Chemistry Paper 1

Combined and Triple Science

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Overview
• C1 – Atomic Structure, and the Periodic Table – 20 mins
• C2 – Bonding and properties – 25 mins
• C3 – Quantitative Chemistry – 20 mins
• C4 – Chemical Changes – 25 mins
• C5 – Energy Changes – 10 mins
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C1 – Atomic Structure
and The Periodic Table
Overview:
• Atomic Structure
• Elements, compounds, mixtures
• The Periodic Table – development
• Group properties
Atomic Structure
Describe the atomic structure of an atom of Carbon-12. You may
draw a diagram to support your answer. [4 marks]
Remember:
Subatomic particles: • Overall charge of atom is
0, or neutral
• Proton – Charge 1+ , Relative Mass 1 • Protons + Neutrons =
• Neutron – Charge 0 , Relative Mass 1 Mass Number (above
• Electron – Charge 1- , Relative Mass 0 symbol)
• Atomic Number =
Number of protons
(below symbol)
C1 – Atoms, Periodic Table Triple F
Atomic Structure ICON

cont.
Describe the atomic structure of an atom of Carbon-12… [4]
We can say there are:
• 6 protons [1]
• 6 neutrons [1]
• 6 electrons [1]
But the 6 electrons are arranged in a specific way:
• 2 electrons in the first shell [1]
• 4 electrons in the second shell [1]
Electronic
Structure
Electrons are ‘filled’, starting with the first shell, then the next if it becomes
full. E.g. 16 electrons (oxygen atom) are filled like this:

• 2 electrons in the 1st shell (14 remaining) (2 max in 1st)

• 8 electrons in the 2nd shell (6 remaining) (8 max in 2nd)
• 6 electrons in the 3rd shell (0 remaining) (8 max in 3rd)

The electronic configuration can be drawn out, or written in brackets, like

this: [2, 8, 6]
Model of the Atom
Like other models, the model of the atom has changed over time,
due to new findings from experiments.

The model changes because the new evidence doesn’t support

the old model.

1 - At first, the Greeks thought substances were made up of

atoms – very small spheres that couldn’t be divided up further.
Model of the Atom
cont.
2 – In the early 1900’s J.J. Thomson discovered the electron. At
that time, they knew that the atom’s overall charge was neutral,
but didn’t know about the nucleus.

The ‘Plum Pudding’ model was created to explain the overall

neutral charge – the negatively charged electrons were stuck
onto a larger sphere of positive charge.
Alpha-scattering
experiment
3 – Rutherford, Geiger, and Marsden carried out the Alpha-scattering
experiment in 1909.
Alpha particles, which were positively charged, were fired at a thin sheet of
gold.
Conclusion:
• Mostly empty
• Concentrated +ve charge
• Concentrated mass
Further changes
• Niels Bohr found that electrons were organised in shells (1913)

• James Chadwick found neutrons – same mass as protons, but

with no charge. This explained the same element, but with
different masses (isotopes)
History of The
Periodic Table
Context: Mendeleev made the Periodic Table in the 1870’s, well before any
subatomic particles were discovered.

Only the mass number, or atomic weight of atoms were known.

Other scientists simply tried ordering the elements in ascending order of their
atomic weights.

However, when some scientists tried putting them in tables (e.g. 8 per row;
octaves), some elements ‘matched’ with others in a column, with similar
properties, while others didn’t.
C1 – Atoms, Periodic Table Combined F + Triple F & H
Mendeleev
Mendeleev also ordered the elements by atomic weight, but did it
differently in 2 ways:
• He strictly grouped elements together that had similar
properties (e.g. Chlorine, Bromine and Iodine in one column)
• He left blank spaces, boldly predicting elements that weren’t
discovered yet (e.g. aluminium and silicon)
• He switched the order of some elements to fit the above
conditions
Elements, Compounds,
and Mixtures
Definitions
• Element – only consists of one type of atom; the atoms have the
same atomic number, or the same number of protons
• Compounds – consists of multiple elements chemically bonded
together
• Molecules – consists of multiple atoms chemically bonded
together (e.g. O2 is a molecule)
• Mixture – consists of multiple substances (elements, and / or
compounds) mixed, not chemically bonded together (e.g. salt
water)
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Group 1 Metals
Common properties and trends:
• Have 1 electron on their outer-most shell
• Soft metals – easy to cut
• Form white powders, often with group 7 elements in a
compound
• React with oxygen and acids
• React with water to produce an alkali compound
• Trend – melting point increases, and become more reactive as
you go down the group
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Group 7 - Halogens
Common properties and trends:
• Have 7 electrons on their outer shell
• Commonly found as pairs of atoms (diatomic)
• Their boiling point increases as you go down the group
• Their reactivity (e.g. with metals) decrease as you go down the
group
• More reactive halogens can displace less reactive ones in a
compound.
Group 0 – Noble ICON

Gasses
Common properties and trends:
• The atoms here are ‘stable’, as they have a full outer shell of
electrons (2 for helium, 8 for the others)
• They do not react easily with other elements
• Their boiling points increase as you go down the group
C2 – Bonding & ICON

Properties
Overview:
• Bonding types
• Properties due to bonding
• Carbon structures
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Bonding
Atoms need to bond with others, to become stable.
Atoms become stable when they have by having a full outer shell
of electrons.
This can happen in a variety of ways:
• Losing electrons
• Gaining electrons
• Sharing electrons

C2 – Bonding & Properties Triple F & H

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Ions
As we know from the previous unit, all atoms have no overall charge; a charge of 0.
On the last slide, electrons can be lost or gained in an atom to make it stable, due to a full
outer shell.
If any number of electrons are gained or lost, the number of electrons and protons are no
longer equal, and the atom becomes a charged ion.
Example: An atom of Magnesium (12 protons, 12 electrons configured 2,8,2)
Notice that the ion atom has squared brackets around it.
Don’t forget that charges are written as “number” “sign” (2+)
This can also be written as an ‘ionic equation’, where it shows the
electron transfer. Charges are written slightly above the element.

Mg  Mg2+ + 2e-
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Ionic Bonding
Describe, in terms of electrons, what is happening in this reaction between Magnesium and
Oxygen [4 marks]. Electrons from the outer shell are shown, as crosses.

• Magnesium loses 2 electrons to one oxygen atom (to gain a full outer shell) [1]
• The Magnesium atom becomes an ion with a 2+ charge [1]
• Oxygen gains 2 electrons from one magnesium atom (to gain a full outer shell) [1]
• The oxygen atom becomes an ion with a 2- charge [1]
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Covalent Bonding
Some atoms instead share pairs of electrons, adding to their total to achieve a full outer
shell.

This is known as ‘covalent bonding’, which often occurs with multiple non-metal atoms.

Draw a dot and cross diagram showing how an atom of hydrogen covalently bonds with an
atom of chlorine. Only draw electrons on the outer shells. [2 marks]
Drawing covalent ICON

bonds
Alternative forms: (using example from oxygen, O2)

• Ball and stick diagrams

• Structural Diagrams (lines)

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Metallic Bonding
If looking at pure metals, the atoms will be arranged in regular
rows.
Properties: ICON

Ionic Compounds
The Ionic Lattice

• High melting points

• Don’t conduct electricity, unless…
• Brittle

C2 - Bonding ALL GROUPS AND TIERS

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Properties:
Small covalent molecules
Intermolecular Forces

• Low boiling points; liquids / gasses

• Don’t conduct electricity
Note: ‘Bulk Properties’
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Properties:
Giant Covalent structures
Example: Diamond

High melting points

Properties: ICON

Metals
Another diagram of a pure metal:

• High Melting Point

• Can conduct electricity well
Structural ICON

Properties - Metals
Pure Metals Alloys

Softer – can be bent more Harder – aren’t bent as easily

easily
Diamond & ICON

Graphite
Diamond Graphite

• High Melting Point • High Melting Point

• Harder • Softer
• Cannot conduct electricity • Can conduct electricity

C2 - Bonding Combined F & Triple H

Graphene & ICON

Fullerenes
• Buckminsterfullerene

• Nanotubes

Uses: Uses:
• Electronics • Drug delivery
• Structural support • Structural support
C3 – Quantitative ICON

Chemistry
Overview:
• Moles
• Avogadro’s constant
• Reacting Masses
• Limiting Reactants
• Balancing Equations with moles
• Concentration
C3 – Quantitative ICON

Chemistry
Basics:
• Conservation of mass
• Balancing equations

• Relative mass

• Concentration

ALL GROUPS AND TIERS

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Moles
Looking at the relative mass of an element or formula, the
number compares its mass to an atom of carbon 12.
If there are a certain number of atoms / molecules of that
substance, is relative mass is the same as its mass in grams.
This is where there’s ‘1 mole’ of a substance.
We get 2 formulae:

C3 – Quantitative Chemistry Combined and Triple Higher


Moles cont.
Avogadro’s constant
This is a special number, the
where the number of atoms /
molecules will have the same
mass in grams as its Mr.
This many molecules make 1
mole of a substance
ICON
Therefore, we can calculate the
number of moles from a
substance, by taking its mass, and
dividing it by its Mr
E.g.
14g of Lithium
= 14 ÷ 7 = 2 moles
(Mr of Li = 7)
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Moles in equations
The numbers before chemical equations can tell us the number of moles of
reactants that will react together fully.
Example: 2 Mg + (1) O2  2 MgO
This equation tells us that:
• 2 moles of magnesium react fully with 1 mole of oxygen
• To form 2 moles of magnesium oxide

We can also say that ‘for every 2 mol magnesium’, ‘1 mol oxygen’ reacts fully.
I.e. the ratio is 2:1.
4 mol Mg could react with 2 mol oxygen
Using Moles to ICON

balance equations
E.g. 22.4g of iron fully reacts with 29.2g hydrochloric acid, to
produce 50.8g of iron chloride and 0.8g of hydrogen.
Fe + HCl  FeCl2 + H2
(Ar of: Fe = 56, H = 1, Cl = 35.5)
The chemical equation is given above. Use moles to balance this
equation. [4 marks]

ORGANISE THE INFORMATION!

Using Moles to ICON

balance equations
Unbalanced equation: Fe + HCl  FeCl2 + H2
(Ar of: Fe = 56, H = 1, Cl = 35.5)
Chemical Fe HCl FeCl2 H2

Mass (g) 22.4 29.2 50.8 0.8

Mr of
chemical
Number of
moles
Balance
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Reacting Masses
Example: 9.45g of aluminium reacts with an excess of oxygen to
form aluminium oxide. How much aluminium oxide is made? [4]
(Ar of: Al = 27, O = 16) ORGANISE INFORMATION

4Al + 3O2  2Al2O3

Reacting Masses – ICON

A shortcut
Example: 9.45g of aluminium reacts with an excess of oxygen to
form aluminium oxide. How much aluminium oxide is made?
(Ar of: Al = 27, O = 16) ORGANISE INFORMATION!

4Al + 3O2  2Al2O3

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Limiting Reactants
Excess: when there is too much of something
Limiting reactant: the reactant that stops the reaction from going
further; there isn’t enough of it to fully react

Example from previous question:

4Al + 3O2  2Al2O3

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Limiting Reactants
9.54g of copper oxide reacts with 2.64g of carbon. Show that
copper oxide is the limiting reactant. [4 marks]
(Ar of Cu = 63.5, C = 12)
CuO + C  Cu + CO
C4 – Chemical ICON

Changes
Overview:
• Reactivity series
• Reactions with acids
• Electrolysis
• REQUIRED PRACTICALS
Oxidation and
Reduction
Metals can react with oxygen to form metal oxides.
With oxygen,
• Oxidation is where oxygen is gained (metal  metal oxide)
• Reduction is where oxygen is lost (metal oxide  metal)

Metals can also react with other non-metals other than oxygen;
• Oxidation is where an atom loses electrons (OIL)
• Reduction is where an atom gains electrons (RIG)

C4 – Chemical Changes Combined Science + Triple Higher

The Reactivity ICON

Series
Potassium
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium
Aluminium
(Carbon)
Zinc
Iron
Tin
Lead
(Hydrogen)
Copper
Silver
Gold
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What is an acid?
• ALL ACIDS contain H+ ions
• They are often bonded to negative ions made up of other non
metals

3 acids you need to know:

• Hydrochloric: HCl, ions are H+ and Cl-
• Sulfuric: H2SO4, ions are 2H+ (2 hydrogen ions) and SO4 2-
• Nitric: HNO3, ions are H+ and NO3 -

C4 – Chemical Changes ALL GROUPS AND TIERS

The pH scale
This measures how acidic or basic (or alkaline) a substance is.
Range: 1-14
Acids have a low pH (e.g. 3)
Bases have a high pH (e.g. 10)  Base or alkali???
A pH of 7 is ‘neutral’

The scale tells us how many H+ ions there are.

If we increase the pH by 1, the number of H+ ions decrease by a
factor of 10 (i.e. get less acidic)
Strong vs
concentrated
There are 2 ways to describe an acid:
Strong or weak?
This is how much it ionises when in water, splitting into the H+
ion and the negative ion.

Concentrated or dilute?
This tells us how much acid there is per unit of volume. (e.g.
think of solutions like how salty some water can be)

C4 – Chemical Changes HIGHER TIER ONLY

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Neutralisation
An acid and base (or alkali) react together to form:
• A salt (ionic compound)
• Water
Acid + Base  Salt + Water

The two reactants have different pHs, and will ‘neutralise’ each other.
pH now = ?

Naming the salt

Acids contain hydrogen and a negative ion
Bases contain a metal and oxygen, or a negative ion
The salt takes the metal from the base, and the negative ion from the acid.

E.g. Sulfuric Acid + Sodium Hydroxide  Sodium sulfate (the salt) + Water

C4 – Chemical Changes ALL TIERS AND GROUPS

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Acids + Metals
General equation: Acid + Metal  Salt + Hydrogen (gas)

Naming the salt is the same as neutralisation:

Metal (itself) + Negative ion from the acid
Required Practical:
Making pure, dry crystals of
a salt
In this, we use the appropriate acid and base (metal oxide) to make the salt we want. E.g. Iron
chloride.

General Method:
1 – Warm 20cm3 of acid in a boiling tube, submerged in a beaker of hot / warm water
2 – Add small amounts of the metal oxide with a spatula, stirring with another rod, until in excess
3 – Filter out the excess metal oxide using a funnel and filter paper. Collect the solution in an
evaporating dish
4 – Heat the evaporating dish until most of the water evaporates
5 – Turn off the source of heat. Place the evaporating dish near a window for several days (e.g. 3
days)
6 – Filter out the crystals in the evaporating dish using a funnel and filter paper. Use another
piece of filter paper to pat the crystals dry.

C4 – Chemical Changes ALL GROUPS AND TIERS

Titrations
Needed:
• An acid and an alkali, one with a known concentration, the
other unknown
• A conical flask
• A 1-sided indicator
• A burette
• A white tile
• A funnel

C3/4 – Quantitative Chemistry and Chemical

Changes TRIPLE ONLY
Titration Method
Example: Find the concentration of an acid, based on how much of an alkali (conc. =
0.4mol/dm3) is needed to neutralise it.
1 – Fill the burette with the alkali to the top using a funnel. (!)
2 – Measure 25cm3 of the acid into a conical flask, and add 5 drops of litmus solution.
3 – Place a white tile underneath the burette, and place the conical flask on top of the tile
4 – Whilst continuously swirling the flask, open the tap on the burette to let the alkali fall
into the flask, neutralising the acid.
5 – When most of the litmus solution changes colour (red to blue), tighten the tap, letting it
flow drop by drop.
6 – Shut the tap when all of the solution has changed colour. Record the volume of alkali
that neutralised the acid
7 – Repeat 1-6 to get a total of 5 volumes that neutralised the acid.

TRIPLE ONLY
Titration ICON

Calculation
We are finding the unknown concentration of a sample of hydrochloric acid, based on the volume of
sodium hydroxide needed to neutralise it (32.5cm 3), along with us knowing its concentration (0.4mol/dm 3)

Equation: HCl + NaOH  NaCl + H2O

Part 1: Calculate number of moles of NaOH

= 0.4 × (32.5 ÷ 1000) = 0.013 mol

Part 2: Use mole ratio to find HCl moles

1:1 ratio, so 0.013 mol HCl

Part 3: Calculate concentration of HCl

Concentration = Moles ÷ volume = 0.013 ÷ (25÷1000) = 0.52mol / dm 3
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Electrolysis
Recap: How can ionic compounds conduct electricity?
MOLTEN OR AQUEOUS
Cross-over with Physics: What charge does current flow from,
and finish?

C4 – Chemical Changes Combined Science + Triple Higher

Electrolysis with ICON

molten compounds
Industrial Example: extracting aluminium from aluminium oxide
What are the ions in aluminium oxide?
Electrolysis with
aqueous solutions
There are two ‘rules’ about what happens at each electrode:
Positive electrode / anode (+)

Negative electrode / cathode (-)

C5 – Energy ICON

Changes
Overview:
• Endothermic and Exothermic reactions
• Reaction profiles
• Factors affecting temperature change
• Energy change calculation
What happens in a ICON

chemical reaction?
Exothermic
Reactions
What is meant by an exothermic reaction?

Give 2 examples of common exothermic reactions / any uses

C5 – Energy Changes Combined Higher + Triple

Endothermic
Reactions
What is meant by an endothermic reaction/

Give 2 examples of common endothermic reactions / any uses

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Reaction Profiles
Energy Change ICON

Calculation
Propane combusts (reacts with oxygen) to form carbon dioxide and water (C3H8 + 5O2 
3CO2 + 4H2O).
Use the information below to calculate the overall energy change for this reaction. Energy
is measured in kJ/mol. [5 marks]
Bond energies:
C-C 346
C-H 411
O=O 499
C=O 799
O-H 459
Required Practical: ICON

Factors affecting energy

changes
Investigation: To what extent does the temperature rise in a neutralisation
reaction?
Method:
1 – Add 25cm3 of 0.5mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid to a polystyrene cup using a
measuring cylinder. Place the cup in a beaker for stability.
2 – Record the starting temperature of the acid with a thermometer.
3 – Add 5cm3 of 0.5mol/dm3 sodium hydroxide into the cup. Start stirring with
the thermometer
4 – Record the highest temperature reached; when it stops rising.
5 – Immediately repeat 4 and 5 until a total of 40cm3 of sodium hydroxide
has been added
Required Practical: ICON

Expected results