I.

Discussion of theory

Batteries are devices that power electrical equipment by combining one or more
electrochemical cells with external connections. In many cases, batteries or other voltage
sources are also present in circuits. When there are multiple batteries in a given circuit, they
are either wired in parallel or series. Understanding the distinction between the two is critical
since it determines how batteries work in various applications.

The Advent of Cells

It was in 1800 when Alessandro Volta invented the first ever electric battery. It was originally
known as the Voltaic Pile. Volt is named after him in recognition of his contributions to science.
Soon enough, succeeding scientists took on this endeavour and decided to create their own
version and design of batteries. In 1836, the daniell cell was invented by John Frederic Daniell.
In 1868, the wet cell battery was created by George Leclanche, and the dry cell battery was
invented by Dr. Carl Gassner. Meanwhile, it was Gaston Plante who was the inventor of the
first rechargeable battery.

Defining Cells

The flow of charged particles is represented by an electrical current, which is the movement of
electrons in a circuit. This is commonly seen in a collection of two or more cells that are linked
in series – more commonly known as batteries. A battery is a type of energy storage device
that turns chemical energy into electrical energy. It is also known as an Electrochemical Cell.
Inside a battery, the energy is stored as chemical energy. Batteries provide a simple source of
energy for powering gadgets that do not require connections or wires. When linked to a circuit,
it generates electrical energy.

Cathode and Anode

A battery has two terminals, one positive and one negative. The positive terminal is known as
the Cathode, while the negative terminal is known as the Anode. They are also known as cell
electrodes. These electrodes will be immersed in an electrolyte solution. It is an ionic liquid that
transmits electricity.

When charging, an external source is attached to it. The anode of the battery is linked to the
source's negative terminal, while the cathode is connected to the source's positive terminal.
Electrons are introduced into the anode as the external source is linked to the battery. When a
cell or battery is linked to a circuit, chemical processes occur. As a result, chemical interactions
occur between the two electrodes. Oxidation and reduction processes occur here. The
reduction reaction takes place at the cathode, and the oxidation process takes place at the
anode.
Below is a diagram that shows the processes involved inside a battery.

Figure 1. Chemical process in a Dry Cell

By absorbing electrons from the negative terminal anode, the cathode acts as an oxidizing
agent. By losing electrons, the anode acts as a reducing agent. As a result of these chemical
processes, an electrical difference between the terminals-anode and cathode occurs. When
there is no power, the electrolyte prevents electrons from moving directly from anode to
cathode. This is connecting it to a circuit or using an external source is usually done. When the
circuit is closed, electrons go from anode to cathode. Finally, it provides electricity to the
device to which it is attached. When the electrochemical process affects the anode and
cathode materials over time, the electrons stop flowing. This is when the battery eventually
dies.

Electromotive Force

EMF or Electromotive force is defined as the potential difference which is developed between
the two terminals of a battery in an open circuit. It is previously known that anodes have
positive potential (V+) and cathodes have negative potential (V-) (V-). When there is no current
flowing through it, EMF is the potential difference between the positive terminal anode and
negative terminal cathode. It measures the energy delivered to the charge carried in the cell or
battery. It is calculated by dividing the energy in joules by the charge in coulombs. The EMF is
the driving force that causes the current to flow. It follows the given equation.

 = E/Q ;  = V+ + V-
Where,  is the electromotive force, E is the energy, and Q is the charge. It is measured
commonly measured in Volts.

Internal Resistance

Internal resistance is the resistance that exists within the battery and opposes current flow
when it is connected to a circuit. As a result, when current runs through it, it generates a
voltage drop. In a cell, it is the resistance given by the electrolyte and electrodes. Internal
resistance is provided by the electrodes and electrolyte, which oppose the passage of current
within the cell.

Calculations Involving EMF and Internal Resistance

Cells may be adjusted by connecting an EMF and an internal resistor with resistance r in
series. A resistance R external load resistor is also connected across the circuit. The terminal
potential difference, denoted by V, is the potential difference that develops between the cell's
positive and negative terminals as current runs through the circuit. The voltage drop
accomplished due to the internal resistance is given by the following equation.

V = V+ + V- = IR

We know that  = V+ + V- = I(R + r), so  = IR + Ir = V + IR. Therefore,

V =  - Ir

In which V is denoted by the potential difference across the circuit,  is the EMF, I is the
current, and r is the internal resistance. Usually internal resistance of a cell is not considered
because ε > Ir. The value of internal resistance varies between cells.

Series and Parallel Connections

Circuits are classified into two types: series and parallel.

a. Series Connection
Electrons in a series circuit only go in one direction. The current that flows through
each resistor will be the same in this case. In a series connection, the voltage across
resistors will differ. Series circuits do not readily overheat. In comparison to parallel
circuits, series circuits are easier to construct.

b. Parallel Connection
 Electrons in a parallel circuit go via multiple branches. In this situation, the voltage
across each resistor in the circuit remains constant. The current in the circuit is split
among the branches and recombines when the branches meet at a common location.
A parallel circuit may be built in a variety of ways, which implies cells can be stacked
in many configurations. Parallel circuits can be used to split current. A new cell or
other component can be easily connected or disconnected without impacting the
other parts in the parallel circuit. However, it employs a large number of wires and so
gets complicated.

Combination of Cells in Series Connection

Cells are connected in series when they are joined end to end so that the same quantity of
electricity must flow through each cell. It follows the conditions below.

 The EMF of the battery is the sum of the individual EMFs.

 The current in each cell is the same and is identical with the current in the entire
arrangement.
 The total internal resistance of the battery is the sum of the individual internal
resistances.

Total emf of the battery = nE (for n no. of identical cells)

Total Internal resistance of the battery = nr
Total resistance of the circuit = nr + R

Note that: If R << nr, then I = E / r (ii) If nr << R, then I = n (E / R)

When internal resistance is negligible in comparison to the external resistance, then the cells
are connected in series to get maximum current.

Combination of Cells in Parallel Connection

Cells are said to be connected in parallel when they are joined positive to positive and negative
to negative such that current is divided between the cells. It follows the conditions below.

 The emf of the battery is the same as that of a single cell.

 The current in the external circuit is divided equally among the cells.
 The reciprocal of the total internal resistance is the sum of the reciprocals of the
individual internal resistances.

Total emf of the battery = E

Total Internal resistance of the battery = r / n
 Total resistance of the circuit = (r / n) + R

Note that: If R << r/n, then I = n(E / r) (ii) If r/n << R, then I = E / R

Pros and Cons of Cells wired in Series

The resulting voltage is higher when the cells are linked in series. Damaged cells are easily
identifiable and, as a result, may be simply changed when they disrupt the circuit. If any of the
cells in the circuit is destroyed, the entire connection may be affected. Cells linked in series are
readily drained and so do not last as long. It is not utilized in residential wiring.

Pros and Cons of Cells wired in Parallel

If any of the cells linked in parallel is destroyed in the circuit, it will not effect the entire
connection. Cells that are linked in parallel do not drain readily and so last longer. However,
the voltage generated by cells connected in parallel cannot be raised by increasing the number
of cells in the circuit. It's because they don't follow the same circular route. In a parallel
connection, electricity is provided by a single cell. As a result, the bulb's brightness will be low.

References:
Ask II Titans (2022). Cells in series and parallel. https://www.askiitians.com/iit-jee-electric-
current/cells-in-series-and-in-parallel/
Byjus (2022). Batteries in series and parallel. https://byjus.com/physics/batteries-in-series-
parallel/
Geeks for Geeks (2022). Combination of cells in series and parallel.
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/combination-of-cells-in-series-and-parallel/
Self Study Point (n.d.). Combination of cells in series and parallel.
https://selfstudypoint.in/combination-cells-series-parallel