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Strategies for the Recovery and Recycling of Plastic Solid Waste (PSW): A
Focus on Plastic Manufacturing Companies

Article  in  Procedia Manufacturing · January 2018

DOI: 10.1016/j.promfg.2018.02.172

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 Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
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ScienceDirect
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Available Manufacturing 00 (2017) 000–000
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Procedia Manufacturing 21 (2018) 686–693
Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2017) 000–000
www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
15th Global Conference on Sustainable Manufacturing
15th Global Conference on Sustainable Manufacturing
Strategies for the Recovery and Recycling of Plastic Solid Waste
Strategies for the Recovery and Recycling of Plastic Solid Waste
(PSW): A Focus on International
Plastic Manufacturing Companies
(PSW):
Manufacturing A Focus
Engineering on
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Conference 2017, MESIC
2017, Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain
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Bupe Getrude Mwanzaaa*, Charles Mbohwaaa, Arnesh Telukdarieaa

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between used capacity and operational efficiency

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Keywords: manufacturing; plastic solid waste; strategies,; recovery; recycling
contributions from
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plastic practical
waste; and theoretical
strategies,; perspectives.
recovery; recycling This paper presents and discusses a mathematical
model for capacity management based on different costing models (ABC and TDABC). A generic model has been
developed and it was used to analyze idle capacity and to design strategies towards the maximization of organization’s
1. Introduction
1. Introduction
value. The trade-off capacity maximization vs operational efficiency is highlighted and it is shown that capacity
optimization
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materials over other materials. The sad part about most of these plastic products is that, most of them areConference
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properties possessed by plastic
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materials over other materials. The sad part about most of these plastic products is that, most of them are packaging
products. Approximately 50% of plastics are produced into disposable single-use applications .i.e. packaging [1].
products.
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result of this, most nations have developed strategies aimed at the recovery of this waste type. Waste policies and solid waste. As a
result of this, most nations have developed strategies aimed at the recovery of this waste type. Waste policies and
* E-mail address: bupe.mwanza@gmail.com
1. Introduction
* E-mail address: bupe.mwanza@gmail.com

The cost of idle capacity is a fundamental information for companies and their management of extreme importance
in modern©production
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2351-9789 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.

Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the Manufacturing Engineering Society International Conference 2017.
2351-9789 © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 15th Global Conference on Sustainable Manufacturing (GCSM).
10.1016/j.promfg.2018.02.172
 Bupe Getrude Mwanza et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 21 (2018) 686–693 687
2 Bupe Getrude Mwanza, Charles Mbohwa, Arnesh Telukdarie / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2017) 000–000

legislations such as land fill bans and restrictions, deposit-refund systems; Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR)
etc. have been established.
Most African nations are still facing the challenges of managing packaging waste and in particular plastic solid
waste. Despite the fact that most of these nations have waste policies and legislations regarding the management of
solid waste, it is still a sorry case. According to [2], due to the nonexistence or ongoing constraints on waste
management facilities for various waste streams, the gap between legislations and waste management policy and the
actual waste management practices is widening. With this in mind, it is necessary to look at other strategies that can
work in the recovery and management of PSW. This research addresses the challenge of PSW in Africa from a
different perspective.
This study attempts to determine and analyze the strategies that importantly influence plastic manufacturing and
recycling companies to recover and recycle plastic solid wastes. The recovered plastic solid wastes are either open-
loop or close-loop recycled in order to achieve sustainable manufacturing. The research also attempts to outline the
strategies for achieving effective and efficient resource utilization for sustainable waste management from a
manufacturers’ perspective. A number of strategies addressing the aspects of sustainability are presented in the form
of a questionnaire to plastic manufacturing and recycling companies in order to establish the way forward to
sustainable manufacturing from recovered plastic solid wastes.

1.1 Recovery and recycling

From the invention of other routes in the production process of plastics, it is not surprising to note that, the plastic
industry has developed massively. With these developments, this product has brought with it many demits
associated with waste management. However, due to the development of many technologies and systems, the
generated plastic wastes can be recovered and recycled for sustainable manufacturing and resource management.
Recycling has a number of benefits as opposed to landfilling; it saves energy and natural resources which leads
to the reduction of production costs, generates income and job creation for the unemployed and poor and reduces the
costs of landfilling and waste management [3, 4]. According to [5] evidence to show that, empirically
remanufacturing and recycling processes saves, energy, labor, materials and production lead time reduction exists.
Recycling of plastic solid wastes is one way of achieving sustainable manufacturing. According to [6] recycling
turns waste materials into financial, environmental and societal resources. As a result of this, most manufacturing
companies are motivated to recover materials from the supply-chain as long as it profits them sustainably.
Consequently, this study investigates strategies that can contribute to sustainable recovery of plastic wastes and
hence contribute to sustainable manufacturing. Sustainability in service or manufacturing industries results in the
creating of goods or services by utilizing systems and processes that conserve natural resources and energy, have no
pollution and are economically sound and safe for communities and employees. [7,8]. However, recycling is an
option that can be considered sustainable by manufacturing companies as it conserves resources, reduces
transportation costs and disposal of solid wastes as well as protracting landfills lives [9]. [1] affirms that recycling
of plastics reduces environmental impacts and resource depletion. With these benefits of recycling, it is important
for developing economies facing the challenges of PSW to consider tipping into these benefits. One way of tipping
into the benefits of plastic recovery and recycling is for African nations to investigate the sustainable strategies that
can work in their nation’s context.
A number of studies have investigated strategies for the recovery of wastes. However, most of these studies have
investigated the strategies that influence households or communities to participate in recovery programs of waste
[10, 11, 12, 13]. Other studies have investigated service and manufacturing on environmental sustainability [15].
[16] conducted a study on what makes manufacturing companies more desirous of recycling. While some studies
from an African perspective have focused on the recovery and recycling of MSW [17, 18]. This study takes a
different approach by investigating the technological, economical, environmental concerns and legislations, market
and social strategies from the plastic manufacturing company’s perspective to enhance sustainable manufacturing
and waste management.
688 Bupe Getrude
Bupe Getrude Mwanza, Charles Mwanza
Mbohwa, et al.
Arnesh / Procedia
Telukdarie Manufacturing
/ Procedia 21 (2018)
Manufacturing 00686–693
(2017) 000–000

1.2 Plastic waste recovery and recycling in the Zambia’s Context

Zambia like many African nations faces the challenge of managing solid waste. The poor waste management has
contributed to poor sanitation and health related problems. Despite solid waste management related challenges,
Zambia has waste policies and legislations in place. According to [19], regulations and laws controlling the
management of solid waste exist but there are serious enforcement and compliance deficiencies. Therefore, as a
result of continued efforts to improve the waste management sector in Zambia, the national solid waste management
strategy was developed in 2004 and one of its objectives is waste minimization and recycling. However, the
formation of this strategy has not fully lead to the recovery and recycling of plastic solid waste from the waste
streams as well as from generators.
The challenges in the recovery and recycling of PSW should not rely on the policies and legislations in place in
order be solved. Plastic manufacturing and recycling companies should assess the impact of implementing other
strategies in order to achieve sustainable resource recovery and recycling. This study focuses on investigating the
strategies that can contribute to sustainable recovery and recycling of PSW in Zambia.

1.3 Strategies for Sustainable management of plastic solid waste (PSW)

The fact that plastics are manufactured from limited resource, a lot of technological developments for recycling
plastics among other resources are been made [20]. As a global problem, more should be done to solve this world’s
resource and strategies other than technology are needed. A number of strategies in the form of economic,
environmental, social, and market exist. These strategies are very cardinal in the development of systems for the
recovery and recycling of PSW. To sustainably manufacture recovered and recycled PSW it is important to
understand if the process will be economically, environmentally, legally and socially acceptable to undertake. Thus
the findings from this research will contribute to the body of knowledge on sustainable manufacturing of PSW as
well as waste management by highlighting the critical factors for implementation in recovery and recycling
programs for this waste type.

1.3.1 Technological strategies

The cost of recycling has decreased as a result of technological advances and consequently closing the gap
between virgin plastics and the recycled plastic value [21]. As a result of advancements in wasting and sorting
technologies, non-bottle packing recycling has become possible in Europeans countries such as Spain, Austria, Italy,
Norway and Germany [1]. Further, compared to other waste types, a greater number of different technologies are
required to recycle plastics and therefore development of new technologies for recycling plastics should be on the
agenda of recyclers [21].

1.3.2 Environmental concerns and legislations strategies

According to a study conducted on markets for recycled plastics [22], legislation is considered as one of the
strategies encouraging recycling of waste plastics. [21] noted that, higher recycling and collection rates are usually
produced by extended producer responsibility (EPR) than purely voluntary programmes. The use of EPR has
presented great impact towards achieving higher recycling rates in Japan. The EPR system in Japan specifics the
responsibility of each part and it enabled Japan recycling rates to rise to 70% from 1995 to 2010 [23]. [24] noted
that, environmental concerns, economic value and government legislations are the three reverse logistics drivers.
Legislation has compelled many industries in the electronic sector to set up systems for safe disposal and product
recovery [25]. [22] noted that plastic producers from the European perspective are seeking to address environmental
concerns with waste plastics.

1.3.3 Economical strategies

A number of economic strategies influence the viability of recycling plastics. According to [26] the effect of a
waste management policy is when consistent management of waste materials happens over a period of time.
Profiting from waste is an economic driver that influences waste collectors and scavengers to recycle waste.
According to [27] the city of Yokohama in Japan exports salvaged recyclable plastic and paper for economic
 Bupe Getrude Mwanza et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 21 (2018) 686–693 689
4 Bupe Getrude Mwanza, Charles Mbohwa, Arnesh Telukdarie / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2017) 000–000

purposes. In Malaysia, a lot of private lorry owners itinerantly purchase car batteries or paper from households and
resell it to other local commercial recycling centers as a way of supplementing their incomes s [26]. These activities
are as a result of the economic value attached to waste.

1.3.4 Social strategies

According to [28] a wide participation among the general population in recycling schemes is an environmental
behaviour that resulted in 57% of the population in the UK survey in 2006. According to [29], the collection of PET
bottles is mostly performed by the informal sector yet this has resulted in an increase from 19% in 1995 to 56% in
2010. [30] note that, the involvement of society in the recovery of waste for recycling should be considered
especially when developing integrated environmentally friendly solid waste management systems.

1.3.5 Market strategies

Improving recycling rates does not only depend on technical advancements. Other strategies such as market-share
are key in influencing plastic manufacturers and recyclers to recover and recycle more PSW. [21] noted that, it is
important for recyclers to be closely involved with other key players along the supply-chain such as retailers and
that there is great need for municipalities, sorters, etc. to deal directly with the recyclers. The essence of recyclers
dealing directly with municipalities, retailers or sorters is that, this can result in promotion of recyclability.
According to [31] China already has a considerable domestic market for recycling its own plastic and a total of 15
million tons of waste plastic of Chinese origin was recycled in 2011.

2. Methodology

The study is based on a survey (questionnaires/interviews). Companies of the study areas were interviewed and
their preferred strategies for the recovery and recycling of PSW was monitored

2.1 Study area and group

To accomplish the study objectives, information on the number of plastic manufacturing and recycling companies
was gathered using the search engine. A number of companies were identified and a standardized database was
created for companies registered with the Zambia Manufacturing Sector. A total of twenty companies were
purposely selected from three towns; Lusaka, Kitwe and Ndola. Five companies were selected from Kitwe, five
from Ndola and finally ten were selected from Lusaka. The basis of the number of companies selected from each
town was based on the number of companies in that town. Questionnaires were sent to these companies in order to
determine the strategies for the recovery and recycling of PSW in Zambia.

2.2 Data collection

There was only one method of data collection; questionnaire survey. Based on the questionnaire, one on one
interviews were conducted with the manufacturing manager or person in charge of manufacturing department or
section. Otherwise for those companies that preferred answering the questionnaire on their own, a copy was left for
them to answer it. The questionnaire was designed following the Likert-type scale to gather simplified information
from the respondents. A number of statements form a likert scale and these express either an unfavorable or
favorable attitude relating to the given object that the respondent should react to. Typically, the respondent is asked
to react to each statement in terms of several degrees (strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree and strongly disagree).
The questionnaire used in this study covered information related to position of the respondent at the company,
the type of company (i.e. manufacturing, recycling or both), the number of employees at the company and finally the
section on the strategies. The strategies section was divided into economic, environmental concerns and legislations,
market, technological and social strategies. Responses related directly to the scope of this study have been analyzed
and discussed .Table 1 shows the strategies that were investigated in each category. These strategies were identified
from literature and formulated into statements.
690 Bupe Getrude Mwanza et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 21 (2018) 686–693
Bupe Getrude Mwanza, Charles Mbohwa, Arnesh Telukdarie / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2017) 000–000

Table 1: Strategies for the recovery and recycling of PSW

Category Strategies Investigated Labels
Economic o Lower energy requirements during input production A5.1
o High demand for the materials in manufacturing A5.2
o The cost of alternative acceptable forms of disposal A5.3
compared recycling.
o The price of virgin polymer compared to recycled polymer A5.4

Environmental concerns and o Enforcement of Producer Responsibility Regulations to A4.1

legislations encourage collection of plastic wastes
o Enforcement of national-wide law on plastic waste A4.2
recycling A4.3
o Legalization of selective collection performed by waste
pickers from households, retailers, dumpsites etc. A4.4
o Enforcement of environmental awareness programmes on
the importance of plastic waste recycling A4.5
o Enforcement of waste segregation at household level A4.6
o Creation of quality standards and certification schemes for
plastic recyclers
Market o Formation of polymer recyclate stream end markets. A2.1
o Closer engagement of recyclers with one another along the A2.2
supply-chain
o Recyclers to deal directly with municipalities, sorters,
scavengers and households A2.3
o Existence of market systems relying on recycled-material
throughput involvement A2.4
o Transnational cooperation on waste plastic recycling A2.5

o Use of incentive schemes to motivate plastic recycling at A3.1

household levels
o Efficiency of the municipality, private waste contractors or A3.2
informal waste collectors in waste collection
o Introduction of plastic waste segregation at household level A3.3
for recycling purposes
o Increasing consumer awareness on plastic recycling A3.4
o Education of the households/community on the relevance
of informal waste collectors in the supply-chain A3.5

Technological o Improvement in recycling technology and infrastructure A1.1

e.g. extrusion, blow moulding .etc.
o Improvement in size reduction technologies A1.2
o Improvement in the sorting technologies A1.3
o Designing of products for recyclability A1.4
o Ensuring material applicability in manufacturing processes A1.5

3. Results and Discussion

Out of the twenty companies that were handed the questionnaires, only fifteen companies managed to complete
the questionnaires. The questionnaires were coded and analyzed using SPSS.

3.1 Technological Strategies

Technological strategies were denoted as A1.1, A1.2, A1.3, A1.4 and A1.5. Results from the technological
strategies indicate that; for the A1.1 strategy, most companies responded with agree on the likert scale with the
frequency of 6 (40.0%). This means most companies agreed to improve the recycling technology and infrastructure
e.g. extrusion, blow moulding. For strategy A1.2, most companies responded with a neutral with a frequency of 6
(40.0%). This means most companies were neutral in terms of improvement in size reduction technologies. For
A1.3, most companies responded with agree, which had the frequency of 7 (46.7%). This means most companies
agreed to improve the sorting technologies of plastics. For A1.4 strategy, most companies responded with agree on
the likert scale with a frequency of 8 (53.3%) and finally for A1.5, most companies responded with agree with a
 Bupe Getrude Mwanza et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 21 (2018) 686–693 691
6 Bupe Getrude Mwanza, Charles Mbohwa, Arnesh Telukdarie / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2017) 000–000

frequency of 10 (66.7%). From this analysis, technological strategies have a role to play in the recovery and
recycling of plastics and overall, strategy A1.5 (ensuring material applicability in manufacturing processes) had the
highest response from the 15 companies. Most companies agreed to ensuring material applicability in manufacturing
processes as the most critical strategy.

3.2 Market Strategies

The market strategies were denoted as A2.1, A2.1, A2.3, A2.4 and A2.5. Results from the analysis indicate that;
for strategy A2.1, 53.3% of the companies responded with agree on the likert scale while only 46.7% strongly
agreed to it. For strategy A2.2, 60% of the companies responded with agree while 13.3% were neutral and 26.7%
strongly agreed. Strategy A2.3, 40% of the companies responded with agree while for strategy A2.4, 53.3%
responded with strongly agree on the likert scale. Finally for strategy A2.5, 40% of the companies responded with
agree on the scale. Further analysis of the market strategies indicates that most companies were in favor of creating
closer engagements of recyclers with one another along the supply-chain.

3.3. Social Strategies

Social strategies were denoted as A3.1, A3.2, A3.3, A3.4 and A3.5. 46.7% of the companies responded with
strongly agree. For Strategy A3.2, 66.7% of the companies responded with agree and for strategy A3.3, 60.0% of the
companies responded with neutral. Further, for Strategy A3.4, 53.3% of the companies responded with agree on the
likert scale. Finally for strategy A3.5, 60.0% of the companies responded with agree on the scale. Further analysis of
the social strategies in the recovery and recycling of plastic wastes, strategy A3.2 with 66.7% had the highest
response from the companies indicating that, efficiency of the municipality, private waste contractors or informal
waste collectors in waste collection has a critical role to play in the recovery and recycling of plastic solid waste .

3.4 Environmental concerns and legislations strategies

These strategies were denoted as A4.1, A4.2, A4.3, A4.4, A4.5 and A4.6.Analysis of the results indicates that, for
strategy A4.1, 73.3% of the companies responded with strongly agree. For A4.2, 53.3% of the companies responded
with strongly agree. Further, 60.0% of the companies responded with agree. For strategy A4.4, 66.7% responded
with agree and 60% of the companies responded with neutral on the scale. Finally, for strategy A4.6, 40% of the
companies responded with agree. Further analysis of the results indicates that, enforcement of producer
responsibility regulations to encourage collection of plastic wastes was identified as one of the most critical
strategies for the recovery and recycling of PSW under the environmental concerns and legislations strategies.

3.5 Economical Strategies

Economic strategies were denoted as A5.1, A5.2, A5.3 and A5.4. For strategy A5.1, 26.7% of the companies
responded with agree while for strategy A5.2, 40% responded with agree. Finally for A5.3, 53.3% responded with
strongly agree and for A5.4, 53.3% responded with agree on the likert scale. These results have indicated that, the
cost of alternative acceptable forms of disposal compared to recycling and the price of virgin polymer compared to
the recycled polymer has the highest frequency of 8 and percentage of 53.3% yet the difference was in how they are
favored on the likert scale. Therefore in terms of been favored, strategy A5.3 could be considered as most critical in
the recovery and recycling of PSW in Zambia.

The overall findings from this research indicates that, the most critical factors for plastic manufacturing
companies to implement in order to recover and recycle PSW are; ensuring material applicability in manufacturing
processes, the cost of alternative acceptable forms of disposal compared to recycling, creating closer engagements of
recyclers with one another along the supply-chain, efficiency of the municipality, private waste contractors or
informal waste collectors in waste collection and enforcement of producer responsibility regulations to encourage
collection of plastic wastes. These factors consist of technological, environmental concerns and legislations, market-
share, economical and social strategies. The findings of this research are different from the studies conducted by [10,
692 Bupe Getrude Mwanza et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 21 (2018) 686–693
Bupe Getrude Mwanza, Charles Mbohwa, Arnesh Telukdarie / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2017) 000–000

11, 12, 13] as these studies conducted the research from a household perspective and only considered what influence
households to participate in recovery programs. Further, the studies either concentrated on analyzing one or two
attributes from either a social or an economic perspective. However, [16] research focused on determining treatment
options of manufacturing companies with the specific emphasis on recyclables. The findings of [16] research are
different from this study, in that, his research did not focus on plastic wastes only and that his research is more
aligned to recycling instead of sustainability. Further, [14, 15] focused on the environmental dimension of
sustainable manufacturing while this research has looked at the three dimensions of sustainability.

4. Conclusion

The study analyzed and identified the most critical strategies in the recovery and recycling of PSW from the
plastic manufacturing and recycling companies’ perspective. These strategies are relevant for implementation in the
recovery programs for sustainable manufacturing and resource utilization of PSW in Zambia. However if applied in
the context of any developed or developing nation, they are likely to work.
From the technological, economical, market, social and environmental concerns and legislations; the following were
identified as the most critical in the recovery and recycling of PSW in Zambia.
 Ensuring material applicability in manufacturing processes
 The cost of alternative acceptable forms of disposal compared to recycling
 Creating closer engagements of recyclers with one another along the supply-chain.
 Efficiency of the municipality, private waste contractors or informal waste collectors in waste collection
 Enforcement of producer responsibility regulations to encourage collection of plastic wastes

Acknowledgements

The researchers would like to extend a note of gratitude to the University of Johannesburg for research support.

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