CORE GATEWAY COLLEGE, INC.

BASIC EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

Maharlika Highway corner Cardenas St., San Jose City, Nueva Ecija

A Learning Packet for Senior High School

Physical Science

CHRISTINE JOY G. BABASORO

Subject Teacher

SCIENCE 11
Credit Hours: 4
Science 11 Physical Science

INSTRUCTOR INFORMATION

INSTRUCTOR: Christine Joy G. Babasoro

E-MAIL ADDRESS: babasorochristinejoycgci@gmail.com
PHONE: 0942 571 9818
INSTITUTION: Core Gateway College, Inc.

© 2020 CJ.G.BABASORO

Copyright Notice: This learning packets may be used only for the CGCI Basic Education
Department educational purposes. It includes extracts of works from outside sources which are
duly cited and acknowledged on this material. You may not copy or distribute any part of this
learning packets to any other person. Where this learning packets is provided to you in an
electronic format may only print from it for your own use. You may not make a further copy for
any other purpose. All rights reserved.

Subject Description:

This learning area presents the students information about the evolution of our
understanding of matter, motion, electricity, magnetism, light, and the universe from ancient
times to the present. It highlights the applications of physics and chemistry concepts in contexts
such as atmospheric phenomena, astronomy, vision, medical instrumentation, space technology,
drugs, sources of energy, pollution and recycling, fitness and health, and cosmetics.
This learning area is designed to provide a general background for the understanding of
the Earth on a planetary scale. It presents the history of the Earth through geologic time. It
discusses the Earth’s structure and composition, the processes that occur beneath and on the
Earth’s surface, as well as issues, concerns, and problems pertaining to Earth’s resources.

Subject Scope:

This subject is for students in Grade 11 for them to understand, give importance and
showcase their knowledge about the subject matter.

Subject Objectives:

At the end of grade 11, students:

 demonstrate understanding of basic science concepts and application of science inquiry
skills.
 exhibit scientific attitudes and values to solve problems critically, innovate beneficial
products, protect the environment and conserve resources, enhance the integrity and
wellness of people, make informed decisions, and engage in discussions of relevant
issues that involve science, technology, and development
 should have gained skills in obtaining scientific and technological information from
varied sources about global issues that have impact on the country.
 have acquired scientific attitudes that will allow them to innovate and/or create products
useful to the community or country.
 should be able to process information to get relevant data for a problem at hand.
 should have made plans related to their interests and expertise, with consideration for the
needs of their community and the country – to pursue employment, entrepreneurship, or
higher education.

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Subject Delivery Method:

This learning packet is patterned and designed for Distance Learning Mode following the
provision issued by the DepEd, DOH and IATF which can be used in learning this academic
school year 2020-2021. This can be used by the learners through Online and Modular-Based
Learning.

Synchronous Schedule:

To be arranged

Subject Materials:

Text Books
E-Books

Grading System:

Written Works: 25%

Performance Tasks: 50%
Quarterly Assessment: 25%
100%

UNIT I
MATTER

Good Morning Learners!

Let us all discover the Formation of Elements in the Universe and the Properties of
Matter through the use of this learning material. Let us all enjoy while learning 

How are elements formed during the big bang and stellar revolution? Why does a single
element have many isotopes? What is the origin of mankind’s ideas about atom? How is the
polarity of a molecule related to its properties? How do biological molecules sustain life? What
are some chemical reactions occurring in the surroundings? What is the chemistry behind the
harnessing of some sources of energy? Finally, how is chemistry useful at home and in everyday
living? These are the questions that will be answered in this unit. This unit will also show you
how the answers to these are applied to real life situations through concrete examples. The topics

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in this unit are arranged in increasing complexity, such that the concepts and skills you have
learned in the previous topic can be applied to the succeeding topics.

(Week 1) January 4-8, 2021

Chapter 1: Formation of Elements in the Big Bang and Stellar Evolution

(Week 2) January 11-15, 2021

Chapter 2: Polarity and Intermolecular Forces of Attraction

(Week 3) January 18-22, 2021

Chapter 3: Intermolecular Forces of Attraction

(Week 4) January 25-29, 2021

Chapter 4: Biological Molecules

(Week 5) February 1-5, 2021

Chapter 5: Collision Theory

(Week 6) February 8-12, 2021

Chapter 6: Limiting and Excess Reaction

(Week 7) February 15-19, 2021

Chapter 7: Sources of Energy

(Week 8) February 22-26, 2021

Chapter 8: Chemistry at Home

Chapter 1
Formation of Elements in the Big Bang and Stellar Evolution

Week 1 – 4 days
Intended Learning Outcome:
 give Evidence for and describe the formation of heavier elements during star
formation and evolution
 explain how the concept of atomic number led to the synthesis of new elements in the
laboratory

Big Idea
The Big Bang Theory is one of the leading explanations about how the universe began.
This theory explained that the universe started as a very dense and hot “singularity” which
eventually cooled and began to form different particles.
The term Big Bang does not imply that there was an explosion but the truth is that there
was as expansion. During the big bang, nucleosynthesis occurred forming light elements.

Recall
What happened in the Big Bang Theory?
Define Nucleosynthesis.

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Discussion of the Main Topic

Lesson 1.1 Formation of Light Elements in the Big Bang and Stellar Nucleosynthesis

In your previous science classes, you have learned about the big bang theory. This theory
states that the universe developed 13.7 billion years ago from a very small, extremely dense, and
hot state that expanded rapidly.
This rapid expansion caused the universe to cool down and become less dense, forming
new particles—the protons, neutrons and electrons. As it cooled down and the subatomic
particles formed, the universe entered the phase called big bang nucleosynthesis.
Nucleosynthesis is the process that creates new atomic nucleus from pre-existing nucleons,
primarily protons and neutrons.

Two nuclear reactions

happening during big
bang nucleosynthesis:
combination of proton (p)
and neutron (n) produces
deuterium (D) nuclei and
gamma (y) rays. Then two
deuterium nuclei combine
to form one neutron and
helium-3 (3He) that has
two protons and one neutron.

The energy and temperature of the universe are extremely high to cause the neutrons and
protons to combine and form certain species of atomic nuclei in a process called nuclear fusion.
Nuclear fusion is a process by which light nuclei fuse together to form a heavier nucleus. When
this happens, a tremendous amount of energy is released.

An example of nuclear fusion:

deuterium (with one neutron and
one proton) fuses with tritium (with one
proton and two neutrons)
producing a helium nuclei and a
neutron, and releasing energy

Through nuclear fusion, the light elements—hydrogen (H), helium (He), and small
amounts of lithium (Li) and beryllium (Be)—were formed. The isotopes produced during the big
bang nucleosynthesis were H-1, H-2, He-3, He-4, and Li-7. An isotope is a form of an element
that has the same atomic number of the original element but with a different atomic mass number.

The nuclear equations

for the fusion
reactions that took
place during the big
bang nucleosynthesis.

Lesson 1.2 Formation of Heavier Elements: Stellar Nucleosynthesis

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Elements formed by fusion with five to eight nucleons are very unstable. This is the
main reason why lithium and beryllium only occur in trace amounts during the big bang. Big
bang nucleosynthesis strongly favors the very light isotopes. Heavy elements were formed only
billions of years later, after the formation of the stars. The density inside a star is great enough to
sustain fusion for the extended time periods required to synthesize heavy elements. Stars are hot
and dense enough to burn hydrogen-1 (1H) to helium (4He). The formation of heavy elements by
the fusion of lighter nuclei in the interior of stars is called stellar nucleosynthesis.

There are many nuclear synthetic pathways that can produce heavier elements. These are
the carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle, proton-proton fusion, and triple alpha process. These
reactions from various nuclei such as 8Be, 12C, 13C, 13N, 14N, 15N, 15O, 16O, and 17F as by-products.

Shells of a thermonuclear combustion: the temperature in

a shell is directly proportional with the shell’s proximity to
the core.

Stars have multiple interior layers that are differentiated not only based on the materials
that are composed of but also on their temperature. The varying intensities of temperature in the
layers determine the element that can be nucleosynthesized in them.

There is a direct proportionality between the temperature in a star’s interior layer and its
depth. Thus, as you go deeper from the surface, the temperature increases. Layers near the core
have very high temperatures enough to nucleosynthesize heavy elements such as silicon and iron.
More nuclear synthetic pathways are produced as the temperature increases inside the star.

Lesson 1.3 Formation of Heavy Elements: Neutron Capture Reaction

Elements heavier than iron cannot be formed through fusion as tremendous amounts of
energy are needed for the reaction to occur. Heavy elements are formed in a supernova, a
massive explosion of a star. In a supernova, neutron capture reactions take place, leading to the
formation of more neutrons to existing nuclei instead of light nuclei.

Adding neutrons to a nucleus does not change an element. Rather, a more massive
isotope of the same element is produced. Eventually, many neutrons will be added to the nucleus
that it becomes unstable, and then it decays radioactively to form a stable nucleus of some other
element. Elements with an atomic mass higher than iron required tremendous amount of energy
to be formed. Thus, they were produced from a neutron capture reaction in a supernova.

Lesson 1.4 Isotopes

All uncharged or neutral atoms of an element in its stable state have the same number of
electrons and number of protons (atomic number) but the number of their neutrons can be
different.

Isotopes

 isotopes of an element are the atoms of an element that differ in the number of
neutrons in their nuclei
 atoms of the same element that have the same atomic number (Z) but different
mass numbers (A)

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Isotope Notation

 one way to identify the different isotopes of an element

 has four parts:
o element symbol (X)
o mass number (A)
o atomic number (Z)
o charge of an atom (e)
 where
o A = mass number (protons + neutrons)
o Z = atomic number (number of protons)
o e = atomic charge (protons – electrons)
 in general, the isotope notation for an element can be expressed as follows:

 for example, the isotope notation for neutral

uranium atom with 146 neutrons can be written as follows:

Activity 1.1 Subatomic Particles and Isotopes

Complete the following table using the information discussed in class and your Periodic
table. All atoms are neutral.

Element Atomic Mass Number Number of Number of Isotopic

Name Number Number of Protons Neutrons Electrons Notation

Oxygen 17

15 31

38 50

Neon 20

10 9

79 118

Activity 1.2 Apply It inReal Life

You are a graphic artist. For the National Science and Technology Week, the Philippine
Nuclear Research Institute (PNRI) commissioned you to make a brochure on the applications of
nuclear fusion in various industries. You have to include relevant pictures in your brochure. The
brochure will be evaluated based on accuracy of detail, appropriateness of pictures, correctness of
grammar, and creativity of design/layout. (Can be drawn or computerized)

Chapter 2
Formation of Elements in the Big Bang and Stellar Evolution

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Week 2 – 4 days
Intended learning outcome:
 Determine if a molecule is polar or nonpolar given its structure
 Relate the polarity of a molecule to tis properties

Big Idea
Covalent bonds are formed when atoms share electrons to attain full valence
shells. The Lewis structures show the bonded electron pairs or lone pairs. Single, double,
and triple bonds can be formed.
Due to the difference in electronegativities, some covalent bonds are shared
unequally. These are called polar covalent bonds. Equal values of electronegativities
result to the equal sharing of electrons in a bond. These are called nonpolar covalent
bonds.

Discussion of the Main Topic

Lesson 2.1 Polarity

Electronegativity – the ability of each atom in a chemical bond to attract electrons

toward it.
 Affects a substance’s polarity and interaction with other
substances.
 Each atom has its own electronegativity value (eV)

 The higher the electronegativity value, the higher is the tendency of the atom to attract
electrons towards it.
H2, O2, and N2 – equal sharing of electrons in the covalent bond of each molecule
because the bonded atoms are of the same kind and thus they have the same
electronegativity value.
 Nonpolar covalent bonds = nonpolar molecules

Hydrogen chloride (HCl) – has different atoms involved in the covalent bond.
 Hydrogen – electronegativity value of 2.1; chlorine has electronegativity
of 3.0
 Because chlorine has a higher electronegativity value, electrons tend to
lean toward chlorine; thus, electrons in two different atoms involved in
the bond are unequally shared
 Polar covalent bond = polar molecule

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Lesson 2.2 Electronegativity Difference

(Refer to your periodic table for electronegativity values)

Based on Linus Pauling’s scale:

 Flourine – the most electronegative element
 Francium – least electronegative
The difference in the electronegativity values of the atoms in a molecule or a
compound determines the type and polarity of bond that is formed.

Ionic bond
– formed when the difference in electronegativity values (∆EN) of the element is
greater than or equal to 2.0 eV.
Nonpolar covalent bond
– formed when the difference in electronegativity values is equal to or less than
0.5 eV.
Polar covalent bond
– formed when the difference in electronegativity values is greater than 0.5 eV
but is less than 2.0 eV.

Electronegativity Difference and Type of Bond

Electronegativity Difference Type of Bond

∆EN ≥ 2.0 Ionic

0.5 < ∆EN > 2.0 Polar Covalent

0 < ∆EN ≤ 0.5 Nonpolar Covalent

Examples:

Sodium Chloride Hydrogen Chloride Hydrogen Gas

(NaCl) (HCl) (H2)

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Science 11 Physical Science

Cl 3.0 eV Cl 3.0 eV H 2.1 eV

Na -0.9 eV H -2.1 eV H -2.1 eV
∆EN 2.1 eV ∆EN 0.9 eV ∆EN 0 eV
Type of Bond: Type of Bond: Type of Bond:
Ionic Bond Polar Covalent Nonpolar Covalent

WRITTEN SKILLS # 2

A. Write the Compound name of the following.

B. Calculate the electronegativity of the following Compound.
C. classify each molecule as having an Ionic Bond, polar Covalent or a nonpolar covalent
bond.

1. CO2

2. H2O

3. CH4

4. HBr

5. NH3

6. NaCl

7. SO4

8. C2H6

9. CuO

10. SiO2

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Chapter 3
Intermolecular Forces of Attraction

Week 3 – 4 days
Intended learning outcome:
 Describe the general types of intermolecular forces
 Explain the effect of intermolecular forces on the properties of substances

Review of the Last Topic

(Answer Activity 2.1)

Lesson 3.1 Intermolecular Forces of Attraction

Intermolecular Forces hold molecules together which can be attractive or repulsive. On

the other hand, inter-ionic forces are forces that hold ions together. These intermolecular forces
are accountable for the properties of substances. Moreover, intermolecular forces also explains
why substances exist as solids, liquids, or gases at room temperature.

Type of Interaction Interacting Particles

Dispersion All molecules (especially nonpolar molecules)

Dipole-dipole Polar molecules

Ion-dipole Ions and polar molecules

Ion-ion Ions (cations and anions)

Hydrogen bond N, O, or F bonded with H atom

The four types of intermolecular forces of attraction for interactions involving covalent molecules

Van der Waals forces

1.Dipole-dipole
2.Ion-dipole
3.Dispersion forces
Special type of dipole-dipole interaction
4.Hydrogen bonding

Lesson 3.2 Dipole-dipole Forces

Attractive forces existing between polar molecules (molecules that exhibit dipole
moment)

Example: HCl - there is unequal sharing of electron between the H and Cl atoms, partial
positive and partial negative poles exist and are referred to as a dipole.

 The more electronegative atom becomes partially negative and has the most electron
density
 The least electronegative atom becomes partially positive and has a lesser electron
density

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 Because poles of opposite charges attract, the partial negative end (i.e., the Cl atom) will
be attracted to the partial positive end (i.e., the H atom) of another HCl molecule. This
force is weaker than ionic and hydrogen bonds

δ+ δ- δ+ δ-

H------C - - - - - - - - H-----Cl

Lesson 3.3 Ion-dipole Forces

Ion-dipole forces exist in the attraction between a charged particle called ion (can be a
positively charged cation or a negatively charged anion). This is exhibited in hydration, or the
interaction of water molecules with the cations and anions of ionic compounds dissolved in water.

Example: NaCl dissolved in water (H2O), NaCl will dissociate into sodium cations (Na +)
and chlorine anions (Cl-). Because water is a polar molecule and has partial negative and partial
positive poles, the Na+ will form an ion-dipole interaction with the partial negative part of the
water molecule (O), while the Cl- will form an ion-dipole interaction with the partial positive part
of the water molecule (H+).

Lesson 3.4 Dispersion Forces or London Forces

 The weakest attractive forces that are formed due to the temporary dipoles induced
in nonpolar molecules
 Also called induced-dipole-induced-dipole attraction
 If there is an ion or a polar molecule near an atom or a nonpolar molecule, there will
be distortion in the electron clouds of the atom of the nonpolar molecule due to the
force exerted by the ion or the polar molecule

Induced dipole – the separation of the positive and negative charges in a nonpolar
molecule due to the nearness of an iron or a polar molecule
Ion-induced dipole interaction – when the induced dipole is due to the interaction
between an ion and a nonpolar molecule
Dipole-induced dipole interaction – when the induced dipole is due to the interaction
between a polar and a nonpolar molecule

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Lesson 3.5 Hydrogen Bond

 A special type of dipole-dipole interaction between the hydrogen atom in a polar

molecule and the highly electronegative atoms, N, O, and F
 Water molecule is a very good example of a substance that exhibits hydrogen
bonding.
 Electronegative atoms, like oxygen, cause the bond to be polar. These atoms
becomes slightly positively charged. Thus, a dipole exists.
 A hydrogen bond is generally denoted as a dotted line between the hydrogen and
the unshared electron pair of the other electronegative atom

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Activity 3.1

Name one example for each type Intermolecular Force aside from the given example
above and draw the chemical structure.

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Chapter 4
Biological Macromolecules

Week 3 – 4 days
Intended learning outcome:
 Explain how the structures of biological macromolecules such as carbohydrates, lipids,
nucleic acid, and proteins determine their properties and functions

Review of the Last Topic

Give examples of the different intermolecular forces of attraction.

Big Idea

Biomolecules are naturally occurring chemical compounds that are necessary for the
existence of life. They include large macromolecules such as carbohydrates, lipids,
polysaccharides, and proteins.

Macromolecules are large molecules constructed from small building block molecules
having simpler structures.

Lesson 4.1 Biomolecules

Biomolecules – chemical molecules that play an important role in a living system

 Have specific functions, especially in a living system where they commonly act
as a building material.
 Arranged from smaller and simpler molecules called subunits, until they form a
more complex structure called a macromolecule

Table 4.1 Distribution of Selected Elements

in the Human Body
Element Percentage
H 63.0 %
O 25.5 %
C 9.5 %
N 1.4 %
Ca 0.31 %
P 0.22 %
Cl 0.08 %
K 0.06 %
S 0.05 %
Na 0.03 %
Mg 0.01 %

Lesson 4.2 The Four important biological macromolecules or biopolymers

Carbohydrates
 Polysaccharides – complex carbohydrates that are made up of
monosaccharide subunits
 Functions as structural support (e.g., cellulose in cell walls) and storage of
energy (e.g., starch)
 Example: the molecular formula of glucose is C6H12O6; thus, you have 6
carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms, and 6 oxygen atoms, following the ratio
1:2:1 ratio

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Lipids
 Biomolecules that contain large hydrophobic structures that are commonly not soluble in
water.
 Storage of energy and building material for cell membranes
 Selectively permeable, partly because of the lipid bilayer
 Some important lipids are phosphoglycerides, some fat-soluble vitamins, and hormones

Polynucleotides
 Chains of nucleotides that play a role in the storage and transfer of information
 Composed of a heterocyclic base, a pentose (ribose or deoxyribose) unit, and a phosphate
group.
o Heterocyclic base can have either a purine (adenine, guanine) or a pyrimidine
(uracil, cytosine, thymine)
 Associated as the monomeric units of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid
(RNA), which are important carriers of information inside the cell
o DNA – double-stranded long chain of unbranched polymer composed of four types
of bases.
 Adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine(G), and thymine (T)
 A-T and C-G pairings are followed
 Carries all the genetic information of an individual
o RNA – single-stranded long chain of unbranched polymer
 adenine (A), uracil (U), cytosine (C), and guanine (G)
 A-U and C-G base pairs are followed
 Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) – among the important biological molecule that is
commonly referred to as the energy currency of the cell
o Provides chemical energy needed in metabolism that is released during the
transfer of phosphate groups
 Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP) – an organic substance involved in the release of energy
in metabolic reaction, and a phosphate group
o Contains one less phosphate group than ATP

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Proteins
 Constitute more than half of the cell’s dry weight
 Structural support (collagen), movement (muscle), defense (antibody), catalyst in a
reaction (enzyme), and transport
 Generally contain C, H, N, and O
 Amino acids – building blocks of protein
 Bi-functional compounds containing both a carboxylic group (-COOH)
and a basic group (-NH2) attached to a carbon atom
 Linked by peptide bonds to form proteins
 The Four Structures of Proteins
1. Primary Structure – composed of a linear amino acid sequence
 It is important that amino acids are sequenced correctly for proteins
such as insulin to function properly
2. Secondary Structure – coiled or folded amino acid sequence which can either
be an α-helix or ß-pleated sheet
 Serve as structural proteins as in the case of collagen
3. Tertiary structure – more complex three-dimensional structure visualized
using computer simulations
 Embedded along the cellular membranes and walls of transport
vesicles
 Allows ease of transport through and inside the cell
4. Quaternary structure – contain several polypeptide chains, forms
macromolecules with multiple subunits such as hemoglobin
 Carry important metabolic functions such as the ability of
hemoglobin to transport oxygen to different parts of the body.

A. Amino acid structure

B. Peptide bond formation

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Activity 4.1 Apply it in Real Life

You are a nutritionist tasked to make a brochure of foods from the supermarket to guide
teenagers in choosing the right kinds of food. Your brochure should contain the following:
 Pictures of foods from supermarkets that teenagers usually eat;
 Nutritional value and macromolecules present in those foods; and
 Recommendation as to which of those foods from the supermarket are healthy for
young people

Chapter 5
CHEMICAL REACTION

In this module, you will able to

 Calculate the amount of substances used or produced in a chemical reaction
 Determine the limiting reactant in a reaction and calculate the amount of product formed
 Calculate the percent yield of a reaction
 Define catalyst and describe

Chemical reaction, a process in which one or more substances, the reactants, are converted to
one or more different substances, the products. Substances are either chemical elements or
compounds. A chemical reaction rearranges the constituent atoms of the reactants to create
different substances as products.

Chemical reactions are an integral part of technology, of culture, and indeed of life itself.
Burning fuels, smelting iron, making glass and pottery, brewing beer, and making wine and
cheese are among many examples of activities incorporating chemical reactions that have been
known and used for thousands of years. Chemical reactions abound in the geology of Earth, in the
atmosphere and oceans, and in a vast array of complicated processes that occur in all living
systems.

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Chemical reactions must be distinguished from physical changes. Physical changes include
changes of state, such as ice melting to water and water evaporating to vapour. If a physical
change occurs, the physical properties of a substance will change, but its chemical identity will
remain the same. No matter what its physical state, water (H 2O) is the same compound, with
each molecule composed of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. However, if water,
as ice, liquid, or vapour, encounters sodium metal (Na), the atoms will be redistributed to give the
new substances molecular hydrogen (H2) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH). By this, we know that a
chemical change or reaction has occurred.

Stoichiometry is a section of chemistry that involves using relationships between reactants

and/or products in a chemical reaction to determine desired quantitative data. In Greek, stoikhein
means element and metron means measure, so stoichiometry literally translated means the
measure of elements. In order to use stoichiometry to run calculations about chemical reactions, it
is important to first understand the relationships that exist between products and reactants and
why they exist, which require understanding how to balance reactions.

In chemistry, chemical reactions are frequently written as an equation, using chemical symbols.
The reactants are displayed on the left side of the equation and the products are shown on the
right, with the separation of either a single or double arrow that signifies the direction of the
reaction. The significance of single and double arrow is important when discussing solubility
constants, but we will not go into detail about it in this module. To balance an equation, it is
necessary that there are the same number of atoms on the left side of the equation as the right.
One can do this by raising the coefficients.

Chemical equation is like a recipe for a reaction so it displays all the ingredients or terms of a
chemical reaction. It includes the elements, molecules, or ions in the reactants and in the products
as well as their states, and the proportion for how much of each particle is create relative to one
another, through the stoichiometric coefficient. The following equation demonstrates the typical
format of a chemical equation:

2Na(s) +2HCl (aq) →2NaCl (aq) +H2 (g)

In the above equation, the elements present in the reaction are represented by their
chemical symbols. Based on the Law of Conservation of Mass, which states that matter is neither
created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction, every chemical reaction has the same elements in its
reactants and products, though the elements they are paired up with often change in a reaction. In
this reaction, sodium (NaNa), hydrogen (HH), and chloride (ClCl) are the elements present in
both reactants, so based on the law of conservation of mass, they are also present on the product
side of the equations. Displaying each element is important when using the chemical equation to
convert between elements.

Types of Reactions
There are 6 basic types of reactions.

 Combustion: Combustion is the formation of CO2 and H2O from the reaction of a
chemical and O2

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 Combination (synthesis): Combination is the addition of 2 or more simple reactants to

form a complex product.
 Decomposition: Decomposition is when complex reactants are broken down into simpler
products.
 Single Displacement: Single displacement is when an element from on reactant switches
with an element of the other to form two new reactants.
 Double Displacement: Double displacement is when two elements from on reactants
switched with two elements of the other to form two new reactants.
 Acid-Base: Acid- base reactions are when two reactants form salts and water.

UNIT II
FORCE, MOTION AND ENERGY

Good Morning Learners!

Let us all discover Force, Motion, and Energy through the use of this learning material.
Let us all enjoy while learning 

Man is like a speck of dust in the vast universe. Compared to the expanse of the
universe, man is very small.
Man’s innate curiosity to discover the unknown in the nature and sheer determination to
search for the truth in the universe have pushed him to understand better his home, the Earth, and
to conquer the worlds beyond his own. Man has described and quantified motions. He has
attempted to create and re-create models of the universe. He has stretched his mind by looking at
light, electricity, and magnetism form different points of view. He has proposed theories and
laws to explain how everything started.
These are some of the things that you will encounter in this unit. While learning the
different concepts in this unit, it is hoped that you will also imbibe the characteristics and
attitudes that scientists possess.

(Week 1)
Lesson 1: Early Models of the Universe
(Week 2)
Lesson 2: The Universal Laws of Motion
(Week 3)
Lesson 3: Introduction to Light Waves
(Week 4)
Lesson 4: Wave Theory of Light
(Week 5)
Chapter 5: Collision Theory
(Week 6)
Chapter 6: Limiting and Excess Reaction
(Week 7)
Chapter 7: Sources of Energy
(Week 8)
Chapter 8: Chemistry at Home

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Lesson 1
Early Models of the Universe

Week 1 – 4 days
Intended Learning Outcome:
 Explain how the Greeks knew that the Earth is spherical
 Cite examples of astronomical phenomena known to astronomers before the advent
of telescopes
 Explain how Brahe's innovations and extensive collection of data in observational
astronomy paved the way for Kepler's discovery of his laws of planetary motion

Early Babylonian, Chinese, Egyptian, and Hebrew civilizations thought

that Earth was flat. This belief was opposed by some early Greek
philosophers who believed that Earth was spherical. An early piece of
evidence to support this can be seen in the following situation: An
observer watching a ship sailing at sea notes that the ship seems to
disappear over the horizon.

Motivation
Watch the short clip about early models of the Universe.

Discussion of the Main Topic

Lesson 1.1 Spherical Earth

During ancient times, Earth was perceived to be flat. Early Babylonian, Chinese,
Egyptian, and Hebrew civilizations believed that Earth had corners. It was then believed that if
you set to sail straight in the ocean, you would get to the edge of Earth and fall. However, many
philosophers theorized that Earth was round and not flat. Navigators such as Ferdinand Magellan
(1480-1521) and Juan Sebastian Elcano (1476-1526) were given credit for circumnavigating the
world and proving that Earth is not flat.
Greek philosophers also invented on the shape of Earth. Philosophers like Plato (428
BCE-348 BCE) and Aristotle (384 BCE-322 BCE) described Earth and the heavens as spherical.
In fact, Eudoxus of Cnidus (400 BCE-350 BCE) constructed a planetary model based on this.
Then around 6 BCE, these Greek philosophers speculated that Earth was actually spherical.
Timeline shows the ideas of some Greek Philosophers, including Pythagoras and
Eratosthenes, about the sphericity of Earth.

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Pythagoras
Started the idea of the spherical Earth.

Plato
Educated his students on the sphericity of Earth but made no
justifications.

Aristotle
Noted that there were stars in Egypt that could not be seen on
other parts of the Earth.
This phenomenon was only possible if Earth had a curved surface.

Eratosthenes
Estimated the circumference of Earth.
Lesson 1.2 Different Models of the Universe

Eudoxus of Cnidus
 The first astronomer to explain the retrograde motion of the planets in the sky.
 Found out the differences in the motion of each planet that should be considered to
give an accurate description of the universe
 According to his model
o The universe was composed of Earth, five other planets (that are visible with
the unaided eye, namely: Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn), sun,
moon, and motionless stars which were enclosed in spheres.
o Earth was motionless at the center of the universe
o Each of the five other planets was enclosed in four concentric circles.
o The sun and the moon were each enclosed in three concentric spheres
o The group of motionless stars lay in the outermost sphere

 Using this model, Eudoxus was able to explain the annual and daily movements of
the celestial bodies relative to each other. According to him, retrograde motions of
plants were produced by the perfect circular motion of the third and fourth concentric
spheres.

Aristotle
 Showed that the universe was spherical and finite

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 Just like Eudoxus, he perceived Earth was the center of the universe and was
stationary.
o Because the Earth is too big to move; thus, it could not rotate
o Other celestial bodies were built up symmetrically in concentric spherical
rings around Earth.
 Believed that Earth was composed of four elements—earth, water, air and fire.
Beyond Earth are the planets and the moon which revolved in spherical rings.
o Each ring was in physical contact with one another
o Motion of a heavenly body in one sphere will affect the motion of a nearby
heavenly body
 Both models of Eudoxus and Aristotle were considered geocentric
o Astronomers believed that Earth was at the center of the universe

Aristarchus of Samos
 A Greek a Greek astronomer who made the first attempt to create a heliocentric
model, which places the sun at the center of the universe
 Proposed that the sun and the fixed stars were at rest, while Earth revolved around
the sun in a circular path

 The only work of Aristarchus that survived On the Sizes and Distances of the Sun
and the Moon.
o Aristarchus calculated the sizes of the sun and the moon and their distances
from Earth by estimating the relative angles of the moon and the sun from
Earth.
o 3 assumptions:
 Earth was spherical
 It is far from the sun

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 Moon passes through the Earth’s shadow when they align

Claudius Ptolemaeus (Ptolemy)

 It is assumed that the Earth was the center of the universe, while the other celestial
bodies revolved around Earth in perfect circles with constant velocity.
 His model was considered to be more refined than the previous geocentric models
because his model could explain the motion of the celestial bodies accurately.
 He assumed that the planets revolved on epicycles (small spheres) which moved
around the deferent (larger spheres). He added that the stars belonged to the celestial
sphere which was located beyond the planetary spheres.

 The center of the deferent is called the eccentric. What Ptolemy did next was to
move Earth from its original position to a position below the center of the system
that is still inside the deferent.

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 The repositioning was done to explain why there were differences in the lengths of
the seasons. In this model, a certain heavenly body will move around an epicycle
and at the same time move around the deferent. This could account for the
movement of a heavenly body farther away or closer to Earth or the variable speeds
of heavenly bodies. Ptolemy also developed the concept of equant which was a
point close to the orbit’s center. If an observer stays in the equant, he would see that
the epicycle seems to move at a constant rate.

Nicolaus Copernicus
 He revived the heliocentric model of Aristarchus. His works was only published a
year before his death
 In his model:
a. Heavenly bodies exhibited constant circular and perpetual motion
along their epicycles;
b. The sun was at the center of the universe; and
c. The order of the planets from the sun is Mercury, Venus, Earth (and
moon), Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and beyond the planets were the fixed
stars.

Tycho Brahe
 Brahe believed in a geocentric universe, but his idea of the geocentric universe is
slightly different from Ptolemy’s
 His model was called Tychonic System, Earth was at the center and the sun and the
moon revolved around it, and all the other planets orbited the sun. this model was a
type of the geoheliocentric system

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Astronomy before the Invention of the Telescope

 Pleiades star cluster – The Pleiades is a star cluster that is visible to the unaided eye.
Once this cluster appears in the sky, the Incus mark this as the start of their year.
 Constellations – Across cultures, ancient civilizations saw different patterns and shapes
in the constellations. Ancient Egyptians considered the constellations as representations
for their gods as Orion which represented Osiris, the god of death, rebirth, and afterlife.
Ancient people have also used the constellations to determine when to plant and harvest
crops. Constellations also helped in navigation.
 First sight of Venus – this planet is considered the third brightest in the sky. In the
Mayan culture, the position of Venus was used as a basis in deciding whether to start a
battle against another tribe. Mayans had a platform where observations of Venus were
done.

Brahe’s Contribution in Observational Astronomy

 Rudolphine Tables – celestial observations he made using his crude astronomical

instruments. His tables were more refined than the astronomical tables made before
him.

Lesson 1.3 Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion

According to some accounts, on Tycho’s deathbed, he asked his assistant Johannes

Kepler to continue what he has started by completing his astronomical tables.

 Law of ellipses
o Each planet moves in an
elliptical path, with the sun at
one focus.
 Aphelion – the point in a
planet’s orbit that is
farthest from the sun
 Perihelion – the point in
Earth’s orbit that is nearest
to the sun

 Law of equal areas

o as a planet moves at any point
along its elliptical orbit, it travels equal areas of space in equal periods of time
 Law of harmonies

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o The squares of the revolutions of the planets are directly proportional to the
cubes of their average distances from the sun

Activity 1.1

Draw the following models of the solar system

1. Copernican
2. Ptolemaic
3. Tychonic

Lesson 2
The Universal Laws of Physics

Week 2 – 4 days
Intended Learning Outcome:
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 compare and contrast the Aristotelian and Galilean conceptions of vertical motion,
horizontal motion, and projectile motion
 explain how Galileo inferred that objects in vacuum fall with uniform acceleration,
and that force is not necessary to sustain horizontal motion
 explain the subtle distinction between Newton's 1st Law of Motion (or Law of
Inertia) and Galileo's assertion that force is necessary to sustain horizontal motion

Humans tried to explain motion and classify the different movements that they
saw. Many attempted to investigate and analyze motion but the explanations of
Aristotle regarding motion stood out and were accepted for a long time.

A misconception about motion is the idea of impetus. This term is defined as the
force supplied to an object to keep its state of motion.

Inertia is the tendency of body to resist a change in its motion.

Motivation
Short game about motion

Discussion of the Main Topic

Lesson 2.1

Aristotle’s View of Motion

Natural Motion:
Any motion that an object does naturally - without being forced - was classified by Aristotle
as a natural motion. Examples of natural motions include:
 A book lying at rest on a table naturally remains at rest.
 If you let go of a book it naturally falls toward the earth.
 Smoke naturally rises.
 The sun naturally rises in the east, crosses the sky, then sets in the west.
Violent Motion:
Aristotle classified any motion that required a force as a "violent motion". (He did not mean
violent in the modern sense...) Examples of violent motion include:
 Pushing a book along a table.
 Lifting a book.

Basically, Aristotle's view of motion is "it requires a force to make an object move in an
unnatural" manner - or, more simply, "motion requires force".
After all, if you push a book, it moves. When you stop pushing, the book stops moving. (Not right
away, of course, but, unless you push it, it gradually slows to a stop.) To keep a bicycle moving
(on level ground) you have to keep pedalling. To keep a car moving, you have to keep the engine
pushing it.

Galileo’s Views of Motion

Galileo Galilei believed otherwise. He challenged and later on discredited Aristotle’s
ideas through his observations and experiments. He dropped objects of varying weights from the
Leaning Tower of Pisa and took note of their time to fall. He found out that the objects reached
the ground at the same time regardless of their weight.
Galileo also performed experiments about moving objects on an inclined plane. He
observed balls rolling on downward sloping planes and those rolling on upward sloping planes.
He realized that those moving down gained speed while those moving up behaved otherwise.
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From these observations, he predicted that balls rolling on a level surface would move at constant
speed and that the ball would eventually stop moving because of friction. In the absence of
friction or other opposing forces, an object that is moving horizontally would continue to move.
From this, Galileo developed the idea of inertia.

 Aristotle vs. Galileo

Idea 1: Free fall
o Aristotle: a heavy object falls faster.
o Galileo: In the absence of air resistance, all objects fall at the same
rate.
Idea 2: Projectile Motion
o Aristotle: initial impetus is supplied to an object, making it move into a new
region
o Galileo: a projectile moves in constant horizontal motion simultaneously with a
constant vertical acceleration. This results in a parabolic path.

Lesson 2.2 Newton’s Law of Motion

The motion of an aircraft through the air can be explained and described by physical
principals discovered over 300 years ago by Sir Isaac Newton. Newton worked in many areas of
mathematics and physics. He developed the theories of gravitation in 1666, when he was only 23
years old. Some twenty years later, in 1686, he presented his three laws of motion in the
"Principia Mathematica Philosophiae Naturalis." The laws are shown above, and the application
of these laws to aerodynamics are given on separate slides.

Newton's first law: Law of Inertia 

 A body at rest stays at rest or a body in motion continues to move at constant velocity
unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.
 Application
o Headrests in cars prevent whip splash injuries during rear-end collisions.
o Seatbelts keep persons in place when the vehicle suddenly comes to a stop.
o Automatic inflating bags prevent the driver from being slammed into the
windshield.

The second law: Law of Acceleration 

 The acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the net force and inversely
proportional to its mass.
 Application
o Race cars are less massive for them to have a higher acceleration.

The third law: Law of Action Reaction 

 For every action, there is an equal and opposite reacton.
 Application
o The downward force caused by burned fuel coming out of the combustion
chamber of a rocket engine produces an equal amount of force in the opposite
direction that pushes it upward.

Activity 2.1
Answer the following completely.
1. How are the law of inertia and the law of acceleration related?
2. Why is it important to learn about Newton’s laws of motion?
3. You are riding a moving vehicle. What do you feel when the moving vehicle suddenly
stops?

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Activity 2.2
You are a comic book artist. In celebration of the Science Week, the Physics Club
commissioned you to create a comic strip which will be distributed to students. The comic strip
should show conversations between Aristotle and Galileo. The test in the conversations should
present Aristotle’s and Galileo’s views of motion. There should be at least eight panels for the
comic strip. Your comic strip will be checked based on accuracy of information, correctness of
grammar, logical organization, neatness of drawings, and creativity.

Lesson 3
Introduction to Light Waves

Week 3 – 4 days
Intended Learning Outcome:
 Describe how the propagation of light, reflection, and refraction are explained by the
wave model and the particle model of light
 explain how the photon concept and the fact that the energy of the photon is directly
proportional to its frequency can be used to explain why red light is used in
photographic dark rooms, why we get easily sunburned in UV light but not in visible
light, and how we see colors

Light is an electromagnetic wave.

Discussion of the Main Topic

Light
Light is a transverse, electromagnetic wave that can be seen by the typical human. Like
all electromagnetic waves, light can travel through a vacuum.
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Light is produced by one of two methods…

 Incandescence is the emission of light from "hot" matter (T ≳ 800 K).
 Luminescence is the emission of light when excited electrons fall to lower energy levels
(in matter that may or may not be "hot").

Characteristics of Light:
 Do not require a medium to travel
 Travels at a constant speed of 3x108 m/s in a vacuum
 They travel in a straight path

Properties of Light
Light has distinct properties as a wave. Some of the properties of light are reflection,
refraction, transmission, and absorption.

Reflection
It refers to the bouncing of light as it hits a surface. When light hits a smooth and shiny
surface such as glass or a polished metal, a regular reflection is formed. This explains why a
landscape looks very perfect if it is reflected by still water from lakes or seas. However, this
image becomes distorted if there are ripples or waves in the water. The angle by which this light
hits the surface is the same as the angle by which it will be reflected.
If it hits a rough surface, light will be reflected in different directions. As a result, a
diffuse reflection is formed.
The color of the object that we see is the wavelength of the light that was reflected from
the object to our eyes; the other wavelengths were absorbed by the object. Color of light depends
on wavelength. In the color spectrum, red has the largest wavelength and blue has the shortest.

Refraction
Light travels at constant speed in a straight path through a medium. But as it enters
another medium, a part of the wave changes it speed before the rest of the wave does. Light
bends as it enters another medium. This bending of light caused by a change in direction,
because of a change in speed. Refraction is the bending of light.
The speed of light decreases and is refracted toward the normal as it travels from a less
dense medium to a denser medium. This is what happens as light travels from air to water. But
as light moves from a denser to a less dense medium, such as glass to air, it speeds up. Moreover,
it is refracted away from the normal.

Absorption of Light
Light I absorbed when the photons form the incident light hit the atoms and molecules thus,
causing them to vibrate. The more movements and vibrations produced, the higher the
temperature. This also results to a greater amount of thermal energy emitted from the object.

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Dark colored objects absorbed more incident light energy than the light colored ones.
This explains why it is not advisable to wear dark clothing during summer.

Transmission of Light
Light passes through the substance it hits when transmitted. Objects that can transmit all
the light are said to be transparent. Examples are very clear substances such as glass, clear water
and air.
If not all the light is transmitted and the image is unclear and the light is scattered, then
the light was transmitted in a translucent object such as colored cellophane and frosted glass.
A substance that does not transmit light is an opaque substance. Wood and cement are
examples of such substance.

Photons
When Isaac Newton was performing an experiment on the colors of light, he noticed that
light casted sharp shadows. So, he thought of light as something like matter. Then, he
formulated the particle theory of light which stated that visible light is composed of
submicroscopic particles called photons (a term coined by Gilbert Lewis in 1926). Photons are
elementary particles of light that have properties of a wave. These carry energy that can be
transferred to other particles during interactions.
A photon is a particle of light defined as a discrete bundle (or quantum) of
electromagnetic (or light) energy. Photons are always in motion and, in a vacuum (a completely
empty space), have a constant speed of light to all observers. Photons travel at the vacuum speed
of light (more commonly just called the speed of light) of c = 2.998 x 108 m/

Basic Properties of Photons

According to the photon theory of light, photons:
1. They move at constant speed of 3x108 m/s in a vacuum.
2. They are massless.
3. They carry energy and momentum.
4. They have no charge like neutron.

 Photon concept and the fact that the energy of a photon that is directly proportional to its
frequency be used to explain why a red light is used in photographic dark rooms because
‘Red’ photons are those with low frequencies (in the visual spectrum photons) and so
have low energies.
o Silver nitrate crystals decompose, when struck by two photons—in short
temporal order— that have sufficient energy to break the chemical bounds, and
leave behind just colloidal silver; that is what makes the images. So in
darkrooms, they use faint red lights to minimize the risk of ‘fogging’ by
extraneous light. This is really for print paper usage; photo film is too light
sensitive to tolerate any visual light.

 We get easily sunburned in ultraviolet light but not in visible light because UV waves are
shorter than visible light waves, so UV possesses more energy than regular light. UV
photons have the right energies to cause chemical changes. When UV light hits your skin,
the DNA in your skin cells can undergo chemical change. ... If the damage is too great,
the cells just die.

Color and the Human Eye

The human eye and brain together translate
light into color. Light receptors within the
eye transmit messages to the brain, which
produces the familiar sensations of color.
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Newton observed that color is not inherent in objects. Rather, the surface of an object
reflects some colors and absorbs all the others. We perceive only the reflected colors.
Thus, red is not "in" an apple. The surface of the apple is reflecting the
wavelengths we see as red and absorbing all the rest. An object appears white when it
reflects all wavelengths and black when it absorbs them all.
Red, green and blue are the additive primary colors of the color spectrum.
Combining balanced amounts of red, green and blue lights also produces pure white. By
varying the amount of red, green and blue light, all of the colors in the visible spectrum
can be produced. Considered to be part of the brain itself, the retina is covered by
millions of light-sensitive cells, some shaped like rods and some like cones. These
receptors process the light into nerve impulses and pass them along to the cortex of the
brain via the optic nerve.
About 8% of men and 1% of women have some form of color impairment. Most
people with color deficiencies aren't aware that the colors they perceive as identical
appear different to other people. Most still perceive color, but certain colors are
transmitted to the brain differently. The most common impairment is red and green
dichromatism which causes red and green to appear indistinguishable. Other impairments
affect other color pairs. People with total color blindness are very rare.
Birds, fish and many other mammals perceive the full spectrum. Some insects,
especially bees, can see ultraviolet colors invisible to the human eye. In fact, color
camouflage, one of nature's favorite survival mechanisms, depends on the ability of the
predator to distinguish colors. The predator is expected to be fooled by the color
matching of the prey. Until recently, it was thought that dogs didn't see any color at all.
Recent studies now show, however, that dogs can differentiate between red and blue and
can even pick out subtle differences in shades of blue and violet.

Activity 3.1 Apply It in Real Life

You are student teacher. Your cooperating teacher asked you to verify the law of
reflection by doing the experiment below. You will need the following materials: protractor,
small plane mirror, and laser pointer (or any light source).
Follow these steps:
1. Position the mirror on a surface in such a way that it stands straight. (Note: You
may use a block of wood or a pair of binder clips to keep the mirror upright.)
2. Let the protractor lie directly in front of the mirror.
3. Turn off the lights in the room.
4. Point the laser pointer from the 10°angle (outer scale) of the protractor. Observe
what happens. Check the angle of reflection measured from the 0° angle (inner
scale) of the protractor.
5. Do the same for the other angles at 10° interval.
6. Make your conclusion.
Record your data and present them in a table. You are to submit your output and a
picture of you beside your set up.

Lesson 4
Wave Theory of Light

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In this module you will able to

 Cite experiemental evidence showing that electrons can behave like waves
 Differentiate dispersion scaterring interference and diffraction
 Explain various light phenomena

LIGHT AS AN ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE

An electromagnetic (EM) wave is a type of energy wave that has both electric and
magnetic fields that propagate perpendicular to each other.
 Em waves do not require a medium to travel. This explains why you can see sunlight
even if the outer space is a vacuum. This is also the reason why UV rays can reach earth
and cause damage to the skin.
 James clerk Maxwell a scottish physicist and mathematician calculated that the speed of
EM waves in a vacuum is 3 x 10 m/s which is the same as the speed of light in a vacuum
 Christian Huygens (1629-1695) a dutch mathematician and physicist was credited for the
wave theory of light. The following are some of the assumptions of this theory
o Light propagates as a wave
o A source of light emits the waves which travel in straight line with uniform speed
through a homogeneous medium
o Light travels through luminiferous aether once believed to be the rigid medium
which filled the void of the universe and at which light could travel as wave
DISPERSION
 Is the seperation of light into spectrum of colors as it passes through a transparent
medium like a prism. This effect is also known as primatic effect.
SCATTERING
 Oxygen and nitrogen are two of the air molecules abundant in the atmosphere.
These air molecules scatter portions with shorter wavelengths like blue and violet
light because of their small size.
INTERFERENCE
 Happens when two waves meet in the same medium. To illustrate this drop a
stone a basin full of water.
 The same is true with the light recall the simple expriment you conducted in the
previous module to show interference. When two light waves of the same
frequency meet. The resulting light wave becomes brighter thus showing an
increase in the amplitude
DIFFRACTION
 Thus happen when light slightly bends when it passes through an obstacle like a shit. The
amount of bending will depend on the wavelength of the incident light compared to the
width of the slit of the opening. This means that if the width of the slit is much greater
than the wavelength of the incident light you will not see the bending thus no diffraction
has occured.

TRY THIS:
Direction: Supply the box based on your understanding about Wave theory of light

DISPERSION SCATTERING DISPERSION

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Lesson 5-6
Experiencing Relativity an Red Shift in the Cosmos

In this module you will be able to

 Relate einstein theory of relativity to newtons law of motion and Maxwells law of
electromagnetism
 Identify the postulates pf the special relativity
 Explain the consequences of the postulates of special relativity and general relativity
 Explain how the seeds and distances of distant objects are estimated
 Explain how scienctist found out that the universe is expanding
 Explain how doppler shifts can be used to detect extra solar planets
 Explain why pluto was once thought to be a planet but is no longer considered one.
THEORY OF RELATIVITY HISTORY

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Before Einstein, astronomers (for the most part) understood the universe in terms of three
laws of motion presented by Isaac Newton in 1686. These three laws are:

 Objects in motion (or at rest) remain in motion (or at rest) unless an external force
imposes change.
 Force is equal to the change in momentum per change of time. For a constant mass,
force equals mass times acceleration.
 For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
But there were cracks in the theory for decades before Einstein's arrival on the scene, according to
Encyclopedia Britannica. In 1865, Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell demonstrated that
light is a wave with both electrical and magnetic components, and established the speed of light
(186,000 miles per second). Scientists supposed that the light had to be transmitted through some
medium, which they called the ether. We now know that no transmission medium is required, and
that light in space moves in a vacuum.

 The theory of special relativity explains how space and time are linked for objects that
are moving at a consistent speed in a straight line. One of its most famous aspects
concerns objects moving at the speed of light.
 Simply put, as an object approaches the speed of light, its mass becomes infinite and it is
unable to go any faster than light travels. This cosmic speed limit has been a subject of
much discussion in physics, and even in science fiction, as people think about how to
travel across vast distances.
 The theory of special relativity was developed by Albert Einstein in 1905, and it forms
part of the basis of modern physics. After finishing his work in special relativity, Einstein
spent a decade pondering what would happen if one introduced acceleration. This formed
the basis of his general relativity, published in 1915

FAMOUS FORMULA OF EINSTEIN

One of the most famous equations in mathematics comes from special relativity. The
equation — E = mc2 — means "energy equals mass times the speed of light squared." It shows
that energy (E) and mass (m) are interchangeable; they are different forms of the same thing. If
mass is somehow totally converted into energy, it also shows how much energy would reside
inside that mass: quite a lot. (This equation is one of the demonstrations for why an atomic bomb
is so powerful, once its mass is converted to an explosion.)

SPECIAL RELATIVITY

 As our knowledge of physics has advanced, scientists have run into more counterintuitive
situations. One is trying to reconcile general relativity — which describes well what's
going on with large objects — with quantum mechanics, which is best used for very
small things (such as uranium atom decay). The two fields, which excellently describe
their individual fields, are incompatible with one another — which frustrated Einstein
and generations of scientists after him.
 "Relativity gives nonsensical answers when you try to scale it down to quantum size,
eventually descending to infinite values in its description of gravity. Likewise, quantum
mechanics runs into serious trouble when you blow it up to cosmic dimensions," an
article in The Guardian pointed out in 2015.
 "Quantum fields carry a certain amount of energy, even in seemingly empty space, and
the amount of energy gets bigger as the fields get bigger. According to Einstein, energy
and mass are equivalent (that's the message of E=mc2), so piling up energy is exactly like

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piling up mass. Go big enough, and the amount of energy in the quantum fields becomes
so great that it creates a black hole that causes the universe to fold in on itself.
 There are several ideas to overcome this (which are beyond the scope of this article), but
one approach is to imagine a quantum theory of gravity that would have a massless
particle (called the graviton) to generate the force. But as physicist Dave Goldberg
pointed out in io9 in 2013, there are problems with that. At the smallest scales, gravitons
would have infinite energy density, creating an unimaginably powerful gravity field.
More study will be required to see if this is possible.

GENERAL RELATIVITY

In 1905, Albert Einstein determined that the laws of physics are the same for all non-
accelerating observers, and that the speed of light in a vacuum was independent of the motion of
all observers. This was the theory of special relativity. It introduced a new framework for all of
physics and proposed new concepts of space and time.

Einstein then spent 10 years trying to include acceleration in the theory and published his
theory of general relativity in 1915. In it, he determined that massive objects cause a distortion in
space-time, which is felt as gravity.
General relativity follows from Einstein’s principle of equivalence: on a local scale it is
impossible to distinguish between physical effects due to gravity and those due to acceleration.
Gravity is treated as a geometric phenomenon that arises from the curvature of space-time.

The solution of the field equations that describe general relativity can yield answers to
different physical situations, such as planetary dynamics, the birth and death of stars, black holes,
and the evolution of the universe. General relativity has been experimentally verified by
observations of gravitational lenses, the orbit of the planet Mercury, the dilation of time in Earth’s
gravitational field, and gravitational waves from merging black holes.

TRY THIS ONE

DIRECTION: Answer the following question about Special Relativity and General
Relativity. Answer briefly

1. What is Theory of Relativity?

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2. Why is it important is theory of Relativity?
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3. What is Special Relativity?
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4. What is General Relativity?
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Science 11 Physical Science

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