Featured article

Zufar ibn al-Harith al-Kilabi

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to navigation

Jump to search

Zufar ibn al-Harith al-Kilabi

Governor of Jund Qinnasrin

In office

684

Preceded by Sa'id ibn Malik ibn Bahdal al-Kalbi

Succeeded by Aban ibn al-Walid ibn Uqba

Personal details

Died c. 694–695

Relations

Aws (brother)

Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik (son-in-law)

Abu al-Ward (grandson)

Children

Hudhayl (son)

Kawthar (son)

Rabab (daughter)

Parent(s) Al-Harith ibn Yazid al-Amiri (father)

Military service

Allegiance
 A'isha (656)

Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan/Umayyad Caliphate (657–684)

Zubayrid Caliphate (684–691)

Umayyad Caliphate (691–death)

Battles/wars

Battle of the Camel (656)

Battle of Siffin (657)

Battle of al-Harra (683)

Qays–Yaman war (686–691)

Abu al-Hudhayl Zufar ibn al-Harith al-Kilabi (Arabic: ‫أبو الهذيل زفر بن الحارث الكالبي‬, romanized: Abū al-
Hudhayl Zufar ibn al-Ḥārith al-Kilābī; died c. 694–695) was a Muslim commander, a chieftain of the Arab
tribe of Banu Amir, and the preeminent leader of the Qays tribal–political faction in the late 7th century.
During the First Muslim Civil War he commanded his tribe in A'isha's army against Caliph Ali's forces at
the Battle of the Camel near Basra in 656. The following year, he relocated from Iraq to the Jazira (Upper
Mesopotamia) and fought under Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, future founder of the Umayyad Caliphate,
against Ali at the Battle of Siffin. During the Second Muslim Civil War he served Mu'awiya's son, Caliph
Yazid I (r. 680–683), leading the troops of Jund Qinnasrin (the military district of northern Syria) against
anti-Umayyad rebels in the 683 Battle of al-Harra.

After Yazid died amid the civil war, Zufar supported Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr's bid to wrest the caliphate
from the Umayyads, expelling the Umayyad governor of Qinnasrin and dispatching Qaysi troops to back
the pro-Zubayrid governor of Damascus, al-Dahhak ibn Qays al-Fihri. At the 684 Battle of Marj Rahit, the
Qays were crushed by the Umayyads and their tribal allies from the Banu Kalb, rivals of the Qays, and al-
Dahhak was slain. Afterward, Zufar set up headquarters in the Jaziran town of Qarqisiya (Circesium) and
led the Qays tribes against the Kalb, launching several raids against the latter in the Syrian Desert. By
688–689, he became embroiled in a conflict with the Taghlib tribe in support of his Qaysi ally Umayr ibn
al-Hubab of the Banu Sulaym, despite previous efforts to mend their feud. After resisting three sieges of
Qarqisiya from 685 to 691, Zufar negotiated a peace with the Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik (r. 685–705).
Zufar abandoned Ibn al-Zubayr's cause in return for privileges in the Umayyad court and army, as well as
pardons and cash for his Qaysi partisans, who were integrated into the Umayyad military. The peace was
sealed by the marriage of Zufar's daughter Rabab to the caliph's son Maslama.
Under Abd al-Malik's successors, Zufar's descendants inherited his high position and prestige in the
Umayyad government, as well as his preeminence among the Qays. In 750, his grandson, Abu al-Ward,
led an abortive Qaysi revolt against the Umayyads' successors, the Abbasids, in which he and several
members of the family were slain.

Contents

1 Early career

2 Leader of the Qays in Syria

2.1 Rebellion against the Umayyads

2.1.1 Role in the ayyam tribal feuds

2.1.2 Umayyad assaults against Qarqisiya

2.2 Reconciliation with the Umayyads

3 Descendants

4 Poetry

5 Notes

6 References

7 Bibliography

Early career

Zufar belonged to the Amr branch of the Banu Kilab,[1] which itself was a major branch of the large Arab
tribe of Banu Amir, whose traditional abode was in the southwestern Najd (central Arabia).[2] The Amr
branch was known to be one of the more militant and warlike divisions of the Banu Kilab.[1] A late 6th-
century, pre-Islamic chief of the Banu Amir from the Amr division, Yazid ibn al-Sa'iq, was a paternal
ancestor of Zufar.[3] Zufar's father, Harith ibn Yazid al-Amiri, served as the commander of the Muslim
army's vanguard during the Muslim conquest of the towns of Hit and Qarqisiya (Circesium), both located
along the Euphrates River, in 637 or 638.[4] The family, including other members of the Amr, such as the
tribal chief Aslam ibn Zur'a ibn al-Sa'iq, settled in the garrison town of Basra in Iraq,[5] which was
established for the Arab tribal soldiers of the Muslim army in 638.[6]

During the First Muslim Civil War (656–661), Zufar fought alongside the forces of A'isha, the third wife of
the Islamic prophet Muhammad, against Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, Caliph Ali (r. 656–661), at
the Battle of the Camel, outside Basra, in November 656. In that battle, Zufar commanded the men of
the Banu Amir.[4] Accounts in the history of al-Tabari (d. 923) note that during the fighting, he was the
last of a series of A'isha's partisans to hold and guide the nose rein of the camel she was seated upon,
defending her against opposing soldiers. All the participating elders of the Banu Amir were slain in the
battle, with the apparent exception of Zufar.[7] Ali defeated A'isha, who retired to Medina. Zufar moved
to the Jazira (Upper Mesopotamia).[4]

When Ali and his Iraqi army entered the Jazira in 657, Zufar was given a senior command role in the right
flank of the Syrian army by the governor of Syria, Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, in the Battle of Siffin.[8] The
battle ended in arbitration. Ali was assassinated by a Kharijite (a faction opposed to both Ali and
Mu'awiya) in 661 and Mu'awiya became caliph in the same year, founding the Umayyad dynasty. During
the reign of Mu'awiya's son and successor, Yazid I (r. 680–683), Zufar served as a commander in Muslim
ibn Uqba's army in its 683 campaign to quash a rebellion in the Hejaz (western Arabia); the rebellion was
in support of Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr's bid for the caliphate.[4] According to the historian al-Ya'qubi (d.
897), during the campaign, Zufar led a contingent composed of the men of Jund Qinnasrin (the military
district of northern Syria) at the Battle of al-Harra outside of Medina.[9]

Leader of the Qays in Syria

Rebellion against the Umayyads

See also: Qays–Yaman rivalry

Map of the Middle East with shaded areas indicating the territorial control of the main political actors of
the Second Muslim Civil War

Map of the political situation in the Caliphate about 686, during the Second Muslim Civil War

The deaths of Yazid and his successor, Mu'awiya II, in 683 and 684, amid the revolt of Ibn al-Zubayr, left
the Umayyad Caliphate in political disarray.[10] Yazid's and Mu'awiya II's governor in Qinnasrin was their
maternal cousin, Sa'id ibn Malik ibn Bahdal of the Banu Kalb tribe.[11][12] The Kalb held a privileged
position in Syria, the Umayyad Caliphate's center of power, to the chagrin of the Qays.[13] The Qays of
Qinnasrin, which were the predominate tribe in this district, resented being under the authority of a
Kalbi, and, under Zufar's leadership, expelled Sa'id.[13] Zufar revolted against the Umayyads and gave
his allegiance to Ibn al-Zubayr.[4] While the Qaysi chieftains leaned towards Ibn al-Zubayr, the leaders of
the Kalb and their allies scrambled to maintain Umayyad rule, and nominated a distant Umayyad cousin
of Mu'awiya I, Marwan I, to assume the caliphate.[10]

The Qays rallied under the Qurayshite former aide of Mu'awiya I and Yazid, Dahhak ibn Qays al-Fihri,
and challenged the Umayyad–Kalbi alliance at the Battle of Marj Rahit in 684.[10] Some traditions hold
that Zufar himself participated in this battle, but this was dismissed by the historians al-Ya'qubi and
Awana ibn al-Hakam (d. 764);[14] al-Tabari held that Zufar dispatched troops from Qinnasrin to join
Dahhak's forces near Damascus.[15] The Qays were routed, and Dahhak and several Qaysi chiefs were
slain.[4][16] A son of Zufar, Waki, may have also been killed.[17] News of the defeat prompted Zufar to
flee Qinnasrin for Qarqisiya.[4][16] With his men, he ousted Qarqisiya's governor, Iyad al-Jurashi.[a]
Zufar fortified the city,[4] which was strategically positioned at the confluence of the Euphrates and
Khabur rivers, at the crossroads between Syria and Iraq.[18] From there, he assumed preeminent
leadership of the battered, but still powerful, Qaysi tribes, while maintaining his recognition of Ibn al-
Zubayr as caliph.[16][19]

Following his accession to the caliphate in Damascus, Marwan dispatched the veteran commander and
statesman Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad to wrest control of Iraq back from Mukhtar al-Thaqafi, the pro-Alid
(supporters of Caliph Ali and his family) ruler of Kufa, and the Zubayrid rulers of Basra. On his way to
Iraq, Ibn Ziyad campaigned against anti-Umayyad elements in the Jazira, besieging Zufar in Qarqisiya for
about a year. Unable to dislodge Zufar, Ibn Ziyad continued on to Iraq, where he was defeated and slain
by the forces of Mukhtar at the Battle of Khazir in 686.[19] Qaysi opposition to the Umayyads played a
role in their defeat at Khazir, when a Qaysi brigade commander, Umayr ibn al-Hubab of the Banu
Sulaym, defected with his men during the battle.[20] The Qaysi defectors at Khazir were "still smarting
from their defeat at Marj Rahit", according to the historian Fred Donner.[21]

Role in the ayyam tribal feuds

The Battle of Marj Rahit opened a bloody phase in the Qays–Kalb rivalry, as the Qays sought vengeance
for their heavy losses.[22] Other Syrian tribes that had opposed the Kalb and fought alongside the Qays
at Marj Rahit, most prominently the South Arabian tribes of Jund Hims (the military district of Homs)
and the Judham of Jund Filastin (the military district of Palestine), forged an alliance with the Kalb and
their tribal allies, which became known as the Yaman group, alluding to the tribes' real or perceived
origins in South Arabia ('Yaman' in Arabic). Collectively, the Yamani tribes dominated Syria's southern
and central districts and stood in opposition to the Qays, which dominated Qinnasrin and the Jazira.[23]
The subsequent phase in the conflict was characterized by tit-for-tat raids known as ayyam ('days'),
because each raid was typically a day long. The dates of these raids were not recorded, but Zufar led the
first raid in an attack that killed twenty Kalbi tribesmen at a place called Musayyakh in the Syrian Desert,
soon after setting up headquarters in Qarqisiya. The Kalb retaliated by killing sixty men from the Banu
Numayr, a sub-tribe of the Amir, in Palmyra. This prompted an attack by Zufar at a place called Iklil, that
ended with the deaths of 500–1,000 Kalbi tribesmen and Zufar's escape to Qarqisiya unscathed.[24]

By circa 686, Zufar's participation in the Qays–Kalb conflict in the Syrian Desert was highly restricted by
persistent campaigns against his safe haven at Qarqisiya by the Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik (r. 685–
705). His role as leader of the Qaysi raiding parties was increasingly filled by Umayr. The latter's
tribesmen had been encroaching on the lands of the Taghlib tribe along the northern Khabur valley,
causing tensions between the two tribes.[25] Violence ensued when a tribesman of the Harish, a branch
of the Amir, slaughtered a goat belonging to a Taghlibi, prompting its owner to raid the Harish. The Qays
launched a counter-raid, killing three Taghlibis and seizing several of their camels.[26] In response, the
Taghlib requested Zufar's intervention to force the Sulaym to withdraw from the area, return the
camels, and pay blood money for the dead tribesmen.[25][26] Zufar accepted the last two demands, but
was unable to persuade the Taghlib of the futility of forcing the Sulaym out of the Khabur Valley. The
Taghlib then attacked Qaysi villages near Qarqisiya but were repulsed, while one of their men, Iyas ibn
al-Kharraz, went to continue negotiations with Zufar. Iyas was killed by a Qaysi tribesman, prompting
Zufar to pay compensation for his death.[26] Julius Wellhausen saw in Zufar's early attempts at
reconciliation a desire not to push the neutral and Christian Taghlib into joining the Umayyad–Yamani
cause;[27] the historian A. A. Dixon holds that the Taghlib were already pro-Umayyad and Zufar
attempted to enlist their support against the Kalb, or at least ensure their neutrality in the conflict.[26]

Map of the Jazira (Upper Mesopotamia), where the battles between Zufar and the Taghlib were fought.
The Jazira was made a province not long after the conflict between Zufar and the Umayyads was settled.

Zufar failed to stem the tensions between the Sulaym and the Taghlib.[27] Due to the Taghlib's
insistence on evicting the Sulaym, Umayr opposed any peaceful settlement with the tribe, and worked
to expel them from the area. He obtained a writ from Ibn al-Zubayr's brother and governor in Basra,
Mus'ab ibn al-Zubayr, to collect the traditional dues owed to the state from the Taghlib, with the
condition that it was subject to Zufar's approval. Zufar, seeking to prevent a clash between the Taghlib
and Umayr, sent emissaries advising the Taghlib to cooperate and pay the dues to Umayr in the latter's
capacity as a representative of the governor of Basra. The Taghlib responded by killing the emissaries,
which angered Zufar. He consequently sent Umayr and a Qaysi party against them at Makisin, where a
Taghlibi chief and several of his men were slain.[28] In revenge, the Taghlib and their Rabi'a relatives
landed a heavy blow against the Sulaym at the Tharthar river, killing several of their tribesmen and thirty
women. The scale of the Taghlibi raid compelled Zufar to directly participate in the Qaysi feud with the
tribe, which he had hitherto avoided. Consequently, he joined Umayr in a retaliatory assault against the
tribe at the Tharthar. The Taghlib repulsed Zufar and the Amir, but the Sulaym held firm and defeated
the Taghlib.[29]

After several more tit-for-tat raids across eastern Syria and the Jazira, in 689, Zufar and Umayr faced the
Taghlib at Hashshak near the Tharthar. Zufar retreated upon hearing of the approach of an Umayyad
army to Qarqisiya, but Umayr remained and was killed. Zufar expressed his grief in verse.[30] As head of
the Qays, Zufar was expected to avenge his death.[31] Umayr's brother, Tamim ibn al-Hubab, made a
request of Zufar to that effect. Zufar was initially reluctant to act, but was persuaded by his eldest son,
Hudhayl, to attack the Taghlib. He left his brother Aws ibn al-Harith to oversee Qarqisiya, while he and
Hudhayl set out against the Taghlib. Zufar sent Muslim ibn Rabi'a, a man of the Banu Uqayl, a branch of
the Amir, ahead of him to ambush a group of Taghlibi tribesmen. Afterward, Muslim assaulted the main
body of the Taghlib at al-Aqiq near Mosul. The Taghlib fled toward the Tigris River, but once they
reached the village of Kuhayl on the river's western bank, they were ambushed by Zufar. Scores of
Taghlibi tribesmen were slain, and more drowned in the Tigris.[32] Zufar executed two hundred
Taghlibis taken captive in the raid.[33] Referencing this event, the poet Jarir ibn Atiya taunted his
Taghlibi rival al-Akhtal in the Umayyad court, reciting:
 The warriors of Qays bore down on you with steeds

Ungroomed and grim-faced, [their backs] bearing heroes

You kept thinking everything after them

Was steeds and men charging over and over

Zufar Abu al-Hudhayl, their chieftain, annihilated you[r men]

Then captured your women and plundered your herds.[34]

Umayyad assaults against Qarqisiya

Army movements and battle locations marked on a grayscale map of the Middle East

The main campaigns and battles of the Second Muslim Civil War, including the Umayyad sieges of
Qarqisiya

Marwan had died in the spring of 685 and was succeeded by his son Abd al-Malik. Needing to
consolidate his position in Syria, the new caliph initially refrained from confronting Zufar. After achieving
a level of security at home, the caliph instructed his Umayyad kinsman and governor of Jund Hims, Aban
ibn al-Walid ibn Uqba, to move against Zufar. In the ensuing battle in 688 or 689, Zufar was defeated
and one of his sons slain, but he remained in control of Qarqisiya.[35]

In 691, after stamping out a revolt in Damascus by his kinsman Amr al-Ashdaq, Abd al-Malik led his army
in person on a campaign to take over Iraq, which by then had fallen entirely under Zubayrid control.
Before entering Iraq, Abd al-Malik resolved to suppress Zufar and the Qays in the Jazira. He besieged
Qarqisiya in the summer of 691. For forty days his catapults bombarded its fortifications, followed by an
assault by his mostly Kalbi troops. Zufar and his men repulsed them, prompting Abd al-Malik to work
toward a diplomatic resolution.[35]

Reconciliation with the Umayyads

Abd al-Malik sent one of his top commanders, Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, and the prominent theologian Raja ibn
Haywa, as his envoys to Zufar.[36] The choice of envoys may have been meant to reassure Zufar. As a
member of the Thaqif tribe, Hajjaj was a fellow Qaysi; Raja was affiliated with the Yamani Kinda, with
whom Zufar had blood relations.[37] They relayed Abd al-Malik's message: Zufar should join the
majority of Muslims in recognizing Abd al-Malik as caliph, and in exchange be rewarded for his
obedience, or otherwise punished for his recalcitrance. Zufar declined the offer, but his son Hudhayl
gave it consideration. Abd al-Malik instructed his brother, Muhammad, who had been appointed by
their father to keep the Qays in check in the Jazira, to issue pardons and grant unspecified favors to
Zufar, Hudhayl and their followers. Zufar was persuaded by Hudhayl to accept Abd al-Malik's entreaties,
on the condition that he would not have to join Abd al-Malik's forces and could maintain his oath of
allegiance to Ibn al-Zubayr.[38] The Kalbi commanders in Abd al-Malik's army were opposed to the
negotiations with Zufar. They counseled the caliph to reject Zufar's conditions and continue the assault
against Qarqisiya, as most of its fortifications had been destroyed by then. Abd al-Malik accepted their
counsel and resumed the assault, but could not dislodge Zufar.[38]

By the end of the summer of 691, Zufar and Abd al-Malik made peace. According to the terms of their
agreement, safe conduct was granted to Zufar and his partisans, all of whom would be relieved of
responsibility for their participation in the revolt, the tribesmen they killed, and the expenses incurred
by the Umayyads in relation to the revolt. Zufar promised not to fight Abd al-Malik, and instructed
Hudhayl to join his army in the Iraqi campaign, while staying out of the campaign himself to avoid
violating his oath to Ibn al-Zubayr. Abd al-Malik gave Zufar an unspecified sum of money to distribute
among his followers. Consecrating the agreement, Zufar's daughter Rabab was wed to Abd al-Malik's
son, Maslama.[39] According to Wellhausen, Zufar and his sons, Hudhayl and Kawthar, became
"amongst the most eminent and notable people at the [Umayyad] court of Damascus".[40]

In 692 Ibn al-Zubayr's revolt was suppressed and Zufar's war with the Kalb and Taghlib came to a halt.
[41] The Jazira was made its own province by Abd al-Malik at this time, separated administratively from
Qinnasrin. According to the historian Khalid Yahya Blankinship, this was possibly related to the
settlement with Zufar.[42] Zufar's abandonment of Ibn al-Zubayr's cause in return for a high position in
the Umayyad court and army effectively broke the Yaman's domination of the Syrian army.[43] From
then on, the Umayyad caliphs attempted to balance Qaysi–Yamani interests in the army.[44] Qaysi
troops were favored by Zufar's son-in-law, Maslama, during his abortive war against Byzantium in 717–
718, which further consolidated the Yamani alliance against the Qays within the army.[45] The tribal
schism mainly continued as a factional rivalry for power in the provinces, but renewed Qaysi–Yamani
hostilities in Syria in 744 helped spark the Third Muslim Civil War,[46] which ended with the downfall of
the Umayyads in 750.[47]

Descendants

Zufar died in c. 694–695.[48][49] His sons "inherited the respect accorded to him" and were also "held in
high esteem by the caliphs", in the words of the historian David S. Powers.[50] The historian Patricia
Crone noted that Zufar and his family "were considered to be the very incarnation of Qaysiyya".[4] In an
anecdote recorded by al-Tabari, in 722 or 723 the then Qaysi governor of Iraq, Umar ibn Hubayra, asked
of his companions, "Who is the most eminent man among the Qays?", to which they replied that he
was; Ibn Hubayra disagreed, countering that it was Zufar's son Kawthar, for all the latter had to do was
"sound the bugle at night and twenty thousand men will show up without asking why they have been
summoned".[51][52]
Zufar's family, the Banu Zufar, was granted by the Umayyad caliphs a village or estate in Jund Qinnasrin
near the fortress at Na'ura, a place downstream of Balis on the Euphrates.[53] According to al-Tabari,
this was the village of Khusaf, also called Zara'at Bani Zufar after the family,[54] located in the vicinity of
the Sabkhat al-Jabbul salt flats.[55] The estate was near the residence of Abd al-Malik's son Maslama.[4]
Strong ties were maintained between the Banu Zufar and Maslama. Hudhayl became a commander in
Maslama's service,[4] commanding the left wing of his army when it suppressed the rebellion of Yazid
ibn al-Muhallab in Iraq in 720.[56] Hudhayl killed Yazid ibn al-Muhallab during that campaign, according
to the historian Ibn al-Athir (d. 1233).[57] The sons of Zufar were supporters of Caliph Marwan II (r. 744–
750), who appointed Kawthar governor of Mar'ash on the Byzantine–Arab frontier.[58] Zufar's
grandsons Majza'a ibn Kawthar, better known as Abu al-Ward, and Wathiq ibn Hudhayl, were part of
Marwan II's Qaysi entourage, but following Marwan II's defeat at the Battle of the Zab in 750, they
submitted to the Abbasid Caliphate. Later that year, Abu al-Ward led a pro-Umayyad revolt against the
Abbasids.[59] He was killed, along with many members of his clan.[60]

Family tree of Zufar ibn al-Harith al-Kilabi

Poetry

Fragments of Zufar's poems are preserved in Abu Ubayda's Naqa'id, Abu Tammam's 9th-century Hamasa
and the 10th-century Iqd al-Farid and Kitab al-aghani poetry collections, as well as in the histories of al-
Tabari and Ibn Asakir (d. 1175). The 9th-century scholar Ibn Habib worked on a diwan (poetry collection)
of Zufar's poems, but it is not extant.[65] Among the verses ascribed to him was the following about his
hatred and despair in the aftermath of Marj Rahit and his resolve to avenge the Qays:

Do not think me heedless if I am absent, and do not rejoice at meeting me if I come to you.

The pasture land might spring up on the ruins of the earth, but the soul's hatreds remain just as
before.

Do Kalb depart and our spears not reach them, and are the slain ones of Rahit abandoned as they
were? ...

Never was anything hateful seen of me before this flight of mine and my leaving my two companions
behind me...

Does one single day, if I have spoiled it, dispel the goodness of my days and the merit of my deeds?

There will be no peace until the horsemen come with spears, and my wives take vengeance from the
women of Kalb.[66]

Notes
Iyad ibn Aslam al-Jurashi was a tribesman of the South Arabian Himyar and had been appointed the
governor of Qarqisiya by Caliph Yazid I.[16]

Nufayl was the progenitor of one of the two sub-branches of the Amr branch of the Banu Kilab[61]

Khuwaylid ibn Nufayl was the chief of the Amr branch of the Banu Kilab and the paternal grandfather of
Yazid ibn al-Sa'iq.[62] Khuwaylid became remembered in the sources as 'al-Sa'iq' because he was
supposedly killed in a lightning strike.[63]

Amr ibn Khuwaylid 'al-Sa'iq' was the father of Yazid[62] and Zur'a.[64]

Zur'a, a pre-Islamic noble of the Banu Amir tribe, was the father of Aslam, the Qaysi tribal-factional
leader and one-time Umayyad governor of Basra.[5]

Sa'id's father was Aslam ibn Zur'a. He served as the Umayyad governor of Makran.[5]

Muslim, the son of Sa'id ibn Aslam, was the Umayyad governor of Khurasan.[5]

References

Zakkar 1971, p. 74.

Caskel 1960, p. 441.

Sezgin 1975, p. 219.

Crone 1980, p. 108.

Crone 1980, p. 138.

Pellat 1960, p. 1085.

Brockett 1997, p. 149.

Hagler 2011, pp. 60–61.

Gordon et al. 2018, pp. 944–945.

Kennedy 2016, pp. 78–79.

Crone 1980, p. 94.

Caskel 1966, p. 500.

Wellhausen 1927, p. 170.

Saffarini 2003, p. 92.

Hawting 1989, p. 56.

Hawting 1989, p. 63.

Rotter 1982, p. 209.

Humphreys 1990, p. 132, note 244.

Kennedy 2016, p. 81.

Wellhausen 1927, p. 186.

Donner 2010, p. 185.

Kennedy 2016, p. 80.

Crone 1994, pp. 45–47.

Wellhausen 1927, p. 202.

Wellhausen 1927, p. 203.

Dixon 1971, p. 99.

Wellhausen 1927, pp. 203–204.

Dixon 1971, p. 100.

Dixon 1971, p. 101.

Dixon 1971, pp. 101–102.

Wellhausen 1927, p. 204.

Dixon 1971, p. 102.

Wellhausen 1927, pp. 204–205.

Stetkevych 2002, p. 112.

Dixon 1971, p. 93.

Dixon 1971, pp. 93–94.

Dixon 1971, p. 94, note 49.

Dixon 1971, p. 94.

Dixon 1971, pp. 94–95.

Wellhausen 1927, p. 211.

Wellhausen 1927, p. 205.

Blankinship 1994, p. 51.

Kennedy 2016, p. 84.

Kennedy 2016, p. 87.

Crone 1994, p. 48.

Crone 1994, pp. 43, 54.

Hawting 2000, p. 90.

Lane 2006, p. 351.

Sezgin 1975, p. 339.

Powers 1989, p. 185, note 633.

Crone 1994, pp. 7–8.

Powers 1989, p. 185.

Bonner 1996, pp. 141–142.

Williams 1985, pp. 20, 176 note 423.

Hoyland 2011, pp. 258–259, note 760.

Powers 1989, pp. 134–135.

Powers 1989, p. 138, note 480.

Crone 1980, pp. 108–109.

Crone 1980, p. 109.

Cobb 2001, p. 48.

Krenkow 1993, p. 1005.

Caskel 1966, p. 176.

Lyall 1918, p. 325.

Caskel 1966, p. 458.

Sezgin 1975, pp. 339–340.

Hawting 1989, pp. 65–66.

Bibliography

Blankinship, Khalid Yahya (1994). The End of the Jihâd State: The Reign of Hishām ibn ʻAbd al-Malik
and the Collapse of the Umayyads. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-
7914-1827-7.
 Bonner, Michael (1996). Aristocratic Violence and Holy War: Studies in the Jihad and the Arab-
Byzantine Frontier. New Haven, Connecticut: American Oriental Society. ISBN 0-940490-11-0.

Brockett, Adrian, ed. (1997). The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XVI: The Community Divided: The
Caliphate of ʿAlī I, A.D. 656–657/A.H. 35–36. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York:
State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-2391-2.

Caskel, Werner (1960). "'Amir b. Sa'sa'a". In Gibb, H. A. R.; Kramers, J. H.; Lévi-Provençal, E.; Schacht,
J.; Lewis, B. & Pellat, Ch. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume I: A–B. Leiden: E. J.
Brill. OCLC 495469456.

Caskel, Werner (1966). Ğamharat an-nasab: Das genealogische Werk des His̆ām ibn Muḥammad al-
Kalbī, Volume II (in German). Leiden: Brill. OCLC 29957469.

Cobb, Paul M. (2001). White Banners: Contention in 'Abbasid Syria, 750–880. Albany: SUNY Press.
ISBN 978-0-7914-4880-9.

Crone, Patricia (1980). Slaves on Horses: The Evolution of the Islamic Polity. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0-521-52940-9.

Crone, Patricia (1994). "Were the Qays and Yemen of the Umayyad Period Political Parties?" (PDF).
Der Islam. 71: 1–57. doi:10.1515/islm.1994.71.1.1. S2CID 154370527.

Dixon, 'Abd al-Ameer (1971). The Umayyad Caliphate, 65–86/684–705: (A Political Study). London:
Luzac. ISBN 978-0-7189-0149-3.

Donner, Fred M. (2010). Muhammad and the Believers, at the Origins of Islam. Cambridge,
Massachusetts and London: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-05097-6.

Gordon, Matthew S.; Robinson, Chase F.; Rowson, Everett K.; Fishbein, Michael (2018). The Works of
Ibn Wāḍiḥ al-Yaʿqūbī (Volume 3): An English Translation. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-35621-4.

Hagler, Aaron M. (12 August 2011). The Echoes of Fitna: Developing Historiographical Interpretations
of the Battle of Siffin (PhD thesis). University of Pennsylvania.

Hawting, G. R., ed. (1989). The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XX: The Collapse of Sufyānid Authority and
the Coming of the Marwānids: The Caliphates of Muʿāwiyah II and Marwān I and the Beginning of the
Caliphate of ʿAbd al-Malik, A.D. 683–685/A.H. 64–66. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New
York: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-88706-855-3.

Hawting, Gerald R. (2000). The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750 (Second
ed.). London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-24072-7.

Hoyland, Robert G. (2011). Theophilus of Edessa's Chronicle and the Circulation of Historical
Knowledge in Late Antiquity and Early Islam. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. ISBN 978-1-84631-
697-5.

Humphreys, R. Stephen, ed. (1990). The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XV: The Crisis of the Early
Caliphate: The Reign of ʿUthmān, A.D. 644–656/A.H. 24–35. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany,
New York: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-0154-5.
 Kennedy, Hugh (2016). The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th
to the 11th Century (Third ed.). Oxford and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-78761-2.

Krenkow, F. (1993) [1927]. "Kilāb b. Rabīʿa". The Encyclopædia of Islam: A Dictionary of the
Geography, Ethnography and Biography of the Muhammadan Peoples, Volume IV: ʿItk-Kwaṭṭa (Reprint
ed.). Leiden, New York and Koln: Brill. p. 1005. ISBN 90-04-08265-4.

Lane, Andrew (2006). A Traditional Mu'tazilite Qur'ān Commentary: The Kashshāf of Jār Allāh al-
Zamakhsharī (d. 538/1144). Leiden: Brill. ISBN 90-04-14700-4.

Lyall, Charles (1918). The Mufaḍḍalīyāt: An Anthology of Ancient Arabian Odes, Volume 2. Oxford:
Clarendon Press. OCLC 697581889.

Pellat, Ch. (1960). "Al-Baṣra — Baṣra until the Mongol conquest (656/1258)". In Gibb, H. A. R.;
Kramers, J. H.; Lévi-Provençal, E.; Schacht, J.; Lewis, B. & Pellat, Ch. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam,
New Edition, Volume I: A–B. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 1085–1086. OCLC 495469456.

Powers, Stephan, ed. (1989). The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XXIV: The Empire in Transition: The
Caliphates of Sulaymān, ʿUmar, and Yazīd, A.D. 715–724/A.H. 96–105. SUNY Series in Near Eastern
Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-0072-2.

Rotter, Gernot (1982). Die Umayyaden und der zweite Bürgerkrieg (680-692) (in German). Wiesbaden:
Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft. ISBN 3-515-02913-3.

Saffarini, Husein (2003). "A Critical Evaluation of the Traditions Utilized in Historical Works by the
Transmitters". Studia Arabistyczne i Islamistyczne. 11: 79–96.

Sezgin, Fuat (1975). Geschichte des arabischen schriftums, Band II, Poesie bis ca. 430H (in German).
Leiden: Brill. ISBN 90-04-043764.

Stetkevych, Suzanne Pinckney (2002). The Poetics of Islamic Legitimacy: Myth, Gender, and Ceremony
in the Classical Arabic Ode. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-34119-1.

Wellhausen, Julius (1927). The Arab Kingdom and its Fall. Translated by Margaret Graham Weir.
Calcutta: University of Calcutta. OCLC 752790641.

Williams, John Alden, ed. (1985). The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XXVII: The ʿAbbāsid Revolution, A.D.
743–750/A.H. 126–132. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New
York Press. ISBN 978-0-87395-884-4.

Zakkar, Suhayl (1971). The Emirate of Aleppo: 1004–1094. Aleppo: Dar al-Amanah. OCLC 759803726.

vte

Arabic literature

Categories:
 690s deaths7th-century ArabsArab rebelsBanu KilabBedouin tribal chiefsGenerals of the Umayyad
CaliphatePeople of the First FitnaPeople of the Second FitnaPoets from the Umayyad CaliphateUmayyad
governors of Qinnasrin

Navigation menu

Not logged in

Talk

Contributions

Create account

Log in

Article

Talk

Read

Edit

View history

Search

Main page

Contents

Current events

Random article

About Wikipedia

Contact us

Donate
Contribute

Help

Learn to edit

Community portal

Recent changes

Upload file

Tools

What links here

Related changes

Special pages

Permanent link

Page information

Cite this page

Wikidata item

Print/export

Download as PDF

Printable version

Languages

‫العربية‬

Bahasa Indonesia

Bahasa Melayu
Edit links

This page was last edited on 25 August 2022, at 09:09 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0; additional terms
may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a
registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

Privacy policy

About Wikipedia

Disclaimers

Contact Wikipedia

Mobile view

Developers

Statistics

Cookie statement

Wikimedia Foundation

Powered by MediaWiki