
Tunnelling is a complex process involving a lot of every customer presentation or industry meeting we
risks, and the importance of ensuring worker safety at do,” says Rispin.
all times cannot be stressed enough. The underground community prides itself on
Mike Rispin, Vice President – Tunnelling at Strata its safety record, and Rispin believes that this is
Worldwide, says safety remains priority number especially telling given the risks involved with
one for project owners, engineering consultants, working in an underground environment.
technology suppliers, and contractors building “Systematic safety procedures, daily safety briefings
The Align JV has the tunnels and underground infrastructure. As and periodic workplace/workforce stand-downs are
become the world’s complexity increases, so does the time and attention all part of the industry culture. Contractors are eager
first contractor to devoted to safety. to learn of and examine new safety technologies,
implement Pinssar’s
“From my experience, the health and safety of whether or not they may be specified in contract
DPM monitoring
technology in a the project staff and contracted workers is the first documents,” says Rispin.
TBM project. consideration in decisions taken and processes As the awareness on health outcomes increases
around the world, so has the onus on tunnel
construction companies to focus on the health
and safety policies associated with infrastructure
projects. This is the view of Wayne Hose, Business
Development Manager – Global at Pinssar, who
believes that, while in the past focus has been
directed more towards the safety aspects of projects,
there is a growing realisation that health is equally
important, reflecting a general concern around
occupational-related diseases.
“This has translated into far greater awareness
and understanding of occupational health issues,
with clients and principal contractors demonstrating
a sincere desire to ensure that they deliver a
healthier workplace for employees and surrounding
environments,” says Hose.
WORLD FIRST
This renewed focus on occupational health has

prompted project owners at High Speed 2 (HS2) in
the UK, in partnership with its principal contractor,
the Align JV, to further strengthen occupational
health and safety strategies through the introduction
of latest advancements in technology. Align was
instrumental in the introduction of the technology on

HS2.
One of the significant risks identified in the HS2’s
strategy was the potential exposure of workers to the
group 1 carcinogen, in the form of diesel particulate
matter (DPM), and the need to manage controls to
reduce this health risk.
To enable a timely response to this risk, continuous
real-time DPM monitoring technology from Pinssar
was identified as a primary requirement, with the
Align JV becoming the world’s first contractor to
implement this technology on a tunnel excavation
using TBMs.
Both HS2 and Align also regarded this project as
highly critical in meeting the BS6164 (2019) standards.
“We see real-time DPM monitoring as the next
advancement in helping us understand exposure
which aligns to our occupational health commitments
as part of Safe at Heart strategic approach,” explains
Fiona King, Head of Occupational Health & Wellbeing
at HS2.
“This is an exciting evolution for Align and we
are pleased to be the first contractor to deploy the
Pinssar technology in the UK as well as the first to
install the readers directly onto our two TBMs. I am mitigating technologies for future, safe project Strata’s ERCX
can be placed in
pleased to say we are seeing immediate benefits, planning.
a tunnel, on rails
with the readers giving us real time assurance that we or attached to the
are providing a safe and healthy work environment. EVOLVING TECHNOLOGY TBM.
This in turn is being supported by our traditional
lab analysed testing which gives us confidence that To further strengthen health and safety initiatives, the
what the readers are telling us is accurate,” says tunnelling industry continues to leverage the power of
Ralph Ashwood, Deputy Director Health, Safety and evolving technologies.
Wellbeing at Align JV. Strata has been manufacturing and supporting
Following this world first initiative, it is anticipated Emergency Refuge Chambers for many years and is
that DPM monitoring will become a common practice a global leader in this area. The technology, however,
for all tunnelling projects in the UK, throughout has recently evolved to include connectivity to Strata’s
Europe, and the rest of the world. the tunnel network; automated oxygen systems; HazardAvert®
This approach, explains Hose, is a proactive multi-gas and environmental monitoring; carbon proximity detection
and collision
measure to prepare for the recent revisions of the monoxide conversion systems; and an intelligent
avoidance system
global regulatory frameworks. These include the monitoring, alert, communication and control for people and
European directive 2019/130 which reduces the system (IMACC). The latter facilitates real-time machinery.
limit for Diesel Particulate Exposure from 300 µ/m³
down to 50 µ/m³ EC over an 8-hour Time Weighted
Average (TWA), by January 2023 (with a leniency
towards mining and tunnelling projects, which will
be completed before 2026). In addition, specific
industrial manslaughter legislations also identify
the need to provide heathy and safe environs for all
workplaces and employees.
For the Align JV, the initial deployment comprises
four Pinssar diesel particulate readers (DPRs),
including one on each of the two TBMs it is operating.
Align has been collecting data since late February.
The Pinssar DPRs are delivering live data to a Pinssar
customised dashboard in the control room. The data
is also being monitored remotely by occupational
health and hygiene consultancy, Park Health and
Safety Partnership.
The aim of the project is to ensure a timely
response to avoid exceedances to the Occupational
Exposure Limits (OEL). The system is also useful in
identifying emitting technologies that are working
outside of expected emissions calculations. Both
the contactor and client can review the data,
helping them understand the health of their working
environments, as well as considering effective DPM
The Biomarine
Biopak Rebreather
from Strata
Worldwide.
emergency communication and monitoring between This is particularly beneficial in complex

the chamber(s) and surface, and long-term remote working environments, such as caverns or SEM
maintenance and sensor monitoring. excavations. The technology includes GPS for
“Many tunnellers are familiar with the rigid surface environments, which allows for geofencing,
structures described above. Strata now brings fleet monitoring and asset tracking. Cameras can
alternatives to the industry in the form of an inflatable be easily integrated into the technology in order to
ERC or FAB (Fresh Air Bay). They have a modular provide a complete collision avoidance solution. The
design, for relocation purposes, with a low profile, technology is extremely robust and can work in all
which makes them easy to handle compared to rigid environments.
refuge chambers. These are easily deployed in a The Biomarine BioPak 240R, from Strata’s partner
matter of minutes when circumstances dictate,” says CSE, is a state-of-the-art Rescue Rebreather which
Rispin. is finding increased interest in the tunnelling market.
The features and benefits of these technologies It offers worldwide safety approvals from various
– custom-designed to the ITA requirements and organisations such as NIOSH, MSHA and EN 145/136,
to specific project capacity needs – make them an and is gaining traction with rescue teams for its light
economical and attractive option for project builders weight, ease of operation and maintenance, as well
in their quest to safeguard the workforce. Inflatable as low cost-of-ownership.
chambers with capacities up to 48 residents have Together with its partner Trolex, Strata also offers
been designed (15.5’ length x 6.8’ width x 3.8’ height, cutting edge technologies in gas detection, offering
prior to deployment, and 61’ length x 12’ width x 48” both fixed and the innovative battery-powered
height, when deployed). A typical inflatable chamber wireless solutions. The technology achieves real-
for 18 people has a representative dimension of 13.5’ time wireless monitoring without being tethered to
length x 4.9’ width x 2.9’ height, prior to deployment, a hard network or power supply, making it easy to
and 31.7’ length x 12’ width x 48” height, when deploy and maintain.
deployed. In addition, the “E-module” sensor technology
Proximity Detection and Collision Avoidance (PD/ now permits easy changing and reprogramming
CA), says Rispin, is another safety concept that has of detection units, and also boasts an attractive
seen an increased take-up in the industry. Strata feature of being able to quickly exchange sensors for
now offers HazardAvert, an electromagnetic-based calibration at the surface. This eliminates the need to
technology which boasts a Level 9 EMERST capability take calibration gas samples underground, a tedious
rating, meaning that it can be integrated into process for those responsible for the monitoring
equipment and slow down and/or stop machinery system.
automatically, without the operator’s intervention.
HazardAvert is OEM agnostic and can be easily MANAGING DPM
deployed across a contractor’s entire fleet of
equipment, including surface gear, conveyor belts According to Hose, diesel remains the main source
and other fixed equipment. It offers a secure 360° of energy in all UK tunnel construction and fit-out
stable field coverage (including the capability of projects and the industry does not see this changing
custom programming “warning” and “hazard” zones), dramatically in the near future. Whatever the future
typically unaffected by visibility, and penetrates almost may hold for diesel/electric powered equipment,
any material, allowing it to “see” around corners and workplaces need to be cognisant of the need to
obstacles. protect their workers against DPM exhaust today.
The tunnel construction industry’s focus on the management. Strata’s StrataConnect™ line of voice
health and safety of its workers makes it well placed and data communications as well as personnel
to adopt real-time DPM monitoring technology. and asset technology, speaks directly to the
Pinssar offers the one of the world’s first continuous, connectivity trend. Being able to know whether
real-time DPM monitoring system for harsh your people are in or out of the tunnel, and where
environments such as tunnelling construction. they are in the tunnel, provides a strong safety
The low-maintenance, plug-and-play diesel perspective.
monitoring system was specifically developed to “The StrataConnect system also has a ‘man
provide diesel emissions data on a continuous, 24/7 down’ feature, identifying people underground who
basis. may need urgent help. Functionality and accuracy
“Our innovative solution provides the missing piece are developing quickly, interfacing tracking to
of the puzzle when it comes to monitoring DPM. It proximity detection systems, camera systems and
complements the existing point-in-time methods fatigue monitoring systems, to name a few. In the
(tailpipe, personal and hand-held) but provides more age of the IoT (Internet of Things) and AI (artificial
granular insights to enable timely action and prompt intelligence), connectivity will continue to develop
management of mitigating controls,” explains Hose. at a rapid pace,” says Rispin.
The solution comprises a ruggedised, fixed, The rapid development in connectivity is also
particle monitor called the Pinssar DPR which works a key enabler for automation. As an example,
continuously to collect DPM samples and send data in combining Strata’s tracking and gas detection
real time, and the Pinssar Dashboard, a configurable solutions with data transmission facilitates
interface which records and displays samples from automation of fan systems to provide “ventilation
the Pinssar DPR, as well as internal diagnostics. automation and control (VAC)”, based on the
Additionally, the data captured by this flexible number of people that may be in a specific area.
solution is compatible with the company’s control Hose is of the view that Pinssar’s DPM monitoring
system architecture. This technology is said to be the technology will enable jurisdictions around the
world’s only enabling solution for integration with world to follow on from the industry-leading BS
ventilation simulation software. 6164 standard.
“World leading progressive companies are relying
THE FUTURE more and more on making timely data-driven
decisions in their drive for continuous improvement
Commenting on the future, Rispin says connectivity in health and safety, and their ESG strategy for
will continue to play a key role in safety carbon reduction,” concludes Hose.
DISCUS
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PROJE
S
LET’
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1889
R E S T.
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A partner
not just a
product provider
Complete safety solutions from the expert in mining,
tunnelling and construction. A one-stop shop for safety,
alongside consultancy, we can help to control and
minimise the time and cost of procurement administration.
BETTER TOGETHER. DRÄGER
Contact us
Tris Thomas Gary Tween Rory Harris
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The State of
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North American Tunneling Journal 1

2 North American Tunneling Journal
Comment Contents
News from the web - page 4
Watch what you say
The Insider - page 6
This week marks the opening of the Elizabeth
08
Line in London, UK. You may have heard of NATJ’s Monitoring Round Table
it as “Crossrail.” It’s a subway project that’s
comprised extensive underground construction The pandemic has created myriad challenges
in one of the world’s most crowded urban worldwide over the last two years. In this
roundtable, North American Tunneling Journal
environments—above and below ground.
speaks with industry leaders to understand the
Its opening has been plagued by delays to
current state of tunneling, from increasing early
the chagrin of most London commuters, and
contractor involvement to solving supply chain
that was before the pandemic hit. Several
challenges.
years ago it was decided the new line would
carry the name of the current monarch. And
funnily enough, mere weeks before her 70th
anniversary as queen, it’s announced the line
will open to coincide with the festivities.
Anyone else getting a sense of déjà vu,
picturing New York’s politicians ringing in the
New Year on the new Second Avenue Subway
in 2017?
It’s exciting to see a subway line go into
service. So many of these megaprojects are
lambasted from the start, and beloved the
16
minute they make people’s lives easier. There’s Advance Rates in Soft Ground
no better advertisement for tunneling than a
Tunnelling - By Dan Ifrim, Hatch
one-seat ride on a brand-new train.
For many projects, including in the US, it The paper discussion is based on authors
needs to be more widely acknowledged that so experience and data from 21 soft ground tunnels
often it’s not the tunnels that make the delay. mined with an EPB in closed mode (pressurized
Boris Johnson was still the mayor of London face) across North America. Unfortunately, many
when tunneling finished on Crossrail (he’s now tunnel case histories do include the necessary TBM
the prime minister). Britain was still part of the design fea-tures, operational commentary, and
European Union. maintenance protocols and records to develop
While the industry’s best and brightest definitive recommendations. At the same time,
can better articulate how to make projects the survey did reveal some interesting factors that
more cost and time efficient, I’ll advocate for affect EPB advance rate.
improving the optics. Tunneling is generally
the biggest and most expensive component
of a project, so it’s deemed a “tunnel project.”
However, it shouldn’t necessarily carry the
burden of being associated with delays. With
subways and CSO mitigation alike it’s never just
a tunnel. And, as seen with the Second Avenue
Subway, the delays often start well before the
politicians’ ceremonial shovels hit the dirt.
Technology has advanced, mechanized
tunneling has gotten faster and megaprojects,
of any kind, are notoriously sluggish. This
distinction is key.
Please keep talking about tunneling successes
and advance rate accomplishments. In fact,
be a little louder—so it’s not all bad news until
the day political leaders roll up for their grand
opening parties.
Nicole Robinson
NORTH AMERICAN NEWS
‘Mrs Vera’ begins karstic Diggy Scardust

prepared for launch
challenge in St Louis Ontario’s Metrolinx is marking another
Spring 2022 saw a Robbins 4.1m a rebuilt 3.35m diameter Robbins Main important milestone for its three-stop
diameter Main Beam TBM launched in Beam TBM hit challenging conditions Scarborough Subway Extension as the
St. Louis, Missouri, USA, to complete about 2,400m into tunneling. The project’s 11.9m diameter Herrenknecht
a critical infrastructure tunnel for machine encountered a large vertical TBM, Diggy Scardust, is being prepared
contractor SAK Construction. The feature along with flowing and unstable for launch on its 7.8km journey from
machine, “Mrs. Vera”, is boring Phase ground that required the TBM to remain Sheppard Avenue and McCowan Road.
2 of the Jefferson Barracks tunnel, in place. A 62m deep recovery shaft and Crews on site have completed building
a 3,050m long tunnel in karstic 60m long adit were built to stabilize the approximately 28m deep launch
limestone. Designed to detect karst the area and remove the machine. After shaft and parts of the TBM are currently
and other underground features, the recovery, SAK Construction turned being lowered into the shaft.
unique machine comes equipped with to Robbins for a solution to bore The main shield was the first piece to
enhanced 360-degree probe drilling the remaining tunnel in what would be lowered and will be followed by the
capabilities, as well as versatile ground become Phase 2 of the project. tail can and then the cutterhead. Once
support options including McNally SAK and Robbins agreed to do assembled, Diggy Stardust will be the
crown support, wire mesh, ring beam extensive in-shop testing of the new, biggest TBM used for a transit project in
erector and roof drills. larger TBM to ensure there would be no Canada to date.
During Phase 1 of Jefferson Barracks, unnecessary delays on site. The TBM When tunneling begins, Diggy
was delivered a couple months late due Scardust will travel south, going about
to both COVID-related matters and the 10m a day, erecting the 10.7m diameter
additional in-shop testing. segmental lining towards Midland
After arriving in St. Louis, the TBM was Avenue and Eglinton Avenue, where
swiftly assembled and launched from crews will eventually lift it out of the
the recovery shaft. ground.
The Jefferson Barracks project is a Soil and rocks will be removed by a
key component of MSD Project Clear, screw conveyor and transported back
a massive US$6bn program undertaken to the launch shaft site via belt conveyor
by the Metropolitan St. Louis Water before removal from site and disposal.
District to target water quality and In May 2021, Infrastructure Ontario
wastewater concerns in the city and and Metrolinx awarded the $757.1M
surrounding areas. The 5,400m long, contract to Strabag to design, build and
2m internal diameter Jefferson Barracks finance the tunnel for the Scarborough
tunnel runs parallel to the Mississippi Subway Extension.
River and extends to the Lemay Metrolinx and Infrastructure Ontario
Wastewater Treatment Plant located at are working together to deliver the
the confluence of the River des Peres Scarborough Subway Extension, which
and the Mississippi. The tunnel is slated is estimated to be complete by 2029-
for completion in Autumn 2023. 30.
Major BART San Jose/Santa Clara Extension contract approved

The Santa Clara Valley (VTA) Board of Directors has voted includes boring the tunnel under downtown San Jose.
unanimously to authorise the General Manager/CEO to Three other contracts to be considered in the future will
execute the first in a series of construction contracts for be for the Systems, Stations, and the Santa Clara Station and
the approx. US$6.9bn BART Silicon Valley Phase II (BSVII) Maintenance Yard.
Project. This first Contract Package for the Tunnel and VTA’s BSVII Project is a six-mile (9.6km), four-station
Trackwork (CP2) is a Progressive Design Build Contract with extension that will bring BART service from Berryessa/
Kiewit Shea Traylor (KST), a Joint Venture, in the amount of North San José through downtown San José to the City
$235M. of Santa Clara, includes three stations with underground
Contract Package (CP2) will be carried out in stages with platforms (28th Street/Little Portugal, Downtown San José,
Stage 1 activities including investigation of innovations, and Diridon), one ground-level station (Santa Clara), a
engineering and design, open book cost estimates, and the train maintenance and storage facility at Newhall Yard, and
work schedule. Stage 1 activities are anticipated to occur additional facilities. Five (8km) of the six-mile alignment is
from May 2022 through approximately December 2023, planned to be constructed in a large diameter single-bore
setting the stage for major construction (Stage 2) which tunnel, with the remaining one mile at-grade rail.

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THE INSIDER
Bob Goodfellow, PE, PEng, President, Aldea Services Inc.
June is busting out all over

Musical theater is enjoying a used a different word for cat) it reminds Diego and elsewhere across the
resurgence, especially if you are Puerto me of my Dick.” Soon thereafter, the country for big spender funding to
Rican. Whether re-imagining Alexander big musical number of the grand finale enable their transit construction to
Hamilton as a Puerto Rican rapper or began, but did so without the orchestra go ahead. The Infrastructure Law
seeing Puerto Rican dancers fighting as we were unable to play anything amid will hopefully generate the financial
it out in West Side Story, we see great helpless laughter. This magical line of stimulus to connect the high-
new shows alongside the old favorites dialogue was re-written and never made speed rail from the Central Valley of
on Broadway. it to opening night. California to San Francisco and Los
Similarly, in tunneling, we see new In discussion with my brother and Angeles; and we will cry “oh, what a
project locations in Tennessee and sister, we have often commented that beautiful morning” on the day that
Oklahoma alongside the old favorites far from there being no business like the Delta Conveyance Project begins
in Los Angeles and Washington DC. show business, there are many parallels construction.
The Alaskan Way tunnel in Seattle was between 42nd Street and the tunneling Travel is beginning again for those
planned, designed, and built within a world. I know that many of you have a of us born under a wandering star.
decade, while in New York, East Side musical background in addition to your Bouncing around the country like a
Access rumbles into its third decade prodigious tunneling talents. We should pinball wizard is refreshing after so
of construction after 50 years or more really make a musical about tunneling. much time dealing with Teams, Zoom
of planning, with completion finally Taking the pulse of the industry with and all that jazz. Meeting in person
approaching later this year. some shows and song titles hidden in allows both happy talk and resolution
I have a personal connection to the text sounds like a great Summertime of difficult conversations. In-person
musical theater. Both of my siblings game. I’ve started playing by sneaking in meetings are important to both design
were professional dancers, and my a few already, but here we go. and construction, and I am glad to be
parents were deeply involved in The hills are alive and Infrastructure out there again.
amateur dramatics for my entire Law dollars are finally being appropriated. It is great to spend some enchanted
childhood. While I missed out on the The tunneling market outlook is very evenings at industry conferences, so
dancing gene (at least when sober), my robust and it looks like everything is we can meet again and exchange
contribution was playing the trumpet coming up roses. Some long-awaited ideas with colleagues. These
in the pit orchestra for many of these programs, such as the ALCOSAN conferences are the primary way we
shows. I had some great times, and program in Pittsburgh are now in full present and preserve the memory
this teenage experience left me with swing. CSO tunnel projects are moving of our industry. We also use these
an enduring love of musicals, with a forward, funded by the carousel of the conferences to develop our young
few notable exceptions (looking at you state revolving loan fund mechanism. members, inspire them to feel that
Annie!). This means of user-fee generated they can climb every mountain and
I was present for many mirth-filled funding has been the lifeblood of about that they will never walk alone.
moments that can only be provided half of our industry and bravo to the When reviewing the situation, we
by the full-throated commitment and Federal Government for a massive cannot allow tradition to slow down
not-quite-there talent of amateur increase in funding for this important progress. The nexus we see of an
dramatics. The inspiration for Monty work in keeping ol’ man river cleaner ageing workforce and expanding
Python’s “Batley Townswomen’s Guild than ever. marketplace is the perfect blend of
Re-enactment of the Battle of Pearl The transit side of our business project and career opportunity for
Harbor” is clear. continues to experience schedule younger folks to enter and advance
I was also there to hear the greatest frustration as if one day more doesn’t in tunneling. We must inspire a new
single line in the history of musical matter. New York programs continue generation to always look on the
theater. One Christmas break from to be delayed and despite the promise bright side of life and lift us into the
college, I played in the orchestra for the of Gateway and the next phases of 2nd heights of a new era in tunneling.
local pantomime production of Dick Avenue Subway, it is still quiet uptown. In You should definitely not sit in the
Whittington, the story of a working- the spirit of anything you can do I can do NAT technical sessions or exhibition
class lad who heads to London with better, Los Angeles continues to move hall looking for all 35 song references
his famous cat and ends up becoming forward with its ambitious transit system in this column. But if you choose to
the city’s Lord Mayor. In the final expansion. They dream the impossible play the game, you get extra points
dramatic scene of the dress rehearsal, dream because of one of my favorite if you find all the musical shows and
the love-interest of Dick Whittington things, a regional funding mechanism song titles and can name the shows
is distraught, thinking she will never that doesn’t rely exclusively on the from where the songs come. If you
see him again. Dick Whittington’s cat federal funding agencies to send in the get them all, take a bow maestro, and
appears on stage, and she sighs before clowns and provide support. bravo!
saying “Every time I see a cat (but she The hunt is on in Austin, Dallas, San

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Assessing the State
of the Industry
The pandemic has created myriad challenges worldwide over the they’ve been done in the past, it
unfortunately doesn’t work that
last two years. In this roundtable, North American Tunneling Journal effectively anymore. Lead time is
longer, so procurement decisions
speaks with industry leaders to understand the current state of need to be made sooner.
tunneling, from increasing early contractor involvement to solving Zernich: We’re seeing the effects
of supply chain issues and other
supply chain challenges. global market disruptions. We

have to plan further ahead and
place orders well in advance
Our contributors: of where we normally would,
which affects cash flow to avoid
delaying the jobs. Nevertheless,
materials can still be delayed
or force us to spend more on
expediting or finding alternatives
to avoid impacts. This is part of
the escalation that we are feeling
on our projects that we never
planned for just two years ago and
it definitely has an impact.
Vojtech Ernst Gall, Jacob Hunter, Nick Joens, AJ McGinn,
Gall-Zeidler Jennmar Civil Kiewit. Brierley and
Hunter: Our biggest challenge is
Consultants, LLC Associates
the supply chain, and how that’s
tied to project cost and managing
the P&Ls for production. Jennmar
has positioned itself well in the
industry, being vertically integrated
with multiple steel mills. We are
campus partners with Nucor and
SDI so we are able to source raw
materials with greater resiliency
and ease logistical challenges.
Nasri Munfah, Mike Rispin, Moussa Wone, Brett Zernich, Traylor
Gall-Zeidler Strata Worldwide DC Water Bros., Inc. Joens: For Kiewit our biggest
Consultants, LLC
challenge is finding the right
opportunities. We’re seeing a
The state of the tunneling industry and attract new talent. Here’s how lot of projects get renewed life
is as strong and robust as it’s ever members of the industry, from all as a result of the Infrastructure
been. In 2019 the International different backgrounds, view the Investment and Jobs Act. We’re
Tunneling Association published current state of tunneling. tasked with juggling our current
their triennial report and backlog against all of these future,
forecasted a 7 to 9% compound What’s the biggest challenge attractive opportunities. Our
annual growth rate, which is for you right now? focus has always really been to
likely to stay as high for the next avoid that analysis paralysis and
20 years. While this should be Rispin: The supply chain network to identify and pursue the best
something of a sweet spot for has slowed down substantially contracts and T&Cs.
the industry many say they are where it’s a challenge to get things
currently facing a number of in a timely manner, and it has an Munfah: Although there’s been
challenges. Likewise, the view impact on projects from the sense a significant amount of funding
of the industry as a whole is that that they need to change their available through the Infrastructure
there is room for improvement—to ways of procuring supplies in order Investment and Jobs Act the
grow its presence in the US, to to be able to get things on time. If process of getting that money
embrace forthcoming innovations we collectively do things the way from the federal government

Assessing the State of the Industry
to local projects, and how to the news—but we don’t talk

distribute that funding has been enough about the numerous
one of the biggest challenge the successfully completed projects.
industry has seen. For example, All of this leads back to the other
the Gateway Program in New York challenges raised. We need to
had its environmental clearance in find a way to shift the perspective
2017 yet the funding is not there to being communicated to praise
start construction. the accomplishments and raise
awareness to the public on the
McGinn: From our perspective importance of what we are safely
it’s onerous flow down provisions accomplishing.
in contracts. The indemnification
clauses that are getting pushed Wone: When I started my career
down to consultants are becoming the TBM technology wasn’t as “We’re seeing the effects of supply chain issues and
very restrictive and uninsurable. good as it is now. It’s advanced other global market disruptions. We have to plan
Substantial risks are being pushed significantly, and when we have a
onto design consultants when they tunneling job we very rarely have
further ahead and place orders well in advance of
really shouldn’t be. technical issues with the tunneling where we normally would, which affects cash flow to
Another thing that Brierley, and itself. Most of the issues we see are
others must deal with right now, is in the other work, like near-surface
avoid delaying the jobs.”
finding quality people. It continues structures or dealing with utilities. Brett Zernich, Traylor Bros., Inc.
to be an increasingly competitive The tunnel construction itself has
market for quality talent. always gone smoothly.
Joens: In North America clients
Wone: The biggest challenge Munfah: We’ve been seeing and contractors both need to be
we are having is the lead time it recently the public is more aware willing to take on and try new
takes to address the concerns of the needs of underground innovations and technologies. It
of third parties. Most of the time construction and expressing seems like North America waits for
they understand what you are their desires to have more Europeans to try something and
trying to do, and they know what underground infrastructure rather prove it works. Most clients don’t
you’re trying to do is good for the than at surface. This is very positive want to be the first. They want to
public and sometimes it’s even interest because the main drivers see someone else take that risk
good for them. But they have their of a tunneling or underground and decide whether or not it’s the
own internal priorities. You have project are no longer the capital right choice for them, and I think
to allow plenty of lead time and cost as it used to be. We are that holds us back.
know how to work with them. now looking at the interest of
We have been very successful to the people, the environmental McGinn: A challenge that we have
that end, because we have a lot benefits, the sustainability aspects, is introducing new, innovative
of experience. But it’s always a the lifecycle cost and the overall designs for major construction
challenge. economic benefits. This has not projects; and, having those designs
been capitalised on by the industry be accepted by others, even
What’s going well but might as much as it could be. though they’ve been proven on
not be getting enough past projects.
attention from the industry? Gall: Tunnels are becoming more
prominent in the public’s eye. It
Zernich: I think the resiliency of used to be dams and bridges, but
the construction industry as a now people have become familiar
whole, to work straight through with large bore TBMs, and a lot
the Pandemic and deal with all of times tunnels are going to be
of the additional stress that was viable alternatives where bridges
caused over the past two years. aren’t, for example in urban areas.
We avoided catastrophic delays But on the flip side this is also
and kept projects moving ahead a challenge because there are
the whole thing. I think we’d all owners building tunnels for the
like to just forget about it, but the first time and our industry has to
industry deserves credit for having educate them on how to complete
dealt with it as professionally and a project, how to keep costs down, “We’ve been seeing recently the public is
safely as possible. where risks really lie and where
there aren’t risks. While, at the more aware of the needs of underground
Hunter: We don’t talk enough
about what goes right, and how
moment, there’s more interest
and funding for tunnels, if we as
construction and expressing their desires to
successfully and safely these an industry don’t address this by have more underground infrastructure rather
tunnels are mined and developed.
Everyone sees the issues when
efficiently delivering tunneling
projects, we’ll leave people with a
than at surface.”
there’s a sinkhole hole, fall, or sour taste for tunneling in the long Nasri Munfah, Gall-Zeidler Consultants, LLC
flooding—that always makes run.

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Assessing the State of the Industry
Rispin: Strata was new to Wone: I’d like to see more

tunneling a year and half ago, and collaboration among owners,
as always there’s inertia when contractors and engineers, like
you bring in new technologies. developing appropriate methods
One’s a polymer rubber gel for procurement, for example,
waterproofing. The industry has but also in developing fair and
known it for 10 years and what reasonable contracts and practices
we’ve developed recently is allow to better handle cost escalations
the technology to be injected as like we’re seeing right now with
a leak-remediation tool. It’s a real inflation. If we can collaborate on
battle to let people know just how fair contracts, this will serve us well
good it is. Sometimes you have by making our construction more
to jump through hoops in terms cost-efficient as well as more
of providing case studies and predictable. “I would like to see quicker timelines from
documentation. It can be an uphill And I just would add that it’s conceptual and design to advertising a project,
climb. important to communicate during
construction to immediately
and then being able to integrate the players in the
What changes would you like address issues, and not to wait industry, both suppliers and contractors, with that
to see for the industry in the until you have a quarterly meeting,
process.”
next five years? so people can resolve these issues
at the lowest level at the job site. Jacob Hunter, Jennmar Civil
Joens: We would like to continue
to see owners adopting alternative McGinn: I think if people really
delivery contracts such as listened to each other and it’s a nomadic industry, being able
construction manager at-risk, understood how a contactor to have a broader footprint with
construction manager/general wanted to build a project, and the universities in different regions
contractor (CMGC), progressive designs that can be employed to would be key. People would not
design-build and anything that support those concepts and those need to move around so much
engages us through that early preferred methods, would be a for jobs if the industry grows and
contractor involvement process. significant step forward for the there are local universities with
The tunneling industry—more industry. There are a lot of people backgrounds in the tunneling.
so than any other construction that talk about implementing You’d have more talent that is
industry—it’s challenging, highly innovation, and talk about risk somewhat located in each region.
technical and it lends itself sharing and partnering, but in the That would also build on industry
perfectly to these collaborative end, it’s just window dressing. I’d competency.
contracting methods. like to see innovation be embraced
more. Rispin: I also want to see more
Munfah: We’ve been seeing entrants including young members
the benefits of early contractor Hunter: I would like to see quicker and women in tunneling. These
involvement and we need more timelines from conceptual and are topics that are very important
of that. It varies significantly from design to advertising a project, to me in terms of workforce
client to client, but I would like and then being able to integrate sustainability and in terms of my
to see more of either progressive the players in the industry, both UCA responsibility. The industry
design-build or CMGC where the suppliers and contractors, with
contractor’s means and methods that process. Getting things
get implemented in the design. through the pipeline quicker, could
The risk sharing mechanism reduce costs, would mitigate risks
between owner and contractor to a certain degree with respect
under these circumstances to market forces and help the
becomes much clearer when we industry grow.
have early contractor involvement. And to build on that, I’d like
to see more outreach with our
Zernich: If we could collectively universities. There’s not a great
work towards process pipeline from universities to
improvements between all parties contractors and engineering for
that reduce a small portion of the young talent. The industry needs
effort on project execution, we to outreach with engineering ...I just would add that it’s important to
would find large savings for owners schools outside of the historical- communicate during construction to immediately
and contractors that create more mining universities and talk about
value for our projects. I’m afraid tunneling and how it’s developing address issues, and not to wait until you have a
we keep expanding project costs society. We’re going to need more quarterly meeting, so people can resolve these
with more requirements than ever engineers and explaining the
before and should be looking for demand, societal impacts and how issues at the lowest level at the job site.
all opportunities to reduce wasted it’s a very rewarding career is key Moussa Wone, DC Water
effort and create more efficient to growing the industry. That will
systems with happier clients. help retain talent also. Because

What’s something you’d like safety record of the underground
policy makers/the general sector is one of the best in the
public to better understand industry. Contractors, engineers
about the tunneling industry? and owners have successfully
focused on creating a culture
Zernich: The tunneling industry that provides more protection
has made an incredibly positive for workers than current OSHA
impact on society throughout the standards. People in this industry
world over the last 150 years. Many should be very proud of that.
of the projects are never seen or Also, policymakers need to know
thought about after they’re put the creation of underground space
into service. The industry owes a is very important, especially when
lot to the folks that have pioneered you look at improving the quality
“Tunnels are perceived as more expensive, but they modern tunneling and pushed us of life in urban areas where we are
don’t have to be, especially if you look at lifecycle to the point we are at now. seeing population growth.
cost. Bridges, for example, have to be constantly McGinn: The tunnel industry Rispin: The long-term benefits
maintained while there are tunnels that have been innovated green construction of tunneling, from an investment
to address grey-water and perspective, far outweigh other
in the ground for 100 years and are totally fine.” transportation issues. Once you choices they may make for
Vojtech Ernst Gall, Gall-Zeidler Consultants, LLC construct a tunnel, it’s a very infrastructure, whether it’s bridges
environmentally-friendly means for transportation or green
of transporting water, wastewater approaches to sewage. We have
is growing worldwide, and we and the public in general. Well- the facts and figures documenting
need the people and we need the designed and constructed tunnels that; if you’re willing to make the
diversity and inclusion. can have minimal impact to third upfront investment, tunneling
parties and urban environments. is the way to go. While they are
Gall: I’d like to see the industry Tunnels are a positive means of more expensive up front it’s a
as a whole become more solving difficult problems in an better choice for the constituents
international. There are a lot of environmentally friendly way. of the decision makers to go with
things done in North America, tunnels.
for example early contractor Hunter: it’s really about telling the
involvement practices, that story of how key tunneling is to Gall: Tunnels are perceived as
aren’t necessarily implemented everyone-to-day life, and also how more expensive, but they don’t
as much in continental Europe. low impact the industry really is. It have to be, especially if you look at
On the flip slide there are a lot of goes back to my earlier point: we lifecycle cost. Bridges, for example,
technical solutions that have been always hear about the bad jobs. have to be constantly maintained
implemented elsewhere in the The underground is somewhat while there are tunnels that have
world that, for various reasons, tied into, historically, the negative been in the ground for 100 years
don’t get implemented here in stories of the mining industry. and are totally fine.
North America or that should have However, considering the design, There’s always the perception of
been implemented a long time the engineering expertise, and the cost, which I think in part comes
ago. methodologies that we have today. from the fact that a lot of tunnels
The impact to the communities built in the US are associated with
is mitigated to such a point that public infrastructures projects,
these projects are implemented which as a whole have the
and people do not even know they tendency to be beset by issues
are happening! And we’re able to such as cost over runs or having
utilise the geology that exists in difficult management.
situ, and designed, to build these
structures, which is really cool. Joens: Step one of that is for
clients to understand those margin
Munfah: There’s a perception, profit expectations for tunnels
even among engineers who aren’t are not near the same as a road
in the tunneling industry, that paving project down the street.
tunnels are unsafe and expensive. They can’t just cookie cutter
“The long-term benefits of tunneling, from an So, the biggest hinderance we see the same contracts and use it
investment perspective, far outweigh other choices is policymaker perception of the word for word for tunneling—
use of underground space. As an the inherent geotechnical risk
they may make for infrastructure, whether it’s industry we have to educate our involved in tunneling separates us
bridges for transportation or green approaches to leaders and policymakers on the from traditional civil construction
benefits of the use of underground projects.
sewage.” space and the safety aspects of Profit and margin expectations
Mike Rispin, Strata Worldwide constructing tunnels. need to be aligned to match these
additional unknowns. We’ve seen
Wone: They need to know that the this become critical for alternative

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materials, and being able to Wone: Coming up with
domestically source components technologies to predict the
for green energy production. ground and ground response to
You’re going to see engineering excavation is top of the list. You
firms and contractors look to assist can characterise the ground
in that market with mining and with geotechnical investigations
tunneling development for those and borings, but once you get
projects. We’re seeing that from a out there, most of the time,
manufacturing perspective. there are other considerations.
I would also say you’re going Yes, we have a lot of experience
to see more underground and new technologies, but
automation. This makes for safer the method for predicting
and more efficiently developed the ground response is really
“ I think you’re going to start to see more versatile underground construction. something we need to continue
TBMs. Ones that address multiple challenging geologic to focus on improving.
Rispin: I think the biggest change
conditions. I think we’re going to start to see more is going to be IOT, digitalisation, Zernich: From my perspective
effective and innovative segment design. However, it BIM and automation—we as an it’s high pressure tunneling and
industry are just now starting to large diameter TBMs. These
could become commoditized and codified.” adopt things that have become two technologies are going to
AJ McGinn, Brierley and Associates commonplace in other industries. push tunneling into uncharted
Tunneling is adapting, and I think territory and create opportunity
the rate of change is going to be for projects that wouldn’t have
delivery contracts where we very quick over the next five years. been possible a few years ago.
provide a bid that is evaluated We will see TBM projects being
based on a profit and overhead Munfah: Automation and robotics built at much higher pressures,
number that is established and will be the next innovations that more frequently demanding
binding before the design and will greatly impact the tunneling innovative launching techniques
geotechnical information is industry. There is research in these and high technical expertise for
completed. In an ideal world you fields at the present time. Over maintenance.
want contactors to feel secure 20 years ago, I witnessed a test
enough to remain transparent with section in Japan using automation Joens: Bigger TBMs and the
their bids. and extruded liner installation in onset of single tube metro
a TBM tunnel. Unfortunately, they tunnels in North America. I
What innovation or have not been implemented in the don’t think it’s the solution
technology is going to have industry yet. When automation and everywhere, but it’ll create
the biggest impact on the robotics are implemented they will more solutions for transit
direction of the industry from revolutionize the industry. They problems and for future clients
your perspective? will make tunnel construction to complete tunnel projects
more efficient, more economical in established urban areas. It
Hunter: I think there’s going to and safer. opens up more options.
be a major push for underground
construction related to rare earth Gall: I think what might be getting McGinn: I think you’re going
overlooked, maybe because the to start to see more versatile
solution might be too difficult or TBMs. Ones that address
gets solved in a lot of different multiple challenging geologic
ways, is ground investigations. We conditions. I think we’re going
always design very conservatively to start to see more effective
because we don’t know what’s and innovative segment design.
coming. Instead of approaching However, it could become
this problem by improving commoditized and codified.
geophysical or geotechnical More and more, especially
investigations, what will likely wastewater tunnels, are being
happen in the future is to adopt driven toward ASI 350, but
automation methods, neural really there’s nothing in the
networks and machine learning. current code that applies to
“The tunneling industry—more so than For example, with sensors in neural underground structures. There’s
networks they’ll learn about good no section in that code that
any other construction industry—it’s ground or bad ground and react applies to how ground can
challenging, highly technical and it lends appropriately without us actually
interpreting it. Machines will
be effectively supported and
designed to support itself. It’s
itself perfectly to more collaborative eventually, in some way, be able to all being driven by sustainability
contracting methods.” tell you what the ground is ahead
of the face—although I don’t think
and durability, which it should,
but some of unique aspects
Nick Joens, Kiewit. it’s going to happen in just five of underground construction
years. haven’t been implemented yet.

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Advance Rates in Soft
Ground Tunnelling
By Dan Ifrim, Hatch
Bulkhead Tail Skin Grout Tunnel
Backfilling Lining pressure conditions at the tunnel face, with proper
operation helps to avoid uncontrolled inflow of soil
into the machine and enable fairly rapid tunneling
Cutterhead
with minimal settlements.
The sum of ground pressure and water pressure is
countered by the pressure of the soil conditioned in
the cutterhead chamber and controlled by the screw
conveyor discharge rate. In essence, theoretically, a
well-regulated pressure gradient across the length of
Excavation the screw conveyor to provide positive face pressure
Chamber
control. The pressure gradient across the length
of the screw conveyor is why the soil in the screw
conveyor is often call the “soil plug.” Prediction
Mixing Screw Segment
Arms Conveyor Erector of ground conditions, associated heterogeneity
and calculation of face pressures are the most
Figure 1. EPB Earth Pressure Balance (EPB) TBMs are challenging parts of the right pressure gradient
TBM (Courtesy of
characterized by low to medium advance rates across the screw conveyor.
Herrenknecht)
(compared to rock TBM’s) yet tend to have more
consistent advance rates compared to their rock
TBM cousins; considering the trailing precast
concrete tunnel lining placement. EPB’s are very
versatile and with proper soil conditioning can be
extended to cover a wide-range of soil conditions.
Traditionally, EPB’s were focused on cohesive soils
but their performance envelope has broadened
to include heterogeneous conditions reflecting
mixtures of cohesive, non-cohesive conditions
(mixed face), and even very course gravels under
Figure 2. EPB
the water table. Further, with deployment of project
Balance (Courtesy
of Lovat) specific cutterhead tooling, EPB’s can successfully
mine ground conditions with cobbles and boulders.
Although unrelated to this article, EPB’s have Production Cycle
become so versatile, they have now been used on a In the most rudimentary sense, the production
number of rock tunnel applications cycle consists of EPB TBM advance, thrust
This paper discussion is based on authors retraction, ring building and services extension.
experience and data from 21 soft ground tunnels Tunnel Advance: TBM is propelled forward by
mined with an EPB in closed mode (pressurized thrust jacks while the cutterhead is turning to cut
face) across North America. Unfortunately, many the ground. The excavated material is conveyed
tunnel case histories do include the necessary TBM from the pressurized plenum chamber via the
design features, operational commentary, and screw conveyor, which discharges onto a belt
maintenance protocols and records to develop conveyor. Average tunnel advance in good ground
definitive recommendations. At the same time, the varies between 75–150 mm/minutes based on
survey did reveal some interesting factors that affect TBM design and contractor tunneling approach. In
EPB advance rate. difficult ground advance rates can be as low as 1
mm/min.
EPB Principle of Operation Annular grouting is concurrent with tunnel
EPB principle of operation is based on the advance, with grout injection synchronized to TBM
conversion of the excavated material into a soil paste advance. During this period, segments are being
that is used as a support medium. The soil paste prepared, cleaned, dowels fitted, and the gaskets
is often developed with the use of sophisticated cleaned in readiness for next build.
polymers, foams, and additives to form a rheology, Ring Building: Segmental ring stones are
paste characteristics, that are suitable for the project. transported and offloaded in a near by erector
The resulting soil paste is used to balance the area during the tunnel advance. Once the tunnel

ADVANCE RATES IN SOFT GROUND TUNNELLING
advance is complete, the stones are advanced in both planned and unplanned delays. Some of the
the erector reach area and erected one by one until frequent logged downtimes are related to logistics
the ring is complete. Average building times varies on the surface or in the tunnel including derailing,
between 15–40 minutes based on ring size and tunnel conveyor breakdown, flooded or excessively
crew experience. dirty tunnel invert, shortage of segments and other
Services Extension: Services extension varies from contractor generated delays.
project to project based on TBM design (equipped
with reels on not, train, mining vehicles or slurry) TBM Availability
and consists of advancing the power cables, water TBM availability was calculated using two
hoses, rail, ventilation duct. definitions, capturing the upper bound and lower
Other functions performed are proof grouting, bound calculations:
refill of lubricants, conditioning foam, cleaning etc.
Daily Working Time - TBM Unplanned Downtime
TBM Maintenance Availability =
Maintenance of the TBMs is the most important Daily Working Time
factor that affects the TBM availability besides
the quality of the TBM selected by Contractor. Typically, the TBM manufacturers are guaranteeing
Usually the TBM maintenance is prescribed by the TBM availabilities over 85%.
Manufacturer in the Operation and Maintenance Most of the tunnels work analysis shows relatively
Manual at shift, daily, weekly and monthly intervals. high TBM availability, with 12 TBMs availability over
The Contractor typically has a dedicated mechanic 90%, 5 TBMs availability between 80%–90%, 1 TBM
and electrician on staff to oversee the maintenance with 65% availability and 1 TBM with 50% availability.
program. It appears that the working pattern has an influence
From the cases studied it appears that a proper on the TBM downtime and ultimately on the TBM
amount of time was allocated for the TBM availability.
maintenance, however the TBM breakdowns were
different from case to case. The differences could TBM Utilization
come from the TBM quality, Contractor approach TBM Utilization was calculated using:
to maintenance and tool changing, crew training,
competence and ability to repair the TBM, quality of TBM Production
the repair and the level of abuse that the TBM was TBM Utilization =
operated at. TBM Utilization = Total Shift Time x TBM Availability, %
EPB Tunnelling Study Figure 3. TBM Availability vs. Production Time vs. Downtime
An independent database was constructed in which
100.0%
shift time was categorized as production, TBM
90.0%
planned downtime, TBM unplanned downtime and
80.0%
non-TBM downtime.
70.0%
Definitions 60.0%
Daily Working Time—The amount of time tunnelling 50.0%
crew is intended to work; that could be related to 40.0%
the working pattern (1×12 hours, 2×12 hours, 2×10 30.0%
hours or 3×8 hours) 20.0%
TBM Utilization—The amount of time the TBM 10.0%
was productive from the total working time 0.0%

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12 T13 T14 T15 T16 T17 T18 T19 T20 T21
available (Daily Working Time × TBM Availability %).
Production—The amount of time within the daily TBM Availability TBM Maintenance Non TBM Downtime
TBM Production TBM Downtime
working time associated with TBM advance time
and ring building time.
TBM planned downtime—The amount of time Figure 4. TBM Utilization
within the daily working time associated with
100.0% 90.0%
planned cutterhead interventions, general cleaning
of TBM and TBM grout lines, TBM housekeeping 90.0% 80.0%
and planned mechanical/electrical maintenance 80.0%

70.0%
and services extension time. 70.0%

60.0%
TBM unplanned downtime—The amount of time 60.0%
50.0%
within the daily working time associated with TBM 50.0%
40.0%
mechanical, hydraulic or electrical breakdowns, 40.0%
cutterhead tools wear above the Contractor 30.0%

30.0%
prediction, boulders and cobbles encounters and 20.0% 20.0%
activities associated with the TBMs inability to avoid 10.0% 10.0%

ground loss. 0.0% 0.0%
Non-TBM downtime—The amount of time
within the daily working time associated with TBM Availability TBM Production TBM Utilization
problems not related to the TBM and incorporates

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ADVANCE RATES IN SOFT GROUND TUNNELLING
Typically, the TBM For the 21 tunnels data analysis

Figure 6. TBM Production vs. Downtime Breakdown
the study reveals that the TBM utilization ranges
between 35.8% and 76.2%. 100.0%
90.0%
Can be noted that low TBM utilization factor is in
80.0%
direct relation with TBM availability affects the TBM 70.0%
production. 60.0%
50.0%
TBM Production 40.0%
TBM Production data was extracted from the tunnel 30.0%
projects data available in the TBM PLC Computer 20.0%
database, Inspectors reports and Projects closeout 10.0%
reports. 0.0%
A typical breakdown of TBM time from tunnel T1 is TBM Availability 97.1% 97.8% 85.7% 65.1% 81.0% 92.8% 94.5% 91.7% 95.2% 90.8% 78.0% 92.0% 86.0% 76.0% 50.0% 95.0% 96.8% 88.0% 86.3% 95.3% 96.5%
illustrated in Figure 5. TBM Utilization 57.9% 48.0% 51.1% 53.5% 55.1% 61.0% 54.9% 65.0% 66.7% 76.2% 59.0% 56.5% 51.2% 53.9% 35.8% 42.9% 50.1% 47.5% 47.3% 48.2% 45.6%
TBM Maintenance 14.9% 16.7% 18.0% 15.6% 13.5% 15.6% 15.4% 10.8% 15.3% 11.3% 15.0% 18.0% 16.0% 22.0% 15.0% 15.0% 15.0% 15.0% 15.0% 15.0% 15.0%
The breakdown analysis was carried out for 21 TBM Downtime 2.9% 2.2% 14.3% 34.9% 19.0% 7.2% 5.5% 8.3% 4.8% 9.2% 22.0% 8.0% 14.0% 24.0% 47.0% 5.0% 3.2% 12.0% 13.7% 4.8% 3.5%
TBM projects in North America. A summary of the Non TBM Downtime 26.0% 34.2% 23.9% 14.7% 22.9% 20.6% 27.2% 21.3% 16.4% 10.3% 17.0% 22.0% 26.0% 13.0% 20.0% 39.2% 33.3% 31.2% 30.5% 34.3% 37.5%
TBM Production 56.2% 46.9% 43.8% 34.8% 44.6% 56.6% 51.9% 59.6% 63.5% 69.2% 46.0% 52.0% 44.0% 41.0% 18.0% 40.8% 48.5% 41.8% 40.8% 45.9% 44.0%
breakdown is detailed in Figure 6.
TBM Availability TBM Utilization TBM Maintenance
TBM Downtime Non TBM Downtime TBM Production
Figure 5. TBM Utilization Breakdown
Figure 7. Planned Downtime Breakdown
7%
1% 6% 2% 3%
12%
23% 32%
34%
17%
3%
39% 51%
1%
15%
12% 24%
79%
2%
15% n Cutter Inspection n Cutter Inspection n Cutter Inspection

n General Cleaning n General Cleaning n General Cleaning
n Other n Planned Maintenance n Other
n Planned Maintenance n TACs Reset Survey n Planned Maintenance
22% n TACs Reset Survey n TACs Reset Survey
n Production
n TBM Setup
n TBM Unplanned
n TBM Planned
n Non TBM Unplanned
n Non TBM Planned
Figure 8. Unplanned Downtime Breakdown
1%
1% 5% 1% 4% 3%
1%
13% 2%3% 8% 9% 9%
3%
TBM Planned Downtime 1% 5%
9%
The planned downtime includes time associated 25% 10% 7%
18%
with TBM Cutterhead Interventions, TBM Planned 1%

3%
8%
Maintenance, TBM Cleaning, Shift Change and 2%

4%
8% 4%
Guidance System Resets. 59%

6% 14%
41%
Sample distributions from tunnels T1, T2 and T3 8%
4%
are illustrated in Figure 7.

n Crane - downtime n Electrical n Electrical
n Grout - plant n GCS - lines and pumps n GCS - lines and pumps
TBM Unplanned Downtime n Locomotive - derail/broken/track n Groundloss cleaning n Groundloss cleaning
The unplanned downtime includes all events that n Locomotive - waiting n Grout lines and pumps n Grout lines and pumps
impeded the TBM from achieving production. Some n Manpower - insufficient resources n Hydraulic & lubricants (TSG, n High Methane & ventilation
n MOL shutdown HBW, EP2) modification
of these events includes mostly TBM breakdowns, n Other n Main drive motors n Hydraulic & lubricants (TSG,
either electrical, hydraulic, mechanical or structural n Power outage n Muck conveyor HBW, EP2)
but also breakdowns of the guidance system. n Remove ice from shaft n Other n Main drive motors
n Safety incident n RFJ related n Muck conveyor
Sample distributions from tunnels T1, T2 and T3 n Screw conveyor (jammed, repairs) n Other
are illustrated in Figure 8. n Segment erector & transporter n Screw conveyor (jammed, repairs)
n TACS - downtime n Segment erector & transporter
n TACS - downtime
Non-TBM Downtime
The non TBM downtime is associated with problems
not related to the TBM and incor-porates both
planned and unplanned delays. Some of the
frequently logged downtimes, are related to logistics
on the surface or in the tunnel including derailing,
tunnel conveyor breakdown, cleaning the tunnel
invert, shortage of segments and other contractor
generated delays.

There are two aspects to the non-TBM downtime;
Figure 9. Non-TBM Unplanned Downtime Breakdown
planned and unplanned. Sample distributions
from tunnels T1, T2 and T3, for unplanned non-
7% 1% 5% 1% 1%
1%
13% 9%
2% TBM downtime are illustrated in Figure 9. Sample
26% 1% 3%
24%
34% distributions from tunnels T1, T2 and T3, for planned
25% 10%
non-TBM downtime are illustrated in Figure 10.
6%
2%
43% TBM Advance Rates
37%
41%
8%
The TBM advance rates depend on many factors
including but not limited to:
n Calafornia Switch n Crane - downtime n Crane - downtime • Ground Conditions
n Concrete block in shaft n Grout - plant n Grout - plant • Ground Conditioning
n Extended services n Locomotive - derail/broken/track n Locomotive - derail/broken/track
n Other n Locomotive - waiting n Locomotive - waiting
• TBM Suitability
n Shaft change n Manpower - insufficient resources n Manpower - insufficient resources • TBM Quality
n MOL shutdown n MOL shutdown
• TBM Cutterhead Drive Type
n Other n Other
n Power outage • Cutterhead Opening Ratio
n Remove ice from shaft • Contractor Experience
n Safety incident
• Operator Experience
• Cutters Maintenance
• TBM Torque
Figure 10. Non-TBM Planned Downtime Breakdown • TBM Thrust
• Cutterhead Speed
8%
1%
9% • New vs. Used TBM
5% 2%
4% 6%
5% 40%
43%
38%
60% The “Ground Conditions” is the most important
factor of all, with all other factors either helping
28% or hindering the rate of advance. Interestingly, it
28%
2% is notable that other researchers have found that
3%
4% 14%
there is no correlation between face pressure and
performance (Roby and Willis 2014)
n Communication n Extended services n Extended services
n Crane - downtime n Other n Planned events
n Grout - plant n Shaft 9 work (remove rings in n Shift change TBM Suitability
n Locomotive - derail/broken/track shaft) • Consultant recommendation
n Locomotive - waiting n Shift change
n Manpower - insufficient resources
• Manufacturer recommendation
n MOL shutdown • Contractor experience in project type of ground
n Other
n Power outage
n Remove ice from shaft
TBM Quality
n Safety incident • Manufacturer quality program
• Manufacturer track record of quality TBMs of the
type recommended
Figure 11. TBM Advance Rates vs. Production vs. Downtime
Contractor’s Experience
100.0% 25
• Tunnel Superintendent experience with project
90.0%
conditions
20
80.0%
- Geotechnical
70.0%
15
- TBM type
60.0%
• TBM Operators experience with project conditions
50.0%
40.0% 10
- Geotechnical
30.0%
- TBM type
20.0% 5 - Face pressure
10.0% • TBM Mechanics experience and training with TBM
0.0% 0 type
TBM Availability 97.1% 97.8% 85.7% 65.1% 81.0% 92.8% 94.5% 91.7% 95.2% 90.8% 78.0% 92.0% 86.0% 76.0% 50.0% 95.0% 96.8% 88.0% 86.3% 95.3% 96.5%
TBM Utilization 57.9% 48.0% 51.1% 53.5% 55.1% 61.0% 54.9% 65.0% 66.7% 76.2% 59.0% 56.5% 51.2% 53.9% 35.8% 42.9% 50.1% 47.5% 47.3% 48.2% 45.6% Cutters Maintenance
TBM Production
TBM Maintenance
56.2% 46.9% 43.8% 34.8% 44.6% 56.6% 51.9% 59.6% 63.5% 69.2% 46.0% 52.0% 44.0% 41.0% 18.0% 40.8% 48.5% 41.8% 40.8% 45.9% 44.0%
14.9% 16.7% 18.0% 15.6% 13.5% 15.6% 15.4% 10.8% 15.3% 11.3% 15.0% 18.0% 16.0% 22.0% 15.0% 15.0% 15.0% 15.0% 15.0% 15.0% 15.0%
• Abrasive wear in any type of TBM is obviously
Non TBM Downtime 26.0% 34.2% 23.9% 14.7% 22.9% 20.6% 27.2% 21.3% 16.4% 10.3% 17.0% 22.0% 26.0% 13.0% 20.0% 39.2% 33.3% 31.2% 30.5% 34.3% 37.5% always higher in rock than in soft ground,
TBM Downtime 2.9% 2.2% 14.3% 34.9% 19.0% 7.2% 5.5% 8.3% 4.8% 9.2% 22.0% 8.0% 14.0% 24.0% 47.0% 5.0% 3.2% 12.0% 13.7% 4.8% 3.5%
particularly when the rock has a high quartz or
Advanced Rate 8.42 11.4 12.0 10.0 5.8 7.3 14.3 16.7 20.7 18.6 11.8 12.4 12.1 7.4 3.1 14.1 14.1 13.0 13.9 10.6 11.6
other abrasive mineral content. The abrasivity
TBM Availability TBM Utilization TBM Production TBM Maintenance
Non TBM Downtime TBM Downtime Advanced Rate has a detrimental effect on cutterheads and
cutting tools on both EPB and Slurry, however, in
Slurry machines, the abrasive effect is somehow
reduced by the presence of bentonite slurry,
however, has a higher wear effect on the slurry
removal pipes.
• The greatest concern of wear is related to cutters
suitability and cutters wear. In most of the tunnels

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I worked, the Contractor had the tendency not to more breakdowns and reduced advance rates
replace tools in accordance with type of ground in longer tunnels the study reveals no relation
encountered or let the tools wear beyond the between the length of the tunnel and the advance
safe limit, that resulted on the TBM getting stuck rates achieved. This finding was also an outcome
in ground, damage to the cutterhead structure of research reflected in Roby and Willis 2014.
resulting in expensive and extensive interventions For the relation between the advance rate and
to repair the damages. tunnel length, data from additional 6 tunnels were
available and added to the study. The relation is
From the data collected on the 21 cases Figure 11 illustrated in Figure 13.
was extracted.
Conclusion
Tool Changes If all TBM advance rate factors are optimized,
Cutterhead tools inspection is imperative especially ground conditions have the largest impact on
in abrasive grounds but not only. Knowing the actual performance. In reality, the TBM advance
condition of the cutting tools allows the Contractor rates are influenced by a laundry list of factors.
to prevent catastrophic damage to the TBM The major factors include, but are not limited
cutterhead. Timely tool changes will prevent to, TBM suitability, TBM quality, contractor
long and costly repairs as well as maintaining an experience, cutters maintenance, TBM torque,
appropriate overcut to prevent TBM entrapment. TBM thrust, cutterhead speed, cutterhead
The study undertaken on the 21 EPB projects drive type (electric, hydraulic, or VFD), ground
reveals a direct relation between reduced cutter conditioning the Contractor’s adherence to the
changes and low advance rates. That is visible on technical specifications requirements, use of a
tunnel case 5, 6 14 and 15. new vs. used refurbished TBM (applicable to most
Despite a myth that the TBM may encounter projects) and Contractor knowledge together
with its ability to secure good experienced TBM
operators.
Figure 12. TBM Advance Rates vs. Tool Changes The authors can also conclude that the primary
reasons for low advance rates are a result of:
150 25.0
• General lack of understanding of EPB principle
• Slow reaction to ground pressure changes
130 • Inaccurate ground pressure calculations
20.0 • Insufficient monitoring systems
110
• Incorrect adaptations to changes in the ground
90
15.0
conditions
• Limited TBM operator experience
70
• Lack of mechanical skills and training
50
10.0 • Insufficient TBM labor pool
• Inexperienced crews (lack of TBM or tunnelling
30
5.0
experience)
10
• Lack of experienced ring builders
-10 0.0
Tool Total m/tool Gauge m/tool Face m/tool

Scrapers m/tool Advance Rate
Acknowledgement
The Author thanks Don Del Nero for
Figure 13. Advance Rate vs. Drive Length
his contribution to this paper.
25 5000
4500
20 4000
3500
15 3000
2500
References
10 2000 Roby, J. and Willis, D. Achieving Fast
1500 EPB Advance Rates in Mixed Face
5 1000
Ground: A Study of Contributing
500
Factors. North American Tunneling
0 0
Conference, (NAT) SME: Los Angeles,
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12 T13 T14 T15 T16 T17 T18 T19 T20 T21 T22 T23 T24 T25 T26 T27
CA. p. 182-194
Drive Length Advance Rate

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silica to improve cohesion, Figure 1. Test

Brazilian Tensile Strength (MPa)

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Table 1. Speciﬁcation of materials used

Flyash Speciﬁc Gravity: 2 AS 3583.5

Steel Fibre Length & Diameter: 35mm & 0.55mm

Sand Apparent Particle Density: 2.65 (t/m3) AS 1141.5

Medium Sand Apparent Particle Density: 2.63 (t/m3) AS 1141.5

7mm Aggregates Apparent Particle Density: 2.97 (t/m3) AS 1141.6.1

CWG Speciﬁc Gravity: 2.5 ASTM D5550 -14

Table 2. Summary of the test results

Slump (mm) 235 255 250 240 265 200

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