ACADEMIC ENGLISH

Academic writing

Academic writing Non Academic Writing

formal and impersonal style of informal and often subjective

Definition writing that is intended for a style of writing that aims the
scholarly or academic audience mass public

Audience academia mass public

inform the readers/audience inform, entertain or persuade

Purpose
with solid evidence the readers

personal, impressionistic,
Style formal and impersonal
emotional, or subjective

Structure standard no rigid structure

formal language avoids informal and casual, may

Language
colloquialisms contain colloquialisms

Citations and references ✅ ❌

newspaper and magazine

research papers, dissertations,
Examples articles, memoirs, letters, digital
scholarly articles, lectures…
media…

Constructions

It is argued that …

It is common belief that …

(Although) it is widely accepted that …

Nonetheless

[Inversion: conditionals] Were this true, we could … ; Never has this been more obvious.

A matter of considerable controversy at present is the issue of whether … , or rather … ,

thus …

Strong arguments exist in support of both sides of this debate, which implies that it is worth
examining both points of view before reaching any conclusions.

Should … , it is argued that …

In addition, …

… is a clear case in this point [to introduce an example].

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 additionally, also, moreover, furthermore, again,
Additional comments or ideas further, then, besides, too, similarly,
correspondingly, indeed, regarding

whereas, conversely, in comparison, by

Alternatives contrast, another view is … , alternatively,
although, otherwise, instead

therefore, accordingly, as a result of, the result(s)

is/are, the consequence(s) is/are, resulting from,
consequently, it can be seen, evidence
Analysing results illustrates that, because of this, thus, hence, for
this reason, owing to … , this suggests that, it
follows that, in that case, that implies, Author
(year) suggests that …

Cause / Reason as a result of, because

Compare compared with, in the same way, likewise

by contrast, although, compared with,

Contrast
conversely, despite, however, nevertheless, yet

Effect / Result as a result, therefore, thus

however, nonetheless, furthermore, in the final

analysis, despite … , notwithstanding … , in
Emphasising earlier statements
spite of … , while … may be true, although, after
all, at the same time, even if … is true, count

for example, for instance, namely, such as, as

follows, as exemplified by, such as, including,
Introducing examples
especially, particularly, in particular, notably,
mainly

in other terms, rather, or, better, in view of this, in

Re-phrasing
contrast

first(ly), second(ly), third(ly), another, additionally,

Sequencing finally, moreover, also, subsequently, eventually,
next, then

in conclusion, therefore, to conclude, on the

Summary or Conclusion whole, hence, thus to summarise, altogether,
overall, following the research of, after analysis

Difference between moreover and furthermore: Furthermore (in addition to what has
been said) adds information. Moreover (beyond what has been said) builds up the
argument, ‘not only that’, adds a reason of a different kind, adds to diversity, ‘more
importantly’.

Alternatives

alternative choices alternatives

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in as few words as possible concisely

look into investigate

put on gained

turned down rejected

hit and miss erratic

Academic terms

account for, analyse, apply, argue, assess, balance, clarify, comment on, compare, contrast,
contextualise, criticise, define, demonstrate, describe, determine, discuss, distinguish,
estimate, evaluate, evidence, examine, exemplify, explain, identify, illustrate, interpret,
justify, outline, prove, relate, review, state, summarise, synthesize, to what extent, trace

analysis, application, communication, enquiry, knowledge, learning, problem solving,

reflection, understanding

Quoting, paraphrasing and summarizing

These three ways of incorporating other writers' work into your own writing differ according
to the closeness of your writing to the source writing.

- Quotations must be identical to the original, using a narrow segment of the source. They
must match the source document word for word and must be attributed to the original
author. There are several ways to integrate quotations into your text. Often, a short
quotation works well when integrated into a sentence. Longer quotations can stand
alone. Remember that quoting should be done only sparingly; be sure that you have a
good reason to include a direct quotation when you decide to do so.

- Paraphrasing involves putting a passage from source material into your own words. A
paraphrase must also be attributed to the original source. Paraphrased material is usually
shorter than the original passage, taking a somewhat broader segment of the source and
condensing it slightly.

- Summarizing involves putting the main idea(s) into your own words, including only the
main point(s). Once again, it is necessary to attribute summarized ideas to the original
source. Summaries are significantly shorter than the original and take a broad overview of
the source material.

Hedging

- Modal verbs indicating possibility: might, could, may, can…

- Other modal verbs: appear, look, seem, tend…

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- Verbs distancing the writer from the claim or showing that he is speculating: seem,
indicate, suggest…

- Adjectives, adverbs and nouns showing the degree of certainty: possible, possibly,
possibility, to be likely to, perhaps…

- Other expressions qualifying or limiting the claim: generally, tend to, in most cases, to
some extent, mainly…

- Description: this may indicate/suggest that, we may argue that…

- Evidence: based on, as indicated by, according to…

Verbs in Academic Writing

RESOURCES: Word Bank section of the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English

(TLS-Writing Centre Lab)

DIFFERENCE/
VARYING: alter,
INCREASE: broaden,
DECREASE: decline, contrast, convert,
enlarge, exceed,
deteriorate, erode, deviate, differ,
Change or difference expand, generate,
minimize, narrow, differentiate,
improve, maximize,
reduce, worsen distinguish, diverge,
optimize
evolve, modify, revise,
transform

Stability Maintain, sustain

Keeping within a
certain range/under a Confine, inhibit, prohibit, restrict
certain level

In-depth study Analyze, examine, investigate, observe, survey

STATING:
acknowledge, argue,
Stating, Restating,
attribute, comment, RESTATING: elaborate, EMPHASIZING:
Emphasizing ideas/
propose, establish, expand emphasize, stress
concepts
identify, mention, note,
observe, state

DESCRIBE
PHENOMENA: DESCRIBE DATA: approximate, demonstrate,
Describe acquire, define, indicate, level off (to approach or reach a rate,
phenomena/data impact, signify (be an volume or amount; stabilize - to expect prices to
indication of), level off), reflect
symbolize

POSITIVE: advocate, NEGATIVE/CONTRADICT: deny, dispute, negate

Stating position hold the view that, (make ineffective, nullify, deny the existence of -
hypothesize, propose negating the political nature of education)

Uncertainty/
UNCERTAINTY: EXTRAPOLATION OF INFORMATION: deduce,
Extrapolation of
predict, speculate imply, infer, project
information

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 Comprise (to be made up off - the play comprises three acts), consist,
Show components
constitute, incorporate

Verbs For Citing Sources

When you mention a published work for the first time, you can use the following basic
patterns:

Brown (2003) comments, concludes, explains, indicates, notes, observes, remarks, states
that…

Brown, Horton and Tomlinson (2004) advocate the view, hold the position, present
arguments to emphasize, propose that…

Brown’s (2003) study emphasizes, illustrates, points out, proposes, shows, suggests that…

Brown’s (2003) findings confirm, establish, maintain, show that…

The analysis of the ABC report denies, shows, suggests that…

For the second or subsequent mentions of your sources in your paraphrase of a linked
point, you can use these patterns:

Brown (2003) further asserts, points out, suggests that…

Brown et al. (2004) additionally advocate, argue, emphasize, explain that…

Other useful verbs that you can use when citing from sources are: compare, determine,
identify, observe, distinguish, prove…

Verbs to report the views of others

Allege, assert, claim, consider, declare, demonstrate, explain, found, judge, report, show,
state, suggest, warn…