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An integrated geomorphological and geophysical study of neotectonic

activity: Analysis of heavy siltation in the Chilka Lake of Odisha, India

Article · December 2021

DOI: 10.1007/s12040-021-01702-2

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J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021)130:220  Indian Academy of Sciences
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12040-021-01702-2 (0123456789().,-volV)(0123456789(
).,-volV)

An integrated geomorphological and geophysical study

of neotectonic activity: Analysis of heavy siltation
in the Chilka Lake of Odisha, India

SUBHAMOY JANA, WILLIAM KUMAR MOHANTY*, SAIBAL GUPTA

and PRAKASH KUMAR
Department of Geology and Geophysics, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur 721 302, India.
*Corresponding author. e-mail: wkmohanty@gg.iitkgp.ac.in

MS received 17 September 2020; revised 28 March 2021; accepted 29 May 2021

The present study investigates the reasons for the heavy siltation in Chilka Lake which is analysed
by satellite imagery, ground survey and geophysical studies. ModiBed normalized difference water index
(MNDWI) and linear spectral unmixing method (LSU) reveal the presence of a wetland, suspended
sediments and aquatic weeds along the northeastern boundary of the lake and beyond. Gravity, magnetic
data and 3D inversion modelling reveal various sets of faults that were periodically reactivated to form
uplifted and subsided blocks around the lake. Geomorphic evidence like low valley width/height ratio (Vf)
with \1.5 (valley undercutting due to uplift), low mountain front sinuosity index (Smf ), basin asym-
metry, transverse topographic symmetry (T ), compressed meanders, and Cow diversion are all indicative
of neotectonic activity and the resulting reactivation of faults. Neotectonic activity is also evidenced from
the occurrence of seismic tremors in and around the Chilka region which lies in Zone III of the seismic
zonation map of India. This neotectonic activity can be related to the compressional stresses persisting
over most parts of the Indian Shield due to the Himalayan Orogeny. The resulting uplift and subsidence
led to erosion of the uplifted block and sedimentations in the subsided block by the rivers Daya and
Bhargabi. This is the probable cause of heavy siltation in Chilka Lake, where the eroded sediments of the
uplifted block are deposited by these two rivers.
Keywords. Bhargabi; Chilka; Daya; Mahanadi; neotectonic; siltation.

1. Introduction 2016). Jade (2004) and Banerjee et al. (2008)

Neotectonic activity occurs in most parts of the
Indian Shield to accommodate shortening caused
by the Himalayan Orogeny. The accumulated
compressional stresses are manifested as seismic
tremors of low to moderate seismic intensity in
various parts of India as well as the adjacent Bay
of Bengal (Krishna et al. 2001, 2009; Anand and
Rajaram 2004; Ramasamy 2006; Kothyari and
Rastogi 2013; Rao et al. 2015; Bhattacharjee et al.
reported the crustal shortening within the Indian
shield based on a geodetic GPS survey. The
eastern coastal plain of Odisha, which lies in both
zones II and III of the seismic zonal map of India,
also experiences tectonic activity as inferred from
gravity, magnetic and seismic data (Vaidyanad-
han and Ghosh 1993; Dhar et al. 2017). Several
earthquakes of low to moderate magnitude have
been reported from historical times to the present
in a few places of coastal Odisha (which lies both
220 Page 2 of 20 J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021)130:220

in zones II and III of Seismic Zonation Map of
India, BIS 2002) as well as the adjoining Bay of
Bengal; these are shown in Bgure 1 and table 1
(http://asc-india.org/seismi/seis-orissa.htm). Some
examples of recent tectonic movements, like the
displacement of the Quaternary sediments by a
series of faults and channel shifting, have been
reported earlier by Bharali et al. (1991) and
Vaidyanadhan and Ghosh (1993). In the Chilka
region, evidence of mild tectonic activity in the
past was reported by Venkatarathnam (1970),
who inferred this tectonic activity to have started
before 3750 ± 200 years BP based on the radio-
carbon dating of fossil fauna. Mahalik (2006)
reported the frequent occurrence of earthquakes in
several regions of Odisha which include

Figure 1. (a) The map of Odisha shows the earthquake epicentres, the neo-tectonic faults and different seismic zones (modiBed
after Dhar et al. 2017). The details of most of the earthquake epicentres (date and place are taken from site http://asc-india.org/
seismi/seis-orissa.htm) marked by serial number are given in table 1. (b) The different earthquake zones where earthquakes
occur frequently are shown in Odisha map (modiBed after Mahalik 2006).
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021)130:220 Page 3 of 20 220

Table 1. The earthquake details of most of the epicentres mark in Bgure 1. The date and place of the epicentres are taken from the
site (http://asc-india.org/seismi/seis-orissa.htm). The serial number corresponds to the serial number marked in Bgure 1.

Sl. no. Year Date Latitude Longitude Imax Magnitude Depth (km) Place
1 1837 15th June 19.5 85.1 VI Rambha–Paluru area
2 1858 16th March 21.5 87 V Baleshwar–Chandipur area
3 1860 25th February 19.4 84.9 V Karantola area
4 1891 17th June 20.8 87 V Near Palmyras Point
5 1963 8th May 21.7 84.9 5.2 33 Bijakuli–Banei area
6 1979 5th August 22.1 84.9 4.7 Jharkhand–Odisha border
7 1982 8th April 18.5 86.31 5.2 24 Bay of Bengal
8 1982 14th October 20.39 84.42 4.7 Khajuripada–Banigochha area
9 1985 1st July 18.367 87.188 5.4 10 Bay of Bengal
10 1995 27th March 21.671 84.565 4.6 10 Laimura–Deogarh area
11 1995 21st June 21.78 85.327 4.7 33 Kasijodi–Nuakot area
12 2001 12th June 22.24 83.918 4.7 25.5 Konokjora–Sundargarh area

Sambalpur–Jharsuguda–Sundargarh, Sambalpur– mainly contributed by two major rivers, Daya and

Talcher, Sundargarh–Rourkela, Talcher, Barkot–
Rourkela and Berhampur–Jankia (Bgure 1b).
Among these, the Berhampur–Jankia region in the
proximity of the Chilka Lake (Bgure 1), is located
at the junction between the Eastern Ghats horst
and the coastal graben. Chilka, the largest brackish
water lake in Asia and the second largest in the
world, extends 64 km in the NE–SW and 5–18 km
in the S–N direction (Panigrahi et al. 2007). The
lake is bounded by several parallel spits in the
south which separate it from the Bay of Bengal
(Venkatarathnam 1970). At present, the lake,
which has an area of about 1165–906 km2 during
monsoon and summer, respectively, is shrinking
due to land reclamation for agriculture, aquacul-
ture and sediment inCow (Kumar et al. 2016). The
sediment inCow mainly comprises total suspended
sediments (TSS), nitrates and phosphates. Aquatic
weeds, mainly phytoplanktons, are more common
in the northern, compared to the central or
southern sides (Panigrahi et al. 2007).
Earlier workers have suggested various reasons
for the heavy siltation in the lake and tried to
explain the deposition of trace metal ions (Cu, Co,
Ni, Zn and Cr) which supply nutrients for the
growth of aquatic weeds in Chilka. Lack of catch-
ment basin management is one of the causes for the
inCux of huge amounts of sediments in the lake
which ultimately alters the ecology significantly
(Panigrahi et al. 2007). According to Kumar et al.
(2016), the main driving factors of the TSS are
monsoonal eAects, including precipitation and
runoA, wind-driven bottom re-suspension and river
discharge into the lake. This river discharge is
the Bhargabi which are the distributaries of the
Mahanadi. The anthropogenic factor is responsible
for the addition of nitrogen and phosphorous
compounds to the lake through drainage from
agricultural lands, especially paddy Belds (Pani-
grahi et al. 2007). Panda et al. (2006) have docu-
mented a rise in the concentration of different
metal ions in the lake along with the deposition of
sand, silt and clay. Barik et al. (2020) have sug-
gested that the major elements in the lake are
derived from the weathering of the parent rock and
were later transported by the rivers (mainly by the
distributaries of the Mahanadi).
However, the possible role of neotectonic activity
in causing the heavy siltation in the Chilka lake has
so far not been investigated. In this study, we
explore this possibility through an integrated study
of gravity, magnetic and morphotectonic data in
the area.
2. Location and geology of the study area
The study area encompasses the part of the
Mahanadi river passing through the Eastern
Ghats in the northwest (Satkosia Gorge) and the
southern part which includes part of coastal
Odisha (Bgure 2). The southern part of the study
region is traversed by the rivers Bhargabi, Daya,
Mandakini and Ratnachira which are all dis-
tributary channels of the River Mahanadi, and
Bnally, Cow into the Chilka Lake. However, River
Mandakini Cows almost in a straight trajectory at
a high angle to the general trajectories of the other
220 Page 4 of 20 J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021)130:220

Figure 2. The geological map of the study region shows the various litho types, subsurface ridges and depressions, faults and
drainage systems (modiBed after Behera et al. 2004 and Nayak et al. 2006). The study region in Odisha comprises C1 and C2,
where C1 is located on the northern side and C2 is located on the southern side.

rivers before joining the Daya river (Bgure 2). The
Daya and Bhargabi rivers form an anastomosing
pattern on the downstream side which consists of
several multi-channels surrounding island bars.
River Daya Cows towards the southwest and
bifurcates into two branches near Motari. The
trajectory of the main Cow is along the north-
western side leaving the anabranch in the south-
east. Similarly, the River Bhargabi also Cows
towards the southwest and is diverted towards the
northwest before debouching into Chilka Lake.
The Bhargabi river forms its anabranch Rat-
nachira on the northwestern side and itself Cows
in the southeast direction. Thus, for convenience
of analysis, two small regions designated as C1
(located in the northern side of the study area)
and C2 (located in the southern side) in Bgure 2
are selected. C1 comprises the part of the Maha-
nadi river in the Satkosia Gorge which Cows
through a part of the Eastern Ghats covered by
the Satkosia forest, while the C2 region is tra-
versed by the Mandakini, Daya and Bhargabi
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021)130:220
rivers, of which the latter two debouch into the
Chilka Lake (Bgure 2).
The Chilka Lake stretches from southeast of
Puri district up to the Ganjam district of Odisha
and is bound by the Mahanadi delta region in the
northeast, the Eastern Ghats to the west and
south, and barrier spits in the east. Venkatarath-
nam (1970) studied the geomorphology of the spit
present in the eastern part of the lake. The spit is
around 61 km long and 150 m wide and has an inlet
which narrows down from 1.6 km to just 15 m at
present. Venkatarathnam (1970) divided the spit
morphologically into three regions – seaward
beach, dune belt and an inner aeolian Cat. Sand
grains in the seaward beach are coarse in nature
and consist of heavy minerals like garnet as well as
sillimanite. In the north and northeastern part of
the lake, khondalites, charnockites, granites and
gneisses of the Eastern Ghats Belt are exposed
along the Mahanadi basin (Behera et al. 2004). The
basement of the eastern coastal plain is covered
with Gondwana sediments (both upper and lower),
and then overlain by recent alluvium. The lower
Gondwana (Talcher) and upper Gondwana (Ath-
garh) sediments are exposed along the banks of the
Mahanadi river. The subsurface basement has
horst-graben structures represented by NE–SW
trending depressions (Konark, Paradeep and Ken-
drapara depressions) alternating with ridges
(Baishya and Singh 1986; Kaila et al. 1987; Fuloria
1993; Behera et al. 2004). Based on the aeromag-
netic data (Bgure 2), Nayak et al. (2006) showed
that various sets of lineaments/faults trending
along ESE–WNW, NW–SE and N–S directions
control the trajectories of distributaries of the
Mahanadi river system.
3. Methodology
Satellite data such as Landsat 7 ETM+ and
SRTM30 are collected from the USGS site
(https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/). Subsequently
pre-processing of data and image manipulation
techniques have been applied. The manipulation
technique helps us to interpret the imagery more
clearly so that we can easily delineate the surBcial
features. Finally, the features identiBed from the
satellite imagery are checked through Beld valida-
tion. Subsurface features have delineated from the
gravity as well as magnetic data and later corre-
lated with Cuvial geomorphic features interpret the
overall neotectonic scenario of the region.
Page 5 of 20 220
3.1 Image manipulation techniques
The atmospherically corrected Landsat 7 ETM+
data are converted into reCectance (Jana et al.
2018). Subsequent to that various image manipula-
tion techniques like band combination and band
ratio are used to enhance the particular features.
The Chilka Lake and its surrounding region com-
prise wetland along with total suspended matter
(TSM) and aquatic weeds. So, various multispectral
indices and sub-pixel type image classiBcation
techniques like Linear Spectral Unmixing method
are applied to visualize the spatial distribution
of wetland, TSM and aquatic weeds in the lake as
well as its surrounding region. In this case, NDVI
or normalized difference vegetation index and
MNDWI or modiBed normalized difference water
index are used to enhance the signature of vegetation
and water bodies, respectively (Jana et al. 2018).
The quantiBcation of TSM and aquatic weeds are
executed by running linear spectral unmixing (LSU)
algorithm in the software ENVI 5.1. The LSU is
based on the following mathematical relationship:
X
n
ri ¼ ðaij xj Þ þ ei ; ð1Þ
j¼1
where ri is mean spectral reCectance for the ith
spectral band of a pixel containing one or more
components, aij the spectral reCectance of the jth
component in the pixel for ith band, xj is the fraction
of jth component in the pixel, ei is the error for the ith
band, j = 1, 2, 3, …, n is the number of components
and i is the number of spectral bands (Shimabukuro
and Smith 1991). The TSM concentration has cor-
relation with band 3 of wavelength 0.63–0.69 lm
(Zhou et al. 2006) and vegetation is enhanced in
NDVI (Jana et al. 2018), so these two components
are used in collecting the pure pixels/endmembers
(i.e., those pixels predominantly composed of a sin-
gle component). Thus, for collecting pure pixels,
corner pixels are chosen from the 2-D scatter plot
graph with NDVI as one axis (for vegetation) and
band 3 as the other axis (for TSM). The extracted
endmembers are used to execute LSU to Bnd the
spatial distribution of TSM and aquatic weeds in the
wetland region of the Chilka area (Bgure 3).
3.2 Lineaments/faults extraction
and geomorphic analysis
SRTM data of 30 m resolution was collected in and
around Satkosia Region (marked by C1 in Bgure 2).
220 Page 6 of 20 J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021)130:220

Figure 3. The classiBcation map of Chilka Lake shows the distribution of the wetlands, total suspended matter (TSM) and
aquatic weeds; (a) The water index or modiBed normalized difference water index (MNDWI) map of the Chilka region reveals the
presence of wetland in the northeast part as bright areas (marked by red dashed circle); (b) The vegetation map of the lake,
overlapped on water index map shows the presence of high percentage of aquatic weeds in the northeastern side than in the
central or southwestern side; (c) The TSM map shows the high percentage of sediments in the northeast side than central or
southwestern side; (d) The Cowing pattern of the high percentage of TSM is visible in the northeast side and suggests that the
sediments are mainly contributed from the northeastern side.

The directional Bltration has been applied to the
elevation data in order to distinguish various sets
of lineaments/faults and to get the 3-D view of the
Satkosia area. These delineated lineaments/faults
are later correlated with the faults inferred from
geophysical data. The geomorphic parameters play
an important role in analysing neotectonic activity,
which inCuences the change in Cuvial features
such as valley width/height ratio (Vf), mountain
front sinuosity (Smf ), basin asymmetry (AF ) and
transverse topographic symmetry (T ), and com-
pressed meander (Wells et al. 1988; Keller and
Pinter 2002; Silva et al. 2003; Jain and Sinha 2005;
Malik and Mohanty 2007; Kothyari and Rastogi
2013; Roy and Sahu 2015; Bhattacharjee et al.
2016). In the present work, these geomorphic
parameters are applied to the Mahanadi distribu-
taries which debouch into the Chilka Lake. A brief
description of each of the above proxy geomorphic
parameters is given below.
3.2.1 Valley width/height ratio (Vf) and
mountain front sinuosity (Smf)
The study region is in the northern side of the
Chilka area encompassing the part of the Maha-
nadi river crossing through deep gorges of the
Eastern Ghats. The geomorphological indexes are
extensively used in various countries like USA,
Costa Rica, Spain and Taiwan to predict the neo-
tectonic activity (Bull and McFadden 1977;
Rockwell et al. 1984; Wells et al.1988; Rhea 1993;
Chen et al. 2003; Silva et al. 2003). In India also
geomorphological parameters are used in the
Kachchh region of Gujarat and in the Himalayan
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021)130:220
frontal regions (Sohoni et al. 1999; Malik and
Mohanty 2007) to understand the neotectonic
activities. In the present paper, two parameters
like valley width/height ratio (Vf) and mountain
front sinuosity (Smf ) are applied to a small part of
the Mahanadi river to determine if the uplift of the
Eastern Ghats is a recent phenomenon or whether
it occurred in the geologic past. The parameter Vf
reveals if the river is actively downcutting and
incising the basement due to uplift of the block.
The Vf can be represented by simple mathematical
relations (Bull and McFadden 1977; Keller and
Pinter 2002; Kothyari and Rastogi 2013)
2Vfw
Vf ¼ ; ð2Þ
ððEld  EscÞ þ ðErd  EscÞÞ
where Vfw signiBes valley Coor width, Eld and Erd
are elevations of left and right valley, divides
respectively, and Esc is the elevation of the valley
Coor (Bgure 4a–c).
The low value of Vf (\1) represents a narrow-
deep valley and the larger value of Vf ([1) signiBes
broad valleys (Wells et al. 1988; Keller and Pinter
2002). Malik and Mohanty (2007) suggest about
ongoing tectonic activity based on the Vf value
\1–1.5 in the Himalayan region. In the present
study, nine elevation proBles are drawn across the
Mahanadi river to get information on the height of
the river banks, valley Coor as well as width of the
valley Coor for calculating Vf. The calculated
parameters for all the proBles drawn on SRTM (30)
data are given in table 2. The proBles are drawn on
the Bltered image generated from SRTM data of
the Mahanadi valley (Satkosia Gorge). The
mountain front sinuosity index (Smf) is a measure
of the degree of irregularity or sinuosity at the base
of a mountain where there is a break in slope. In
the region where there is recent uplift through
tectonic activity, the mountain front (the line of
meeting of mountain and the plain land) is almost a
straight line or shows less irregularity. On the
other hand, in regions that have not experienced
tectonic activity in the recent past, the mountain
front becomes incised or more irregular due to
erosion by rivers or rainwater Cowing from the
mountain top. Mathematically this mountain front
sinuosity index can be shown by the relation:
Smf ¼ Lmf =Ls; ð3Þ
where Lmf is the length along the topographic
mountain front and piedmont, and Ls is the straight-
line length of the mountain front (Bull and
Page 7 of 20 220
McFadden 1977; Keller and Pinter 2002; Malik and
Mohanty 2007). In the active tectonic region, this
Smf value is low (\1.6), while in a less active tectonic
region the Smf will have higher values (Bull and
McFadden 1977; Rockwell et al. 1984; Wells et al.
1988; Rhea 1993; Sohoni et al. 1999; Silva et al.
2003). Smf has been calculated along the Satkosia
Gorge in the C1 area. In order to identify the
mountain front, False Colour Composite (FCC)
technique was applied to the same area by taking a
combination of different bands (4, 3 and 2) from the
Landsat ETM+ 7. This FCC image will help to
distinguish vegetation from water bodies. Thus, hill
ranges covered with dense vegetation can easily be
identiBed from the FCC image. The mountain front
is therefore identiBed from the FCC image and from
which Smf has been calculated as shown in
Bgure 4(d).
3.2.2 Basin asymmetry
This is another geomorphological proxy parameter
which measures the degree of the symmetry of a
basin. Assuming the region is under the same
lithology and climatic conditions, the river tends to
form a symmetrical basin. However, due to active
tectonics, the river shows an abnormality in its
degree of symmetry. Mathematically it may be
shown by the simple ratio
AF ¼ 100  ðAr =At Þ; ð4Þ
where AF is the degree of symmetry, Ar is the area
of the right side of the basin (looking at the
mainstream in the downstream direction) and At is
the total area of the basin (Keller and Pinter 2002;
Kothyari and Rastogi 2013; Roy and Sahu 2015).
In the present region, this parameter has been
applied to the Mandakini river, whose tributaries
have been mapped from the SRTM30 data on the
GIS platform. Later, these have been checked with
the high-resolution Google Earth image and the
MNDWI map (Bgure 5a).
3.2.3 Transverse topographic symmetry (T)
The tectonic tilt of the basin can be estimated by
another parameter known as transverse topography
symmetry. Mathematically it can be expressed as
T ¼ Da=Dd; ð5Þ
where Da is the distance between the basin midline
and the main channel and Dd is the distance
220 Page 8 of 20 J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021)130:220

Figure 4. (a) The valley width–height (Vf) ratio is shown schematically. All the variables taken in calculating the Vf value are
described in the text; (b) The Vf values are calculated for the proBles drawn across the Mahanadi river (C1 region in Bgure 2);
(c) The Vf values are found to be low (\1.5) in the Satkosia Gorge (marked by a red rectangle) and suggest valley undercutting
due to basement uplift. The Vf values are more than 1.5 in north and south of Satkosia Gorge; (d) The mountain front sinuosity
(Smf ) or ratio of Lmf to Ls along the mountain front in the vicinity of Satkosia Gorge shows low irregularity in the frontal line
and suggest the probable recent uplift.

between the basin midline and the water divide at activity (Keller and Pinter 2002; Kothyari and
the periphery of the basin. In the case of the per- Rastogi 2013; Roy and Sahu 2015). For the present
fectly symmetrical basin with no tectonic activity study purpose, Bve T values were calculated along
T = 0 and T = 1 in case, there is highly tectonic the Mandakini river (Bgure 5a).
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021)130:220 Page 9 of 20 220

Table 2. The Valley width–depth ratio (Vf values) of the dif- difference in gravity is recorded in the gravimeter
ferent proBles drawn across the Mahanadi River near Satkosia to get an idea about the relative displacement of
Gorge. The short terms of the parameters are described in the the block along the fracture planes. In the present
text.
study region (marked by C2 in Bgure 2), we have
ProBles Eld (m) Erd (m) Esc (m) Vfw (m) Vf used W. Sodin Gravimeter with the precision of
M1 839 438 71 9486 16.72 0.01 mGal to collect the relative variation of
M2 750 470 115 11434.1 23.10 gravity from one place to another. Reduction of
M3 376 318 86 6175.4 23.66 gravity data is carried out applying latitude cor-
M4 600 863 55 392.6 0.58 rection, free air correction (FA) and Bouguer slab
M5 553 446 55 440.2 0.99 correction (BS). Before the reduction of gravity
M6 495 740 55 328.2 0.58 data, drift corrected gravity data are tied up with
M7 501 501 55 555 1.24 the base station for the assignment of absolute
M8 622 753 55 396.2 0.63 value. Thus, Bouguer anomaly (BA) is calculated
M9 280 308 56 3781.2 15.89 using the following algebraic relation (Telford
et al. 1990)

BA ¼ ðGobs  Gth Þ þ FA  BS  L; ð6Þ

3.2.4 Compressed meander
River channels have a tendency to become asym-
metric at river bends and develop high anomalous
sinuosity due to tectonic disturbance. This type of
asymmetry in river bends caused by conBnement of
the river to a limited area as a result of the tectonic
compression is known as compressed meander
(Jain and Sinha 2005). In the Chilka region,
satellite imagery like Google Earth and Landsat
ETM+ have been used to identify compressed
meanders of the channels Cowing to the Chilka
Lake (Bgure 5b). The river trajectories have been
traced from the high-resolution Google Earth
image and are shown in Bgure 5(b).
3.3 Geophysical study
Geophysical study is required in order to identify
subsurface features. Subsequently the results
obtained from the geomorphological study are
correlated with results obtained from geophysical
studies to understand the overall tectonics occur-
ring in the region. In the present analysis, the
gravity as well magnetic data are collected during
the Beld survey in and around Chilka Lake and are
processed to get the anomaly map.
3.3.1 Gravity study
The basement rock, overlain by thick sediments is
uplifted in some parts and subsided in other parts
and so the sediment thickness varies from place to
place. This inCuences the overall mass of the
block or in other words the variation in bulk
density inCuences the gravity values. This
and the contour map is generated. However, due to
sparse Beld data, in the C1 sector which encom-
passes the MSZ (marked in Bgure 2), the Bouguer
anomaly values from the GSI-NGRI map (2006)
have been used and later digitized on the GIS
platform to generate the anomaly map (Bgure 6a).
3.3.1.1 Regional–residual separation: The Bou-
guer anomalies represent the contributions of all
the density inhomogeneities lying at different
depths below the ground surface. Therefore, it is
essential to separate out the anomaly contributions
from shallow sources (known as residual anomaly)
from sources that are deep-seated origin (known as
regional anomaly).
In the present context, the shallow subsurface
structures are instrumental in controlling the river
system, and so the mapping of these features is
important. These features can be delineated from
the residual anomaly map, which is generated
from the residual values. The residual values are
separated by removing regional values from the
Bouguer anomaly values (Telford et al. 1990). In
the present study, regional values are calculated
through trend surface analysis by solving the
coefBcients of a 3rd order polynomial equation (as
it represents the best Btted polynomial curve)
through the execution of MATLAB programming
code (Mandal 2013; Mandal et al. 2015) (Bgure 6b).
Finally, the trajectories of the rivers Bhargabi,
Daya and their anabranches are overlapped on the
residual gravity anomaly map of the Chilka region
to determine the spatial relationship between the
high–low anomaly boundary zones (which repre-
sent the suspected faults) and the rivers.
220 Page 10 of 20 J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021)130:220

Figure 5. (a) The basin asymmetry and transverse topographic symmetry (T) are calculated from the delineated basin of the
Mandakini river. The Bgure depicts that the left part of the basin (Al) has relatively more area than the right part of the basin
(Ar) and it suggests probable tilting of the basin towards the south. All the T values are[0 which suggests the overall shifting of
the Mandakini river towards the south (shown by arrows) from the basin midline probably due to tectonic tilting; (b) The Daya
and Bhargabi rivers show the asymmetric or compressed meander as evidence of tectonic disturbance.

3.3.2 Magnetic method
The subsurface rocks have various magnetic prop-
erties due to Earth’s magnetic Beld so a magnetic
survey is done to investigate the various subsurface
basement rocks which retain different magnetic
elements. A major contribution of magnetic sig-
natures comes from basement rocks. Uplift and
subsidence of basement rocks can also be identiBed
using the magnetic method. On the earth, both
nonmagnetic and magnetic minerals are present,
but magnetic minerals forming the rocks show
various magnetic anomalies which are detected
during the magnetic survey. Igneous bodies are
commonly emplaced along weak zones such as fault
planes. Thus the trend of the fault planes can be
delineated from the magnetic anomaly contour
elongations, nosings, Cexures and tight and dif-
fused bandings (Nayak et al. 2006). In the present
context, magnetic survey is done in and around
Chilka Lake (C2) by a Proton-precession magne-
tometer which measures the total Beld of a region.
The magnetic data are collected along the roadside
at 2 km intervals and are processed for various
corrections including International Geomagnetic
Reference Field (IGRF) correction. Reduced-to-
pole transformation (RTP) is applied to magnetic
data to remove the asymmetric nature of magnetic
anomalies produced due to the bipolar nature of
the magnetic bodies (Mohanty et al. 2011; Mandal
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021)130:220 Page 11 of 20 220

Figure 6. (a) The Bouguer anomaly of the study region C1 (marked by the rectangle) comprising Satkosia Gorge shows a
relatively high anomaly in the downstream part of the Mahanadi river in the southeastern side and a low anomaly in the
northwest part. The high–low anomaly boundary is followed by the trend of the Mahanadi Shear Zone or MSZ (MSZ is mapped
after Bose and Gupta 2018); (b) The residual gravity anomaly map of the C2 region of the study area shows alternate high–low
anomaly values possibly due to underlying uplift-depression zones. The suspected faults are marked by arrows on the high–low
anomaly boundary zones that control the trajectories of Mandakini, Daya and Bhargabi rivers. The trend of the extended part of
the MSZ (mapped after Rao et al. 2015) is matching with the delineated NW–SE faults suggest these are part of MSZ; (c) The
magnetic anomaly map also shows a similar type of fault sets identiBed from the gravity anomaly map.

2013). Finally, to detect the shallow surface mag-
matic bodies, the corrected magnetic data are used
to get residual data by removing the regional val-
ues through trend surface analysis (Bgure 6c).
3.3.3 3-D inversion model
The Bouguer anomaly value varies with the vari-
ation of density of the subsurface structures and
the subsurface structures can be predicted based on
this density variation. The gravity model especially
2-D/3-D compact inversion helps us to visualize
the vertical and the lateral extension of the geo-
logical bodies in the subsurface (Last and Kubik
1983). So to view the density distribution based on
the Bouguer anomaly values, the 3-D compact
inversion process is executed using MATLAB
programming language (Mandal 2013; Mandal
et al. 2015). In the inversion process, there are few
steps, at Brst, the region is gridded with numerous
blocks having dimensions along x, y and z direc-
tions. Subsequent to this, the density contrast of
each block is calculated repeatedly until the
desired density contrast is obtained with minimum
error to Bt with the observed anomaly curve. In
this study, the 3-D compact inversion model has
been generated from the residual gravity anomaly
(which is extracted from Bouguer anomaly values)
in the Chilka region (Bgure 7). The subsurface 3-D
220 Page 12 of 20 J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021)130:220

model gives an overview of the density distribution
of the various lithologies. The average density of
the crust is taken as 2670 kg/m3 (average density
of the upper crust) while keeping the maximum as
well as the minimum density as 3070 kg/m3 (the
density of basic rock) and 1870 kg/m3 (density of
the alluvium), respectively. Apart from these
components subsurface of the coastal region also
comprises Gondwana sediments (2400 kg/m3), as
well as Tertiary sediments (2200 and 2350 kg/m3)
as reported by Behera et al. (2004) based on
gravity data; the density values used in this study
lies within this range. Four proBles namely MM1,
NN1, QQ1 and RR1 were selected across the
suspected faults (Bgure 7) from the generated 3-D
inversion density model.
The residual anomalies of these regions reveal
horst-graben structures which were intruded by
high-density materials (as seen from magnetic
anomaly also).
4. Results
4.1 Image interpretations
The MNDWI map of the study region (here C2 in
Bgure 2) shows bright areas over the Chilka Lake
and the existing rivers. These bright areas are

Figure 7. (a–d) The proBles (MM1, NN1, QQ1 and RR1 marked in Bgure 6a) of the 3-D depth inversion model reveal the uplift-
depression zones bounded by steep faults; (e) The 3-D inversion model shows both vertical and plan view of this uplift-depression
zones in the subsurface of the study region.
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021)130:220 Page 13 of 20 220

interpreted to be water bodies which include rivers,
lakes and the wetlands. It is to be noted that the
existing rivers and their distributaries are much
brighter than the paleochannels which show rela-
tively low brightness (Bgure 3a). After comparing
with a high-resolution image of Google Earth,
shifting of the channels of the rivers Daya and
Bhargabi can be identiBed. These shifts are evi-
denced from the presence of abandoned channels
indicating Cow diversion of these rivers (Bgure 8a,
b). The Daya river shows the sign of shifting
towards the northwest and the imprints are left as
paleochannels (as seen from vegetation band and
water patches in the MNDWI map) near the rock
exposure in Motari (Bgure 5b). The Bhargabi river
shows a sharp diversion towards the northwest
before debouching into the lake. It is to be noted
that some water bodies lie beyond the northeastern
boundary of the lake, in the region between these
rivers, which are predicted to be wetlands and are
conBrmed after Beld validation (Bgures 8, 9). The
LSU algorithm identiBes the quantity of TSM and
vegetation (aquatic weeds) within this wetland as
well as in the Chilka Lake. The percentage of TSM
and weeds gradually decreases from the north-
eastern side to the centre of the lake (Bgure 3b, c).
The land surrounding the Chilka Lake contains
exposure of metamorphic rocks as observed near
Motari suggesting the presence of basement at
shallow depth. Satellite imagery also reveals the
anastomosing nature of the Daya and Bhargabi
rivers where small paleo-island bars are joined

Figure 8. (a) The part of the water index or MNDWI map (deBned by the green rectangle in Bgure 3) shows the Cow diversion of
the Daya river towards the west probably due to basement uplift leaving the imprints as paleochannels. The same observations
are found in high-resolution Google Earth image also; (b) Both the water index map (deBned by a yellow rectangle in Bgure 3)
and the high-resolution Google Earth image reveals the Cow diversion of the Bhargabi river towards the north leaving the earlier
remnant channels.
220 Page 14 of 20
Figure 9. (a–b) The Chilka wetlands roamed by migratory birds are observed during our way to Satpada on the northeast side of
the lake.
together to form larger paleo-island bars intercon-
nected by abundant paleochannels which are
delineated with the help of earlier work of the
authors (Jana et al. 2016, 2018).
4.2 Lineaments/faults extraction
and geomorphic study
The 3-D image obtained from SRTM data reveals
NW–SE trending faults/lineaments parallel to the
Mahanadi Shear Zone (MSZ) along with variations
in the width of the Mahanadi valley (Bgure 4b). In
the gorge area (marked by a red rectangle in
Bgure 4b) the river valley narrows down without
forming any meander. The Vf values of the Bve
proBles (ProBles 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8) across the gorge
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021)130:220
area of the Mahanadi are less than 1.5, while pro-
Bles 1, 2, 3 and 9 in the extreme north-western and
south-eastern sides of the gorge have values more
than 1.5 (Bgure 4c and table 2). The FCC image
reveals hill ranges densely covered with vegetation
as red in colour which can be easily discernible
from the blue coloured Mahanadi river. The
mountain front line can easily be detected from the
truncation of gullies against the plain land. The
calculated Smf value along the Satkosia Gorge in
the northern part of the Eastern Ghats (calculated
from Bgure 4d), along the Mahanadi Shear Zone is
1.041, which suggests neotectonic activity (Malik
and Mohanty 2007). Thus, based on the Vf as well
as Smf values, the region along the Satkosia Gorge
is interpreted to be tectonically active. The
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021)130:220
Mandakini river is also found to follow the NW–SE
trend of the Mahanadi Shear Zone. Moreover,
tilting of the Mandakini Basin towards the south
(as seen from basin asymmetry) also suggests that
the region along the MSZ is tectonically active.
The calculated basin asymmetry (AF) value is
around 28% (\50%) obtained by dividing the area
of the right side of the basin (Ar = 161.4 km2) by
the total area of the basin (At = 578.85 km2). Five
values of Transverse Topographic Symmetry
(T) were measured along the channel, yielding
values of 0.27, 0.55, 0.59, 0.36 and 0.32 (average
= 0.42 which is [0; Bgure 5a). Since, all the values
of T are greater than 0, neotectonic activity can be
inferred (Keller and Pinter 2002; Kothyari and
Rastogi 2013; Roy and Sahu 2015).
4.3 Geophysical study
The Bouguer anomaly map of the C1 area shows
alternate high and low anomaly regions, with their
boundary roughly coinciding with the MSZ and the
trajectory of the River Mahanadi (Bgure 6a). The
northwestern part of the Mahanadi river is charac-
terized by lower gravity anomaly values than the
southeastern part. Since the lithological set-up
across both areas is similar (see geological maps in
Bose and Gupta 2018, 2020; Bose et al. 2020; Maitra
et al. 2021), the higher gravity anomalies can only be
explained by a shallower depth to the basement in
the southeast. This suggests that the southeastern
part was uplifted even as the river was Cowing,
causing the river to incise its valley along the Sat-
kosia Gorge. In the residual map of the C2 region, the
presence of alternating high (around 29 mGal) and
low anomaly values (around –26 mGal) suggest the
presence of uplifts and depressions within the base-
ment at shallow depth. Generally, the inCection line
of a fault can be delineated along the transition of
low to high, or high to low anomaly points (Telford
et al. 1990). The presence of faults is also suspected
from the linear nature of the contours between the
high and low anomaly zones in the residual anomaly
map (Bgure 6b). These faults are seen to trend
NW–SE, parallel to the Mahanadi Shear Zone
(MSZ), while another set trends along a NE–SW
direction (Bgure 6b). These faults are possibly rela-
ted to the MSZ, which extends along the NW–SE
direction to the north and northeast of Chilka Lake.
The presence of faults in the C2 region is further
evidenced from the magnetic anomaly map which
reveals the presence of high magnetic anomaly zones
Page 15 of 20 220
along the suspected faults that trend NW–SE
(Bgure 6c). High magnetic anomalies indicate the
presence of maBc magmatic bodies in the subsurface.
In this case, the magnetic anomalies are also asso-
ciated with high gravity anomalies, suggesting that
the crustal basement was intruded by high-density
material (q = *3070 kg/m3), which can be related to
shallow magmatic bodies emplaced during an erup-
tion of the Rajmahal Traps around 117 Ma, as earlier
reported by Behera et al. (2004; Bgure 6c). Since
these anomaly zones are bound by contacts between
the high and low gravity and magnetic anomaly
zones, which are interpreted to be faults, these
magmatic bodies are likely to have intruded through
these weak zones and were emplaced at shallow
depth. The four proBles of the 3D inverse model
reveal alternating basement uplifts and depressions
bounded by steep faults; these basement structures
are overlain by low-density sediments (Bgure 7).
4.4 Combined study
The spatial relationship between the river trajec-
tories and the delineated faults identiBed from the
residual gravity and magnetic anomaly maps and
the results of the 3-D gravity modelling help in
assessing the tectonic history of the region. When
the rivers along with their paleochannels are
overlapped with the gravity anomaly map, inter-
esting observations can be made. In the C1 region,
the Mahanadi river is found to follow the trend of
the Mahanadi Shear Zone. The river Cows over the
basement uplift in its southeastern (downstream)
part, while its northwestern (upstream) part lies
within the subsided region (Bgure 6a), which sug-
gests that uplift of the basement took place after
the origin of the river (Bgure 6a). In the C2 region,
the Mandakini river is found to follow a linear
trajectory parallel to the suspected NW–SE fault
before joining the Daya river in the east. The rivers
such as Daya and Bhargabi are controlled by the
faults marked in Bgure 6(b). It is found that all the
rivers Cow through the uplift-depression zone. The
Daya and Bhargabi rivers have uplifted zones in
their downstream segments, which suggest that in
both cases, the basement was uplifted after the
origin of these rivers. The linear trajectory and
rectangular pattern of the rivers Mandakini and
Daya suggest that the basement depth is shallow.
This implies that the overlying thick alluvium has
a minimal role in shielding the eAect of basement
uplift on the river trajectories of Daya as well as
220 Page 16 of 20 J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021)130:220

Figure 10. (a) The schematic diagram shows the controlling eAect of the delineated faults on the Daya river and the resulting
river avulsion within the region marked by a rectangle in Bgure 6(b); (b) The Bgure shows the controlling of the delineated faults
on the Bhargabi river and the resulting river avulsion in the region marked by a rectangle in Bgure 6(b); (c) The Bgure shows the
sectional view of the proBle (marked by red line in Bgure 10b), role of uplift-depression zones in sedimentation–erosion by the
rivers.

Bhargabi. In Bgure 10, it is seen that both rivers
show Cow diversion, leaving their paleochannels
stranded in the uplifted zone, while the existing
rivers Cow through the depressed zone/or rela-
tively less uplifted zone. This also suggests that
there was tectonic tilting, which triggered these
rivers to shift laterally towards the down tilted
region. The rivers, while Cowing through these
uplift-depression structures in the basement,
deposited sediments in the subsided zone and ero-
ded the basement in the uplifted zone. Since the
subsided zone ultimately forms part of the present-
day lake, the eroded sediments are ultimately
deposited in the lake itself.
5. Discussion
The Himalayan Orogeny plays an important role in
generating compressional stresses in different parts
of the Indian Shield, as a consequence of which
seismic tremors occur in different regions. Such
seismic tremors frequently occur along older faults
(mainly oriented NW–SE) or terrane boundaries,
as found to the north of the Talcher Basin (Gupta
et al. 2014). The basement of the coastal plain is
also traversed by different sets of faults, some of
which have connections with oAshore faults (Mur-
thy et al. 2010; Rao et al. 2015). Thus, seismic
tremors which have epicentres in the Bay of Bengal
may also create seismic tremors in the adjoining
coastal region. Many shear zones traverse the east
coast of India, among which the MSZ is particu-
larly important as it is a major tectonic structure in
the region (Murthy et al. 2010). Thus, the Maha-
nadi Graben, which is bound by the MSZ in the
south and the North Orissa Boundary Fault in the
north, is fundamentally a weak zone (Mahalik
2006; Rao et al. 2015). Therefore, the eastern
extension of the MSZ into the Chilka region
(Maitra et al. 2021) is important for assessing
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021)130:220
neotectonic activity in the region. Dhar et al.
(2017) revealed the presence of two sets of neo-
tectonic faults (oriented NE–SW and NW–SE) in
the proximity of the lake, which also coincides with
similarly oriented linear features inferred from
gravity and magnetic data. Some of the NE–SW
oriented neotectonic faults revealed by Dhar et al.
(2017) bound the depression zones (i.e., the
Konark, Paradeep and Cuttack depressions;
Bgure 2). The NE–SW faults inferred from the
gravity data are found to be extensions of the
earlier delineated NE–SW neotectonic faults.
Similarly, the NW–SE faults are probably part of
the MSZ, which is itself a major tectonic feature.
Hence, it is believed that both these sets of dis-
criminant lines, interpreted from the gravity and
magnetic data, coincide with faults that are
responsible for the differential movement of base-
ment blocks, and later controlled river trajectories
in the Chilka region. In other words, these two sets
of faults divide the basement into several blocks;
later NE–SW directed compression led to uplift of
the blocks as the NW–SE set was reactivated as
reverse faults.
5.1 Reactivation of the Mahanadi Shear Zone
The MSZ trends in a NW–SE direction, and its
extension into the Chilka region is also evidenced
from the gravity and magnetic anomaly map. It is
observed that the NW–SE trend of both gravity
and magnetic anomaly patterns match well with
the trend of the MSZ shown by Rao et al. (2015)
and Bose and Gupta (2018, 2020). The Mahanadi
Graben (which is bound by the MSZ in the south)
also trends NW–SE and extends southeastward
into the coastal plain as shown in Bgure 1(b) (Ma-
halik 2006). Thus, the NW–SE trending faults
(identiBed from gravity and magnetic anomalies),
which divide the basement into separate blocks, are
probably extension of the Mahanadi Shear Zone
system towards the southeast. The Cow of the
Mahanadi river through the Satkosia Gorge, which
is undergoing rapid uplift as evidenced from a low
mountain front sinuosity index and the high grav-
ity anomaly in the downstream side, led to vertical
incision of its valley, which now has low Vf values.
This suggests that the southeastern segment of the
MSZ was reactivated. Thus, the two sets of faults
(NW–SE and NE–SW) along which magmatic
bodies were emplaced during the eruption of the
Rajmahal Traps at *117 Ma (Baksi 1995; Behera
Page 17 of 20 220
et al. 2004), control the present trajectories of the
rivers through this zone of basement uplift.
5.2 Heavy siltation in Chilka Lake
The high percentage of TSM in the northeastern
part of Chilka Lake suggests that these are derived
from the Daya and Bhargabi rivers. Mineral
nutrients, along with TSM from the land, are car-
ried into the lake by these rivers and help in the
growth of thick aquatic weeds in the lake, as seen
from the high percentage of vegetation in the veg-
etation map (Bgure 3). Superposing the two rivers
Daya and Bhargabi on the gravity anomaly map
shows that their anastomosing pattern and com-
pressed meanders overlap with the high gravity
anomaly zone, suggesting that this may also be an
uplifted zone. The trajectories of both these rivers
are controlled by faults such as AB, EF, GH, OP
and XY, as brieCy described in Bgure 10. In
Bgure 10(a), on the upstream side, it is found that
the River Daya Cows towards the southwest after
branching oA from the Mahanadi river, but is
diverted towards the northwest due to uplift of the
block along the faults AB and OP, evidenced by a
series of shifting paleochannels, as observed in
Bgure 8a. Initially, the uplift of the block led to the
river eroding its basement, with the eroded sedi-
ments depositing in the subsided part (Bgures 6b
and 10a). Later, further uplift of the block led to
the diversion of the channel towards the northwest,
while the abandoned part of the river in the uplif-
ted zone is left stranded as a paleochannel. The
presence of angular (or compressed) meanders
along the river also suggests tectonic disturbance,
which can be related to uplift caused by the com-
pressional eAects of the Himalayan Orogeny.
Figure 10(b) reveals how the downstream parts
of both the Daya as well as Bhargabi rivers are
controlled by the two sets of faults (NW–SE and
NE–SW). On the downstream side of the river
Daya, the block to the northeast of the lake is
uplifted while the subsided part is represented by
the lake. This uplift and subsidence of the base-
ment resulted from reactivation of both fault sets,
leading to erosion of the uplifted block and sedi-
mentation in the subsided part, which in turn
causes increased siltation in the lake. The down-
stream part of the River Bhargabi is also controlled
by the faults EF, GH and XY marked in
Bgure 10(b). Initially, this river Cows towards the
southwest to debouch into the lake. However,
220 Page 18 of 20
uplift of the block to the south, between the
NW–SE trending faults EF as well as GH, and
NE–SW trending fault XY led to Cow diversion of
the River Bhargabi towards the north, into the
subsided zone. As a result, the river left its earlier
remnant part as paleochannels which are now
preserved in the uplifted region (Bgure 10b, c). This
suggests that the paleochannels of both rivers are
formed due to tectonic reasons, rather than normal
meandering or climate change. Thus, it can be
summarized that due to uplift and subsidence of
basement blocks because of periodic reactivation of
the NW–SE and NE–SW trending faults, the rivers
undergo sedimentation in the subsided zones and
erosion in the uplifted blocks. This results in the
deposition of large volumes of eroded sediments in
the lake. Besides these, seismic tremors of low to
moderate intensity in the Berhampur–Jankia zone,
and in the proximity of NE–SW faults in the study
region, are also manifestations of the neotectonic
activity in this region (Bgure 1).
6. Conclusions
This study attempts to address the problem of
heavy siltation taking place in present-day Chilka
Lake from the perspective of neotectonic activity.
Although there are several other causes (including
anthropogenic) for the heavy siltation in the lake,
neotectonic activity can explain heavy sedimenta-
tion over a long term. The study also shows an
interconnection between geomorphic and subsur-
face structures. Geophysical studies in the area
reveal a number of gravity as well as magnetic
highs and lows that can be separated by linear
NW–SE and NE–SW trending zones on the map.
Since the lithological set-up is similar along the
Mahanadi, the gravity and magnetic anomalies are
attributed to uplifts and depressions in the sub-
surface basement. The NW–SE trends also corre-
spond to relatively linear segments of the
Mahanadi and Mandakini rivers; these segments
can be interpreted as faults that reactivated pre-
existing faults and shear zones associated with the
ancient Mahanadi Shear Zone (MSZ). Along the
Mahanadi, the NW–SE oriented Satkosia Gorge
segment is characterized by a steep linear scarp
with low Vf and Smf values indicative of neotec-
tonic activity, as the river continues to Cow over a
steadily uplifting zone (characterized by the high
gravity anomaly), vertically incising its basement
in the process. The trajectory of the River
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021)130:220
Mandakini and the longitudinal axis of its basin is
almost similar to the trend of MSZ. Uplift along
one side of the MSZ led to lateral shifting of the
Mandakini, resulting in basin asymmetry and an
increase in the value of T to greater than zero. Near
the Chilka Lake, the courses of the Daya and
Bhargabi rivers have also altered along contacts
between high and low gravity anomaly zones; these
contacts also trend NW–SE or NE–SW. The
gravity highs and lows are interpreted as uplifts
and depressions in the basement, and their con-
tacts are interpreted to be reactivated faults, sim-
ilar to that seen further upstream in the case of the
Mahanadi and Mandakini. Indeed, the present-day
river course is diverted through the low anomaly
zones (basement depressions), while the high
gravity anomaly zones contain abandoned pale-
ochannels, testifying to the changing courses of the
rivers as the basement blocks were uplifted. Seis-
mic tremors are associated with all these faults,
further testifying to ongoing neotectonic activity.
Reactivation of these basement faults is ascribed to
the release of compressional stresses accumulating
within the Indian Shield on account of the Hima-
layan Orogeny, which results in the formation of
uplifts and depressions in the basement of this
region. The basement depressions are associated
with, and continue into Chilka Lake; as uplift of
the adjoining blocks continues, material eroded
from these blocks is deposited in the lake, leading
to the presently observed heavy siltation.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank US Geological
Survey for providing free satellite data for research
purposes. This work is a part of a larger project
being undertaken under the SANDHI initiative at
IIT Kharagpur, funded by the Ministry of Human
Resource Development (now Ministry of Educa-
tion, Government of India). The authors would like
to thank the Ministry of Education for the funding.
Author statement
SJ conducted all the technical study, including
collection and processing of geophysical data and
all image processing and interpretation. WKM
contributed to interpretation and analysis and
supervised the entire study. PK was associated
with geophysical data collection and processing.
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021)130:220
SG contributed in the Beld, data interpretation and
writing of the Bnal version.
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